THE CRITICAL ROLE OF PRACTICE IN THE EARLY CHILDHOOD CURRICULUM

Gerald Mahoney Mandel School of Applied Social Sciences Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio

Developmental Proficiency

 One goal of early intervention is to help children improve their proficiency in the use of developmental skills and behaviors – Developmental Proficiency  Use the developmental skill or behaviors spontaneously without thinking – – – MEANINGFULLY APPROPRIATE CONTEXTS WITH FAMILIAR AND UNFAMILIAR PEOPLE

Developmental Proficiency

 Does not mean that – – child has learned response to criteria (8 out 10 prompted responses)  Often associated with problems of maintenance and generalization child’s behavior is an approximation of the desired response – child spontaneously uses behavior only on occasions

Developmental Proficiency

  Analogous to reading proficiency – Accuracy – – – Fluency Comprehension Constant Improvement Keys to reading proficiency – – Instruction Practice  Instruction alone is insufficient !!!!!!

Motor Development Proficiency

 What changes in infant walking and why?

– – – Karen Adolph et. al., (2003) Child Development, Vol 74 (2), 475-497  Compared how children’s body dimensions, age and walking experience influence their walking proficiency (n=210 infants n=15 kindergartners).

WHAT CHANGES

: As children become bigger, older and more experienced their steps become longer, narrower, straighter and more consistent

WHAT CAUSES THESE CHANGES

rotation) : When measures of body dimension, age and experience are used to predict level of walking skill- (e.g., Step length dynamic base, foot 

THE AMOUNT OF CHILDREN’S EXPERIENCE WALKING is the only significant predictor

What Motor Experience entails?

“infants’ everyday experiences with locomotion occur in truly massive doses, reminiscent of the immense amounts of daily practice that promote expert performance in world class musicians and athletes.” “Walking infants practice keeping balance in upright stance and locomotion for more than six accumulated hours per day.”

What Motor Experience Entails?

“

They average between 500 and 1500 walking steps per hour so that by the end of each day, they may have taken 9,000 walking steps and traveled the length of 29 football fields” .

What Motor Experience Entails?

“infants everyday walking experiences occur in a wide variety of events, places and surfaces. … the variety of everyday walking experience resembles variable and random practice schedules …. (that) lead to a process of continually generating solutions anew.” “THE MAGNITUDE, DISTRIBUTED NATURE, AND VARIABILITY OF INFANTS’ WALKING EXPERIENCE MAY LIE AT THE HEART OF DEVELOPMENTAL CHANGE.”

Keys to Proficiency

   Ability – those with the greatest ability are most likely to achieve highest levels of proficiency – However, those with limited ability can become proficient Opportunities to Learn – – Context (tennis courts, basketballs) Instruction, Coaching Practice – Motivation  Intrinsic – Promoted through:  Fun, Encouragement, Success, Being Valued  Extrinsic

Practice and Developmental Proficiency



“DOES THE

– MAGNITUDE, – DISTRIBUTED NATURE, – AND VARIABILITY 

OF INFANTS’ PLAY EXPERIENCE LIE AT THE HEART OF DEVELOPMENTAL CHANGE?

2 Children with Down Syndrome



Children’s play may be the key to understanding the role of practice Developmental Learning

Meghan

    12 months old DA = 6 months Toys – bucket, soft doll, rattles, a ball, snap beads, soft cloth form, play xylophone with pull string and a mallet, a peg board and hammer, a book 5 ½ minute observation – – – – – – mouthing (N=2) shaking/waving (N=9) patting/clapping/banging (N=7) vocal play (N=2 throwing/dropping (N=4). used hands for vocal play (N=3) and clapping (N=2).

