Transcript Teori-teori Pembangunan Sumber Manusia

Teori-teori
Pembangunan
Sumber Manusia
Grid Penguruan Blake dan
Mouton
Sistem Likert
Teori Z Ouchi
Teori Argyris
Grid Pengurusan Blake dan
Mouton
Teori ini diperkenalkan pada 1964 bertujuan
menerangkan huraian gaya kepimpinan
pengurus untuk tujuan meningkatkan
kecekapan dan keberkesanan organisasi.
Pengurus yang efisyen:
1. Tumpu kepada pekerja (Teori Hubungan
Kemanusiaan)
2. Tumpu kepada produktiviti (Teori
Pengurusan Klasikal dan Saintifik)
Grid Pengurusan Blake dan
Mouton
Grid kepimpinan utk menerangkan gaya kepimpinan.
LIMA jenis gaya pengurusan:
1. Pengurusan Lemah (Impoverished Management)
2. Pengurusan Kelab Riadah (Country Club
Management)
3. Authority-Compliance
4. Pengurusan Pasukan (Team Management)
5. Pengurusan Pertengahan (Mid-of-the-Road
Management)
The New Managerial Grid
Insert Figure 2.2
Blake and Mouton’s Managerial Grid
•Authority Compliance (9,1)
•Classical theory
•Country Club (1,9)
•Informal grapevine
•Impoverished (1,1)
•Laissez-faire
•Middle-of-the-Road (5,5)
•Compromise (carrot & stick)
•Team (9,9)
•Human Resources Approach
•Promote the conditions that
integrate creativity, high
productivity, and high morale
through concerted team action
Likert’s System of Management
 Exploitive Autocratic
 Benevolent Autocratic
 Consultative
 Participative Team
Perbezaan keempat-empat sistem ada dari aspek motivasi,
komunikasi, pembuatan keputusan, penyediaan
maklumat, kawalan, struktur pengaruh dan persepsi.
Kajian Likert mendapati kebanyakan organisasi
mengamalkan sistem 4 ( Pembabitan Organisasi/
Participative Team)
Ciri-ciri sistem 4:
1. Terdapat hubungan saling membantu ketua dan pekerja
bawahan.
2. Proses pembuatan keputusan adalah secara kolektif.
3. Ahli organisasi juga merupakan ahli unit dalam
organisasi.
4. Organisasi mempunyai matlamat pencapaian tinggi.
Teori Z Ouchi
Teori alternatif kepada Teori X dan Y dan teori
ini adalah berdasarkan corak pengurusan
Jepun.
Teori Z lebih mengutamakan pembentukan dan
penyuburan sumber manusia dalam organisasi.
Teori Argyris
Menekankan peranan individu dalam
organisasi. Menyokong komunikasi terbuka
dalam organisasi dan penglibatan dlm
membuat keputusan.
Implikasi Teori-teori Sumber Manusia terhadap
Komunikasi
Kandungan
Komunikasi
Arah Komunikasi
Berkaitan tugas,
sosial dan inovasi
Pelbagai arah dan
antara kumpulan
Saluran Komunikasi Semua saluran
Gaya komunikasi
Formal dan tidak
formal
Kesimpulan
Pendekatan Sumber Manusia dalam pengurusan
adalah kesan kelemahan Teori Hubungan
Kemanusiaan.
Prinsip-prinsip Sumber Manusia dapat dibentuk
dalam organisasi menerusi partisipasi, proses
pembuatan keputusan, daya inovasi. Ini jelas
menerusi teori Grid Pengurusan Blake dan
Mouton, Sistem Likert 4, Teori Z Ouchi dan Teori
Argyris.
Terdapat sifat kepelbagaian dalam komunikasi
dalam organisasi sumber manusia.
Teori Sistem
Ludwig Von Bertalanffy
Merujuk kepada organisasi sebagai mempunyai TIGA komponen:
Susunan Hierarki (Hierarchical Ordering)
Pembentukan organisasi menyerupai satu sistem yang kompleks seperti
sistem biologi tubuh manusia. Di dalam sistem tersebut terdapat subsistem yang membantu proses pengorganisasian.
Saling Bergantung dan Memerlukan (Interdependence)
Satu sistem yang besar memerlukan sub-sistem yang kecil untuk
beroperasi.
Keterbukaan (Permeability)
Organisasidiandaikan sebagai organism hidup yang memerlukan elemen
luar untuk beroperasi. Elemen keterbukaan menyebabkan organisasi
menerima inovasi luar.
Proses Sistem
Sistem diterjemahkan menerusi proses
input-throughput-output.
“inputs” adalah bahan atau maklumat
persekitaran luar yang masuk ke dalam
organisasi menerusi elemen keterbukaan.
Menerusi proses transformasi aktiviti
“throughput” berlaku dan menghasilkan
“output”.
Sistem mentransformasikan output kepada
environment luar
e.g.
Kilang Perabut  perabut  public
Bahan
mentah
“input”
“throughput”
“output”
Ciri-ciri Sistem
Holistik -- Sistem diterangkan sebagai
menyeluruh/ besar. Sesuatu sistem itu
bersifat holistik kerana setiap anggota
sistem bergantung antara satu dengan
yang lain. Organisasi juga akan kukuh
apabila terdapat amalan berkerja bersama.
Equifinality -- Untuk mencapai sesuatu
matlamat itu banyak cara yang boleh
dilakukan. Pelbagai cara tersebut akan
dilakukan untuk tujuan pencapaian
metlamat organisasi.
Entropi Negatif -- Kecenderungan sistem
yang mengamalkan dasar tertutup untuk
mengalami kemusnahan. Sistem yang
