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Chapter 2 Phonetics Phonetics A science to study how linguistic sounds are produced. Three subfields of phonetics: acoustic phonetics, auditory phonetics, and articulatory phonetics. To describe how linguistic sounds are produced. Outline 1. Backgrounds 2. Place of articulation 3. Consonants 4. Consonants: Manner of articulation 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 Segments and transcription Speech organs Phonation Distinction between vowels and consonants 4.1 Obstruents 4.2 Sonorants 5. Vowels 5.1 Monothongs 5.2 Diphthongs 5.3 Nasalized vowels 6. Suprasegments 7. Summary 6.1 Syllables 6.2 Stress 6.3 Tone 6.4 Intonation 1. BACKGROUNDS 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 Segments and transcription Speech organs Phonation Distinction between vowels and consonants 1.1 Segments and Transcription Spoken sounds disappear as soon as they are uttered written wowrds can be reserved for a long time IPA Sounds were transcribed for teaching & studying Recorders Phonetic transcription system 1.1 Segments and Transcription Ex: Takebanuad spoken by Bunun in Xingyi, Nantou. 1. “ Where is the teacher?” 2. A sentence composed of seven syllables I-isaq-a-masnanava?’ Sounds cannot be written but they can be transcribed. IPA IPA (International Phonetic Alphabet) Designed in 1821 by International Phonetic Association (also abbreviated as IPA). The version in 1995: 1.2 Speech organs Any sound is produced with three factors: 1. a vibrator 2. a force to make it vibrate 3. a transmission media Ex: the vibrator : six cords the force that makes cords vibrate : fingers the transmission : air 1.2 Speech organs Three Steps of sound production: 1. inhale air and save it in our lungs 2. when we speak, press our lungs so an airstream will come out 3. the airstream vibrates vocal cords, resulting in waves The waves was transmissioned to audience’s ears. the vibrator : vocal cords The force makes vocal cords vibrate : the airstream saved in our lungs the transmission : air 1.3 Phonation Phonation : production of voiced and voiceless sounds due to the close or open of the vocal cords in the larynx. (voiceless consonants) open in 60%-95% Airstream comes out without vibrating the vocal cords English [p, t, k, f, , s, h, , t ] Chinese [p, ph, f, t, th, k, kh, ts, tsh, s, , t , t h, (voiced consonants) Airstream vibrates English [b, d, g, , m, n, N , v, Chinese [l, m, n, N, w, j] , d , z, l, r, w, j] ,t ,t h, h] 1.3 Phonation Two ways to identify voiceless and voiced: 1. Put your hands over the larynx, feel the vibration of the vocal cords. 2. Cover your ears with your hands. When a voiced sound is produced, you can hear a hissing sound, much like a bee’s buzzing. Ex: [s] from [z] → repeat sssszzzzsss. 1.3 Phonation Aspiration: a voiceless consonant produced with the duration of noiselessness e.g. English [ph] in pie [phai] [th] in tie [thai] [kh] in kite [khait] Chinese [ph] in assign [phai] [th] in too much [thai] [kh] in fast [khuai] Unaspirated: consonants produced without such a voiceless duration e.g. English [p] in spy [spai] [t] in stick [stik] [k] in sky [skai]. 1.4 Disctinction between vowels and consonants What is a vowel? What is a consonant? What are the differences? 1.4 Disctinction between vowels and consonants 1. Vowels differ from consonants in waveforms. vowels: periodic consonants: aperiodic. 1.4 Disctinction between vowels and consonants 2. Vowels differ from consonants in oral cavity. vowel: the oral cavity is wide enough without incurring any friction. consonant: part of the tongue body is raised over a certain point in such a way that a narrow cavity emerges, which in turn causes friction. 1.4 Disctinction between vowels and consonants 3. Vowels differ from consonants in formants. vowels: there are formants consonants: the formants are far less clear for consonants. 