Society, Culture, and Sport

Chapter 20

Sport Books Publisher 1

Topics Covered:

 Brief history of sport in the USA  Brief history of the Olympic Games  Sport and American culture  Icons of American sport  The business of sport  Sport as a spectacle  Being an informed consumer Sport Books Publisher 2

Brief History of Sport in USA

Sport Books Publisher 3

By analyzing American sport history and by examining the larger role sport currently plays in people's everyday lives, we can further understand how sport has come to permeate our culture and society. Sport Books Publisher 4

New Beginnings (1400s to 1860)

15 th and 16 th century

 European explorers and settlers fascinated by Native American games – Example: baggataway • To develop warrior’s skill • First viewed by French • Today known as lacrosse

17 th and 18 th century

 Hampered development due to church sentiment and wars Sport Books Publisher 5

New Beginnings (1400s to 1860)

Late 18 th and 19 th

   

century

End of American Revolution Beginning of First Industrial revolution – More leisure time – Sports/games develop more rapidly Mostly social elite sports – Examples: golf, horse racing, target shooting Bare-knuckle fights – Initially illegal; slave against slave – Universally accepted end of 19 th century Sport Books Publisher 6

The Civil War and the Second Industrial Revolution (1861 to 1918)

Ice Hockey

King’s College, Nova Scotia (Canada)  Played on a frozen pond with a wooden puck and a stick Montreal Quebec (Canada) New England States (USA) 7 Sport Books Publisher

The Civil War and the Second Industrial Revolution (1861 to 1918)

Baseball

 Origin of “bat and ball” or “town ball”: – Abner Doubleday, Cooperstown NY(1839) – Western MA (late 1700s) – Small towns in Eastern NY and New England; (late 1700s)   Origin of modern baseball: – Alexander Cartwright; Knickerbockers Base Ball Club; 1845 Spread throughout the country during the Civil War years  Played by all Sport Books Publisher 8

The Civil War and the Second Industrial Revolution (1861 to 1918)

Football

  Originally the “Boston game” First game – 1869 – Soccer rules  Rugby rules adopted in 1867  11-man game (versus 15) – Adopted several years later – Allowed for more control and strategy – Walter Camp – “father of modern football” Sport Books Publisher 9

The Civil War and the Second Industrial Revolution (1861 to 1918)

Basketball

    Truly North American in origin Developed by Dr. James Naismith visiting YMCA Training School (now Springfield College) in MA in 1890 – Soccer ball and peach baskets Developed as a form of recreation to pass away cold New England winters Spread by YMCA Training School graduates to urban areas James Naismith Sport Books Publisher 10

The Civil War and the Second Industrial Revolution (1861 to 1918)

Other activities

   Cycling – Bicycle craze due to overpopulation and transportation issues – Development of competitive cycling Car racing – Invention of automobile – Popular pastime for those who could afford it Modern Olympic Games – Pierre de Coubertin – Modeled after ancient Olympics Sport Books Publisher 11

Post-World War I Era (1919 to present)



Post WWI and Great Depression

– “Golden age” of sport – American sports icons help nation put painful WWI memories behind – Beginning of Professional leagues • The American Professional Football League (1920) – The Negro League of Baseball Lou Gehrig – Sport seen as form of entertainment that generates revenue • Athletes paid and traded • Football moved to larger urban areas – Olympics gained momentum 

Post WWII

– Economic boom accompanied by emergence of sport, recreation, and physical activity as important part of our society Sport Books Publisher 12

Post-World War I Era (1919 to present)

Emergence of Mass Media

    Invention of radio Invention of TV (1950s and 1960s) – Brought sport icons to people’s homes – Sport perfect medium for TV – Gathered families Sports popularity in mass media and with it participation in sports grows – Baseball – Tennis – Billie Jean King Sports on TV influence children and adults Billie Jean King Sport Books Publisher 13

Post-World War I Era (1919 to present)

Sport for All

 Amendment XIV – Equal access for all races –

Brown v. Board of Education

(1954) – Against doctrine of “separate but equal”/

Plessy v. Ferguson

(1986)  Title IX – Equal opportunity and funding regardless of sex – Established the Education Amendments of 1972 – Produced a change in attitude toward female athletes and sports Sport Books Publisher 14

Brief History of Olympic Games

Sport Books Publisher 15

I Athens, 1896

•First modern Olympics •Developed by Baron Pierre de Coubertin •IOC •Vision: to promote the idea of true armature athletic competition •James Connolly

II Paris, 1900

•First unofficial appearance of women (golf and tennis) •In conjunction with World's Fair •Ray Ewry, Myer Pristein