mengamalkan dasar terbuka mampu
menghalang kemusnahan.
Kepelbagaian Keperluan -- Kepelbagaian
kaedah untuk mengawal pelbagai cabaran
yang mungkin muncul daripada persekitaran
sistem.
Teori Sistem Sibernetiks -- dikembangkan oleh
Norbert Wiener 1948 – 1954. Fokus kepada
penerangan bagaimana satu sistem berupaya
mencapai keseimbangan atau homeostasis
kerana kewujudan pelbagai komponen yang
saling berkait. Sistem Sibernertiks mementingkan
tindak balas dalam memastikan keupayaan untuk
berfungsi.
Teori Maklumat -- Teori yang
menekankan kepentingan maklumat
dalam organisasi. Pertukaran maklumat
merupakan keperluan kepada organisasi.
Teori Budaya Organisasi
Fokus terhadap apakah itu organisasi?
Apakah yang dipunyai oleh organisasi.
Empat komponen budaya kukuh:
1. Nilai
2. Wira (Heroes)
3. Upacara dan Amalan (Rituals)
4. Jaringan Budaya
Budaya Organisasi adalah kompleks
Budaya organisasi diterjemahkan menerusi
upacara, peraturan komunikasi, “cerita”,
kepercayaan, simbol.
Kemunculan Budaya Organisasi adalah hasil
interaksi ahli dalam organisasi. Walau
bagaimanapun tidak wujud satu Budaya
Organisasi yang unggul.
Budaya organisasi mempunyai kesan
terhadap bentuk dan struktur organisasi.
Menerusi kajian berbentuk deskriptif
pengkaji akan dapat memahami budaya
organisasi dan mengenali organisasi
tersebut.
Budaya penting terhadap mengarahkan
kejayaan organisasi.
Apakah dengan melihat
bangunan tersebut anda dapat
memahami budaya organisasi
tersebut?
Motivation and
Hygiene Factors
Frederick Herzberg
(1923 – 2000)
Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene
Theory
• Focuses on outcomes that lead to higher
motivation and job satisfaction, and those
outcomes that can prevent dissatisfaction.
–Motivator needs relate to the nature of the work
itself—autonomy, responsibility, interesting
work.
–Hygiene needs are related to the physical and
psychological context of the work—comfortable
work environment, pay, job security.
• Unsatisfied hygiene needs create dissatisfaction;
satisfaction of hygiene needs does not lead to
Two-factor Theory
(or Motivation-Hygiene Theory)
•
Herzberg:
–
Job context is source of dissatisfaction
• Problems with hygiene factors (e.g., pay,
working conditions) lead to dissatisfaction;
lack of problems means lack of
dissatisfaction
– Job content is the source of job satisfaction
• Motivator factors (e.g., achievement,
responsibility) link with job performance; if
high, satisfaction high and performance
strong
Two-factor Theory
(or Motivation-Hygiene Theory)
•
•
Validity unconfirmed – not replicated using
different methods
Still does not explain individual differences,
professional or cultural differences
Motivators and Hygiene Factors
• Frederick Herzberg theorized that two entirely
separate dimensions contribute to an
employee’s behavior at work—hygiene factors
and motivators.
– Hygiene factors are elements such as working
conditions, pay, policies, interpersonal relationships
– Motivators fulfill high-level needs and include
achievement, recognition, responsibility and
opportunity for growth
Motivators and Hygiene Factors
• Motivators satisfy subordinates–-the things
which encourage them to attend work, comply to
group or team goals, and produce.
• They often are linked to performance. Positive
recognition by a superior and among peers
during a formal meeting is an example of this.
Motivators and Hygiene Factors
• Hygiene factors keep subordinates from being
dissatisfied. They apply to subordinates regardless of
performance.
– Timely and thorough completion of and counseling on fitness
evaluations are an example of a hygiene factor.
– The act is expected. When it does not happen subordinates
become dissatisfied and may come to believe that superiors are
not taking care of them.
•
Satisfiers (motivators) and dissatisfiers (hygiene factors)
lie on completely different scales and must be
considered independently.
Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
• KITA versus “true” motivation
– Short-term movement versus long-term motivation
• Job enrichment is an attempt to instill
an internal generator in the employee
• Studies of Herzberg’s theory have included
employees working in a variety of industries and
jobs
– Accountants, engineers, nurses, military officers, and
others
Hygiene Factors
• Work environment & target basic needs
• Range from dissatisfaction to no
dissatisfaction
