(IAQ)

Introduction

 Heavy metals are toxic to human health  Most common heavy metals are lead(Pb), mercury(Hg), cadmium(Cd) and arsenic(As)  Indoor concentration of heavy metals is generally less than their outdoor concentration  They are mainly produced by industrial activities, and deposit slowly in the surrounding water and soil

Properties of heavy metals

 They occur near the bottom of the periodic table  Have high densities  Toxic in nature  Nondegradable Note: Arsenic is not actually a metal but is a semimetal i.e. its properties are intermediate between those of metals and nonmetals.

Transport phenomenon

 Water  Food  Air  Adsorption or absorption onto various materials Example: Over half of the heavy metal input into Great Lakes is due to deposition from air.

Toxicity of heavy metals

 Mercury is highly toxic in vapor form but lead,cadmium and arsenic are more toxic in their cationic form  Toxicity arises from strong affinity of the heavy metal cations for sulfur  Medicinal treatment for heavy metal poisoning is done by chelation therapy by administering compounds known as chelates Example : British Anti-Lewisite(BAL), ethylene diamine tetra acetic acid(EDTA).

Toxicity of trace heavy metals

Metal Route of Entry Toxicity Effect TWA by ACGIH (mg / m³) Carcinogen (suspected by NIOSH) Arsenic Cadmium Inhalation and ingestion Inhalation and ingestion Irritation of respiratory system, Liver and Kidney damage, Loss of appetite, nausea and vomiting etc Lung, liver and kidney damage; Irritation of respiratory system 0.20

0.05

Yes Yes Chromium Inhalation, ingestion, and absorption through skin Lung damage and Irritation or respiratory system 0.5

Yes

Toxicity of trace heavy metals

Metal Route of entry Toxicity Effect TWA by ACGIH (mg / m³) Carcinogen (suspected by NIOSH) Mercury Lead Inhalation,ingestion and absorption through skin Irritation of respiratory system; lung, liver and kidney damage Inhalation and ingestion Lung and liver damage; loss of appetite, nausea etc 0.05

(vapor) 0.15

Yes No Nickel Inhalation Lung, liver and kidney damage 1.00

Yes

Mercury

Mercury

 Most volatile of all metals  Highly toxic in vapor form  Liquid mercury itself is not highly toxic, and most of that ingested is excreted

Sources of Mercury

       Elemental mercury is employed in many applications due to its unusual property of being a liquid that conducts electricity Used in electrical switches, fluorescent light bulbs and mercury lamps Emission of mercury vapor from large industrial operations Unregulated burning of coal and fuel oil Incineration of municipal wastes Emissions from mercury containing products :batteries, thermometers, etc.

Mercury amalgams: dental fillings

Health effects

           Skin burns Irritation of nose and skin Rashes Excessive perspiration Damage to the kidneys Damage to vision Minamata disease Dysfunctions of the central nervous system Loss of hearing and muscle coordination Severe brain damage Death

Concentration of Mercury Vapor Indoors

Location House 1 Study room Living room Bed room 1 Bed room 2 House 2: Living room House 3: Bed room Mercury Concentration (mg / m³) Comments 21 months after painting with latex paint 68.2

69 66.5

139 164 262 4 months after painting with latex paint 9 months after painting with latex paint

Concentration of Mercury Vapor Indoors

Location Mercury Concentration (ng / m³) Comments House 4: Living room Office building Doctor’s room Dentist’s office Dentist’s office Hospital laboratory Hospital laboratory Laboratory Laboratory 1560 203 4950 5550 1295 307 930 592 398 New home, painted with latex paint 30 days before Painted with latex paint 6 months before Hg thermometer broken in the past Mixing area for Hg-amalgam Inactive for previous 4 days Near the sink Near the desk Office away from laboratory Source: Foote, 1972.

Lead

Lead

 Has a very low melting point of 327 degrees C  Used as a structural metal in ancient times and for weather proofing buildings  Romans used it in water ducts and in cooking vessels  Analysis of ice-core samples from Greenland indicate that atmospheric lead concentration reached a peak in roman times that was not equaled again until the renaissance

Sources of lead

     Commonly used in the building industry for roofing and flashing and for soundproofing Used in pipes When combined with tin, it forms solder, used in electronics and in other applications to make connections between solid metals Lead is also used in ammunition Note: Lead shots have been banned in United States, Canada, Netherlands, Norway and Denmark Lead is used in batteries and sinkers in fishing

Sources (contd.)

    Used in paints Lead chromate is the yellow pigment used in paints usually applied to school buses. Lead is also used in corrosion-resistant paints and has a bright red color Used in ceramics and dishware The leaching of lead from glazed ceramics used to prepare food is a major source of dietary lead, especially in Mexico In the past, lead salts were used as coloring agents in various foods Lead is used in some types of PVC mini-blinds

Health effects

 At high levels, inorganic lead is a general metabolic poison  Lead poisoning effects the neurological and reproductive systems, example: downfall of roman empire  Lead breaks the blood-brain barrier and interferes with the normal development of brain in infants

Health effects(contd.)

