Transcript Document 7175672

MIS 300
100 Top Hits for Slides for the
Course
With emphasis on the 2nd half
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Contents
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General Model of Problem Solving
MIS; DSS; GSS; ESS
Specialized Systems
Management Support Systems
Technological Leadership
System Development
Risk Management and Security
Computer Crime and Ethics
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Focus of the Course
First six weeks: Information technology and
how it works, definitions, IT as a business
enabler and platform
Last six weeks: What information technology
can do for users; user roles; producing
and managing information technology;
effects of IT
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Decision Making as a Component
of Problem Solving
SEE
THINK
SAY
DO
LEARN
Figure 6.1: How Decision Making Relates to
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Problem Solving
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Decision Making as a Component
of Problem Solving (continued)
• Problem solving: a process that goes
beyond decision making to include the
implementation stage
• Implementation stage: a solution is put
into effect
• Monitoring stage: decision makers
evaluate the implementation
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Programmed Versus
Nonprogrammed Decisions
• Programmed decisions
– Decisions made using a rule, procedure,
or quantitative method
– Easy to computerize using traditional
information systems
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Programmed Versus Nonprogrammed
Decisions (continued)
• Nonprogrammed decisions
– Decision that deals with unusual or
exceptional situations
– Not easily quantifiable
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Optimization, Satisficing, and Heuristic
Approaches
• Optimization model: a process that finds
the best solution, usually the one that will
best help the organization meet its goals
• Satisficing model: a process that finds a
good—but not necessarily the best—
problem solution
• Heuristics: commonly accepted
guidelines or procedures that usually find
a good solution
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An Overview of Management
Information Systems: Management
Information Systems in Perspective
• A management information system (MIS)
provides managers with information that
supports effective decision making and
provides feedback on daily operations
• The use of MISs spans all levels of
management
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Management Information Systems in
Perspective (continued)
Figure 6.3: Sources of Managerial
Information
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Outputs of a Management Information
System
• Scheduled report: produced periodically, or on
a schedule
• Key-indicator report: summary of the previous
day’s critical activities
• Demand report: developed to give certain
information at someone’s request
• Exception report: automatically produced when
a situation is unusual or requires management
action
• Drill-down report: provides increasingly
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detailed data about a Top
situation
Functional Aspects of the MIS
• Most organizations are structured along
functional lines or areas
• The MIS can be divided along functional
lines to produce reports tailored to
individual functions
• This tends to lead to fragmentation, the
sort of effect that ERP is designed to
counter!
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An Overview of Decision
Support Systems
• A DSS is an organized collection of
people, procedures, software, databases,
and devices used to support problemspecific decision making and problem
solving
• The focus of a DSS is on decision-making
effectiveness when faced with
unstructured or semistructured business
problems
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Capabilities of a Decision
Support System
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Support all problem-solving phases
Support different decision frequencies
Support different problem structures
Support various decision-making levels
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Capabilities of a Decision
Support System (continued)
What else goes along with level? Why?
