Transcript 下載/瀏覽
CHAPTER 3 PHONOLOGY Outline Introduction Phonology vs. phonetics 3.1 Rule formats 3.2 Types of phonological rules 1. Segments and phonemes 1.1 Minimal pairs (p. 9) 1.2 Allophones and complementary distribution 1.3 Free variants 2. Distinctive features 2.1 Hierarchical feature structure 2.2 Natural class 2.3 Redundant features 2.4 Framework of phonology 3. Phonological rules 4. Syllable and stress 5. Optimality Theory 6. Summary Introduction Phonology vs. phonetics Phonology vs. Phonetics Phonetics Phonology is concerned with how to produce a sound or sounds has a main focus on the place and the manner of articulation is concerned with sound system or the distribution of a sound in the language system aims to find or sort our rules for sound derivation Example: /ian/ in Mandarin Phonetics the production of each sound : /i/: a high front vowel /a/: a low vowel /n/: a nasal consonant /ian/ is phonetically [ien], in which case the low vowel /a/ becomes [e]. Questions: (a) Why should /ian/ be pronounced [ien]? (b) If it is phonetically [ien], why should it be transcribed /ian/ ? (c) What motivates the difference between /ian/ and [ien]? /ian/ in Mandarin (a) Why should /ian/ be pronounced [ien]? Phonology would treat the derivation of /ian/ to [ien] due to the phonological rule: It reads: The low vowel /a/ becomes [e] if it occurs between [i] and [n] /a/ [e]/ [i]__[n] The sound in slashes // refers to the underlying representation or phonemic representation . The sound in brackets [ ] means the phonetic representation or surface representation. /ian/ in Mandarin (b) If it is phonetically [ien], why should it be transcribed /ian/ ? Every dialect of the Chinese language family shares a certain phonological property. From the rhyme of Chinese popular songs, we find that /ian/ rhymes with /uan/ and /an/. This strongly implies that /ian/ is the underlying representation of [ien]. /ian/ in Mandarin (c) What motivates the difference between /ian/ and [ien]? There is certain correspondence among each dialect of the Chinese language family. Take [ien] ‘smoke’ for instance, it is [ian] in Hakka, and it is [en] in Southern Min. The rules in (2) make it transparent for the different phonetic representation of /ian/ in each dialect. 1. Segments and phonemes 1.1 Minimal pairs 1.2 Allophones and complementary distribution 1.3 Free variants 1. Segments and phonemes The basic unit for sound is phone, which is also called segment. Phones can be phonemic or non-phonemic. A phoneme or a phonemic phone is distinctive, while not all phones are phonemic. 1.1 Minimal pairs By distinctive, we mean in the same context different segments would give rise to different semantic meanings. Consider: In (3), both [b] and [ph] occur at the same context, both preceding [ t]. However, their presence differentiates the meanings of (3a) and (3b). A case of (3) is called minimal pair. A minimal pair is used to distinguish two phonemes. Minimal pairs Minimal pairs also occur in coda: (6) a. bed b. bet [b d] [b t] Vowel difference also results in minimal pairs: (7) a. bed b. bad [b d] [b d] To be brief, a phone that is distinctive is a phoneme. Whether it is a phoneme can be identified by minimal pairs. If two sounds are in minimal pairs, they are phonemes. 1.2 Allophones and complementary distribution A phoneme might appear as different phones, each of which is in complementary distribution. By complementary distribution, we mean that when a phone occurs in a certain environment, its allophones never appear there. The aspirated and English hasVOICED Rule (9) for voicelessVOICELESS stop consonants. unaspirated stops are in complementary ASPIRATED UNASPIRATED distribution. aspirated : syllable-initial position (O) The rule means that /p, t,syllablek/ surface as [ph, th, kh] when they are at syllable-initial position. unaspirated: In other circumstances, /p, (X) t, k/ remain unaspirated [p, t, k]. The aspirated and initial position unaspirated voiceless stop consonants are therefore allophones of the same phonemes. Complementary distribution of [b, l, g] and [m, n, ] in Southern Min In Southern Min, the voiced stops [b, l, g] only occur before oral vowels (V), while nasals [m, n, ] only occur before nasal