III St. Louis, 1904

•Also coincided with World’s Fair •4½ months duration •First to utilize medal system •George Eyser

IV London, 1908 V Stockholm, 1912

•Originally awarded to Rome •Athletes walked in by nation for the first time •Ray Ewry •Electronic devices, public address systems, and photo finishes used •First to have representation from all five continents •Jim Thorpe SUMMER Sport Books Publisher 16

WWI 1914-1918 VI Berlin, 1916

•Cancelled due to WWI •Still holds the distinction of the Games of VI Olympiad

VII Antwerp, 1920

•Olympic flag •Athlete’s Oath •Release of dove as a symbol of peace •Ethelda Bleibtrey

VIII Paris, 1924

•First Olympic village •Motto “Citius, Altius, Fortius” •Raising of 3 flags in the closing ceremony •Johnny Weissmuller

IX Amsterdam, 1928 X Los Angeles, 1932

•Ignition of Olympic flame during opening ceremonies •Began the tradition of honoring victors with their national anthem •First time women were recognized as competitors in “athletic” events (e.g., track and field) •Babe Didrikson •Elizabeth Robinson SUMMER Sport Books Publisher 17

WWII 1939-1945 WWII 1939-1945 XI Berlin, 1936

•First TV broadcast •Torch relay introduced •“the Hitler Olympics”: Hitler’s means of propaganda •Jesse Owens embarrassed Hitler by winning 4 gold medals •Marjorie Gestring

XII Helsinki, 1940

•Cancelled due to WWII

XIII London, 1944

•Cancelled due to WWII

XIV London, 1948

•Reawarded to London •First to be seen on home TV’s •Bob Mathias, Robert Richards

XV Helsinki, 1952

•First time showing of USSR, Israel, and Federal Republic of Germany •Setting stage for USSR v. USA rivalry •Harrison Dilard, Patricia McCormick SUMMER Sport Books Publisher 18

XVI Melbourne, XVII Rome, 1960 1956

southern •Played an anthem •First city in the that was played back at first modern hemisphere to host Olympics in Athens; •Athletes walk together v. by became the official anthem nation for the closing ceremonies •Dominated by USSR •Wilma Rudolph, Al •Wilma Rudolph, Oerter Cassius Clay

XVIII Tokyo, 1964

•First time the Games were hosted by an Asian nation •Volleyball – first women’s team sport •Billy Mills, Joe Frazier

XIX Mexico City, 1968

•Altitude benefited short distance and disadvantaged long distance events •Long jump world record made that remained unbroken for 22 years (Bob Beamon) •Tommie Smith and John Carlos protest against racial segregation in USA

XX Munich, 1972

•September 5, 1972 Palestinian terrorists (Black September) took hostage and killed 11 Israeli athletes •The first Judge’s Oath was recited •Mark Spitz SUMMER Sport Books Publisher 19

XXI Montreal, 1976

•Allegations of suspected drug use were at the forefront of media coverage •First ever perfect score in gymnastics earned by Nadia Comaneci of Romania •Edwin Moses, Greg Louganis SUMMER

XXII Moscow, 1980

•A U.S. lead •In response to boycott by Western Moscow Olympics nations protesting the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan •Soviet team dominated

XXIII Los Angeles, 1984

Soviets and other nations boycott •Huge success; >$200 million profit •Carl Lewis, Joan Benoit

XXIV Seoul, 1988

•South Korean government refused to co-host with the North Korea •North Korea and Cuba boycott in response •Florence Griffith Joyner, Matt Biondi Sport Books Publisher

XXV Barcelona, 1992

•First time since Munich to be held without a boycott •South Africa was allowed to participate following abolishment of apartheid •W and E Germany together •Russian states separate •Basketball Dream Team, Gail Devers 20

XXVI Atlanta, 1996

•A bomb detonated in Centennial Olympic Park •2 people killed; 100 injured •Carl Lewis, Michael Johnson

XXVII Sydney, 2000

•First time since Korean War, North and South played together •Women took part in weightlifting and decathlon •Marion Jones, Michael Johnson

XXVII Athens, 2004

•Return home after more than a century •Most expensive in history •Post-September 11; Extra degree of security •No incident •Michael Phelps SUMMER Sport Books Publisher 21

Sport Books Publisher 22

WWII 1939-1945 I Chamonix, 1924

•Originally an “International Winter Sports Week” •Officially recognized as winter Olympics in 1926 •Charles Jewtraw

II St. Moritz, 1928

•Sonja Henie, future Hollywood film star, earns first three gold medals

III Lake Placid, 1932

•First in the Americas •U.S. wins two gold medals in bobsled and skeleton tracks •Sled dog racing appears as a demonstration sport •Eddie Eagen the only athlete ever to win gold in both Summer and Winter Olympics

