Transcript Document 7219412

SNAP Introduction
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Supernova data shows an acceleration of the expansion, implying that
the universe is dominated by a new Dark Energy!
Remarkable agreement between Supernovae & recent CMB.
Credit STScI
Theoretical Questions
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“Would be number one on my list of
things to figure out”
- Edward Witten
What is the Nature of the dark energy?
— Largest component of our universe
— Theory proposes a number of
alternatives each with different
properties we can measure.
What is the evolution and fate of the
universe?
“Maybe the most fundamentally
mysterious thing in basic science”
- Frank Wilczek
“This is the biggest embarrassment
in theoretical physics”
- Michael Turner
“Right now, not only for cosmology but
for elementary particle theory this is the
bone in the throat”
- Steven Weinberg
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“Our main achievement in
understanding dark energy is to give it
a name” – Michael Turner
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“In string theory, to get  > 0 but
extremely small is impossible”
- Ed Witten
Mission Design
SNAP a simple dedicated experiment to study the dark energy
— Dedicated instrument, essentially no moving parts
— Mirror: 2 meter aperture sensitive to light from distant SN
— Photometry: with 1°x 1° billion pixel mosaic camera, high-resistivity, radtolerant p-type CCDs and, HgCdTe arrays. (0.4-1.7 mm)
— Integral field optical and IR spectroscopy: 0.4-1.7 mm, 2”x2” FOV
Simulated SNAP data
Ground-based measurements will reach
systematic limits
The Time Series of Spectra is a “CAT Scan” of
the Supernova
What makes the SN measurement special?
Control of systematic uncertainties
At every moment in the explosion event, each individual supernova is “sending” us a rich stream
of information about its internal physical state.
Lightcurve & Peak Brightness
Images
Redshift & SN Properties
M and 
Dark Energy Properties
Spectra
data
analysis
physics
From Science Goals
to Project Design
Science
• Measure M and 
• Measure w and w (z)
Systematics Requirements
Statistical Requirements
• Sufficient (~2000) numbers of SNe Ia
Identified and proposed systematics:
• …distributed in redshift
• Measurements to eliminate / bound
each one to +/–0.02 mag
• …out to z < 1.7
Data Set Requirements
• Discoveries 3.8 mag before max
• Spectroscopy with S/N=10 at 15 Å bins
• Near-IR spectroscopy to
•• 1.7 mm
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Satellite / Instrumentation Requirements
• ~2-meter mirror
Derived requirements:
• 1-square degree imager
• High Earth orbit
• Spectrograph
(0.4 mm to 1.7 mm)
• High bandwidth
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SAGENAP (2000)
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Science review by SAGENAP of 260-page proposal, March 2000.
DOE support commenced after SAGENAP
Study phase (effort to develop CDR, cost, schedule, key technologies).
R&D Review
• Recent DOE/Science & R&D Review (Jan 2001):
—“SNAP is a science-driven project with compelling scientific goals.”
—“SNAP will have a unique ability to measure the variation in the equation of
state of the universe.”
—“We believe that it is not an overstatement to say that the Type Ia supernova
measurements will uniquely address issues at the very heart of the field…”
[Implications for string theory]
• Issues Raised at R&D Review:
—Look at greatly increasing the near-infrared capabilities
—Is the proposed IR spectrograph throughput adequate?
—Look at a descoped instrument complement: Can the spectroscopy be done by
ground-based facilities?
—Develop a calibration strategy and plan.
