American Foreign Policy: 1941-89

The Beginnings of the Cold War

1939 Munich Conference

• 1939 Nazi-Soviet Pact – Signed by Stalin – Divided East Europe between Germany and Russia • Soviet Union occupied East Europe – Led to the Cold War – Demolished the Grand Alliance – Because U.S. unwilling to accept Russia’s domination of East Europe

Casablanca Conference - 1943

• In January, 1943 Roosevelt and Churchill agreed to a second front in Europe - invade Europe through Italy • They also agreed to continue fighting until the “unconditional surrender” of all enemies

Teheran Conference - 1943

• On the way to Teheran the big three met with China’s Chiang Kai-shek in Cairo • The Declaration of Cairo -the war would continue until the unconditional surrender of Japan - all Chinese territory taken by the Japanese would be restored to China - Japan would lose the Pacific islands taken after 1941 eventually Korea would become “ free and independent” • In November 1943 Winston Churchill, Joseph Stalin, and Franklin Roosevelt met in Teheran to discuss the planned invasion of France - Britain and the United States promised to invade France and Russia - Russia promised to enter the war against Japan after the defeat of Germany

Dumbarton Oaks Conference - 1944

• Representatives from Great Britain, US, USSR, and China developed a plan for the formation of the United Nations • Every nation would be represented in the General Assembly • Five permanent members (US, USSR, China, France, and Great Britain) would form the Security Council, along with other temporary members • Each major power could veto Security Council decisions • In 1945, 50 nations met in San Francisco • The UN charter was ratified by Congress August 1945

Yalta Conference - 1945

• By 1945 it was clear the Germans would lose the war and the focus shifted to the post-war world and the race to Berlin • With FDR ill the American decisions were made by Supreme Commander Dwight Eisenhower • Churchill wanted the Americans to race to Berlin, regardless of the cost • Eisenhower preferred to save American lives and let the Russians take Berlin • The Big Three met for the last time at the Crimean resort of Yalta in February 1945 to plan the post war world

• Roosevelt wanted to guarantee that the Soviets would join the fight against the Japanese and he wanted an international organization to negotiate potential disputes to prevent future wars ( The United States had refused to join the League of Nations) • The leaders called for a conference of world leaders to meet in the United States in 1945 • The USSR was given half of Poland and occupation of Korea • The Big Three also promised free elections, democratic governments, and constitutional safeguards

President Truman

• May 8, 1945 V-E Day: signed order that ended lend lease shipments to America’s allies, placed an embargo on all shipments to Russia • Wanted to “take a hard line” with Russians • Met briefly with Ambassador Harriman – Input from Kennan and Hopkins • “do-nothing” policy established – Rejected by Harriman • Truman “not afraid of the Russians”; he “intended to be firm” • Truman felt that the Russians needed America for economic survival and basic needs

The Potsdam Conference - July 1945

• By the time of the conference Churchill was voted out of office and Roosevelt had died • Truman, Attlee, and Stalin decided what to do with post-war Europe • The Council of Foreign Ministers designed peace treaties for the Axis powers • Potsdam Declaration demanded the unconditional surrender of Japan

Post-War United States

• The United States suffered no damage to infrastructure during the war which facilitated the economic surge after the war • Also, the United States suffered fewer casualties • Most importantly - the United States was the only country with the atomic bomb • The war had basically ended the Great Depression, but New Deal legislation was still an issue

Post-War United States

• Many wanted to continue New Deal legislation, regardless of the cost • Others thought it was time for a change • Almost everyone feared another Depression • The war resulted in benefits for women, African Americans, and Mexican-Americans • Federal bureaucracy expanded dramatically during the war • Geographic mobility boomed as people moved to find new jobs

Iron Curtain Speech

• March 5, 1946, Britain’s Winston Churchill gave the “iron curtain” speech at Westminster College, Fulton, Missouri “From Stettin in the Baltic to Trieste in the Adriatic, an iron curtain has descended across the Continent” • Truman on the platform beside him • Churchill hoped to lift the iron curtain and liberate East Europe • Next day, U.S. released the Acheson-Lilienthal proposal – International control to be reached through a series of stages

• In the 1946 elections the Republicans gained control of Congress • They advocated: a) demobilization b) cut backs in government spending c) lower taxes • All of which hampered Truman in his Cold War struggle • By 1947 the army had been reduced from 8 to 1 million men • The only advantage the president had was the atomic bomb