1.4 Disctinction between vowels and consonants 4. Vowels differ from consonants in the position of a syllable. vowel: usually occurs in the nucleus position of a syllable. Consonant: usually does not occur in the nucleus position. e.g. In the syllable [h d] (head), [ ] is the nucleus [h] is onset [d] is coda 2. PLACE OF ARTICULATION Place of articulation Organs are divided into two types: laryngeal and supralaryngeal place manner voiced voiceless Place of articulation The velum will decide whether the air stream has to pass either oral or nasal cavity, or both. Place of articulation 1. Nasal: English [m, n, N]. 2. Nasalized: Taiwanese [i(], [e)], [a)], [o)] [i)]= ‘yard’ [e)]= ‘baby’ [a)]= ‘to bend’ [o)]= ‘to make a baby sleep’ 3. Oral: English [i, e, o, , æ] Place of articulation Passive(cannot move freely) Active(mainly our tongue) 3. CONSONANTS CONSONANTS Bilabial consonants [b, p, pH, m] Three steps for the production of bilabial consonants: 1. Squeeze the lungs so that the airstream would come to the oral cavity. 2. Stop the airstream by closing the upper and the lower lips. 3. Release the airstream by opening the oral cavity. Stop consonant(plosive consonants): When the airstream coming from lungs it is stopped Distinctive features In the field of phonology and phonetics, we use distinctive features to characterize sounds. Distinctive features are essentially based on place and manner of articulation. All the features are marked by [+] or [-]. A [+] denotes the presence of that feature e.g. A [-] denotes the absence from that feature describe whether the airstream is stopped or continuous Distinctive features CONSONANTS Labio-dental consonants [f, v] /f/, /v/: Produced by having the upper teeth put on the lower lip. Continuents : The point where the upper teeth and the lower lip are put together is not so tight that the airstream from the lungs can barely go through. Fricative consonants: Some friction in the narrow cavity between the upper teeth and the lower continuent lip forces (f, v,) stop Interdental consonants [ , ] / /, / /: Produced by putting the tip of the tongue between the upper and the lower teeth. Fricative continuents : Although the tip is put between the upper and the lower teeth, some space is left for the airstream, making it continuous. Voiced: / / Voiceless: / / Distinctive features CONSONANTS Alveolar [d, t. n. l, s, z] /d/, /t/, /n/, /l/, /s/, /z/: Produced in the same manner by raising the tip of the tongue to the alveolar. Three steps of the production of alveolar stops: 1. Puff the airstream out of the oral cavity. 2. Stop the airstream somewhere. The3.airstream is stopped at the point where the tip Release the airstream when of the tongue touches the alveolar. followed by a vowel. [d, t, th, n] differ from [b, p, ph, m] in place. The airstream is stopped at the point where the upper and the lower lips are closed. Alveolar [d, t. n. l, s, z] Fricative continuents: The tip of the tongue merely touches the alveolar in such a way that some space is left for the airstream to pass through Sibilants : All of the fricative consonants come up with some turbulent noises due to the friction CONSONANTS coronal Coronal [d, t, th, n, s, z] Coronal: The area from the alveolar to the postalveolar. All the consonants produced at any point of the coronal, are of the feature [+coronal]. [d, t, th] are [-nasal], while [n] is [+nasal], owing to the different position of the velum. labial place manner alveolar segment features b p m f v d t n l s z [labial] + + + + + - - - - - - [alveolar] - - - - - + + + + + + [coronal] - - - - - + + + + + + [anterior] + + + + + + + + + + + [continue] - - - + + - - - + + + [nasal] - - + - - - - + - - - [voiced] + - + - + + - + + - + [lateral] - - - - - - - - + - - CONSONANTS Post-alveolar [ , ] / /, / /: Produced by raising the tip of the tongue up to the post-alveolar Also called alveo-palatal: A little back from the alveolar and it is part of the hard palatal. [+coronal] Voiced: / / Voiceless: / / Anterior Anterior: Adopted for the distinction between segments produced before the alveolar and those after that. [+anterior]: labials, labio-dentals, alveolars [-anterior]: post-alveolars anterior Affricate consonants [t , d ] Affricate: A combination of a stop and a fricative. There