Transcript full packet of notes

PSYCHOLOGY
(8th Edition)
David Myers
PowerPoint Slides
Aneeq Ahmad
Henderson State University
Worth Publishers, © 2006
1
States of
Consciousness
Chapter 7
2
What is consciousness?
Very difficult to define
Waking consciousness = seeing, hearing, reasoning,
remembering
Altered states of consciousness = sleep, hypnosis,
meditation, daydreams
Consciousness
History of Study:
Beginnings => description and explanation of states
of consciousness difficult to study => led to
BEHAVIORISM (only study what can be observed)
Mid 1800’s =>science of behavior ( study of consciousness
was LOST)
1960’s =>advances in neuroscience led to studies in various mental
states
*waking, sleeping, dreaming, hypnosis, drugs
Current => awareness of ourselves and our environment
3
Research by psychologists confirmed:
*Everyone has dreams or waking fantasies
*Young adults do it more than adults (especially sexual fantasies)
*95% of males / females have sexual fantasies
*men do so more than females, more physically, and less
romantically = books/ videos
*sexual fantasies are NORMAL, they do NOT indicate sexual
problems
Daydreams involve familiar details of our lives:
4% = fantasy prone personalities = someone who imagines and recalls
experiences w/ lifelike vividness and who spends considerable time
fantasizing
*can be adaptive
*prepare us for future events
*mental rehearse
*enhance creativity
*nourishes social and cognitive development in children
*substitute for impulsive behavior (safety)
4
*Mental “break”, escape from boredom
*Freud – unfulfilled / unconscious desires
Personality
Types of daydreams
anxiety
Fleeting, loosely connected daydreams,
worrying
Achievement oriented
Guilt, fear of failure, hostility, reflects selfdoubt, competition
Happy Daydreamers
Pleasant fantasies
curious
Objective daydreamers about objective
world
Fantasy prone (4%)
Elaborate revelries, highly creative,
Completely absorbed
YES
Freud – express and deal with various
desires (sex, hostility that would normally
make us feel guilty or anxious)
NO
Only a retreat from the real world when it
is not meeting our own demands
Pulaski – builds cognitive and creative
skills; helps us endure difficult situation;
relief form unpleasant reality (P.O.W.’s)
5
States of Consciousness
Consciousness and
Information Processing
Sleep and Dreams
 Biological Rhythms
 The Rhythm of Sleep
 Sleep Disorders
 Dreams
6
States of Consciousness
Hypnosis
 Facts and Falsehoods
 Is Hypnosis an Altered State of
Consciousness?
Drugs and Consciousness
 Dependence and Addiction
 Psychoactive Drugs
 Influences on Drug Use
7
States of Consciousness
Near-Death Experiences
8
History of Consciousness
1. Psychology began as a science of
consciousness.
2. Behaviorists argued about alienating
consciousness from psychology.
3. However, after 1960, mental concepts
(consciousness) started reentering
psychology.
9
Forms of Consciousness
AP Photo/ Ricardo Mazalan
Stuart Franklin/ Magnum Photos
Christine Brune
Bill Ling/ Digital Vision/ Getty Images
Consciousness, modern psychologists believe, is
an awareness of ourselves and our environment.
10
Neuroscience & Consciousness
Neuroscientists believe that consciousness
emerges from the interaction of individual
brain events much like a chord that is created
from different musical notes.
11
Consciousness & Information
Processing
The unconscious mind processes information
simultaneously on multiple tracks, while the conscious
mind processes information sequentially.
Conscious mind
Unconscious mind
12
Rhythm of Sleep => combination of 24 hour clock and 90 minute sleep cycles
Circadian Rhythms -“about a day” biological clock; regular body rhythm, 24hour cycle
*thinking and memory is sharpest and most accurate when people are at the daily peak in
the circadian cycle. Usually improves during the day. Everyone is different.