 Lead is observed to lower IQ levels in children  Lead is transferred postnatally from the mother in her breast milk  At elevated levels, lead poisoning would eventually result in death

Lead content of House Dust

Walk-off Mat After Remodeling Activities No. of homes studied Home age (yrs) Total amt. Of dust, g / m² Lead content of dust, ppm Lead content of soil, ppm Shoes off 5 73 3.5

320 860 Shoes on 32 71 26 780 1530 6 76 6.7

430 1350 9 72 63 1320 2140 Source: Roberts et al., 1990.

Facts about lead poisoning

 The human groups most at risk of lead poisoning are fetuses and children under the age of seven  Chronic lead poisoning from wine and other sources is one of the factors in the downfall of the roman empire  Episodes of lead poisoning were recorded through the middle ages and even until recent times  A recent study in Mexico indicated that pregnant women can decrease the lead levels in their blood and presumably in the blood of their developing fetus by taking calcium supplements.

Cadmium

Cadmium

 Cadmium lies in the same subgroup of the periodic table as zinc and mercury, but is more similar to zinc  Coal burning is the main source of environmental cadmium  Incineration of wastes containing cadmium is an important source of the metal in the environment  Cadmium is most toxic in its ionic form unlike mercury Note: Mercury is most toxic in vapor form and lead, cadmium and arsenic are most toxic in their ionic forms.

Sources of Cadmium

   Cadmium is used as an electrode in “nicad” batteries Cadmium is used as a pigment in paints(yellow color) It is also used in photovoltaic devices and in TV screens   Cigarette smoke Fertilizers and pesticides Note: The greatest proportion of our exposure to cadmium comes from our food supply- seafood, organ meats, particularly kidneys, and also from potatoes, rice, and other grains.

Health effects

 Severe pain in joints  Bone diseases  Kidney problems  Its lifetime in the body is several years  Areas of greatest risk are Japan and central Europe  In very high levels it poses serious health problems related to bones, liver and kidneys and can eventually cause death.

Arsenic

Arsenic

 Arsenic oxides were the common poisons used for murder and suicide from roman times through to the middle ages  Arsenic compounds were used widely as pesticides before the organic chemicals era  Arsenic is very much similar to phosphorous

Sources of Arsenic

 Pesticides  Mining, smelting of gold, lead, copper and nickel  Production of iron and steel  Combustion of coal  Leachate from abandoned gold mines  Used as a wood preservative  Herbicides  Tobacco smoke  Wallpaper paste and pigments in wallpaper

Health effects

  Birth defects Carcinogen: Lung cancer results from the inhalation of arsenic and probably also from its ingestion. Skin and liver cancer, and perhaps cancers of the bladder and kidneys, arise from ingested arsenic     Gastrointestinal damage Severe vomiting Diarrhea Death

Recent studies on arsenic exposure

 Arsenic emitted from a copper-smelting plant in Bulgaria has been shown recently to have produced a three-fold increase in birth defects in new born children in that area  Most daily exposure of arsenic by north American adults is due to food intake, especially of meat and seafood  Under humid conditions of molds in wallpaper paste and arsenic pigments in wallpaper, instances of mysterious illness and death have been reported

Recent studies..(contd.)

 Recent studies have shown that about 1% of Americans consume drinking water that has arsenic levels of 25 ppb or more, and in Utah and California water supplies have been found to contain as much as 500 ppb  Scientists have estimated that there is a one-in-a thousand lifetime risk of dying from cancer induced by normal background levels of arsenic ( this equals the risk estimate due to tobacco smoke and radon exposure ).

General sources of heavy metals in residential houses

 Infiltration from outside, along with the dust carried on shoes and clothes  Indoor sources include old-lead and latex based paints, domestic water supply, burning of wood, and tobacco smoke  Pesticides and fungicides are major sources of arsenic and mercury indoors

Sampling and Measurement

Methods for measurement of trace metals

 Most common method of collecting particulate matter is through filters  Identification and concentration of individual trace metals like lead,cadmium, arsenic, mercury and chromium is determined by  Atomic absorption spectrophotometer   X-ray fluorescence Atomic absorption spectrophotometry is a method and requires at least 1 to 2 ml of solution destructive  X-ray fluorescence is a nondestructive and works independent of the method chemical state of the sample.

Control strategies

Control methods

 Periodic vacuuming of the house can be effective in removal of these pollutants  Replacement of wood-burning by an equivalent gas or electrical appliance  Removal of old lead and mercury-based paints  The effective method for removal of mercury vapors is by the use of packed bed of absorbents  Gold-coated denuder can also be used for the removal of mercury from air

References

 Krishnamurthy, S. 1992. Biomethylation and environmental transport of metals.

Journal of Chemical Education

69(5)  Colin Baird.2000. Environmental Chemistry, W.H. Freeman and Company, New York.