Figure 6.10: Decision-Making Level
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Components of a DSS
• Model base: provides decision makers access
to a variety of models and assists them in
decision making
• Database
• External database access
• Access to the Internet and corporate intranet,
networks, and other computer systems
• Dialogue manager: allows decision makers to
easily access and manipulate the DSS and to
use common business terms and phrases
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Components of a DSS (continued)
Figure 6.11: ConceptualTopModel
of a DSS
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Group Support Systems
• Group support system (GSS)
– Consists of most elements in a DSS, plus
software to provide effective support in group
decision making
– Also called group decision support system or
computerized collaborative work system
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Group Support Systems
(continued)
Figure 6.12: Configuration
of a GSS (Cf. Figure
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6.11)
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Characteristics of a GSS That
Enhance Decision Making
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Special design
Ease of use
Flexibility
Decision-making support
Anonymous input
Reduction of negative group behavior
Parallel communication
Automated record keeping
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Executive Support Systems
• Executive support system (ESS):
specialized DSS that includes all
hardware, software, data, procedures, and
people used to assist senior-level
executives within the organization
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Executive Support Systems in
Perspective
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Tailored to individual executives
Easy to use
Drill-down capable
Support the need for external data
Can help when uncertainty is high
Future-oriented
Linked to value-added processes
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Capabilities of Executive
Support Systems
• Support for defining an overall vision
• Support for strategic planning
• Support for strategic organizing and
staffing
• Support for strategic control
• Support for crisis management
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An Overview of Artificial
Intelligence
• Artificial intelligence (AI): the ability of
computers to mimic or duplicate the
functions of the human brain
• Artificial intelligence systems: the
people, procedures, hardware, software,
data, and knowledge needed to develop
computer systems and machines that
demonstrate the characteristics of
intelligence
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The Nature of Intelligence
• Learn from experiences and apply knowledge
acquired from experience
• Handle complex situations
• Solve problems when important information is
missing
• Determine what is important
• React quickly and correctly to a new situation
• By definition, a computer is unintelligent
• The hallmark of intelligence is generating
information out of experience.
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The Nature of Intelligence
(continued)
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Understand visual images
Process and manipulate symbols
Be creative and imaginative
Use heuristics
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The Difference Between Natural
and Artificial Intelligence
Table 7.1: A ComparisonTopof
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Intelligence
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Expert Systems
• Hardware and software that stores
knowledge and makes inferences, similar
to a human expert
• Used in many business applications
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Robotics
• Mechanical or computer devices that
perform tasks that either require a high
degree of precision or are tedious or
hazardous for humans
• Contemporary robotics combines highprecision machine capabilities with
sophisticated controlling software
• Many applications of robotics exist today
• Research into robots is continuing
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Vision Systems
• The hardware and software that permit
computers to capture, store, and
manipulate visual images and pictures
• Used by the U.S. Justice Department to
perform fingerprint analysis
• Used for identifying people based on facial
features
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Natural Language Processing
• Processing that allows the computer to
understand and react to statements and
commands made in a “natural” language,
such as English
• Three levels of voice recognition
– Command: recognition of dozens to hundreds
of words
– Discrete: recognition of dictated speech with
pauses between words
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– Continuous: recognition
An Overview of Expert Systems:
Characteristics and Limitations of an Expert
System
• Can explain its reasoning or suggested
decisions
• Can display “intelligent” behavior
• Can draw conclusions from complex
relationships
• Can provide portable knowledge
• Can deal with uncertainty
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Characteristics and Limitations of an
Expert System (continued)
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Not widely used or tested
Difficult to use
Limited to relatively narrow problems
Cannot readily deal with “mixed” knowledge
Possibility of error
Cannot refine its own knowledge
Difficult to maintain
May have high development costs
Raises legal and ethical concerns
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When to Use Expert Systems
• Provide a high potential payoff or
significantly reduce downside risk
• Capture and preserve irreplaceable
human expertise
• Solve a problem that is not easily solved
using traditional programming techniques
• Develop a system more consistent than
human experts
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When to Use Expert Systems
(continued)
• Provide expertise needed at a number of
locations at the same time or in a hostile
environment that is dangerous to human health
• Provide expertise that is expensive or rare
• Develop a solution faster than human experts
can
• Provide expertise needed for training and
development to share the wisdom and
experience of human experts with a large
number of people
Do you see a
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potential
problem here?