vowels (v)). Voiced stops [b, l, g] and nasals [m, n, ] are in complementary distribution. They are allophones of the same phonemes. (11) No such syllables! Complementary distribution of [ts, tsh, s ] and [t , t , ] in Hakka In general, [t , t h, ] and [ts, ts h, s] are in complementary distribution: [t , t h, ] ] only occur before the high front vowel [i], while [ts, ts h, s] occur elsewhere. Question: Which is the underlying representation? Answer: When in competition, the one occurs in more contexts is the underlying representation. [t , t h, ] only before [i]: limited [ts, ts h, s] occur in more contexts: No such syllables! wider distribution underlying representation. Complementary distribution of [h] and [ ] in English Not all phones in complementary distribution are allophones. For example, in English [h] and [ ] are in complementary distribution: [h] never occurs at the end of a syllable, while [ ] never occurs at the beginning of a syllable. Nevertheless, [h] and [ ] are not considered to be allophones, because [h] and [ ] do not form a natural class (to be discussed in 2.2). 1.3 Free variants Once in a while, the same words or syllables might be pronounced differently depending on individuals or on settings. Free variation Free variants button (English) ‘house’ (Hakka) [vuk] [b /n] [b t n] [/] and [t] For most American native speakers [luk] [v] and [l] On a few formal occasions Some variations of a certain sounds are subject to regions. variations often (English) ‘pigs’ (Southern Min) [@ftn] [ti] Southern US Taiwan [@fn] [t] Middle East Penghu These are not free variations. Instead, they are dialectal, or regional dialects. Such variations are predictable because they are due to different accents. 2. Distinctive features 2.1 Hierarchical feature structure 2.2 Natural class 2.3 Redundant features 2.4 Framework of phonology 2. Distinctive features The theory of distinctive features: a segment or a phone is composed of a bunch of distinctive features. 2.1 Hierarchical feature structure Distinctive features are given the basis of place and manner of articulation, each feature marked plus (+) or minus (—). [b, p, ph, m, f, v] are produced with lips in one way or another, so they all share [+labial] feature. [labial] [continuant] b + — p + — ph + — In contrast, [b, p, p h , m] are marked [-continuant] because they are stop consonants, which are produced with a closure somewhere so that the airstream cannot continue. m + — f + + v + + [f] and [v] are specified [+continuant] because they are fricatives, without stopping the airstream from coming out. Theoretically, features are organized hierarchically. The place feature [labial] is specified for bilabials [b, p, ph, m] and labio-dentals [f, v] in the traditional phonetics. To begin with, sounds The are feature [coronal] classified intois further decomposed and into supralaryngeal [+anterior] ([t, d, , , s, z, by n, laryngeal categories l, r])larynx. and [-anterior] ([ , , t , d ]). The feature [dorsal] is used for vowels and velar consonants [g, k, kh, ]. Given vowels can be differentiated by [high], [low], The features [voiced] and [aspirated] are put under the larynx node. (larynx = two and [back], are put under vocal cords + athey glottis) When the vocal cords are close, the airstream from the the feature [dorsal]. In terms place,inthe supralaryngeal lungs would vibrate the vocal cords,of resulting voiced sounds. In contrast, when [labial], [coronal], [dorsal]. vocal cords are open todominates such an extent that the airstream and would run out without causing vocal cords to vibrate, the results are voiceless consonants. Except for place, some distinctive features are based on manners of articulation. [sonorant] plays a major role in differentiating sonorants from obstruents. Within sonorants, the four major categories, namely, vowels, liquids, glides, and nasals, are distinct by the [nasal] is an important feature following features. for differentiating nasals from vowels consonants glidesconsonants liquids [m,nasals orals: Nasal n, [syllabic] + — ] and nasalized — + vowels are — but [b, d, g, [consonantal] — + [+nasal], — + o, i,…] + are [-nasal]. Vowels [sonorant] + are distinct +/— from + + + consonants by the