*Examples of circadian disruptions:
Brain #13
Sleep &
Circadian
Rhythms
Illustration © Cynthia Turner 2003
Read Nightshift
Article
Light triggers the suprachiasmatic nucleus to decrease
(morning) melatonin from the pineal gland
and increase (evening) it at night fall.
13
Biological rhythms are
controlled by
internal “biological clocks.”
1. Annual cycles: On an annual cycle, geese
migrate, grizzly bears hibernate, and humans
experience seasonal variations in appetite,
sleep, and mood. Seasonal Affective Disorder
(SAD) is a mood disorder people experience
during dark winter months.
14
Biological Rhythms
2. 28-day cycles: The
female menstrual
cycle averages 28
days. Research
shows menstruation
may not affect
moods.
15
Biological Rhythms
3. 24-hour cycles: Humans experience 24-hour
cycles of varying alertness (sleep), body
temperature, and growth hormone secretion.
4. 90-minute cycles: We go through various stages
of sleep in 90-minute cycles.
Endogenous
16
Sleep & Dreams
Sleep – the irresistible tempter to whom we
inevitably succumb.
Mysteries about sleep and dreams have just started
unraveling in sleep laboratories around the world.
17
STAGE 1
SLOWED BREATHING, IRREGULAR BRAIN WAVES, UNRECOGNIZABLE
LAST FOR UP TO 5 MINUTES
• FANTASTIC IMAGES, HALLUCINATIONS (FALSE SENSORY
EXPERIENCES, NO STIMULUS NEEDED
STAGE 2
•20 MINUTES
•PERIODIC APPEARANCE OF SLEEP SPINDLES
•RAPID, RHYTHMIC BRAIN WAVE ACTIVITY
•CLEARLY ASLEEP
•SLEEP TALKING
STAGE 3 / STAGE 4
TRANSITION TO DEEP SLEEP
LARGE SLOW DELTA BRAINWAVES = SLOW WAVE SLEEP
LASTS FOR APPROX. 30 MINUTES
HARD TO AWAKEN=> YET STILL RESPOND TO CERTAIN STIMULUS (SELECTIVE ATTENTION)
**** PROCESSING OF INFORMATION OUTSIDE OUR CONSCIOUS AWARENESS.
DEEP SLEEP
BEDWETTING, SLEEPWALKING
***Process begins to return and leads to Stage 5
18
STAGE 5 = REM (Rapid Eye Movement) / paradoxical sleep (20%-25%)
•Last 10 minutes
•Rapid / Irregular breathing
•Genital arousal occurs
•Essentially “paralyzed”
•Difficult to wake
•Rapid eye movement => signals beginning of a dream
•Dreams are emotional / story like
Most people pass through the
5 – stage sleep cycle several times,
with periods of stage 4 sleep and then
stage 3 sleep diminishing and REM
sleep periods increasing in duration.
The graph below plots this increasing
REM Sleep and decreasing deep sleep
based on data from 30 young adults
Awake
Sleep
stages
1
2
3
REM
4
0
1
2
3
4
Hours of sleep
5
6
7
19
90-Minute Cycles During Sleep
With each 90-minute cycle, stage 4 sleep decreases
and the duration of REM sleep increases.
20
REM Sleep and Dreaming
This module probes deeper issues relating to sleep and dreaming. The
uniquely individual experience of dreaming requires researchers to look
beyond conventional methods of study. Dream specialist Dr. J. Allan Hobson
discusses the function of dreams, explaining his theory of the biological
mechanism behind the phenomenon and reflecting on the contribution of
dreaming to human creativity.
21
Sleep Stages
Measuring sleep: About every 90 minutes, we
pass through a cycle of five distinct sleep stages.
Hank Morgan/ Rainbow
22
Awake & Alert
During strong mental engagement, the brain
exhibits low amplitude and fast, irregular beta
waves (15-30 cps). An awake person involved in a
conversation shows beta activity.
Beta Waves
23
Awake but Relaxed
When an individual closes his eyes but remains
awake, his brain activity slows down to a large
amplitude and slow, regular alpha waves (9-14
cps). A meditating person exhibits an alpha brain
activity.