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Components of Expert Systems
Figure 7.2: ComponentsTopof100an Expert System
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The Explanation Facility
• Allows a user or decision maker to
understand how the expert system arrived
at certain conclusions or results
• For example: it allows a doctor to find out
the logic or rationale of the diagnosis
made by a medical expert system
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The Knowledge Acquisition
Facility
• Provides convenient and efficient means
of capturing and storing all the
components of the knowledge base
• Acts as an interface between experts and
the knowledge base
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Participants in Developing and
Using Expert Systems
• Domain expert: individual or group that
has the expertise or knowledge one is
trying to capture in the expert system
• Knowledge engineer: an individual who
has training or experience in the design,
development, implementation, and
maintenance of an expert system
• Knowledge user: individual or group that
uses and benefits from the expert system
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Applications of Expert Systems
and Artificial Intelligence
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Credit granting and loan analysis
Catching cheats and terrorists
Information management and retrieval
AI and expert systems embedded in products
Plant layout and manufacturing
Hospitals and medical facilities
Help desks and assistance
Employee performance evaluations
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What Is SUPPORTED?
Tools for
bringing things
to conclusion
• Managers are employed to create
conclusions, to make things happen
• Thus, any support they receive can be
Tools for
only of two types:
helping others
see that things
things
happen
have
happenedor
– To make it easier to make
– To make others think things have happened
(i.e., to increase the perception of things
happening)
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What Is a Conclusion?
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A Decision
Agreement or consensus
Realization of a model or plan
Addition to knowledge
Increase in confidence
Any (presumed positive) change in
resources (such as cash, staff, customers,
etc.)
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What is the Support in
Management Support Systems ?
Manage this Process
SEE
Gather
better
Data
THINK
Access, Analyze
Knowledge
SAY
DO
Display,
Communicate
Array, Compare Debate
Compute
LEARN
Remember
Archive
WHAT A MANAGEMENT SUPPORT SYSTEM CAN DO FOR MANAGERS TO
INCREASE CONFIDENCE AND EFFECTIVENESS OF PROBLEM-SOLVING
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What Kinds of Tools Are There
• Display and Data Formatting
(Presentation)
• Data Search and Processing (MIS)
• Suggested Action (Consulting)
• Evaluation of Action (DSS)
• Logical Conclusion (Expert System)
• Action (Operational System)
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How These Tools Differ
• Each one incorporates more “knowledge”
than those above.
• The value of the knowledge is higher and
the knowledge is more specific.
• Each removes some of the burden from
the problem solver in generating and
evaluating solutions
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Structure of a Management
Support System
Knowledgeable
Advisor
MODEL
MODELthe
This
takes place continually, refining
CAPTURE
BASE
Quality
and relevance of the stored
data
Manager in Need of Support
DIALOG
MANAGER
LEARNING
ADVICE
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Structure of a Management
Support System
Knowledgeable
Advisor
Model Management
MODEL
CAPTURE
Manager in Need of Support
MODEL
BASE
System Management
DIALOG
MANAGER
Model Usage
LEARNING
ADVICE
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General Model of a Management
Support System
Advisors
Knowledge
Engineering
ManagersProblem
Description
Knowledge
Base
Advising
System
Interface
Advice
Feedback
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LEARNING
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Who Is a Technology Leader?
• Technology developers
• Technology commercializers
• Technology stewards
Those who specify and
build the systems
Those who figure out
how to make a profit
Those who get the
systems built and
employed
USE
Project
Process
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Product
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Who Is a Technology Leader?
• Technology stewards
– User management
– Project managers & clients
– Process managers
– Product owners
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Technology Leadership
• Three components:
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Assessment
Forecasting
Management
Transfer
• A technological leader fosters technological innovation,
and understands the technology life cycle.
• Such a leader initiates and steers commercialization of
technological advances, links business and technology
strategies, manages technology R&D and understands
technological revolutions.
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Technology Management
Components
• Technology Assessment
– Evaluating technologies as they are created
– To make wise investments, understand the true
costs, improve existing technologies, and
develop ways of employing technologies
• Technology Forecasting
– Predicting what technologies are going to be
available
– To strategize technology use, second-guess the
competition, stay on Top
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Technology Management
Components
• Technology Management
– Developing and using appropriate technologies
– To lead the technology, employ it in the best way,
and to profit from technology use.