—Address NASA relationship
Today’s Talk: Status of R&D
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Science Requirements Definition
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Optical Design/Layout
Optical Quality
Technology
Stray Light
Thermal Design
NASA IMDC/ISAL Studies
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Monte Carlo Event Generator
Lightcurve generator and fitter
Cosmology fitter
SNe Modeling
Optical Telescope
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Spacecraft Packaging
Mass & Power
Attitude Control/Pointing
Launch Vehicle
Orbit
Instrumentation
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Camera
Survey Strategy
CCD Detectors
Radiation Damage
NIR Detectors
Spectrograph
Tools for Requirements Definition
Monte Carlo implements detailed list of systematics
Event generator - Create an object list with fluxes. Ingredients:
Supernova types, Type Ia subclasses
Galactic, host, and gray dust
Gravitational lensing
Host galaxy properties
Image simulator and SN extraction - Measure photometry, spectra from images
Data simulator - Generated calibrated light curves and spectra
S/N calculated based on observatory parameters
Calibration errors
Detection efficiency - Measure contamination of non SNe Ia and Malmquist bias
Light curve and spectrum fitter - Simultaneously fit key parameters of SN and dust
Cosmology fitter - Determine best fit cosmological and dark energy parameters
Simulation Studies Suite
Modeling + Theory  To probe dark energy, follow SN to z  1.5
-- optimal redshift range, SN distribution, priors
Refinement of observational requirements space from
-- SN observations/templates: rise time, line widths/shifts, UV
-- SN explosion modeling: progenitor, C/O, kinetic energy, metallicity
Study of deep, wide field surveys
-- advanced exposure time calculations
-- dithering, sampling, pixel strategies
Gravitational lensing corrections in data analysis
-- cross correlate SNAP weak lensing map with SN amplification
-- direct fit of microlensing amplification distribution peak and tail
Supernova Data Sheet
Supernova Requirements
Advantages of Space
Primary Science Mission Includes…
Current Optical Configuration
Annular Field TMA
Prolate ellipsoid concave primary mirror, 2 meter diameter
Hyperbolic convex secondary mirror
Flat oval 45degree folding mirror feeds transverse rear axis
Prolate ellipsoid concave tertiary mirror
Flat focal plane
Delivers < 0.04 arcsecond FWHM geometrical blur over annular field 1.37 sqdeg
Effective focal length 21.66m; f/10.8 final focus
Provides side-mounted detector location for best detector cooling
OTA geometrical ray trace
TMA62 configuration
Compare Airy disk 26 microns FWZ diameter at 1 micron
OTA Technologies
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Existing technologies are suitable for SNAP Optical Telescope Assembly
New materials, processes, test & evaluation methods are unnecessary
Mirror materials
— Corning ULE glass: extensive flight history, but expensive
— Schott Zerodur glass/ceramic composite: lower cost, widely used in ground based
astronomical telescopes, higher mass optic; huge industrial base
— Astrium/Boostec SiC-100: newcomer; unproven in space optics; higher CTE;
adopted for Herschel/FIRST in infrared
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Structural materials
— M55J carbon fiber + cyanate ester resin; epoxy adhesive bonds
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Mirror finishing technology
— conventional grind/polish/figure using abrasives
— ion-beam figuring available from two vendors
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Mirror surface metrology
— same as other space telescopes, e.g. cassegrains
— standard interferometer setups will do the job for SNAP
— no unusual accuracy drivers have been encountered
Lightweight ULE Mirror Fab
OTA THERMAL
OPTICS: Build,Test, & Fly Warm… like Hubble !
KEY DESIGN FEATURES
• High Earth orbit (HEO) to
minimize IR Earth-glow loads
• GaAs cell - OSR striping of the
(hot) solar array panels
— Front surface heat rejection OK
— Optical Solar Reflectors are back
silvered Quartz tiles (a ~ 8%, e ~ 80%)
• Low emissivity silvered mirrors
• Thermal Isolation mounting and
MLI blanketing
Stray Light – Baffle Design
Optical Telescope Assembly (OTA)
TMA-62 Optical Prescription
TMA-62 LIGHT PATH
- primary
- secondary
- folding flat
- tertiary
- Giga-Cam
- Spectrometer
• add PASSIVE 140K CAMERA DEWAR
Optical Telescope Assembly (OTA)
• add SECONDARY STRUCTURE
low CTE - GFRP
• add OPTICAL BENCH
low CTE - GFRP
• add “OPTICS COFFIN” BELOW
low CTE - GFRP
- WITH THREE STIFF METERING TUBES
Optical Telescope Assembly (OTA)
• add STRAY LIGHT
SECONDARY “LAMPSHADE”
• add STRAY LIGHT
PRIMARY “STOVEPIPE”
• enclose OPTICS
COFFIN
• add PASSIVE GIGA-CAM
RADIATOR
• add CCD FRONT END ELECTRONICS
Optical Telescope Assembly (OTA)
• add THERMALLY
ISOLATED SOLAR
ARRAY PANELS
• add STRAY LIGHT BAFFLE(s)
Optical Telescope Assembly (OTA)
• add EXTERNAL MLI
THERMAL BLANKETS
• add GENERIC SPACECRAFT
NASA GSFC/IMDC Spacecaft Packaging
Secondary Mirror
and
Active Mount
Optical Bench
Primary Mirror
Solar Array
Wrap around, body mounted
50% OSR & 50% Cells
Thermal
Radiator
from GSFC - IMDC study
Detector/Camera
Assembly
Sub-system
Propulsion Tanks
electronics
IMDC Baseline Configuration
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ROM MASS: 700 kg (instrument); 500 kg (bus); 250 kg (hydrazine)
ROM POWER: 250 w (instrument); 250 w (bus)
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MOSTLY GENERIC SUBSYSYEMS
— EPS (electrical), C&DH (command & data handling), Thermal
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MISSION UNIQUE SUBSYSTEMS
— ACS (attitude control), SMS (structure & mechanisms), Comm
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Evolving Bus Configuration Notes
— 3-axis stabilized, 4+ Reaction wheels, tactical IRUs, no torquer bars
— Sun side w/ isolated body mounted solar arrays & anti-sun side radiators
— Standard Hydrazine propulsion system, ~100 kg to raise perigee, ~10
kg/yr for station keeping, ~ 100 kg for Post Mission Disposal
— 2 Tbits SSR storage for imaging & spectroscopy data. (Avg. data rate ~52
Mbps; lossless compression plus overhead).