• The presence of hygiene cannot lead to
satisfaction or high levels of motivation
• Perception that hygiene is an entitlement
Hygiene Factors (cont)
• Salary
– Can it ever be enough?
• Benefits
– Health care costs, premium sharing
• Company policy & administration
• Work conditions
– Office space, equipment, etc.
Motivator Factors
• Motivators
– Tap needs for psychological growth
– Job content: The work itself
– Lead to high levels of employee motivation
and satisfaction
Motivator Factors (cont)
• Examples
– Recognition
– Responsibility
– Achievement
– Growth and learning
Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
Hygiene Factors
Motivator Factors
(lower order needs)
(higher order needs)
• Salary
• Company policies
• Working conditions
• Benefits
• Job security
High
Job Dissatisfaction
Prentice Hall, 2001
• Career Advancement
• Personal growth
• Recognition
• Responsibility
• Achievement
0
Chapter 6
Job Satisfaction
High
39
Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
Hygiene Factor - work condition related to
dissatisfaction caused by discomfort or
pain
– maintenance factor
– contributes to employee’s feeling not
dissatisfied
– contributes to absence of complaints
Motivation Factor - work condition related
to the satisfaction of the need for
psychological growth
– job enrichment
– leads to superior performance & effort
Motivation–Hygiene
Theory of Motivation
• Company policy &
administration
• Supervision
• Interpersonal relations
• Working conditions
• Salary
• Status
• Security
Hygiene factors avoid
job dissatisfaction
Motivation factors
increase job satisfaction
•
•
•
•
•
•
Achievement
Achievement recognition
Work itself
Responsibility
Advancement
Growth
• Salary?
SOURCE: Adapted from Frederick Herzberg, The Managerial Choice: To be Efficient or to Be Human. (Salt Lake City: Olympus, 1982). Reprinted by permission.
Motivation-Hygiene
Combinations
High M
Low M
high motivation
low motivation
High H
few complaints
few complaints
high motivation
low motivation
Low H
many complaints many complaints
(Motivation = M, Hygiene = H)
Job Satisfaction
Job satisfaction = how positively or
negatively individuals feel about their jobs
• Observable informally through observation
and interpretation of behaviour and words
• Measured formally in questionnaires
– E.g., Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire
– E.g., Job Descriptive Index
Effects of Job Satisfaction
• Link to absenteeism
– Satisfied have lower absenteeism
• Link to turnover
– Dissatisfied more likely to quit
• Link to performance complex
– Satisfaction is NOT good predictor of individual
performance
– Successful performance does seem to lead to greater
satisfaction
– Proper allocation of rewards can increase both
performance and satisfaction
Summary
• Hygiene factors (dissatisfiers) are
working conditions, pay, policies,
interpersonal relationships
• Motivators (satisfiers) fulfill high-level
needs and include recognition,
responsibility and opportunity for
growth
Organizational Information Theory
Managing large amounts of information is one of the
leading challenges for organizations. As new means
of communication increase, the amount of messages
we send and receive, and the speed of those
messages increase.
"Karl Weick developed an approach to describe the
process by which organizations collect, manage, and
use the information that they recieve" (West and
Turner, p. 243).
Organizational Information Theory
In developing his approach, Weick focuses on the
process rather than the structure. Here, his focus
was on the exchange of information that takes place
within organizations and how individuals within the
oganization take steps to understand the material.
"The focus of Organizational Information Theory
is on the communication of information that is vital
in determining the success of an organization"
(West and Turner, p. 244).
Karl E. Weick is the Rensis Likert Collegiate
Professor of Organizational Behavior and
Psychology Professor of Organizational Behavior
and Human Resource Management Professor of
Psychology at the University of Michigan. His PhD
is from Ohio State University in Social and
Organizational Psychology.
Dr. Weick's Book The Social
Psychology of Organizing, first
published in 1969 and revised in 1979,
was declared one of the nine best
business books ever written by Inc
Magazine in December of 1996.
The organizing formulation has more