• Technology Transfer
– Helping others learn the benefits and uses of
appropriate technologies
– Making technologies available to others
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Technology Transfer
Innovation
Infusion
Rest of Organization
Dilution
Adaptation
Evolution
Technology
Innovation
Source
Commercialization
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Technology Management Process
(Pre-implementation)
Develop the technology plan
Plan
Find out what is needed, forecast
Research
technologies, assess technology
menu
Find out what is available,
Procure or
developing acquisition
Develop
and finance strategies
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Technology Management Process
(Post-implementation)
Develop the technology plan
Plan
Monitor use, develop
improvement strategies,
adhere to technology plan
Improve
Commercialize, transfer, plan
for obsolescence, train,
manage culture clash
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Control
Scrap, reinvoke
management cycle
Dispose
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Technology Life Cycle
Mature
Technology
Market
penetration,
Use,
Acceptance,
Volume, etc.
Substitution
and
Obsolescence
Application
Growth
Development
Application
Launch
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Time
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Commercialization and Marketing
of Technology
Profit
Sales
Are all
internally
developed
systems “loss
leaders”?
Breakeven
Time
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An Overview of Systems Development:
Participants in Systems Development
• Development team
– Responsible for determining the objectives of
the information system and delivering a
system that meets these objectives
– Usually consists of stakeholders, users,
managers, systems development specialists,
and various support personnel
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Systems Development Methods
• The systems development process is also
called a systems development life cycle
(SDLC)
• Traditional systems development life cycle
• Prototyping
• Rapid application development (RAD)
• End-user development
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The Traditional Systems
Development Life Cycle
Figure 8.4: The Traditional
Systems Development 61
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Life Cycle
The Traditional Systems
Development Life Cycle
(continued)
• Systems investigation: problems and
opportunities are identified and considered
in light of the goals of the business
• Systems analysis: study of existing
systems and work processes to identify
strengths, weaknesses, and opportunities
for improvement
These two often
• Systems design: defines howtake
the
place at the
time. do
information system will do what same
it must
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to obtain the problem’s
solution
The Traditional Systems
Development Life Cycle
(continued)
• Systems implementation: the creation or
acquiring of various system components
detailed in the systems design,
assembling them, and placing the new or
modified system into operation
• Systems maintenance and review:
ensures that the system operates, and
modifies the system so that it continues to
meet changing business needs
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The Major Phases of System
Development
Focus on
Real Systems Models of Systems
Review
Evaluation
Mainenance
Analysis
Focus on
Users
Systems
Implementation
Design
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Prototyping
Expert
Implementation
Figure 8.5: Prototyping
Is
an Iterative Approach
to
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The End-User Systems
Development Life Cycle
• Any systems development project in which
the primary effort is undertaken by a
combination of business managers and
users
• End-user-developed systems can be
structured as complementary to, rather
than in conflict with, existing and emerging
information systems
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Outsourcing and On Demand
Computing
• An outside consulting firm or computer
company that specializes in systems
development can be hired to take over
some or all of the development and
operations activities
• Outsourcing can involve a large number of
countries and companies in bringing new
products and services to market
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Systems Investigation
• What primary problems might a new or
enhanced system solve?
• What opportunities might a new or enhanced
system provide?
• What new hardware, software, databases,
telecommunications, personnel, or procedures
will improve an existing system or are required
in a new system?
• What are the potential costs (variable and
fixed)?
• What are the associated risks?
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Feasibility Analysis
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Technical feasibility
Economic feasibility
Schedule feasibility
Legal feasibility
Operational feasibility
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Is there a workable
technology?
Can we afford the
potential
implementations?
Can we do it in time?
These two types of feasibility
are often joined with others
into a set of criteria termed
“organizational will”.
Do we have the courage and
culture to
carry out the implementation?
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The Systems Investigation
Report
• Summarizes the results of systems
investigation and the process of feasibility
analysis
• Recommends a course of action: continue
on into systems analysis, modify the
project in some manner, or drop it
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Systems Analysis
• Answers the question “What must the
information system do to solve the
problem?”
