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Structured Observation
Instructor：陳怡真 老師
Student ：洪淑玲
Number ：MA1C0101
Class ：碩研英二甲
1
Introduction
Open observation
It might characterise the early stages of
participant observation where the observer
tries to get a general sense of the setting and
the activities associated with it.
 Closed observation
The observer is strictly coding behaviour on a
low-inference schedule, or instrument.

2
The hidden dangers of closed
observation (1/5)
Perspective
 Design
 Procedure
 Interpretation

3
The hidden dangers of closed
observation (2/5)
Perspective
 Strength
It allows researchers to focus on those areas and
characteristics that they wish to know more
about.
 Weakness
The introduction of a closed system brings with
it a necessary narrowing of focus and even an
element of instrumentality.
4
The hidden dangers of closed
observation (3/5)
Design
If it is done with limited ambitions and with a view to
deepening the researcher’ s understanding of particular
features of behaviour, it can serve the project well.
If it attempts to capture precise teaching activities in a
single set of descriptive terms can produce a plethora of
labels and a deal of confusion.
p. 146 Box 3.9
5
The hidden dangers of closed
observation (4/5)
Procedure
1. The opportunity to tinker for people like me
(chart and table)
2. The appeal of the systematic for those who enjoy
creating order out of chaos
3. An opportunity to establish fixed routines for others
The problem can be one of trying to piece them
together to produce an overall picture.
6
The hidden dangers of closed
observation (5/5)
Interpretation
Structured observation can undermine its analytic
purpose, so it is possible to become swamped with
information that has distorted the shape of the
original project, leaving the researcher with no clear
sense of the co-ordinates that inform effective
decision-making.
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Participants and structured observation (1/2)
Good decisions are made in the light of
evoking needs and the context of the project
as a whole, and it helps to have an overall
picture if how participants observation
compares with structured observation.
8
Participants and structured observation (2/2)
Participant observation
Structured observation
Orientation
Open
Closed
Foundation
Event-based
Category-based
Narrative
Descriptive
Observer-as-instrument
Observer-through-instrument
Post-observation
Pre-observation
Retrospective
Cotemporaneous
Notebook
Observation schedule
No-replicable
Replicable
Main or supplementary
method
Supplementary method
Form
Observer
status
Coding
Recording
Format
Replicability
QI status
9
Standard observation schedules (1/3)
FIAC
(the Flanders Interaction Analysis Categories)
Teacher talk
Indirect
influence
Accepts feeling
Praises or encourages
Accepts use uses ideas of pupils
Pupil talk
Response teachers
Pupil talkresponse
Talk actively
Pupil talkinitiation
Unrecognizable
behavior
Silence or
confusion
Ask questions
Direct
influence
Lecturing
Giving directions
Criticising or justifying authority
10
Standard observation schedules (2/3)
 FIAC記錄表
學校
課程
○○小學
數學課
老師
日期
李○○
96.4.15
班級
六年○班
觀察者
王○○
11
Standard observation schedules (3/3)

FIAC記錄示例
符合類別
老師：黑板上所寫的這些城市，
6(給予指導)
哪一個和我們距離最近？
4(問問題)
(停頓約5秒鐘)
10(沈默)
學生：應該是東京。
8(學生回答問題)
◎記錄的類別序列為：6-4-10-8
12
Deciding whether to use structured
observation
The sorts of questions that can be best be answered by
structured observation are those related to particular
behaviours about which we need specific information.
 For example
1. How often do students initiate interaction with the
teacher?
2. How much lesson time is taken up with teacher talk?

Main RQ
Subsidiary Qs
Specific data
needed
Coding scheme
+ schedule
13
Working up a schedule
1. Research question(s)
2. Focus
3. Setting
4. Slice of reality
5. Observation instrument(s)
6. Observation procedures
7. Analytical procedures
8. Presenting of findings
14
Basic decisions
Descriptive
Category
Rating
Non-rating
High inference
Low inference
Event sampling
Interval sampling
15
Essential characteristics of an effective
category system
Clearly definable categories related to
observable behaviour
 Mutually exclusive categories—no overlap
 The category set is exhaustive
 The system can be operationalised

16
Some practical problems (1/5)
1.
2.
3.
4.
Observer effect
Expectancy effect
Observer drift
Central tendency
17
Some practical problems (2/5)
Observer effect
Hawthorne effect
a form of reactivity in which subjects modify an
aspect of their behavior, in response to the fact
that they know that they are being studied.
18
Some practical problems (3/5)
Expectancy effect
The higher the degree of inference involved in
the observation, the more important it is to be
aware of factors that might influence your
coding.
19
Some practical problems (4/5)
Observer drift
Observers become familiar with the schedule they
are using and begin to “see” things in expected
ways.
Awareness can help to reduce it and where teams
of coders are involved periodic checks on interrater agreement can direct attention to emerging
problems.
20
Some practical problems (5/5)
Central tendency
This applies to rating scales and refers to the
tendency for opt for something at or near the
middle.
Keeping options to a minimum can help to
reduce it.
21
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