recently been expanded into a book
titled Sensemaking in Organizations.
Dr. Weick's research interests include collective
sensemaking under pressure, medical errors,
hand-offs in extreme events, high reliability
performance, improvisation, and continuous
change.
Dr. Weicks graduate level teaching focuses on
the social psychology of organizing, micro
foundations of organization studies, the craft of
scholarship, and his executive education
teaching focuses on the management of
uncertainty through sensemaking and
improvisation.
Example Application Do you remember the Y2K scare? Companies and people world-wide who depended
on computers were in a state of panic when they learned that their computers might
not be compatible in the new millenium. NowBank was one of these companies. An
associate named Dominique Martin was to head up operations for a Y2K conversion.
However, the company had branches in Denver, Dallas, and also Phoenix. By way of
videoconferencing, all teams would meet to discuss each branch's responsibilities.
Upon meeting, many different areas of management began to arise.
Areas such as providing updates, maintaining communication between all branches,
and keeping their own division running made the operation stressful. As concerns
began to escalate, Dominique realized that effective communication would be key to
the success of the project.
To manage all of the concerns, problems, and communication issues the team
implemented aspects of Organizational Information Theory. With communication as
the highest priority, NowBank was successful in their conversion. The company
continues to run smooth.
Influences on O.I.T. In Weick's first book The Social Psychology of Organizing,
he presents "his theoretical approach explaining how
organizations make sense of and use information".
Weick states, "Organizations and their environments
change so rapidly that it is unrealistic to show what they
are like now, because that's not the way they are going to
be later".
However, Weick realized that complete knowledge could
not come from one source. There must be other influences
on communication and also relationships among
individuals. Two other theories were explored.
General System Theory
General System Theory in developing his approach to examine how
organizations manage their information. In order to make neccessary
adjustments to reach a common goal, an organization must depend
on combined information.
Bertalanffy notes, "While in the past, science tried to explain
observable phenomena by reducing them to an interplay of
elementary units investigatable independantly of each other,
conceptions appear in contemporary science that are concerned with
what is somewhat vaguely termed "wholeness," i.e., problems of
organizations. General System Theory, therefore, is the general
science of "wholeness" (Bertalanffy, pp. 36 - 37).
Ludwig von Bertalanffy's
General Assumptions One way to explain the way in which organizations make
sense out of information that may be ambiguous or
confusing is Organizational Information Theory. This
theory focuses "on the process of organizing members of
an organization to manage information rather than on the
structure of the organization itself". There are assumptions
beneath Weick's Organizational Information Theory:
Human Organizations engage in information processing to
reduce equivocality of information
The information an organization receives differs in terms
of equivocality
Human organizations exist in an information environment
General Concepts Organizational Information Theory does
include a significant number of concepts that
are crucial to fully understand this theory.
They are: information environment,
information equivocality, and cycles of
communication. Here is a brief explanation
of each one:
Information Environment "Information environment is a core
concept in understanding how
organizations are formed as well as
how they process information.
Everyday, we are faced with
thousands of stimuli that we could
potentially process and interpret. The
availability of all stimuli is considered
to be the information environment.
Information Equivocality "Organizations receive information from
multiple sources; They must decode the
information and determine whether it is
comprehensible, which person or
department is most qualified to deal with
the information, and whether multiple
departments require this information to