feature [nasal] +/— +/— — — + [syllabic], vowels being [+syllabic] and consonants [-syllabic]. There are two liquids in English, [l] and [r], which differ in the feature [lateral]. The is [+lateral], while [r]structure is [-lateral]. The tree structure in [l] (19) is the hierarchical of Given Manner features like [sonorant], [nasal], [continuant], and sounds, [lateral] that the feature [lateral] has nothing to do with any other [nasal] isfeatures. an important feature for differentiating nasalsfrom distinctive It implies a sound change involved with [sonorant] plays a major rolethat in differentiating sonorants are directly associated to the root node. it is directly associated toisthe root[m, node. from orals: consonants n, the ]orand nasalized place does notNasal necessarily affect voicing aspiration, because The feature [continuant] adopted for distinction between obstruents. vowels are [+nasal], but [b, d, o, i,…] place features are independent of[b, the laryngeal stop consonants ([-continuant] forg, d, ,are p, t,[-nasal]. k, features. ph, th, kh, m, n, ]) and fricatives ([+continuant] for [f, v, , , s, z, , ]) English Place Assimilation (20) a. in + port import b. en + bed embed c. con + fort comfort The /n/ of each prefix becomes [m] because it is followed by a labial consonant. the place of articulation of /n/ is assimilated to the following [+labial] consonant, resulting in [m], whether the labial is voiceless ([p] (20a)) or it is voiced ([b] and [m] in (20b) and (20c). The change of place of articulation does not affect voicing, suggesting that [place] and [voiced] are independent of each other. 2.2 Natural class Sounds that share a common feature constitute a natural class. For instance, [p, t, k, b, d, g] all share the [continuant] feature, and thus form a natural class. Among them, [p, t, k] constitute another natural class because they are common in the feature [-voiced]. From the perspective of [-voiced], [p, t, k] is a natural class. English past tense suffix -ed Sounds of a natural class are subject to the same sound change. Question: What makes /t/ and /d/ behave the same? Answer: /t/ and /d/ are of a natural class in terms of [+alveolar, －continuant] The past tense suffix –ed can be pronounced [d], when it is preceded by a voiced sound (21a), [t] if it is preceded by a voiceless consonant (21b), and [ d] if it is preceded by /t/ or /d/ (21c). Grimm’s Law in the history of Indo-European languages (22) Questions: *p > f (*p changed to f) (1) Why were only /p, t, k/ engaged in sound *t > (*t changed to ) change? *k > h (*k changed h) sounds limited to /f, , h/? (2) Why are theto target Answer: /p, t, k/ constitute a natural class in terms of the features [-voiced, -continuant]. Likewise, /f, , h/ form another class by the features [-voice, +continuant]. Feature changed: [-voiced, －continuant] [-voiced, ＋continuant] English C-cluster in the onset It is allowed to have consonant cluster in the onset of an English syllable, e.g. blue, tree, spring, stick, etc. However, there is no syllable with consonant cluster like pm, mp, mv, fm, mf, vm, pv, pf, nor is there any consonant cluster like tl, td, dt, dl, dn, etc in English. --The explanation for this observation would be very complicated if there were no idea of natural class. --Under the notion of natural class, *[+labial] [+labial] or *[+alveolar] [+alveolar] (in words, no consonant cluster is allowed to have more than one labial or alveolar consonants) would help account for all the problems. 2.3 Redundant features There are two types of distinctive features: One is predictable, and the other is unpredictable. (23) a. cat [kh t] kh b. can [kh t n] kh n [－cont] [+low] [－cont] [－cont] [+low] [－cont] [－voiced] [－bk] [－voiced] [－voiced] [－bk] [+voiced] [＋velar] [＋velar] [＋velar] [＋asp] [＋asp] [＋coronal] [＋nasal] [＋nasal] Q2: Why should the sound [k] get the features [－cont, －voiced, h Q1: Why [k t] for ?? A: This is absolutely ARBITRARY! ＋velar]? Briefly speaking, features like [+velar, -voiced] for [k] is A: Itunpredictable, is entirely UNPREDICTABLE & ARBITRARY! while the [+asp] of the [kh] in (23a) and (23b) is predictable. This is also true of the feature of [+nasal] for BUT it is predictable to theAll voiceless stop at the beginning the vowel of [ ] inhave (23b). the predictable features are of a hthe mind syllable to,be in the English, because or brain LIKEWISE theaspirated nasality of of can [k n] is predictable. redundant, for they will bevowel specified by in rules. Redundant there There isis ano rule phonemic nasalized that [p, t,rule k] would in English. beorpronounced The nasality [ph, th, features arerequiring not necessary invowel writing formation. kh]. Thefrom comes rulethe is part nasal ofconsonant their language following competence, the vowel. which can be psychologically reflected in second language acquisition. 