24
Sleep Stages 1-2
During early, light sleep (stages 1-2) the brain
enters a high-amplitude, slow, regular wave form
called theta waves (5-8 cps). A person who is
daydreaming shows theta activity.
Theta Waves
25
Sleep Stages 3-4
During deepest sleep (stages 3-4), brain activity
slows down. There are large-amplitude, slow
delta waves (1.5-4 cps).
26
Stage 5: REM Sleep
After reaching the deepest sleep stage (4), the
sleep cycle starts moving backward towards stage
1. Although still asleep, the brain engages in lowamplitude, fast and regular beta waves (15-40 cps)
much like awake-aroused state.
A person during this sleep exhibits
Rapid Eye Movements (REM)
and reports vivid dreams.
27
Why do we sleep?
We spend one-third of
our lives sleeping.
Jose Luis Pelaez, Inc./ Corbis
If an individual
remains awake for
several days, they
deteriorate in terms of
immune function,
concentration, and
accidents.
28
Protein Replenishment
-depleted chemicals are
replenished during sleep
“I’m really worn
out…I need
some sleep.”
vs.
Evolution
-adaptive mechanism
-night -> food supplies low,
predators high
“Hmmm…it’s dark
out, I can’t see; and
there are things
trying to eat me…I
think I’ll sleep now.”
Sleep: Brain Functions
What is the purpose of sleep? This module
sets out to answer this question by exploring
the patterns of a woman’s sleep and dream
cycles in the setting of a sleep laboratory.
Characteristics of the five stages of sleep
and the typical 90-minute cycle are
explained. The module also covers sleep
disorders and the current techniques used to
treat them.
29
Sleep Theories
1. Sleep Protects: Sleeping in the darkness when
predators loomed about kept our ancestors out
of harm’s way. Evolutionary Perspective
2.
Sleep Recuperates: Sleep helps restore and repair brain
tissue, hormone levels, chemicals etc
3. Sleep Helps Remembering: Sleep restores and
rebuilds our fading memories.
4. Sleep and Growth: During sleep, the pituitary
gland releases growth hormone. Older people
release less of this hormone and sleep less.
30
Dreams
The link between REM
sleep and dreaming
has opened up a new
era of dream research.
31
Dream Interpretation – BBC video
“And why are
they so
WEIRD!?!”
“Well there are the
popular theories of
Sigmund Freud, and a
few others
perspectives”
The
Interpretation of
Dreams (1900)
Dreams represent peoples’ unfulfilled wishes & desires
-Valuable insights into behavior
Dream Content
“What actually happens”
Story line
Symbolic Transformation
“What it means” (interpretation)
hidden, unconscious desires & thoughts
being expressed
32
1) Activation-Synthesis Theory: Suggests that the brain engages in a lot
of random neural activity. Dreams make sense of this activity.
Nerve Cell Activity: -dreams are brain’s attempt to make sense of the
flood of messages
2) “Housecleaning”
-dreams are irrelevant or repeated info. that brain is getting rid of
Information Processing: Dreams may help sift, sort, and fix a day’s
experiences in our memories.
3) Learning & Growth Periods
-dreams are creative arrangements of new and old info.
(pieces to a puzzle)
-b/w ages 4-12
can’t be woken up
-no recall of anything
can be recalled
-could result from traumatic exps.
(counseling help)
-
33
Most Psychologists AGREE = WE NEED REM SLEEP
REM REBOUND = > REM Sleep ^ following REM sleep deprivation
cramming w/o sleep = No REM sleep = No memorization!!!
SLEEP ACROSS THE LIFE SPAN
As we age, our sleep patterns change.
During our first few months, we spend progressively less time in REM sleep as compared
to our waking hours + NON REM sleep hours
 REM Sleep decreases as we get older, therefore we will have less time to DREAM
34
What do we Dream?
1. Negative Emotional Content: 8 out of 10
dreams have negative emotional content.
