Transcript Chapter 12 Groups

Chapter 12
Groups
Have you ever done something in a crowd
you’d never have done alone?
If you had to move furniture, would you
work better in a group, or alone?
What if you were writing a term paper?
Have you ever had a bad supervisor?
What differentiated that person from a
good supervisor?
Chapter Outline
The Nature of Groups
Goals of Belonging to Groups
Getting Things Done
Making Accurate Decisions
Gaining Positions of Leadership
The Nature of Groups
Mere Presence of Others and
Social Facilitation
Crowds and Deindividuation
“Real” Groups
Why Do People Belong to
Groups?
The Nature of Groups
Group Two or more people who influence
each other.
Collections of individuals become
increasingly “group like” when
they:
• Are interdependent
• Share a common identity
• Have a group structure
Mere Presence of Others and
Social Facilitation
In 1897, Norman Triplett noticed that
bicycle racers always turned in better
times in competition than alone.
Same result when he asked children to
wind fishing reels as quickly as possible.
Mere Presence of Others and
Social Facilitation
In 1965, Robert Zajonc proposed that the
presence of others increases physiological
arousal.
This arousal boosts the probability of
dominant responses (familiar, welllearned behaviors).
Mere Presence of Others and
Social Facilitation
If a task requires a simple or well-learned
response (like pedaling a bike), then the
presence of others helps us.
But if we are asked to do something novel
or complex (like playing a difficult piece
of music), then others can actually hurt
our performance.
Presence of Others
On wellmastered or
simple
tasks
dominant
response is
right
Physiological Arousal
Dominant Responses
Responses
Dominant
(well-mastered task)
Improved
Performance
On difficult
or complex
tasks
dominant
response is
wrong
Impaired
Performance
Mere Presence of Others and
Social Facilitation
When other people are explicitly
evaluating our performance, arousal
increases (Seta & Seta, 1992).
Presence of other people can also distract
us, breaking the concentration required
for a complex task (Baron, 1986).
Crowds and Deindividuation
Deindividuation The process of losing one’s sense of
personal identity, which:
makes it easier to behave in ways
inconsistent with one’s normal values.
Example: Anonymous children in
Halloween costumes stole more from a
candy jar (Beaman et al., 1979)
Real Groups
Real groups (e.g., sororities) are
distinguished from aggregations (e.g.,
crowds of strangers on the street) by:
Interdependence: Group members need
each other to reach shared goals.
Group identity: Individuals perceive
themselves as belonging together.
Group structure:
Group Structure
Roles Expectations held by group members for
how members in particular positions
ought to behave.
Group Structure
Status Hierarchy A ranking of group members by their
power and influence over other
members.
Group Structure
Communication network The pattern of information flow through a
group.
Example: An announcement from the
CEO of ACME Artichoke Distributors
may flow first to top managers, then to
local supervisors, then to rank-and-file
workers.
Group Structure
Cohesiveness -
The strength of the bonds among group
members.
Interpersonal cohesiveness: Enjoyment of
one another’s company.
Task cohesiveness: Commitment to the
group’s task.
Why Do People Belong To
Groups?
To Get Things Done
To Make Accurate Decisions
To Gain Positions of Leadership
Getting Things Done
Getting Things Done
Lightening The Load, Dividing
the Labor
In groups, we can do things that would be
very difficult if we were alone.
In groups, people can divide the labor and
thereby finish a task more quickly and
efficiently.
Getting Things Done
Focus on Social Dysfunction:
The Social Disease of Social Loafing
Social loafing Reducing one’s efforts when in a group.
People loaf less when:
•
•
•
•
Personal efforts are identifiable
The task is meaningful and important
Working with friends vs. strangers
They have a collectivist orientation
Getting Things Done
Expectations of Individual
Failure and Group Success
Current Needs
When are Groups Productive?
Getting Things Done
Expectations of Individual Failure
and Group Success
People join groups when they believe that
they would fail on their own.
In one study, men were expected to
compete on
• Stereotypically masculine tasks (like
changing oil or fixing a shed)
• Or stereotypically feminine tasks (like
taking a test on flowers)
Getting Things Done
Expectations of Individual Failure
and Group Success
Men were less confident in their abilities to
succeed on the stereotypically feminine
tasks
Getting Things Done
Current Needs
Performance groups emerge to fill current
needs in society
Examples: Trade guilds, unions, NAACP,
Sierra Club.
Getting Things Done
When Are Groups Most Productive?
The answer depends on:
Who is in the group?
How big is the group?
What type of task are they working
on?
Getting Things Done
Who Should Be in The Group?
Personality of the group member
should be matched to type of task.
Teams usually require at least one
person who is ambitious, one who
is creative, and one who is
cooperative.
Getting Things Done
How Big Should The Group Be?