— High speed Ka band down link near perigee @ 300 Mbps to Northern
Latitude ground station (Berkeley).
ACS Driving Requirements
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Pointing Accuracy
» Yaw & Pitch :
» Boresight Roll:
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Attitude Knowledge
» Yaw & Pitch :
» Boresight Roll:
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Jitter/Stability -Stellar
» Yaw & Pitch :
» Boresight Roll:
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1 arc-sec (1)
100 arc-sec (1)
0.02 arc-sec (1)
2 arc-sec (1)
(over 200 sec)
0.02 arc-sec (1)
2 arc-sec (1)
Sun Avoidance - VERY RELIABLE SAFE HOLD !
Earth Avoidance (mostly in orbit choice)
Moon Avoidance (mostly in orbit choice)
ACS Issues and Concerns from IMDC
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Jitter
— Isolate fundamental wheel frequency through detailed analysis from
manufacturer
— Must tune wheel isolators - type, size and interface
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Flexible Mode Analysis
— Require extensive analysis to avoid control/structure resonance
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Solar Wind Tipping, given the Large Baffle Cp-Cg offset
— Smaller offset will minimize thruster firing frequency and propellant
required for daily momentum unloading (est. 30 Nms wheels)
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3 Pointing jitter values
— Use current Star tracker with a very accurate Kalman Filter
— Augment Star Tracker data with instrument data (on focal plane
guider) for fine pointing
— May need to replace gyro with SKIRU-DII
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Use of Instrument guide data
— Possible mitigation by use of more sophisticated focal plane-sensors
Launch Vehicle Study
Atlas-EPF
Delta-III
Sea Launch
Orbit Optimization
 High Earth Orbit
 Good Overall Optimization of Mission Trade-offs
 Low Earth Albedo Provides Multiple Advantages:
 Minimum Thermal Change on Structure Reduces Demand on Attitude Control
 Excellent Coverage from Berkeley Groundstation
 Outside Outer Radiation Belt (elliptical 3 day - 84% of orbit)
 Passive Cooling of Detectors
 Minimizes Stray Light
Chandra type highly elliptical orbit
Lunar Assist orbit
Ground Station Coverage
Orbit perigee remains over Berkeley for 3 years without adjustment.
6 hour ground pass over Berkeley
Camera Assembly
GigaCam
Shield
Heat radiator
GigaCAM
GigaCAM, a one billion pixel array
 Approximately 1 billion pixels
 ~140 Large format CCD detectors required, ~30 HgCdTe Detectors
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 Smaller than H.E.P. Vertex Detector (1 m )
Imaging Strategy
Focal Plane Layout with Fixed Filters
Survey Strategy
Filter Wheel Concept
LBNL CCD R&D Status
Goals already met
• Quantum efficiency from 350 nm to
1000 nm.