2. Failure Dreams: People commonly dream
about failure, being attacked, pursued,
rejected, or struck with misfortune.
3. Sexual Dreams: Contrary to our thinking,
sexual dreams are sparse. Sexual dreams in
men are 1 in 10; and in women 1 in 30.
4. Dreams of Gender: Women dream of men
and women equally; men dream more about
men than women.
35
Why do we dream?
1. Wish Fulfillment: Sigmund Freud suggested
that dreams provide a psychic safety valve to
discharge unacceptable feelings. The dream’s
manifest (apparent) content may also have
symbolic meanings (latent content) that signify
our unacceptable feelings.
36
Why do we dream?
3. Physiological
Function: Dreams
provide the sleeping
brain with periodic
stimulation to
develop and preserve
neural pathways.
Neural networks of
newborns are quickly
developing; therefore,
they need more sleep.
37
Why do we dream?
4. Cognitive Development: Some
researchers argue that we dream as a
part of brain maturation and cognitive
development.
All dream researchers believe we need REM sleep. When
deprived of REM sleep and then allowed to sleep,
we show increased REM sleep called REM Rebound.
38
Dream Theories
Summary
39
40
Effects of Sleep Loss
fatigue
impaired concentration
depressed immune system
greater vulnerability to accidents
Sleep Deprivation as bad as
alcohol impairment, study
suggests
252256
Disorder
Definition
Characteristics
Insomnia
Narcolepsy
Apnea
Night Terrors
Nightmares
Sleep Deprivation
Mending broken sleep
41
Accidents
Frequency of accidents increase with loss of sleep
42
Sleep Disorders: Insomnia
1. Somnambulism: Sleepwalking.
2. Nightmares: Frightening dreams that wake
a sleeper from REM.
3. Night terrors: Sudden arousal from sleep
with intense fear accompanied by
physiological reactions (e.g., rapid heart
rate, perspiration) that occur during SWS.
43
Sleep
stages
Awake
1
2
3
Night
terrors
occur here!
REM
4
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
Hours of sleep
7
Night Terrors occur within 2-3 hours of falling asleep, during stage 4 Sleep.
Nightmares occur toward morning, during REM Sleep.
44
4. Insomnia – inability to fall asleep
5. Narcolepsy: Overpowering urge to fall
asleep that may occur while talking or
standing up.
6. Sleep apnea: Failure to breathe when
asleep.
45
46
=> Altered States of Consciousness
Directions: use the keywords below to construct your “running
note” or explanation of why the term is important to the content
Keywords:
of the reading. HYPNOSIS pgs. 260-270
The Mind Hidden and Divided
is the fourteenth program in
the DISCOVERING
PSYCHOLOGY series. Based
on the pioneering research of
Sigmund Freud, this program
explores how the events and
experiences that take place in
the subconscious manifest
themselves in our conscious
lives. You'll learn about
repression, the distinction
between discovered and false
memory syndrome, hypnosis,
and split-brain cases.
hypnosis
posthypnotic amnesia
mesmerism
unhypnotized
openness to suggestion
Stanford hypnotic Susceptibility Scale
20%
fantasy – prone
hypnotic susceptibility
age regression
rare occasions
“hypnotically refreshed”
unpredictable effects
contaminated
false memory suggestions
UFO sightings
authoritative person
distinctive feature
posthypnotic suggestion
placebos
pain
dissociation
focusing attention
“good hypnotic subjects”
social influence theory
Hilgard
autopilot
hidden observer
47
Hypnosis
http://iddiokrysto.blog.excite.it
A social interaction in
which one person (the
hypnotist) suggests to
another (the subject)
that certain
perceptions, feelings,
thoughts, or behaviors
will spontaneously
occur.
Hypnos: Greek god of sleep
48
Mesmerism
http://www.general-anaesthesia.com
Credit for the popularity
of hypnosis goes to
Franz Anton Mesmer, a
physician, who
mistakenly thought he
discovered “animal
magnetism.” Some of his
patients experienced a
trancelike state and felt
better upon waking up.