2.4 Framework of phonology The basic framework of Generative Phonology is : It follows that the tenet of phonological studies is to find out phonological rules to account for the derivation of underlying representation (UR) to surface (phonetic) representation (PR). URshould is also called phonemic phonological representation, Why there be two or levels (UR and PR) instead of because it represents the phonemic form. Phonetic one single level ? representation is what is heard in our daily conversation. Why should there be two levels (UR and PR) instead of one single level? Back to /ian/ and [ien] in Mandarin… If there were no two-level framework, it would be very difficult to account for why /ian/, though phonetically pronounced [ien], rhymes with /an/ and /uan/. On the phonological level (UR), the rhyme is obvious, because all the rimes are composed of /an/. However, we need a PR level; otherwise we fail to know how to pronounce it correctly. (25) a. A B column /k l m columnist /k / b. bomb /b l mn s t/ m/ bombasity /b mbæ s t i/ why there is a /n/ or A two-level framework helps understand /b/ deletion in (25A). It cannot be assumed that there is no /n/ or /b/ at the end of (25a) and (25b). Otherwise, it would be very difficult to explain why the /n/ and /b/ (25B) are still there when there is another syllable following it. 3. Phonological rules 3.1 Rule formats 3.2 Types of phonological rules 3.1 Rule formats Phonological rules are usually written in the following way: a. A B / C____ A becomes B when it is after C. A becomes B when it is before C. b. A B / _____C A becomes B when it is c. A B / C____D between C and D. The # indicates the boundary of d. A B / #____ The underline a syllable (the beginning or the indicates where the e. A B / ____ # ending). original form occurs. In general, phonological rules are expressed with distinctive features. Example: English aspiration rule The rule for /p, t, k/ to become [ph, th, kh] at the beginning of a syllable is written in the following way. The two features in (27) are good enough to confine the related segments to [p, t, k]. Beginners to the world of phonology are highly encouraged to use features. 3.2 Types of phonological rules Roughly speaking, there are merely two types of rules: assimilation and dissimilation. Assimilation refers to rules that try to make the two adjacent segments be produced in the same place or manner of articulation. Dissimilation refers to the situation in which the two adjacent segments conflict in one way or another. Assimilation There are two types of assimilation, in terms of order or position: regressive and progressive. Regressive assimilation means A B / _____B, the preceding one becomes the following one. Both (28a) and (28b) are also called (28) assimilation total Incomplete (28a), the /n/ of theorprefix assimilation, because the /n/ has becomes [l], because it is become the segment that follows. followed by a/n/ /l/.becomes [r], In (28b), the The /n/ in (28c) does not become /p/, but it because it is before /r/. becomes [m], which has the same place of articulation of /p/, both being [+labial]. In order, it is still regressive, but it is called partial assimilation due to the fact that there is only partial (place, in this case) assimilation. If the order is reversed… A B / B___ , then it is called progressive assimilation. The reading of –s (the plural noun suffix) in English: It reads voiced [z] if it is suffixed to a voiced ending (29a), but it is voiceless [s] if it is preceded by a voiceless ending (29b). Mutual assimilation When two segments are adjacent, it is also