IV Garmisch Partenkirchen, 1936

•First time for Alpine events •Austrian and Swiss skier boycotted to protest exclusion of ski instructors •Leo Freisinger

1940& 1944

•Cancelled due to WWI •Unlike Summer Olympics did not keep their numerical designations WINTER Sport Books Publisher 23

V St. Moritz, 1948

•Return after 20 years to same place •Germany and Japan not invited •Gretchen Fraser, Dick Burton

VI Oslo, 1952

•Nordic ski events open to women for the first time •Dick button

VII Cortina d’Ampezzo, 1956

•First appearance by the USSR •First Athlete’s Oath taken by a woman •Last outdoor figure skating events •Tenley Albright

VIII Squaw Valley, 1960

•First use of instant replay

IX Innsbruck, 1964

•Endangered due to lack of snow •Biathlon made its debut •Women speedskating •Austrian Army brought snow from the surrounding mountaintops •USSR dominated •Carol Heiss, David Jenkins •Terry McDermott WINTER Sport Books Publisher 24

X Grenoble, 1968

•Women underwent sex tests •The East German Women’s luge team disqualified for heating the runners •First broadcast in color TV •Peggy Fleming

XI Sapporo, 1972

•First outside of Europe or U.S.

•Karl Schranz banned for receiving payments from ski manufacturer •Soviet hockey players, paid by government, allowed •Canadian hockey boycott •7 of 8 USA medals won by women WINTER

XII Innsbruck, 1976

•Originally awarded to Denver but were removed due to funding issues •Ice dancing entered as Olympic event •Dorothy Hamill, Peter Mueller, Sheila Young

XIII Lake Placid, 1980

•Second time in same place •Artificial snow •U.S. hockey team defeated USSR, the “Miracle on Ice” •Eric Heiden

XIV Sarajevo, 1984

•20-km Nordic event for women •New IOC president •Phil and Steve Mahre, Scott Hamilton Sport Books Publisher 25

XV Calgary, 1988

•First in Canada •Spread out over three weekend •Speedskating under a covered venue •Added super G and Alpine combined •Brian Boitano, Bonnie Blair

XVI Albertville, 1992

•Last Winter Games to be held in the same year as the Summer Games •Women’s biathlon •Added freestyle skiing and short track speedskating •Bonnie Blair, Kristi Yamaguchi, Nancy Kerrigan

XVII Lillehammer, 1994

•One of the greatest ever •Dan Jansen, Nancy Kerrigan, Tonya Harding

XVII Nagano, 1998

•First time for Women’s hockey •Reintroduced curling •Added snowboarding •NHL players allowed to participate •Jonny Moseley, Picabo Street, Tara Lipinski

XIX Salt Lake City, 2002

•Return of skeleton •Women’s bobsled •French judge suspended for misconduct; gold medals given to both Russian and Canadian pairs •Sarah Hughes WINTER Sport Books Publisher 26

WINTER

XX Torino, 2006

•Italy hosts for the second time •Extreme snowboard cross added •Sarah Konrad, Shani Davis Sport Books Publisher 27

Sport and American Culture

Sport Books Publisher 28

Sport and Culture

 Sport and American culture are intricately intertwined in many significant ways  Example: Olympics continue to be seen as a

cultural event

as well as arena for athletic accomplishment Sport Books Publisher 29

The Relationship Between Sport and Culture



Culture

represents the ways of life people create in a given society – It is a creation of people, not something that is imposed upon a group  The relationship between sport and culture can be see in the following three areas: Sport Books Publisher 30

1. Quest for Excitement

 Sport appeals to participants’ or spectators’ quest for excitement  Sport offers physical challenge and psychological risks that are hard to find in contemporary society  Examples?

Sport Books Publisher 31

2. The Appeal of Sports

 Everyone has an appreciation of the tremendous physical skills required to participate in high level sports Sport Books Publisher 32

3. Sport’s Cultural Significance

 Because of our need for development of social identification and rivalries   We need to be part of a collective whole and to identify with our accomplishments Example: “The Miracle on Ice” Sport Books Publisher 33

What is Sport Culture?

 Development of sport allowed the formation of a myriad of new social groups  These groups formed their own criteria for acceptance to an inner circle, thus creating a “culture” within a particular sport  Sport culture is constantly redefining itself  Spectators have developed their own distinguishing social groups by aligning with a particular team Sport Books Publisher 34

What is Sport Culture?