• Dark current
• Read noise
• CTE for variety of pixel sizes
• Proton radiation tolerance
• 60Co radiation tolerance
• Commercialization of fabrication
process
Active projects
• Intrapixel response
• Device thinning at commercial foundry
• Packaging for ground based
observatories
• Multistage outputs
• Readout electronics specification and
technology assessment
Future work
• Backup plans for device thinning
• Further rad hardening by defect
engineering
• SNAP design optimization
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Number of pixels
Pixel size
Thickness
Output MOSFET structure
SNAP specific packaging
Design of integrated electronics
running cold adjacent to CCDs
High-Resistivity CCD’s
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New kind of CCD developed at LBNL
Better overall response than more costly “thinned” devices in use
High-purity silicon has better radiation tolerance for space applications
The CCD’s can be abutted on all four sides enabling very large mosaic arrays
Measured Quantum Efficiency at Lick Observatory (R. Stover):
LBNL SCP Group: Supernova Spectrum at
NOAO
LBNL CCD’s at NOAO
Science studies to date at NOAO using
LBNL CCD’s:
1)
2)
3)
Near-earth asteroids
Seyfert galaxy black holes
LNBL Supernova cosmology
Cover picture taken at WIYN 3.5m
with LBNL 2048 x 2048 CCD
(Dumbbell Nebula, NGC 6853)
New instrument at NOAO available
in shared risk mode using LBNL
CCD’s – Multi-Aperture Red
Spectrometer (MARS)
LBNL CCD’s scheduled for 37 nights
during 2002A (Jan – July 2002)
See September 2001 newsletter at http://www.noao.edu
Radiation Damage: Comparison to Conventional CCDs
CTE
CTE is measured using the 55Fe X-ray method at 128 K.
13 MeV proton irradiation at LBNL 88” Cyclotron
Degradation is about 110-13 g/MeV.
SNAP will be exposed to about 1.8107 MeV/g (solar max).
1.00000
0.99990
0.99980
0.99970
0.99960
0.99950
0.99940
0.99930
0.99920
0.99910
0.99900
LBNL CCD
LBNL Notch CCD
Marconi [1]
Tektronix [2]
0
200
400
600
800
6
1000
1200
1400
1600
Dose (10 MeV/g)
[1]L.Cawley, C.Hanley, “WFC3 Detector Characterization Report #1: CCD44
Radiation Test Results,” Space Telescope Science Institute Instrument Science
Report WFC3 2000-05, Oct.2000
[2] T. Hardy, R. Murowinski, M.J. Deen, “Charge transfer efficiency in proton
damaged CCDs,” IEEE Trans. Nucl. Sci., 45(2), pp. 154-163, April 1998
Dark Current Degradation
Dark Current vs Radiation Dose
Temperature = 128 K
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Dark current is measured with one
thousand or more second exposures.
The gaussian charge distribution in the
active region of the CCD is compared with
the gaussian change distribution in the
overscan region.
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Dark Current (e / hr)
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
0
2
4
6
8
10
10
2
Radiation Dose (10 protons/cm @ 12 MeV)
12
Dark Current vs Temperature
9
2
for CCD after 5x10 protons/cm
208K
10000
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Fit gives expected Si bandgap, so no new
dark current sources are developing.
The plateau at right is not identified yet, but
could be surface leakage currents.
Dark Current (e /h)
100000
1000
100
10
158K
1.218 / 2kT
-0.609 eV
1
e
0.1
50
60
70
80
1/kT (eV)
90
100
Packaging prototypes
2k x 2k back-illuminated mount.
2k x 4k mount similar, extending along wire-bond edge.
First back-illuminated image with new mount.
CCD is engineering grade used for assembly practice.
NIR sensors
HgCdTe
• Working with Rockwell
• Tracking developments within WFC3
— Dark current ok
— Read noise larger than expected
— QE being addressed in a new growth of
crystals
Future activities
• Acquiring our own RSC mux in May
• Acquiring our own RSC sensor in
Summer 2002
• Explore alternative technologies –
there may be none.