possible that they assimilate to each other, resulting in mutual assimilation. (30) a. n pe m me ‘not selling’ b. ka pi c. mo kam pi ‘river side’ m mo ‘yellow hair’ d. an phi am mi ‘red nose’ In (30a), the first segment /n/ becomes [m], sharing the same place of articulation of the following /b/. The interesting one is that the /p/ becomes [m] because it gets the [+nasal] of the preceding segment. This is a typical case of mutual assimilation. Dissimilation When two adjacent segments conflict, for the ease of articulation, dissimilation emerges. Three possibilities are employed in dissimilation: deletion, insertion, or metathesis. Deletion Deletion happens if two segments are of the same manner or place of articulation. In (31a) the/n/ next to /m/ gets deleted because /n/ and /m/ are both nasal consonants. The same is true of /b/ in (31c). Both /m/ and /b/ are labial. The appearance of /n/ and /b/ in (31b) and (31d) justifies that they get deleted in (31a) and (31c). Insertion For instance, the short vowel [ ] is inserted between [t] and [d] in the pronunciation of the English past tense suffix –ed: Metathesis Metathesis: to change the order of the two adjacent segments For example, in Old English, wasp was [w ps]，, but now it is [w sp]. It is obvious that [p] and [s] have switched in order. Another kind of metathesis can be reflected in the difference between theatre vs. theater, centre vs. center. 4. Syllable and stress 4. Syllable and stress A syllable is hierarchically structured as follows: The importance of syllable We can identify the importance of syllable from three perspectives: -phonological domains -internal structure -phonotactics Phonological domains Syllable domains also play a key role in aspiration of voiceless stop consonants. The deletion of [n] after [m] occurs only when [n] and [m] are within the same syllable (31a). If the [n] is of another syllable (31b), then the [n] remains.h In a syllable like atomic [ t a m k], the /t/ is at the beginning of the second syllable (a-tom-ic), so it gets aspirated in phonetics [th]. However, in a very similar syllable atom [ t m], the /t/ is not aspirated, because it is underlyingly syllabified as at-om. Internal structure Syllable structure is closely related to stress placement. Canada: The stress ofonly Ca n-a-da falls(closed) on the first syllable, so the Usually, a heavy syllable can be first syllable must be heavy and hence n is syllabified to the first stressed, while a light (open) syllable is unstressed. syllable. From the stress placement, we know the Closed syllable refers to any syllable closed with at least one importance of syllable structure. banana: segment, e.g., CVC, CVV (C= consonant, V=vowel). In contrast, in ba-na n-a, the stress is on the second syllable, this, although Canada banana look soBased it must on be heavy. To make the second and syllable of banana heavy, the in n cannot be syllabified to the first similar appearance (CVCVCV), butsyllable they are (otherwise it isdifferently heavy, and hence be stressed.) syllabified due ittoshould the different stress patterns: Ca n-a-da, ba-na n-a Phonotactics By phonotactics, we mean what makes a syllable sound good. For instance, the onset of an English syllable may be a consonant cluster, e.g., play, prize, spring. However, any English native What makes the native speakers know which speaker would refuse syllables beginning with mb, fm, pm in typebecause of syllables are impossible or possible is English, they know intuitively that English does not allow two labial consonants at thephonotactics. onset. called In the same way, any Southern Min speaker would know that syllables like pam, map, bam, etc. are not possible in Southern Min. Three arguments for syllable Syllable domains: Some phonological rules are confined within a syllable, but not beyond it. Syllable internal structure: The internal structure of a syllable, in particular, the rime structure plays an important role in the placement of stress. Phonotactics: Phonotatics helps us recognize which type of syllable is possible in our language. 