Sports Fans Versus Sports Fanatics

 Sports fans: – Passive admirers or true devotees – Have true appreciation for the game – Consider themselves as outsiders (i.e., can’t change the game)  Sports fanatics: – Have difficulty dissociating from the game – Sport becomes and obsession – Believe they can actually change the outcome – Often engage in unruly behavior Sport Books Publisher 35

Icons of American Sport

Sport Books Publisher 36

Baseball

 Satchel Paige – One of the most dominant pitchers – Career of >4 decades and >2,500 games – Started in Negro League (1920s) Lou Gehrig – One of the early pioneers in breaking the color barrier in professional sport  Lou Gehrig – The original Iron Man – Played 2,130 consecutive games – In 1931 hit 181 RBIs (still an American League record) – In 1941 died of ALS, now referred to as Lou Gehrig's disease Sport Books Publisher 37

Football

 Vince Lombardi Walter Payton – All-time leading rusher in professional football (until 2002) – 2 time NFL MVP (1977 and 1985) – Spent entire career with one organization – Chicago Bears – High community involvement  Vince Lombardi – Named the coach of the century (2000; ESPN) – Head coach of the Green Bay Packers (1958) – Super bowl trophy now called the Vince Lombardi Trophy Sport Books Publisher 38

Professional Golf

 Tiger Woods Mildred “Babe” Didrikson Zaharias – First and probably the finest female professional multi-sport athlete – Basketball, track and field, golf – First female to participate in men’s professional golf tournament (1945 Los Angeles open)  Eldrick “Tiger” Woods – Youngest golfer to achieve a world #1 ranking (age 21) – By age 5 was featured in Golf Digest magazine – Youngest golfer to achieve U.S. Amateur Championship (age 15) – The first golfer to hold four major golf championship titles concurrently Sport Books Publisher 39

Wilma Rudolph

Olympic Athletes

    

Mary Lou Retton

– 1 st American to ever win Olympic gold in gymnastics (1984; age 16)

Jesse Owens

– Shattered the walls of sports racism by leaving “the Hitler Olympics” (1936) with 4 gold medals

Muhammad Ali

– Earned Olympic gold medal in boxing at age 18 (1960) – Outspoken supporter of Civil Rights; refused induction into the U.S. army in 1967

Wilma Rudolph

– Star Olympic athlete in track and field – United Press Athlete of the Year and the Associated Press Woman Athlete of the Year (1960)

Carl Lewis

– Dominated track and field on the world stage for >decade – Four Olympic gold medals in 1984 – Last Olympic gold medal in 1996 at age 35 Sport Books Publisher 40

Michael Jordan

Basketball

 Michael Jordan – One of the greatest athletes of all time – 15-year NBA career – NBA accolades: 6 championships, 7 scoring titles, 6 Finals MVP trophies, 5 league MVP trophies, 1 Defensive Player of the Year award  Dr. James Naismith – Canadian-born educator known as the inventor of basketball – Also credited for developing first football helmet Sport Books Publisher 41

Professional Tennis

Arthur Ashe  Arthur Ashe – Ranked number one in the world on several occasions – Better known for being a courageous advocate for social change: • Racism and apartheid in South Africa • HIV and AIDS  Billie Jean (Moffit) King Billie Jean King – Ranked number one in the world on numerous occasions – A tireless advocate for women’s rights – In “the Battle of the Sexes” (1973) King defeated former Wimbledon men’s champion Bobby Riggs (6-4, 6-3, 6-3) Sport Books Publisher 42

The Business of Sport

Sport Books Publisher 43

The Business of Sport

 Economic factors now dominate major decisions that affect the

business of sport

 Sport is one of the fastest growing industries in the U.S.

 The economic conditions that allow corporate business to thrive are the same conditions necessary for the survival of commercial sport Sport Books Publisher 44

The Business of Sport

Gate receipts Licensing fees Media rights Internet hits Sponsorship Merchandise Other?

Revenues from sales of concessions Sport Books Publisher 45

Professional Sports in North America

 Athletes are paid  Sports are privately owned Table. Comparison of minor league versus top NA franchise owners

Minor League Top franchise

 Make millions of dollars

Profit

 Negative  Lucky to break even  Owners go out of business

Owner description

 Individuals or partnership  Large corporations, wealthy partnerships, or individuals Sport Books Publisher 46

Amateur Sport in the US

 Athletes participate for the love of the game, not for a salary  Do not have owner  Have governing bodies: – President’s Council on Physical Fitness – United States Olympic Committee – Amateur Athletic Union Sport Books Publisher 47

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Sport Sponsorship

 An agreement between a commercial company and an individual, team, or sport that

in return for money athletes advertise the names of sponsors

through: – Clothing lines, corporate logos, TV ads, and choice of commodities  Found in professional and amateur sports Sport Books Publisher 49