Franz Mesmer (1734 - 1815)
49
Aspects of Hypnosis
1. Posthypnotic Suggestion: Suggestion carried
out after the subject is no longer hypnotized.
2. Posthypnotic Amnesia: Supposed inability to
recall what one experienced during hypnosis.
50
Hypnotic Feats
Strength, stamina, and perceptual and memory
abilities similarly affect those who are
hypnotized and those who are not
hypnotized.
I could do this same trick
even if I wasn’t
hypnotized!
51
Facts and Falsehood
Those who practice hypnosis agree that its power
resides in the subject’s
openness to suggestion.
Can anyone experience hypnosis?
Yes, to some extent.
Can hypnosis enhance recall of
forgotten events?
No.
52
Facts and Falsehood
Can hypnosis force people to act
against their will?
No.
Can hypnosis be therapeutic?
Yes. Self-suggestion
can heal too.
Can hypnosis alleviate pain?
Yes. Lamaze can
do that too.
53
Is Hypnosis an Altered State of
Consciousness?
Courtesy of News and Publications Service, Stanford University
1. Social Influence Theory:
Hypnotic subjects may
simply be imaginative
actors playing a social
role.
2. Divided Consciousness
Theory: Hypnosis is a
special state of
dissociated (divided)
consciousness
(Hilgard, 1986, 1992).
(Hilgard, 1992)
54
Mimi Forsyth
Both Theories
55
Psychoactive drugs => chemical substance which alters perceptions and moods
Tolerance –diminishing effect with regular use, requires user to take larger doses
Withdrawal – discomfort and distress that follow discontinuing the use of drug
Physical dependence vs. psychological dependence
Depressants
Stimulants
Hallucinogens
Downers
Uppers
Distort perceptions
Calm neural activity
Excites neural activity
Evokes sensory images w/ out
sensory input
Slow bodily functions
Arouse bodily functions
Psychedelics
EX: barbiturates (tranquilizers)
Opiates (morphine / heroin),
alcohol
EX: caffeine, nicotine,
amphetamines, COCAINE
EX: marijuana (THC), PCP, LSD
Increases harmful tendencies
Increase heart/ breathing rates
Mood/ expectations color
experience
Urges you feel when sober are the
ones you are MORE LIKELY to act
upon when intoxicated
Pupils dilate
Appetite diminishes
Relaxes, disinhibits, euphoric high
Slows sympathetic nervous system
Increase in energy and self
confidence
Therapeutic => pain reducer
Slow reaction time
Cocaine=>15-30 minute rush; then
comes “downer”
Impairs motor coordination,
perceptual skills, slows reaction
time
Slurred speech
MIX of factors (expectations)
Disrupts memory formation,
impairs recall
Skilled performance decreases
THC = stays in system longer
Memory=> disrupts processing of
recent experiences into LTM
May achieve high w/ smaller
amounts
56
Inability to transfer memories
from the intoxicated state to
sober state
Depresses male sex hormone,
sperm levels, damage to lungs
Suppresses REM Sleep
Reduces self awareness
User’s expectations
Flood of artificial opiates, brain
stops producing its own
(endorphins)
**ALL trigger negative aftereffects that offset immediate positive effects. EMOTIONS tend to produce
opposing emotions which linger after the original emotions disappear. Opposing emotions will grow
stronger. => TOLERANCE…Withdrawal.
Your Mind on Drugs
57
Drugs and Consciousness
Psychoactive Drug: A chemical substance that
alters perceptions and mood (effects
consciousness).
58
Dependence & Addiction
Continued use of a
psychoactive drug
produces tolerance.
With repeated
exposure to a drug,
the drug’s effect
lessens. Thus it takes
greater quantities to
get the desired effect.
59
Withdrawal & Dependence
1. Withdrawal: Upon stopping use of a drug
(after addiction), users may experience the
undesirable effects of withdrawal.
2. Dependence: Absence of a drug may lead to a
feeling of physical pain, intense cravings
(physical dependence), and negative emotions
(psychological dependence).