Shortwave HdCdTe Development
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Hubble Space Telescope Wide Field
Camera 3
• WFC-3 replaces WFPC-2
• CCDs & IR HgCdTe array
• Ready for flight July 2003
• 1.7 mm cut off
• 18 mm pixel
• 1024 x 1024 format
• Hawaii-1R MUX
• Dark current consistent with
thermoelectric cooling
• < 0.5 e/s at 150 K
• ~0.02 e-/s at 140 K
• Expected QE ~60% 0.9-1.7 mm
• Individual diodes show good QE
NIC-2
WFC-3 IR
Integral Field Unit Spectrograph Design
Spectrograph architecture
Wavelength coverage
Spatial resolution of slicer
Field-of-View
Detector Architecture
Detector Array Temperature
Throughput
Read Noise
Dark Current
Integral field spectrograph
400-1700nm
0.12 arcsec
2” x 2”
1k x 1k, HgCdTe
130 - 140 K
35%
4 e- (multiple samples)
1 e-/min/pixel
Slices imaged by the pupil
mirrors on the slit mirrors
Telescope focal plane imaged by the
fore-optics on the slicer mirror
SNAP Design:
1x2 proportioned
image
Camera
Detector
Entrance of the
spectrograph
SLIT MIRRORS
Imaged there
PUPIL MIRRORS
Prism
SLICER MIRROR
Telescope exit pupil
Collimator
Fore-optics
(anamorphosis)
Square field
Slit Plane
In the telescope
focal plane
Mirror Slicer Stack R&D
Diffraction Analysis
% energy of the PSF on one centered
slice
% energy at the pupil mirror
% energy on the 2 attributed CCD lines
% energy crosstalk
% energy of the PSF on one centered
slice
% energy at the pupil mirror
% energy on the 2 attributed CCD lines
% energy crosstalk
λ = 0.4 µm λ = 0.8 µm λ = 1.4 µm λ = 1.7 µm
55 %
59 %
80 %
89 %
99.8 %
98.2 %
0%
99.7 %
96 %
0%
99.2 %
93 %
0%
98.7 %
91 %
0%
λ = 0.8 µm
80 %
99.7 %
96 %
0%
PSF sampling with a slice
At pupil mirror
Throughput: better than 90.6%
(reflectance + diffraction+edge)
At slit mirror
Detector sampling
Technology readiness and issues
NIR sensors
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HgCdTe devices are begin developed for WFC3 and ESO with
appropriate wavelength cutoff.
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Read noise and QE not yet demonstrated.
CCDs
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We have demonstrated radiation hardiness that is sufficient for
the SNAP mission
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Extrapolation of earlier measurements of diffusion's effect on
PSF indicates we can get to the sub 4 micron level. Needs
demonstration.
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Industrialization of CCD fabrication has produced useful
devices need to demonstrate volume
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ASIC development is required.
Filters – we are investigating three strategies for fixed filters.
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Suspending filters above sensors
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Direct deposition of filters onto sensors
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Filter Wheel
Technology readiness and issues
On-board data handling
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We have opted to send all data to ground to simplify the flight
hardware and to minimize the development of flight-worthy software.
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Ka-band telemetry, and long ground contacts are required.
Goddard has validated this approach.
Calibration
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There is an active group investigating all aspects of calibration.
Pointing
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Feedback from the focal plane plus current generation attitude
control systems may have sufficient pointing accuracy so that
nothing special needs be done with the sensors.
Telescope
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Thermal, stray light, mechanical control/alignment
Software
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Data analysis pipeline architecture
Status
• Dark Energy a subject of the recent National Academies of Science Committee on the
Physics of the Universe (looking at the intersection of physics and astronomy). One
of eleven compelling questions: “What is the Nature of the Dark Energy?”
• HEPAP subpanel strong endorsement for continued development of SNAP
• APS/DPF held Snowmass meeting part of 20 year planning process for field
—“resource book” on SNAP science out on CDROM
• International collaboration is growing, currently 15 institutions.
• 18 talk & 7 posters at recent AAS meeting
SNAP Collaboration
G. Aldering, C. Bebek, W. Carithers, S. Deustua, W. Edwards, J. Frogel,
D. Groom, S. Holland, D. Huterer*, D. Kasen, R. Knop, R. Lafever,
M. Levi, S. Loken, P. Nugent, S. Perlmutter, K. Robinson (Lawrence
Berkeley National Laboratory)
E. Commins, D. Curtis, G. Goldhaber, J. R. Graham, S. Harris, P.
Harvey, H. Heetderks, A. Kim, M. Lampton, R. Lin, D. Pankow, C.