Sport Sponsorship:

Advantages and Disadvantages for Professional Athletes

Money Made Money Lost

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Sport Sponsorship:

Advantages and Disadvantages for Amateur Athletes

Allows athletes to give up a job and train full-time

•

Strong reliance = powerful hold by the sponsor

•

Sponsors request changes in organization

•

Hard to attract sponsors if low TV appeal

Sport Books Publisher 51

Sport Sponsorship:

How It All Works

 Agreed period of time (months or years)  Sign legal agreement to prevent quick termination if things go wrong – Example: Actions of athlete brings bad publicity – Example: Sponsor is linked with unethical practice  Since this agreement is difficult to terminate, it important to make correct selection Sport Books Publisher 52

Sport Sponsorship:

The Nature of the Sponsorship

 Should companies that sell unsuitable products be allowed to sponsor sports?

 Amateur sports: many colleges and universities no longer willing to sign agreements with unsuitable sponsors  Professional sports: many franchises are sponsored by precisely such organizations Sport Books Publisher 53

Sport as a Spectacle

Sport Books Publisher 54

Television

 Televised sports have become a form of true story

sportainment

– The equivalent of a TV movie that claims to be based on a  Sports account for a growing proportion of income made on the sales of commercial time by television companies  TV companies are therefore willing to spend an escalating amount of money for the rights to televise certain sports and sporting events Sport Books Publisher 55

Sport Books Publisher 56

Newspapers

One sports page in common newspapers •Sports page expanded to sports “section”

~1900’s 1920’s

•More daily coverage devoted to sport than any other topic (~25%) •Sports section = 1/3 of total circulation •Tremendous circulation reaches millions of readers •Large advertising revenues for newspapers

TODAY

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Books and Magazines

 Magazines – About major and minor sports – Popular content: biographies, statistics, pictures, all forms of news – Magazines about sports in general are harder to find and generally sales have not done well (exception: Sports Illustrated)  Books – Popular content: (auto)biographies, coaching, and training – Less popular content: novels based on sport Sport Books Publisher 58

Radio

 Before TV, radio was #1 media form  Advantages of radio (versus TV) live event broadcasting: – Company: More economical because it involves smaller # of broadcasters and producers – Listener: Costs less, more mobile – therefore can do other things at the same time Sport Books Publisher 59

Film and Video

 In spite of their dramatic content, sports are not a popular topic for films and videos  Video collection of sporting moments and instructional videos remain popular Sport Books Publisher 60

Internet

 Unlike other media forms: – Allows the consumer to access information at the time of his or her choosing – Not limited to sequential programming  Use of Internet: – Extension of existing media – Fantasy leagues Sport Books Publisher 61

Being and Informed Consumer

Sport Books Publisher 62

 Sport commercialism, as well as our rich sports history, impact on us as individual consumers  Corporations have a financial interest in the average American citizen – U.S. high school student Sport Books Publisher 63

Factors Influencing Student Participation

 People participate in physical activity (PA) for different reasons at different points in their lives  Issues considered by high school students will be different than those considered by adults Sport Books Publisher 64

Media influences Individual perception of sport and PA Commercial interests Teacher or coach Participation Other ?

Sport Books Publisher

American athlete role models

65

The Benefits of School and Community PA

Improving cohesion among students and faculty Other?

School and Community PA Development of school spirit Improved self esteem and overall mood Greater overall acceptance by one’s peers Improved fitness levels Improved fitness Sport Books Publisher 66

The Importance of Being an Informed Consumer

 Advertisers constantly tell us that what we currently have comes up far short  We will almost always feel the need to buy more and better sports and exercise equipment Sport Books Publisher 67

Technology

 Continues to change sports: – Tennis players hit with greater power using larger, graphite, tightly strung rackets – Golfers have advantage by playing with titanium heads – Introduction of the flexible fiberglass pole completely changed pole vaulting – Other examples?

 However, the choice of racket or club will make little, if any, difference to nonelite performance  Therefore, it is best to go with less expensive equipment until an advanced level is reached Sport Books Publisher 68

Clothing

 Have performance benefit: – Heat removal – Windproof – Aerodynamic advantage – Biomechanical advantage of shoes  Again, these technological advances have little benefit for nonelite performance Sport Books Publisher 69

Summary:

 History of sport in the U.S.

 Brief retrospective of the Olympic Games  Reflection on some of the most significant American sports role models  Relationship between sport and culture in the U.S.

 Sport has become a business and a spectacle  Impact of sports trends on us as individuals Sport Books Publisher 70