• Many politicians realized that the USSR would avoid an all-out military war, even with a huge advantage of manpower because of the atomic bomb • The Soviets would try to control countries by political means - usually involving subversive tactics • Everyone agreed that Communism thrived in areas of economic disadvantage - therefore the response should be to support economic development, which would cost a lot of money • The problem was that the American people were feeling secure and moving away from a war-mentality

Greece and Turkey

• After the war the British had stayed in Greece to support the Greek king, but the worsening economic situation in Britain was forcing the British to leave • The Americans knew the British were getting ready to leave and were preparing to take over to prevent the Communists from taking over the country • In February 1947 the British announced their withdrawal

Truman Doctrine

• Under Secretary Dean Acheson told Truman that if Greece fell then so would Turkey and eventually other countries - the domino theory • Truman proposed to ask Congress for $250 million for Greece and $150 million for Turkey, but even some cabinet members questioned the idea of helping the British • On March 12, 1947, Truman spoke before Congress and claimed communism was an ideological threat that had to be met anywhere in the world, even if it didn’t directly involve the Soviet Union

• Truman told a joint session of Congress “I believe that it must be the policy of the United States to support free peoples who are resisting attempted subjugation by armed minorities or by outside pressure” • Truman promised economic and military aid to any nation threatened by communism • This statement defined American foreign policy for the next 40 years!

• It seemed like any country that could claim to be fighting Communism could now request American aid • On March 15, Congress appropriated the money for Greece and Turkey • At the same time it was becoming obvious that the Soviets did not want to work with German reunification

Marshall Plan

• To Secretary of State George Marshall it was clear that Europe would need massive amounts of aid to rebuild after the war • Equally clear was the belief that the Soviets wanted the European economies to crumble • The Truman Doctrine had made it possible for American aid to be sent to Europe, but the problem was - how would this work?

• American businesses needed European imports so the Europeans could purchase American goods

• Marshall also wanted economically strong European countries to deter the spread of Communism • The most important country was Germany • However, there could be no helping Germany without antagonizing the Russians and splitting Europe even more • Marshall told everyone that the aid program was “directed not against any country or doctrine but against hunger, poverty, desperation, and chaos” • This was a clear fabrication because it was aimed at the Soviets and not intended for them at all

• June 5, 1947 speaking at Harvard University, Marshall announced the Marshall Plan (European Recovery Program) • Any country that wanted the aid would have to submit a request and a plan • The Europeans welcomed the plan with enthusiasm, even the Russians showed an interest • At the Paris Conference to discuss the Marshall Plan the Soviet Foreign Minister Molotov proposed that each country be responsible for its own recovery program • When he was rejected he walked out of the conference and returned to Moscow

Origin of Containment

• July 1947- George Kennan published “The Sources of Soviet Conduct” in

Foreign Affairs

signing as X • This article became the basis of American foreign policy • He argued that the Soviet Union aimed at world conquest but had no timetable • His text argued for the “firm and vigilant containment” of the Soviet Union

• However, this political and economic idea was misread and applied to military policy • So, containment grew to represent building American military strength and influence around the world to prevent the spread of communism

Molotov Plan

• The Soviets announced the Molotov Plan for their satellite states • The Poles and the Czechs, who wanted to participate in the Marshall Plan dropped out because of Soviet pressure

• Ironically the Marshall Plan was such a success that it almost backfired • Republicans didn’t want to hand Truman a major victory in an election year and so many dubbed the Plan subsidized Socialism • Despite the Marshall Plan things had not gone well for the Americans in 1947: a) despite aid to Greece the Greek government was still struggling to defeat the Communists b) Chinese Communists continued to defeat the Nationalists c) Russia still controlled East Europe d) In Hungary the Communists had won a rigged election and removed all opposition

National Security Act

• In 1947 Congress passed the National Security Act, which a) created a single Department of Defense b) established the National Security Council c) created the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) • Many people thought the Act did not go far enough • Chief military and political figures wanted to reinstate the draft and they wanted a smaller, fast-response military • The idea of massive retaliation appealed to Congress because it seemed to involve the cheapest approach

• However, focusing on the Air Force and strategic bombing, worked against the principles of containment

Rio Treaty - 1947

• The United States and 20 other American nations signed a mutual defense pact • If any country was attacked the others would determine what action to take for mutual protection

Czechoslovakia

• In 1945 Soviet and American troops had jointly occupied Czechoslovakia • In the elections of 1946 the Communists gained only 38% of the votes - Eduard Benes became president and Jan Masaryk the foreign minister - neither were Communist • Klement Gottwald, the Prime Minister was Communist and in 1948 he refused to work with Benes • The Communists assumed control and Masaryk was assassinated