Depends on type of task:
Additive task - A job in which each
member performs the same
activities.
Group success determined by sum
of all member contributions
Getting Things Done
How Big Should The Group Be?
Disjunctive task - Job in which group’s
product is selected from just one
member’s performance.
Group activity thus determined by
performance of most successful member.
Getting Things Done
How Big Should The Group Be?
Conjunctive task - Job in which group
succeeds only if each member performs
successfully.
Group activity thus limited by
performance of least competent member.
More members MAY hurt performance.
Getting Things Done
Is Diversity Valuable?
Heterogeneous groups do better on:
• Disjunctive tasks, in which only one
person is needed to get the right answer.
Getting Things Done
Cultural Diversity and Group
Performance
Cultural diverse groups perform better on
tasks where different cultural
backgrounds can help
Example: generating ideas about
encouraging tourism (McLeod & Lobel, 1992)
But intergroup prejudice can lead to
communication problems and low
cohesion, at least at first
esearch
Getting Things Done
Cultural Diversity and Group
Performance
In one study, researchers created four
and five member teams to solve
problems in an upper-level
management course.
Teams were either:
• Homogenous (all white), or
• Ethnically diverse
OVERALL GROUP PERFORMANCE
Watson, Kumar, & Michaelson, 1993
5
4
At first, performance
was worse in ethnically
diverse groups, who got
along less well than
homogenous groups
3
2
Task 1
(week 1)
OVERALL GROUP PERFORMANCE
Watson, Kumar, & Michaelson, 1993
5
By the end of the semester, though,
diverse groups were performing as
well as homogenous ones
4
3
2
Task 1
Task 2
Task 3
Task 4
(week 1)
(week 9)
(week 13)
(week 17)
Making Accurate
Decisions
Making Accurate Decisions
Groups that share information can
make more informed decisions.
Transactive memory - A group
memory system made up of:
1. Knowledge held by individual
group members
2. Communication network for
sharing this information.
Making Accurate Decisions
The Need to Know
Uncertain Circumstances
Discussion and Decision Making
Making Accurate Decisions
The Need to Know
Individuals with a thirst for
knowledge can fill it in groups.
People facing life-long illness may seek a
support group for information.
Gay men with HIV stopped attending
support meetings when group stopped
supplying information (Sandstrom, 1996)
Making Accurate Decisions
Uncertain Circumstances
Uncertainty increases the desire to be
with others in similar circumstances
(Kirkpatrick & Shaver, 1988)
Hospital patients awaiting a serious
medical procedure want to wait with
other patients who have already
undergone the procedure (Kulik, Mahler, &
Earnest, 1994)
Making Accurate Decisions
Discussion and Decision Making
Group polarization -
When group discussion leads members
to make decisions that are more
extremely on the side of the issue
that the group initially favored.
Making Accurate Decisions
Discussion and Decision Making
Group polarization Imagine you were considering the pros and
cons of going to grad school, and you
talked it over with two groups:
• Your family: Who was initially slightly
opposed to the idea
• Your fellow students: Who were initially
slightly favorable
After discussion within each group
Attitude Towards Grad School
After discussion, the
group that initially
favored grad school
would be even more
strongly in favor
Definite GO
Conversely, the group
that initially disfavored
grad school would be
even more opposed
Unsure
Definite NO
(Get A Job!)
Before
Group
Discussion
After
Group
Discussion
Making Accurate Decisions
Discussion and Decision Making
Why do groups polarize after discussion?
Persuasive arguments: With even a slight
bias in one direction, you’ll hear more
favorable arguments on that side.
Social comparison: When members
realize the group is leaning in one
direction, they may seek acceptance by
moving further in that direction.
Making Accurate Decisions
Groupthink A style of group decision making
characterized by a greater desire
among group members to get along and
agree with one another than to generate
and critically evaluate alternative
viewpoints and positions.
Can cause groups to lose benefits of
group discussion.