60
Misconceptions about Addiction
Addiction is a craving for a chemical substance,
despite its adverse consequences (physical &
psychological).
1. Addictive drugs quickly corrupt.
2. Addiction cannot be overcome voluntarily.
3. Addiction is no different than repetitive
pleasure-seeking behaviors.
61
Psychoactive Drugs
Psychoactive drugs are divided into three groups.
1. Depressants
2. Stimulants
3. Hallucinogens
62
Depressants
Depressants are drugs that reduce neural activity
and slow body functions. They include:
1. Alcohol
2. Barbiturates
3. Opiates
63
Alcohol
1. Alcohol affects motor skills, judgment, and
memory…and increases aggressiveness while
reducing self awareness.
Ray Ng/ Time & Life Pictures/ Getty Images
Daniel Hommer, NIAAA, NIH, HHS
Drinking and Driving
64
Barbiturates
2. Barbiturates: Drugs that depress the activity of
the central nervous system, reducing anxiety
but impairing memory and judgment.
Nembutal, Seconal, and Amytal are some
examples.
65
Depressants
http://opioids.com/timeline
3. Opiates: Opium and its
derivatives (morphine
and heroin) depress
neural activity,
temporarily lessening
pain and anxiety. They
are highly addictive.
66
Stimulants
Stimulants are drugs that excite neural activity and
speed up body functions.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Caffeine
Nicotine
Cocaine
Ecstasy
Amphetamines
Methamphetamines
67
Caffeine & Nicotine
Caffeine and nicotine increase heart and
breathing rates and other autonomic functions to
provide energy.
http://office.microsoft.com/clipart
http://www.tech-res-intl.com
68
Amphetamines
Amphetamines stimulate neural activity, causing
accelerated body functions and associated energy
and mood changes, with devastating effects.
National Pictures/ Topham/ The Image Works
69
Ecstasy
Greg Smith/ AP Photos
Ecstasy or
Methylenedioxymethamphet
amine (MDMA) is a
stimulant and mild
hallucinogen. It produces a
euphoric high and can
damage serotonin-producing
neurons, which results in a
permanent deflation of mood
and impairment of memory.
70
Cocaine
Cocaine induces immediate euphoria followed by a crash.
Crack, a form of cocaine, can be smoked. Other forms of
cocaine can be sniffed or injected.
http://www.ohsinc.com
71
Hallucinogens
Ronald K. Siegel
Hallucinogens are
psychedelic (mindmanifesting) drugs that
distort perceptions and
evoke sensory images in
the absence of sensory
input.
72
Hallucinogens
Hemp Plant
http://static.howstuffworks.com
1. LSD: (lysergic acid diethylamide) powerful
hallucinogenic drug (ergot fungus) that is
also known as acid.
2. THC (delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol): is the
major active ingredient in marijuana (hemp
plant) that triggers a variety of effects,
including mild hallucinations.
73
Drugs
Summary
74
Influences on Drug Use
The graph below shows the percentage of US highschool seniors reporting their use of alcohol,
marijuana, and cocaine from the 70s to the late 90s.
75
Influences on Drug Use
The use of drugs is based on biological,
psychological, and social-cultural influences.
76
Marijuana Use
The use of marijuana in teenagers is directly related
to the “perceived risk” involved with the drug.
77
Near-Death Experiences
(From “Hallucinations” by R.K. Siegel. Copyright
© 1977 Scientific American, Inc. All rights reserved.)
After a close brush with
death, many people
report an experience of
moving through a dark
tunnel with a light at the
end. Under the influence
of hallucinogens, others
report bright lights at
the center of their field
of vision.
78
Mind-Body Problem
Near-death experiences raise the mind-body issue.
Can the mind survive the dying body?
1. Dualism: Dualists believe that mind (nonphysical) and body (physical) are two distinct
entities that interact.
2. Monism: Monists believe that mind and body
are different aspects of the same thing.
79