is a very short closure for the airstream, and then in a very short time it is open for the airstream to come out. Voiced: /d / Voiceless: /t / e.g.: white sheep [wait ip] → [wait ip] white shoes →why choose labial place manner alveolar Post-alveolar segment features b p m f v d t n l s z [labial] + + + + + - - - - - - - - - - [alveolar] - - - - - + + + + + + - - - - [coronal] - - - - - + + + + + + + + + + [anterior] + + + + + + + + + + + - - - - [continue] - - - + + - - - + + + + + - - [nasal] - - + - - - + - - - - - - - [voiced] + - + - + + - + + - + - + - + [lateral] - - - - - - - - + - - - - - - t d Liquids [r, l] /r/: the tip of the tongue is a little curled back, when it is raised upward To compare with [l], [r] leaves more space between the tip of the tongue and the post-alveolar ridge. Liquid: Can be produced or perceived differently depending on different individuals, like water. /l/+vowel → clear /l/ (let) vowel + /l/ → dark or velarized /l/ (tell) Coronal Lateral [l] + + [r] - - CONSONANTS Velar stop consonants [g, k, kh, ] Very much like other stops [b, p, ph, m] and [d, t, th, n] in place and manner of articulation. The closure point lies in the contact between the tongue body (specifically the dorsal) and the velar velar nasal Velar stop consonants [g, k, kh, ] Three steps for the production of stop consonants: 1. Press the lungs so that airstream is pushed out. 2. Stop the airstream by raising the back of the dorsal to contact the velar. 3. Release the airflow when it is followed by a vowel. ph, The closure lies in the closure of the upper and m] the lower lips. [b, p, [d, t, th, n] [g, k, kh, ] The closure occurs in the dorsal and the velar. The closure occurs because of the tight contact between the tip of the tongue and the alveolar. labials b [labial] place [cronal] manner p pH m d alveolars t tH n velars g k kH N ＋ ＋ ＋ ＋ － － － － － － － － － － － － ＋ ＋ ＋ ＋ － － － － [velar] － － － － － － － － ＋ ＋ ＋ ＋ [continuent] － － － － － － － － － － － － [voiced] ＋ － － ＋ ＋ － － ＋ ＋ － － ＋ [asp] － － ＋ － － － ＋ － － － ＋ － [nasal] － － － ＋ － － － ＋ － － － ＋ Sounds Laryngeal Voiced [b, d, g] Supralargeal Voiceless Place Manner Aspirated [ph, th, kh] Bi-labial Stops Unaspirated [p, t, k] Labio-dental Fricatives Dental Affricatives Alveolar Laterals Alveopalatal Nasals Velar Coronal 4. CONSONANTS: MANNER OF ARTICULATION 4.1 Obstruents 4.2 Sonorants 4.1 Obstruents Obstruents: A group of consonants produced with more or less friction in the oral cavity. They can further be decomposed into stops, fricatives, and affricates. 4.1 Obstruents (a) from the nasal cavity (b) also recognized as sonorants Consonants produced with a closure at the places of lips, alveolar, or velar are called stop consonants or plosive consonants. The upper teeth bites the lower lip The tip of the tongue is put between the upper and the lower teeth The tip of the tongue is raised to the alveolar or the post-alveolar Results from a combination of a stop and a fricative. Results from a narrow cavity, formed by the tongue body and the upper ridge. The cavity is so narrow that the airstream coming out of the lungs is turbulent, giving rise to friction. 4.2 Sonorants Sonorants are usually produced without obvious friction. (no narrow cavity for those consonants) Sonorants can be divided into three types: nasals, glides, and liquids. However, glides and liquids are also grouped into the class of approximants. 4.2 Sonorants One of the stop consonants; However, there are some resonances occurring in the nasal cavity. 1. The waveforms of sonorant consonants are periodic, more or less like vowels. 2. Most sonorants get obvious but not so clear formants. 