Group characteristics
Directive Leadership
Interpersonal Cohesiveness
Isolation from Outside Influences
Group characteristics
Directive Leadership
Interpersonal Cohesiveness
Isolation from Outside Influences
Groupthink
Desire to Seek Agreement and Group Cohesion
Group characteristics
Directive Leadership
Interpersonal Cohesiveness
Isolation from Outside Influences
Groupthink
Desire to Seek Agreement and Group Collegiality
Psychological State of Group Members
Perceived Pressure to Conform to Leader’s Perspective and
Censor Own Views
Perceived Need to Protect Leader from Contrary Views
Illusions of Invulnerability and Of Outsiders as Inferior
Group characteristics
Directive Leadership
Interpersonal Cohesiveness
Isolation from Outside Influences
Groupthink
Desire to Seek Agreement and Group Collegiality
Psychological State of Group Members
Perceived Pressure to Conform to Leader’s Perspective and Censor Own Views
Perceived Need to Protect Leader from Contrary Views
Illusions of Invulnerability and Of Outsiders as Inferior
Defective Discussion Processes
Incomplete Survey of Objectives and Alternatives
Failure to Consider Negative Features of Chosen Alternative
Failure To Design Contingency Plans if Chosen Alternative Fails
Group characteristics
Directive Leadership
Interpersonal Cohesiveness
Isolation from Outside Influences
Groupthink
Desire to Seek Agreement and Group Collegiality
Psychological State of Group Members
Perceived Pressure to Conform to Leader’s Perspective and Censor Own Views
Perceived Need to Protect Leader from Contrary Views
Illusions of Invulnerability and Of Outsiders as Inferior
Defective Discussion Processes
Incomplete Survey of Objectives and Alternatives
Failure to Consider Negative Features of Chosen Alternative
Failure To Design Contingency Plans if Chosen Alternative Fails
Increased Likelihood of Poor Decision
Gaining Positions of
Leadership
Gaining Positions of Leadership
Who Wants to Lead?
When Opportunity Knocks
Who Gets to Lead?
When Are Leaders Effective?
Gaining Positions of Leadership
Who Wants to Lead?
Need for PowerDesire to win prestige, status, and
influence over others.
U.S. presidents high in need for
power more likely to lead country
into military conflict (Winter, 1987)
Gaining Positions of Leadership
Who Wants to Lead?
Need for AchievementDesire to do something
exceptionally well for its own
sake.
U.S. presidents high in need for
achievement more likely to
initiate new legislation, and try
out new approaches to leadership.
Gaining Positions of Leadership
When Opportunity Knocks
Voids at the top create
possibilities for motivated
individuals to ascend
As groups get larger, more need
for leaders to administer and
coordinate.
Gaining Positions of Leadership
When Opportunity Knocks
People with more connections
are better situated to move into
positions of leadership.
Gaining Positions of Leadership
Who Gets To Lead?
People choose leaders who fit their
images and beliefs about leaders:
• High expertise
• Self-confidence
• High participation in group
• Tall
Some “image” factors (e.g., height) may
lead groups to choose a man over a more
competent woman.
Gaining Positions of Leadership
When are Leaders Effective?
Students in one study were assigned to
work on hobbies in groups.
Groups were assigned leaders who
were either:
Autocratic - told group members
what to do and when to do it (or)
Democratic - encouraged the group
to set its own goals
Gaining Positions of Leadership
When are Leaders Effective?
Researchers recorded the time
students spent working on the
task when the leader was:
Present - or
Absent
esearch
Autocratic leader
Democratic leader
100
Percentage
of Time
Working on
Task
50
0
Leader Present
When the leader was there to supervise
them, groups with autocratic leaders
spent more time on task
esearch
Autocratic leader
Democratic leader
100
Percentage
of Time
Working on
Task
50
0
Leader Present
Leader Absent
But when the leader was absent, groups
with an autocratic leader decreased their
efforts considerably.
Gaining Positions of Leadership
Transformation LeadershipLeadership that changes the
motivations, outlooks, and
behaviors of followers,
enabling the group to better
reach its goals
Characteristics of
Transformational
Leaders
Idealized
Influence or
“Charisma”
Intellectual
Stimulation
Inspirational
Motivation
Individualized
Consideration
How Leader Manifests It
Characteristics of
Transformational
Leaders
Idealized
Influence or
“Charisma”
Intellectual
Stimulation
Inspirational
Motivation
Individualized
Consideration
How Leader Manifests It
Communicates a sense of a “joint
mission” in followers.
Expresses dedication to his or her
followers.
Is willing to sacrifice his or her selfgain for the good of the group.
Characteristics of
Transformational
Leaders
How Leader Manifests It
Idealized
Influence or
“Charisma”
Intellectual
Stimulation
Inspirational
Motivation
Individualized
Consideration
Creates an openness to new ways of
thinking.
Creates a “big picture” that connects
different views of the problem.
Is willing to entertain even seemingly
foolish ideas.
Characteristics of
Transformational
Leaders
How Leader Manifests It
Idealized
Influence or
“Charisma”
Intellectual
Stimulation
Inspirational
Motivation
Individualized
Consideration
Convinces followers that they have the
ability to accomplish more than they
previously thought possible.
Sets an example for others to strive
for.
Presents an optimistic view of the
future
Characteristics of
Transformational
Leaders
How Leader Manifests It
Idealized
Influence or
“Charisma”
Intellectual
Stimulation
Inspirational
Motivation
Individualized
Consideration
Recognizes individual strengths and
weaknesses.
Shows interest in the well-being of
others.
Supports worker’s efforts to better
themselves on the job.