• The fall of Czechoslovakia, a model democratic state, sent fear throughout the world • The United States realized how powerless it was to prevent the coup • Immediately Congress voted to accept the Marshall Plan in an attempt to aid other countries • France, Britain, and the Benelux countries signed the Brussels Treaty - and promised mutual defense • Truman praised the Brussels Treaty and promised American aid to the signatories

Containment Tested

United States Growing Involvement

• In June 1948, Western powers agreed to continue with the formation of a West German government • To maintain order German troops would have to be used • This was a point of contention, but the government was formed • Many Americans favored isolationism and supported Founding Father’s stance on entangling alliances • However, the allies wanted iron-clad promises from the United States of intervention if the Soviets attacked • Initially the Americans were looking for something similar to the Rio Treaty

• Senator Vandenberg negotiated a resolution which allowed the president to seek treaties for mutual protection within the United Nations charter but outside the Security Council (so could not be vetoed) • This resolution allowed for the talks that lead to the formation of NATO in 1949

Yugoslavia

• Marshal Tito had come to power after the Second World War • Yugoslavia was a member of the Cominform (Communist Information Bureau) founded in 1947 • His socialist regime began to distance itself from the Soviet Union and COMECOM in 1948 • The United States, following the Marshal Plan and idea of containment, aided Tito economically

Berlin

• After the war the Potsdam Agreement called for dividing Germany into four occupied zones United States, France, Great Britain, and the Soviet Union would each be responsible for a zone • Berlin, although in the Soviet zone would remain the capital, but it would also be divided into four similar zones • The Soviets wanted a unified, demilitarized Germany under Soviet tutelage

Growing Problem of Berlin

• Stalin wanted a weak Germany; the United States wanted an economically strong Germany • Fearing the spread of Communism, Truman held his ground • In 1948 the three western zones merged • On June 24, 1948 Stalin shut off all access by road and rail from West Germany to Berlin

Berlin Airlift

• Some American commanders wanted to shoot their way through, but most, including Truman wanted to avoid a potential World War • Using air transport, the United States successfully supplied a whole city from the air • The operation was codenamed “Operation Vittles” and expected to last a few weeks • By April 1949 a plane a minute was landing in Berlin • On May 11, 1949 the Soviets backed down, signaling a victory for America and its allies • In 1949 Germany was officially divided

Conflict in the Middle East

• For several years after the war the Middle East was one of the few places where the United States and Soviet Union worked in cooperation, not confrontation • In response to the Holocaust, the concept of Zionism, Jewish resettlement in their homeland (which was then Palestine), spread amongst Jewish populations around the world • In 1947, due to increasing violence between the Jews and Arabs the British decided to withdrew from the Mandate of Palestine • The new United Nations agreed to Resolution 181 on the division of Palestine

• The Jews immediately accepted the plan; the Arab League rejected it • The state of Israel was declared on May 14, 1948, one day before the expiration of the British Mandate on Palestine • Immediately after the creation of the state of Israel the neighboring Arab countries declared war on Israel • A ceasefire was declared in 1949

Truman Doctrine and NATO

• Though first mentioned in 1947, in Truman’s inaugural address in 1949 he promised to help European nations threatened by communism • On July 23 that same year NATO was officially formed (marking the height of bipartisanship in Congressional foreign policy) • The formation of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization by 12 Western European nations marked the beginning of an era of American dominance on the world stage.

NATO Expands

• As NATO expanded its initial ideas were abandoned • America continued to expand this “North Atlantic” organization to include Greece and Turkey • Portugal, a country with a non-democratic government, was also added, weakening the common thread of democracy in the organization • The United States didn’t share control, lessening the claim that it was an alliance of equals • Finally West Germany was added to NATO • In 1955 the Warsaw Pact was created by the Soviet Union in response to NATO

Suspicions about NATO

• Soon after the NATO treaty was signed, its true intentions became clear • First, Truman asked Congress for $ 1.5 billion for European military aid • Yet this feeble defense bill would not be adequate to stop the Soviets.