Pennypacker, A. Spadafora, G. F. Smoot (UC Berkeley)
C. Akerlof, D. Amidei, G. Bernstein, M. Campbell, D. Levin, T. McKay, S.
McKee, M. Schubnell, G. Tarle , A. Tomasch (U. Michigan)
P. Astier, J.F. Genat, D. Hardin, J.- M. Levy, R. Pain, K. Schamahneche
(IN2P3)
A. Baden, J. Goodman, G. Sullivan (U.Maryland)
R. Ellis, A. Refregier* (CalTech)
J. Musser, S. Mufson (Indiana)
A. Fruchter (STScI)
L. Bergstrom, A. Goobar (U. Stockholm)
C. Lidman (ESO)
J. Rich (CEA/DAPNIA)
A. Mourao (Inst. Superior Tecnico,Lisbon)
SNAP Reviews/Studies/Milestones
Mar 2000
Sep 2000
Dec 2000
Jan 2001
Mar 2001
Jun 2001
July 2001
Nov 2001
Dec 2001
Dec 2001
Mar 2002
NOW
July 2002
Sept 2002
Oct 2002
SAGENAP-1
NASA Structure and Evolution of the Universe (SEU)
NAS/NRC Committee on Astronomy and Astrophysics
DOE-HEP R&D
DOE HEPAP
NASA Integrated Mission Design Center
NAS/NRC Committee on Physics of the Universe
CNES (France Space Agency)
NASA/SEU Strategic Planning Panel
NASA Instrument Synthesis & Analysis Lab
SAGENAP-2
-----------------------------------------------------------DOE/SC-CMSD R&D (Lehman)
NASA/SEU Releases Roadmap
CNES Review
Roadmap for Particle Physics
Timelines for Selected Roadmap Projects.Approximate decision points
are marked in black.R&D is marked in yellow,construction in green,and
operation in blue.
A Resource for the Science Community
SNAP at the American Astronomical Society
Meeting, Jan. 2002
Oral Session 111. Science with Wide Field Imaging in Space:
The Astronomical Potential of Wide-field Imaging from Space
Galaxy Evolution: HST ACS Surveys and Beyond to SNAP
Studying Active Galactic Nuclei with SNAP
Distant Galaxies with Wide-Field Imagers
Brook)
Angular Clustering and the Role of Photometric Redshifts
SNAP and Galactic Structure
Star Formation and Starburst Galaxies in the Infrared
Wide Field Imagers in Space and the Cluster Forbidden Zone
An Outer Solar System Survey Using SNAP
(CfA)
Oral Session 116. Cosmology with SNAP:
Dark Energy or Worse
The Primary Science Mission of SNAP
The Supernova Acceleration Probe: mission design and core survey
Sensitivities for Future Space- and Ground-based Surveys
Constraining the Properties of Dark Energy using SNAP
Type Ia Supernovae as Distance Indicators for Cosmology
Weak Gravitational Lensing with SNAP
Strong Gravitational Lensing with SNAP
Strong lensing of supernovae
S. Beckwith (Space Telescope Science Institute)
G. Illingworth (UCO/Lick, University of California)
P.S. Osmer (OSU), P.B. Hall (Princeton/Catolica)
K. M. Lanzetta (State University of NY at Stony
A. Conti, A. Connolly (University of Pittsburgh)
I. N. Reid (STScI)
D. Calzetti (STScI)
M. E. Donahue (STScI)
H.F. Levison, J.W. Parker (SwRI), B.G. Marsden
S. Carroll (University of Chicago)
S. Perlmutter (Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory)
T. A. McKay (University of Michigan
G. M. Bernstein (Univ. of Michigan)
D. Huterer (Case Western Reserve University)
D. Branch (U. of Oklahoma)
A. Refregier (IoA, Cambridge), Richard Ellis (Caltech)
R. D. Blandford, L. V. E. Koopmans, (Caltech)
D.E. Holz (ITP, UCSB)
Poster Session 64. Overview of The Supernova/Acceleration Probe:
Supernova / Acceleration Probe: An Overview
M. Levi (LBNL)
The SNAP Telescope
M. Lampton (UCB)
SNAP: An Integral Field Spectrograph for Supernova Identification R. Malina (LAMarseille,INSU), A. Ealet (CPPM)
Supernova / Acceleration Probe: GigaCAM - A Billion Pixel Imager C. Bebek (LBNL)
Supernova / Acceleration Probe: Cosmology with Type Ia Supernovae A. Kim (LBNL)
Conclusion
SNAP will provide space observations
of thousands of supernovae needed to
characterize the “dark energy”
accelerating the expansion of the
universe and may lead to a fuller
understanding of gravity & space-time.