William

    24 months old DA = 13 months Toys – play telephone with pull string and receiver, undressed doll with a bib, a bucket with plastic blocks or shapes, a shape sorter, a soft-cushion ball, a pull toy shaped like an insect with wire antennas and wheels, shape sorter, empty plastic box, plastic cylinder 5 minute observation – – – – touching/manipulating the details of objects (N=5)  e.g., turning the wheels on the telephone used objects according to their intended function  e.g., hold the toy telephone to his ear (N=2); activated the wire antenna to produce an effect (N=2); use bib on the doll, and strings and appendages to lift objects (N=6) 5 minute observation (continued) – object permanence activities (N=4) • peek-a-boo with doll – “in-and-out” activities (N=6) •in and out of a container • transferring objects from one container to another

General Observations About Children’s Play

    Children played continually with toys without prompting Most dominant feature of play is practice or repetition of actions Children’s play is typical for their developmental age level Differences in play reflect differences in children’s thinking and understanding more than differences in their skill at using objects

Typically developing children engage in massive amounts of practice before learning new developmental behaviors Banging, Waving, Throwing, Mouthing Chronological Age Range to Transition from Banging, Waving, Throwing, Mouthing Months to Transition from Banging, Waving, Throwing, Mouthing Banging, Waving, Throwing, Mouthing acts Per Month Total Banging, Waving, Throwing, Mouthing Acts to Transition the set of Developmental Behaviors

Typically Developing Child 4-8 months 4 months 2 per minute X 4 hours (500/day) 15,000 60,000

Assimilative v Accommodative Learning

   Assimilation – Children incorporate the world into their existing modes of perceiving, thinking and acting. During assimilation children – – – become increasingly proficient with their current modes of thinking, perceiving, and acting. learn how their behaviors can be used across a wide range of toys and materials in a variety of contexts. Learn the limitation of perceptions, cognitions and behaviors Assimilation = Practice Developmental Skills and Concepts

Assimilative v Accommodative Learning

 Accommodation – – – children develop new ways of perceiving thinking and acting motivated both by children’s dissatisfaction with the adequacy of current forms of thinking, perceiving and acting as well as by their discovering different ways of thinking, perceiving and acting. dependent on children’s willingness to give up old ways of perceiving, thinking and acting as it is on their discovering new ways of perceiving, thinking and doing  Accommodation = Learning New Developmental Skills

Assimilative v Accommodative Learning

 The overwhelming majority of children’s self initiated experience is assimilative learning – – The 60,000 BWMT repetitions typically developing children do before accommodating or transitioning to the next stage of development May be the amount of assimilative learning experiences (PRACTICE) children need to:  LEARN THE USES OF NEW BEHAVIORS  LEARN THE LIMITATIONS OF BEHAVIORS  DISCOVER NEW WAYS OF PERCEIVING, THINKING AND ACTING

Developmental Learning in Children with DS  Children with Down syndrome – Engage in same types of behaviors – Same sequence of behaviors  Children with DS are delayed because of – Learning inefficiencies  Compromised neurological system  Require more experience to learn the same amount as children who do not have compromised learning systems

Learning Efficiency Model

Repetitions Needed to Transition Through Banging, Waving, Throwing and Mouthing Developmental Quotient (DQ) (% Delay) Chronological Age Range to Transition from Banging, Waving, Throwing, Mouthing Developmental Age Range of Banging, Waving, Throwing, Mouthing Activities Months to Transition from Banging, Waving, Throwing, Mouthing Banging, Waving, Throwing, Mouthing acts Per Month Total Banging, Waving, Throwing, Mouthing Acts to Transition

Typically Developing Child 100 (0%) 4-8 months Meghan 50 (50%) 8-16 months 4-8 months 4 months 15,000 (500/day) 60,000 4-8 months 8 months 15,000 (500/day) 120,000

Developmental Delay

   Developmental delay = the amount of practice children need to learn and get to the next level of development – – 50% delay 2 times more practice than a typically developing child 25% delay 1 time more practice than a typically developing child Children who have above average developmental quotients need less practice to learn than typically developing children – DQ = 125 – Child learns with 25% less practice than the average child Does not apply to children with delays that are related to lack of opportunities for learning