3. Sonorants are loud enough to be different from obstruents. consonant approximant vowel Danial Jones (1948) Glide Usually called semi-vowels. [j] → front glide [w] → back glide. Slightly different from high vowels [i] and [u]. Semi-vowels and high vowels are treated as allophones. e.g. cute [kjut] house [h ws] heed [hid] hood [hud] not syllable nucleus→ glide at the nucleus of that syllable →vowel 5. VOWELS 5.1 Monothongs 5.2 Diphthongs 5.3 Nasalized vowels Vowels The most sonorous of all linguistic sounds There is no or little friction (produced with oral cavity as wide as possible) Classified into monothongs and diphthongs, or oral and nasalized vowels 5.1 Monothongs The distinction lies mainly on lip rounding and the backness of the tongue body high / low front / back. schwa [ ]: not high and not low, neither front nor back 5.1 Monothongs the tongue body is raised upward (almost to the post-alveolar ridge) e.g. key [ki] the back of the tongue body is raised upward (nearly to the velar) e.g. cool [kul] [u] [i] the tongue body is raised high [a] the tongue body stays at the low and central position e.g. car [kar] the tongue body is low 5.1 Monothongs cardinal vowels the tongue body is between [i] and [a] 2/3 [o] The tongue body is between [u] and [a] for the back vowels [e] 5.1 Monothongs In addition to the tongue body, vowels can be distinguished by lip rounding. rounded, spread, or neutral [u] and [o] [i] and [e] schwa [ ] e.g. about [ b @ut] 5.1 Monothongs In the theory of distinctive features, four features, [high], [low], [back], and [round], are adopted: In a few languages, the low vowel is essentially central, so there are usually two allophones occurring in different situations. [a] (the front /a/) [ ] (the back /a/) 5.1 Monothongs In English, there are two sets of vowels. tense vowels are longer than lax vowels in duration. The duration between tense and lax vowels (Laver, 1994) 5.2 Diphthongs A diphthong is basically composed of two vowels: (a vowel + a glide, [j] or [w]) [aj, oj, aw] the sonority is from high (vowels) to low (glides), so the three diphthongs are called falling diphthong 5.3 Nasalized vowels They are unpredictable and distinctive. In English, there is no phonemic nasalized vowel. nasal consonant + vowel /i/→[i)] in me /o/→[o)] in no vowel + nasal consonant can [k)n] pen [p)n] 5.3 Nasalized vowels In Southern Min of Taiwan, nasalized vowels are phonemic. A lot of languages also have phonemic nasalized vowels, such as Sudanese, Indonesian, Malay, French, etc. 6. SUPRASEGMENTS 6.1 Syllables 6.2 Stress 6.3 Tone 6.4 Intonation Suprasegments By suprasegments, we mean syllable, stress, tone, and intonation, which cannot be characterized by a single segment. A segment can be described precisely on the basis of manner and place of articulation. However, a suprasegment is far more beyond that. 6.1 Syllables onset + rime (nucleus + coda) non-branching rime light syllable unstressed More examples: branching rime heavy syllable stressed Open syllable No coda → unstressed Close syllable Coda [t] / [r] → stressed 6.2 Stress Stress is usually denoted by pitch. A stressed syllable gets a higher pitch A non-stressed syllable gets a lower pitch higher lower lower higher differently stressed due to categorical difference 6.3 Tone stress languages • English • German perceived by a higher pitch • Spanish tone languages • • • • Chinese Tibetan perceived by an absolute pitch Vietnam Tai 1 2 3 6.3 Tone stress languages • English • German The level high tone remains intact when it is • Spanish followed by other tones. tone languages • • • • Chinese Tibetan Vietnam Tai high tone rinsing tone contour tone falling tone High tones of different languages might be different in pitch values. the highest tone clothes Mandarin 5 shan55 Southern Min 4 Sa)44 6.3 Tone Tones of most African languages are composed of high tone (H), mid tone (M), and low tone (L). Contour tones like High Low or Low High tones can sometimes be combined with H and L, or L and H, respectively. Contour tones emerge when a high tone is added with a low tone suffix. e.g. ebu@ + olu→ ebu^lu HL(contour tone) H L 6.4 Intonation Stress → the contrast between a stressed and an unstressed syllable Intonation → sentential stress. 6.4 Intonation The most prominent syllable stressed The pitch is higher The pitch contour is exactly of the pattern 231 6.4 Intonation falling pattern (231) statements wh-quesitons rising intonation (223) yes/no questions rising and falling (23, 23, 231) alternative statements