• The true meaning of NATO was the United States’ willingness to use the atomic bomb to prevent Russian attack • The new bases in Europe were merely there to legitimize this threat

The Playing Field Changes

• On September 22, 1949 the Soviets exploded an atomic bomb • Up until this point the United States had been the only country with atomic capabilities • Now that advantage was gone and both super powers would be locked in an arms race

Results of Soviet’s Atomic Developments

• First, Truman demanded that hydrogen bomb development be expedited • The advantage now shifted to the Soviets, who had the bomb and a larger standing army • German remilitarization and European rearmament were discussed, with America paying the bill • Yet the European nations were concerned that accepting American arms equated to accepting American orders • This problem becomes a central one in NATO then and later

The Four Point Program

• In 1949 Truman proposed a program to offer technical assistance, knowledge and equipment, funded by the United States, to under developed countries • The program was also designed to encourage private investment in those nations • The program was approved by Congress and encouraged foreign trade • Consequently the program did slow down the spread of Communism

Lessons Taken from China

• Civil War ravaged the Chinese landscape after World War II • Fighting ensued between the Nationalists and Communists • The Nationalists, led by Chiang Kai-shek, were on the verge of defeat • In 1949 the Nationalists retreated to the island of Taiwan • The United States refused to acknowledge the Maoist government as the legitimate Chinese government • Many felt that if the United States had given more aid to China it would not have fallen to the communists

Onset of McCarthyism

• On February 9, 1950 Joseph McCarthy declared that he had a list of individuals in government who were Communists • This “Wheeling Speech” developed into a “Red Scare” which swept the nation • This timing of this speech made it too attractive • It came less than 8 weeks after China fell to the communists and five days before China and the Soviet Union signed a 30 year mutual aid treat, and three weeks before Klaus Fuchs was found guilty of giving atomic secrets to the Soviet Union • All of these problems were seen as the result of Communist subversion

• This manhunt continued putting Hollywood actors on blacklists and putting Congressman on trial • As more Communist subversives were found, McCarthy’s popularity spread • His popularity came to an abrupt stop, however, when he questioned the loyalty of the army • Nevertheless, McCarthyism had a profound effect on America in the 1950’s and was a phenomena reminiscent of the witch hunts of the 17 th century

Fundamental Belief of America

• American foreign policy in the early Cold War was shaped by the idea that America could bring order to any trouble around the world • America was supposed to be better and different than any other country • Due to this, the United States threw massive amounts of money into Europe to prevent the spread of Communism

Brinksmanship

• Anti-Communist Secretary of State John Foster Dulles developed the ideas of brinksmanship and massive retaliation • Dulles wanted to liberate countries from Soviet control • He also believed in massive retaliation which included the use of nuclear weapons thereby getting “more bang for the buck” • Brinksmanship encouraged escalating a situation to the “brink” of war in order to prevent conflict

NSC 68

• In April 1950 President Truman was sent National Security Council paper 68 • It was a 58-page secret document which became one of the most influential documents of the Cold War • The document claimed the Soviets wished to "impose its absolute authority over the rest of the world." • It advocated accelerated militarization of America and its allies to balance the power with the Soviet Union regardless of cost, which would be determined later • Unlike the idea of containment, NSC 68 suggested using means, other than diplomatic, to stop the spread of Communism • This unilateral defense of non-communist nations around the world become a trademark of American diplomacy during the Cold War

• The goal of NSC 68 was the United States to have “superior overall power” • Many, including Kennan, disagreed with the paper • Truman, not wanting to revamp the budget, kept NSC 68 under raps, therefore this program was not transformed into policy • While Truman was unwilling to implement this massive spending during peacetime, the Korean War would serve as an outlet for this idea

Korea

• After World War II the Korean peninsula was divided by the Americans and the Russians • The Republic of Korea (South) and the People’s Republic (North) were established in 1948 • In 1949 the Soviet Union withdrew military forces from the North and the United States withdrew military forces from the South • On June 25, 1950 North Korea invaded the South after claiming she had been attacked from the South

• Support for the Communist North primarily came from the People’s Republic of China, with limited help the Soviet Union • Support for the South came from the United Nations, led by the United States • The United Nations Security Council ordered the North Koreans to withdraw • When the North refused the United Nations engaged in a “police action” • When Douglas MacArthur wanted to expand the war to include the China he was replaced • Armistice talks began in 1951 and ended in 1953 • The cease-fire line would be the 38th parallel • In 1954 the United States and South Korea signed a treaty guaranteeing American involvement if South Korea was attacked • No peace treaty has ever been signed

CENTO and SEATO

• In 1953 Great Britain, Turkey, Pakistan, Iraq, and Iran in a mutual defense pact called the Baghdad Pact • The United States did not join immediately because they did not want to alienate Arab countries • In 1958 Iraq withdrew following a coup which overthrew the monarchy • After the loss of Iraq the name was changed to CENTO • In 1954, to prevent the spread of Communism in the Pacific region, the United States, Great Britain, France, Australia, New Zealand, the Philippines, Thailand, and Pakistan signed the SEATO treaty aimed at mutual aid