5. Optimality Theory 5. Optimality Theory Optimality Theory (OT) was first proposed by Allen Prince and Paul Smolensky (1994), which was not published until 2004. The basic revolution of OT is that phonology is filtered or selected but not generated. OT framework In EVAL, there is a set of constraints, in charge of filtering out. The constraints are part of Universal Grammar. They are organized in a ranking order such that the higher the less violable. It is assumed that there The candidates The candidate are filtered thatout survives by EVAL (not being filtered is GEN (Generator), (evaluator), out) in is which the optimal there are one, a set which of is usually the which generates all the constraints, ranked in order phonetic of importance. sound. possible candidates. Past tense suffix –ed in English For this, we propose a constraint, which prohibits a voiced obstruent from occurring. (36) Voiced Obstruent Prohibition (VOP） No voiced obstruents are allowed. The voicing of –ed depends on its preceding sounds: When the preceding sound is voiceless, then –ed is read [t]; when the preceding sound is voiced, then –ed is read We therefore propose (Obstruent Voicing Harmony), Thevoiced input[d]. of the past tense suffixaninOVH English is assumed to be the which requires that the adjacent sounds should be identical in voicing. voiced (37) /d/. Obstruent It is readVoicing voiceless [t] if (OVH） it follows a voiceless Harmony consonant (35a, b), butobstruents it is [d] ifmust it follows a voiced consonant The two adjacent be identical in voicing. (35c, d). Within the OT framework, there are some constraints of the Faithfulness family, which ask the output must be identical with the input. In our case, we need an Ident-IO (38) Ident-IO(voice) (Indent = indentical, IO= input and output) The voicing of the output must be identical with that of the input. Why does /d/ become a voiceless [t]? How to rank the constraints? Ident-IO(voice) vs. OVH The OVH VOP ?? requires the two adjacent obstruents to be identical in voicing so thatthat [wɔkt] winsobstruents over [wɔkd]. In contrast, VOP requires voiced are not allowed, Identwhich seems IO(voice) asks that the input be identical impossible because in any language therewith are the someoutput voicedin The ranking of thegive three comes out as:does not voicing. This would riseconstraints to a violation if [wɔkd] obstruents. come out.(41) OVH >> Ident-IO(voice) >> VOP Therefore, the Ident-IO(voice) OVH must be must ranked be ranked higher higher than Identthan IO(voice). VOP to save the voiced input. (40)(39) Ident-IO(voice) OVH >> Ident-IO(voice) >> VOP (「>>」denotes: higher than or more important than) (41) OVH >> Ident-IO(voice) >> VOP (42) /wɔk-d/ a. wɔk-d OVH Ident-IO(voice) *! VOP * b. wɔ -d * c. wɔk-t * *!* When there is a fatal violation, that candidate is The hand indicates TheThe symbol *!* means that blocked out. The shadowed part indicates that it The *! indicates a star (*) indicates that it is the optimal one. two violations (there is violation. not necessarythere to beare counted any more, for fatal a violation. twoviolation voiced sounds there is are a fatal ahead. [g] and [d]) and that it is fatal. (41) OVH >> Ident-IO(voice) >> VOP (43) /b -d/ a. b d -t b. b c. b k-t OVH Id-IO(voice) VOP *** *! * ** *!* * The candidate [b g-t] violates The It is (44a) that is optimal thiscandidate time, [b k-t] OVH, which brings out a fatal violates Id-IO(voice) twice, although it violates VOP three times. violation, and it is blocked out. resulting in a fatal violation. The other violations of (44b) do not need to be counted. 6. Summary 6. Summary The target of phonology is the system of sounds. Changes concerning with sounds are the field of phonology. Basic ideas: segments, phonemes, allophones, minimal pairs Framework of generative phonology: UR (phonemic) phonological rules SR (phonetic) Two general types of rules: assimilation, dissimilation Since 1994, Optimality Theory (OT) has taken the place of traditional Generative Phonology by using constraints (which are ranked and violable) instead of rules. Infinite candidate sounds are generated from the input and evaluated by the ranked constraints in Evaluator. The higher ranked the constraints are, the more inviolable they are. The candidate that violates the lowest ranked constraints is the optimal one, which constitutes the phonetic sound.