accomplish their tasks. Without clarity in
these areas, there is information
equivocality"
Cycles of Communication There are three steps to the cycle of communication. The
three steps consist of act, response, and adjustment.
The act "refers to the communication behaviors used to
indicate one's ambiguity as a result of information that is
received. The reaction to the act indicating equivocality of
information defines the concept of response.
A response of clarifying information is provided as a result of
the act. As a result of the response, the organization
formulates a response in return as a result of any adjustment
that has been made to the information that was originally
received.
An adjustment is made to indicate that the information is now
understood"
Critique –
Organizational Information Theory plays a very
prevalent role in organizational communication.
Communication is critical to our personal lives, our
social lives, and also our professional lives.
This theory has no limitations within organizational
communication. It addresses aspects of the
individual and also the group within the
organization. Organizational Information Theory is a
valuable theory to study and also practice.
Theory X/Y
• Douglas MacGregor, 1960
• Interaction between supervisors and
subordinates
• Organization’s management approach is
determined by supervisors’ attitudes and
belief about subordinates
• Beginning of human relations movement
Theory X
• Role of Management
– Management responsible
for organizing elements
of productive enterprise
– People need to be
controlled and directed
– People would be passive
otherwise
• Human Nature
– man works as little as
possible
– lacks ambition, dislikes
responsibility, prefers to
be led
– inherently self-centered
– naturally resistant to
change
– gullible, not very bright
Theory Y
• Role of Management
– Management responsible
for organizing elements of
productive enterprise
– Task of management is to
arrange organizational
conditions so that people
can achieve their own
goals best by directing their
own efforts toward
organizational objectives
• Human Nature
– People are not naturally
passive, they have become
so as a result of experience
in organizations
– Motivation and capacity for
assuming responsibility is
inherent in people
Having Little Ambition
Theory X
Managers See Workers As…
Disliking Work
Avoiding Responsibility
Self-Directed
Theory Y
Enjoying Work
Managers See Workers As…
Accepting Responsibility
Prentice Hall, 2001
64
Theory X and Theory Y
(Douglas McGregor)
Theory X
Assumes that employees dislike
work, lack ambition, avoid
responsibility, and must be
directed and coerced to perform.
Theory Y
Assumes that employees like
work, seek responsibility, are
capable of making decisions,
and exercise self-direction and
self-control when committed to
a goal.
McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y
• Theory X
– Management view that assumes workers generally
dislike work and must be forced to do their jobs
• Theory Y
– Management view that assumes workers like to work
and under proper conditions, employees will seek
responsibility to satisfy social, esteem, and selfactualization needs
Theory Z
• A management philosophy that stresses
employee participation in all aspects of
company decision making
Comparison of American,
Japanese, and Theory Z
Management Styles
Variations on Theory Z
•
•
•
•
Quality circles
Participative management
Employee involvement
Self-directed work teams
Did You Know?
Theory Z lets employees feel organizational
ownership, which may produce positive attitudinal
and behavioral effects for employees.
Maslow’s Theory
“We each have a hierarchy of needs that
ranges from "lower" to "higher." As lower
needs are fulfilled there is a tendency for
other, higher needs to emerge.”
Daniels, 2004
Maslow’s Theory
Maslow’s theory maintains that a person
does not feel a higher need until the needs
of the current level have been satisfied.
Maslow's basic needs are as follows:
Basic Human Needs
• Food
• Air
• Water
• Clothin
g
Physiological Needs • Sex
Safety and Security
Safety Needs

Protection

Stability

Pain Avoidance

Routine/Order
Love and Belonging
Social Needs

Affection

Acceptance

Inclusion
Esteem
Esteem Needs

Self-Respect

Self-Esteem

Respected by
Others
Self-Actualization


Achieve full potential
Fulfillment
Summary
Self-Actualization
Esteem
Belonging
Safety
Physiological