• Primary outcome: a prioritized list of
system requirements
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Data Analysis
• A set of diagramming techniques
• Data modeling
– Entity-relationship (ER) diagrams
– Relatively easy to understand; a narrative of
what entities (actors, objects) produce or use
what information
• Activity modeling
– Data-flow diagrams (DFDs)
– Conceptual, intuitive, should be shared with
potential users for verification
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The Systems Analysis Report
• The systems analysis report should cover:
– The strengths and weaknesses of the existing
system from a stakeholder’s perspective
– The user/stakeholder requirements for the
new system (also called the functional
requirements)
– The organizational requirements for the new

system
– A description of what the new information
system should do to solve the problem
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Systems Design
• Answers the question “How will the information
system do what it must do to solve a problem?”
• Has two dimensions: logical and physical
• Logical design: description of the functional
requirements of a system: a model of the user
• Physical design: specification of the
characteristics of the system components
necessary to put the logical design into action: a
model of the system
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Systems Implementation: User
Roles
Heavy user involvement
Figure 8.18: Typical Steps in Systems
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Implementation
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Personnel: Hiring and Training
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IS manager
Systems analysts
Computer programmers
Data-entry operators
Hiring users: describe the job; match the
skills
• Users may take up to three months to
learn the new jobs.
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Data Preparation
• Also called data conversion
• Ensuring all files and databases are ready
to be used with new computer software
and systems
• With mission-critical data, generally a
really expensive proposition
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Testing
• Unit testing: testing of individual programs
• System testing: testing the entire system
of programs
• Volume testing: testing the application with
a large amount of data
• Integration testing: testing all related
systems together
• Acceptance testing: conducting any
tests required by Top
the
user
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Installation
• The process of physically placing the
computer equipment on the site and
making it operational
• Normally the manufacturer is responsible
for installing computer equipment
• Someone from the organization (usually
the IS manager) should oversee the
process
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Start-Up
• The process of making the final tested
information system fully operational
• Direct conversion (also called plunge or direct
cutover – “Black Monday” effect)
• Phase-in approach (function by function;
perhaps department by department)
• Pilot start-up (a test area, function or
department)
• Parallel start-up (where mission critical
information is required or involved, where
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absolutely reliable service
is needed)
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User Acceptance
• User-acceptance document: formal
agreement signed by the user that states
that a phase of the installation or the
complete system is approved
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Systems Operation and
Maintenance
• Systems operation: use of a new or
modified system
• Systems maintenance: checking,
changing, and enhancing the system to
make it more useful in achieving user and
organizational goals
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Systems Review
• Process of analyzing systems to make sure that
they are operating as intended
• Often compares the performance and benefits of
the system as it was designed with the actual
performance and benefits of the system in
operation
• Event-driven review: review triggered by a
problem or opportunity, such as an error, a
corporate merger, or a new market for products
• Time-driven review: review performed after a
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specified amount of time
General Risk Model
Threat
Detection,
Recovery
Threat has
effects
Avoidance,
Deterence
Awareness,
Assessment
Reassessment
Effects have
Implications
Defence
(Retaliation)
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Risk Management Components
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Assessment/Awareness
Avoidance
Deterence/Deflection
Defence
Audit/Detection
Recovery
Retaliation
Reassessment/Learning
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$1
$2-10
$4-100
$8-1000
$16-10000
$32-100000
$64-1000000
Costs
rise
rapidly
as risk
management
tactics
evolve in
time by
powers
of 2 to 10
Priceless!