Two Kinds of Developmental Practice

 Accommodation Practice – Dependent on parent or other adult directing the child  Such as in IBI  Assimilation Practice – – Child playing alone or Child playing with parent or other adults

Accommodation Practice

  Hard to implement – – Children resist  Manifested by – – Passivity Fatigue – Acting out/ Behavior problems  Too much emphasis on accommodation practice may interfere with or impede children from engaging in assimilative practice Parent’s must devote time in excess of the daily routine interactions they have with their child Little evidence that this promotes development – However, may explain the effects that ABA/IBI has on children’s development

Parent Responsiveness Promotes Assimilation Practice (Pivotal Behaviors) (Mahoney, Kim & Linn, 2007. Infants and Young Children)

Low Responsive High Responsive 1.5

1 0.5

0 4 3.5

3 2.5

2 Atten tion** * Persi stence ** Intere st** Coop eratio n** Initiati on*** Joint A ttentio n** Affect **

The development of children with disabilities is related to the rate they engage in assimilative practice (N =45) (Mahoney, Kim & Linn, 2007 )

Low Pivotal Behavior High Pivotal Behavior 25 22.3

20.35

20 15 16.04

14.73

12.64

18.17

13.55

16.91

19.17

14.45

20.04

14.18

17.04

12.59

15.39

10.23

10 17.57

10.82

5 0 Com mnic Daily ation ** livin g*** Socia lizatio Moto n*** r* Adap tive** * Cogn itive:o Cogn bj.** itive:s Expre ym.* ssive Rece lan.* * ptive lan.* ** Vineland Play Based Assessment

Developmental Learning in Children with Developmental Delays



The more we can encourage children with Developmental Delays to practice his/her current developmental skills the quicker they will get to the next stage of development.

Learning Efficiency Model

If we could increase Megan’s rate of practice by 20% a day Developmental Quotient (DQ) (% Delay) Banging, Waving, Throwing, Mouthing acts Per Month Total Banging, Waving, Throwing, Mouthing Acts to Transition Months to Transition from Banging, Waving, Throwing, Mouthing Rate of development during intervention Improvement from expected

Meghan 50 (50%) 15,000 (500/day) 120,000 8 months .50

(50% delay) 0% 20% increased Practice 18,000 (600/day) 120,000 6.6 months .60

(40 % delay) 20%

Parents engage in massive amounts of one to one interactions with their children during daily routines Teacher Therapist Parent

If we can enhance parents’ responsiveness with their children

  We could – Increase children’s rate of practicing their existing behaviors with their parents  During the course of the 2 – 300,000 interactions they have with their parents in daily activities and routines. – Help children develop the habit of spontaneously practicing and repeating their current developmental behaviors  While playing alone  While interacting with others This might increase their rate of development

How responsive mothers become was related increase children’s practice (Mahoney & Macdonald, 2007 )

0.6

0.4

0.2

0 1.4

1.2

1 0.8

0.7

1.22

0.11

No Change Moderate Change High Change

Responsiveness Change

Increases in Children’s Cognitive & Communication Development was related to increase in their rate of practicing pivotal behaviors

No PB Change Moderate PB Change High PB Change 58

30 20 10 0 60 50 40

14 19 2 Object Use 28 15 1 Symbolic Behavior 8 23 Expressive Language

The Role of Practice in Early Intervention RI Strategies Increase Adult Responsive Interaction Increase Child Pivotal Behavior Increase Rate Of Practice of Existing Developmental Skills (Assimilative Learning Acts) Reduce Time To Attain Repetitions Child Needs to Transition To Next Developmental Behaviors Increase Rate of Developmental Functioning

Role of Engagement

  Pivotal developmental behaviors – Behaviors that are central to wide area of functioning, such that a change in a pivotal behavior results in changes in several other behaviors (Koegel & Colleagues)  Learning Processes  Learning Habits Koegel has promoted children’s pivotal behavior (Pivotal Response Training) as a method for increasing the effectiveness of Discrete Trial Training with children with ASD