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Cost/Benefit Tradeoff
Benefits
(lowered risk,
damage)
Because loss is
highest for late
actions, there is a
rapid increase in
value of expense
At some point tactics
are complex
themselves and
expose actor to
further risk
Cost (money, effort, exposure)
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Computer Waste and Mistakes
• Computer waste
– The inappropriate use of computer technology
and resources
• Computer-related mistakes
– Errors, failures, and other computer problems
that make computer output incorrect or not
useful
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Computer Waste
• Discarding of technology
• Unused systems
• Personal use of corporate time and
technology
• Spam
• Poorly designed systems
• Unintelligent system use
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Computer-Related Mistakes
• Mistakes can be caused by unclear
expectations and a lack of feedback
• A systems analyst might specify a system
that is not what is needed or wanted
• A programmer might develop a program
that contains errors
• Users might accept a system that is not
what is needed or what is wanted
• A data-entry clerk might
enter the wrong 89
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data
Computer Crime
• Often defies detection
• The amount stolen or diverted can be
substantial
• The crime is “clean” and nonviolent (so
far!)
• The number of IT-related security incidents
is increasing dramatically
• Computer crime is now global
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The Computer as a Tool to
Commit Crime
• Criminals need two capabilities to commit
most computer crimes:
– Knowing how to gain access to the computer
system
– Knowing how to manipulate the system to
produce the desired result
• Social engineering
• Dumpster diving
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Identity Theft
• An imposter obtains key pieces of personal
identification information, such as Social
Security or driver’s license numbers, in order to
impersonate someone else
• The information is then used to obtain credit,
merchandise, and services in the name of the
victim or to provide the thief with false
credentials
• Identity Theft and Assumption Deterrence Act
of 1998
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Data Alteration and Destruction
• Virus: a computer program capable of
attaching to disks or other files and
replicating itself repeatedly, typically
without the user’s knowledge or
permission
• Worm: an independent program that
replicates its own program files until it
interrupts the operation of networks and
computer systems
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Data Alteration and Destruction
–2
• Trojan horse: a program that appears to
be useful but actually masks a destructive
program
• Logic bomb: an application or system
virus designed to “explode” or execute at a
specified time and date
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Using Antivirus Programs
• Antivirus program: program or utility that
prevents viruses and recovers from them if
they infect a computer
• An antivirus software should be run and
updated often
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Privacy Issues
• With information systems, privacy deals
with the collection and use or misuse of
data
• Privacy and the federal government
• Privacy at work: you don’t have any
• E-mail privacy: doesn’t exist
• Privacy and the Internet: caveat emptor
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Privacy: The Basic Issue
• Information about the individual may or may not
“belong” to the individual as “property”
• English common law, the basis of our general
law, recognizes property rights as inherent and
inviolable (in general)
• Intellectual assets differ in many ways from
physical property
– Eg. Copyable without damage
– Eg. Valuable only for brief period of time
– Eg. Can cause damage as well as be an
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asset
Information about Oneself
•
•
•
•
•
•
In general this does NOT belong to the individual
Example: “public figure”
Example: customer records
Example: Employee records
Example: One’s image (visual or audio)
Information in general is inherent in an activity
and belongs to that activity; the owner of the
activity is the owner of the information.
• This is not a well-developed field with clear-cut
principles that juries and judges adhere to.
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Corporate Privacy Policies
• Should address a customer’s knowledge,
control, notice, and consent over the
storage and use of information
• May cover who has access to private data
and when it may be used
• A good database design practice is to
assign a single unique identifier to each
customer
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Individual Efforts to Protect
Privacy
• Find out what is stored about you in
existing databases
• Be careful when you share information
about yourself
• Be proactive to protect your privacy
• When purchasing anything from a Web
site, make sure that you safeguard your
credit card numbers, passwords, and
personal information
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Foreign Language Guide Book
What you want to express
What to say in ITish
• “It’s cute but it doesn’t
do what it’s supposed
to do.”
• “I know YOU think it’s
great technology, but
it doesn’t meet my
needs.”
• “Wow! This is really
going to make me
look good on the job!”
• “IT DOESN’T WORK!”
• “I DON’T WANT IT!”
• “THANKS!”
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