Geneva Accords

• Eisenhower refused to help the French in Indochina (Vietnam) • In 1954, after the fall of Dien Bien Phu the French agreed to meet Ho Chi Minh in Geneva • In July 1954 Vietnam was temporarily divided at the 17th parallel • Ho Chi Minh and the Communists would control the North; the South would be controlled by a pro-Western government • In 1956, elections would unite the country • The United States placed the Catholic, nepotistic, and corrupt Ngo Dinh Diem in charge of the South, but fearing a Communist takeover, the South refused to allow the elections

The Domino Theory

• The domino theory was an idea about the spread of Communism • The logic was that if one country fell to the Communists then the neighboring countries would fall - like dominos • Therefore, American foreign policy focused on preventing the first domino from falling • In the eyes of many the first domino was Vietnam

From Hungary and Suez to Cuba

Overview

• 1956-1961: characterized as era of foreign policy failure • President Eisenhower: kept the US out of a war with the Communists, – Moderation was the key – Eisenhower’s fundamental insight: the more the United States spent on atomic weapons, the less secure it became, because as the US increased in military strength, the Russians followed.

• John Foster Dulles – served as Secretary of State under Eisenhower • Communist influence and threat served as primary concern

The Role of the CIA

• In 1953 the CIA overthrew the premier of Iran • In 1954 the CIA helped a coup in Guatemala

The Soviets and the Middle East: The Aswan Dam

• After participating the 1948 Arab-Israeli War Gamal Abdel Nasser became dissatisfied with the corruption of the government in Egypt • He joined group of army officers known as The Free Officers • In 1952 Egypt gained independence from Britain • Before independence the British and the Americans promised to pay $40M in financial aid • In 1954 Nasser assumed control in a coup • After the coup Nasser embarked on a program of Arab socialism in which he nationalized the Suez Canal and implemented agrarian reforms which helped improve the lives of millions of Egyptians

• In 1955 the United States promised to pay $56M, plus $200M from the World Bank, for the construction of the Aswan Dam • The project would harness the power of the lower Nile to provide hydroelectric power to millions • In September 1955, Nasser signed an arms deal with Czechoslovakia • Consequently, in 1956 the West withdrew their offer and Egypt was forced to seek alternatives sources of funding • On July 26, 1956, Nasser nationalized the Suez Canal • In October the United Nations security Council said Egypt could keep the canal so long as they allowed free shipping • France, Israel, and Britain joined a scheme to seize control of the canal

• On October 29, Israeli troops moved across the Sinai peninsula • On October 31 French and British troops entered the Canal zone • The Soviet Union and the United States both demanded an immediate withdrawal of all troops from the Canal zone • Britain, France, and Israel all agreed to remove their troops • Nasser emerged from the crisis as an even greater hero in the Arab world • After the United States withdrew financial support for the dam, the Russians moved in • The Soviets promised to pay one-third of the cost and to provide 400 technicians to help with the construction

• Construction started in 1960 and ended in 1970 • Partly because of the Aswan Dam, Nasser began to move Egypt towards a more socialist agenda • In 1962 Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev awarded Nasser the titles Hero of the Soviet Union and the Order of Lenin

The Soviets and Eastern Europe

• In 1953 Stalin died and the Soviet Union began to change • At the same time as the Suez Canal crisis, Communist influence in Eastern Europe was also changing • In 1956, Khrushchev denounced Stalin, the Cominform (Communist information bureau) dissolved, and the Stalinist Politburo was disbanded • Hungary revolted and withdrew from the Warsaw Pact, but was crushed by Soviet forces – The US did not aid Hungary, even though Dulles promised economic aid to those who broke with the Kremlin

The Arms Race

• In 1957 the Soviets launched the first man-made satellite “Sputnik”, and the Soviets also fired the first ICBM missiles • Eisenhower responded with the stationing of ballistic missiles in Turkey and Italy • Gaither Report: asserted that the Russian GNP was increasing at a greater rate than the US and that the Russian government was spending more money on defense than the US • Recommended significant strengthening of US military capabilities - both defensive and offensive – Scared citizens into understanding the plausibility of a Soviet attack – Similar to NCS 68 Report, which recommended improving defense – Eisenhower does not respond with an increase in defense spending despite reports

The Eisenhower Doctrine

• Because of growing Soviet influence in the Middle East the United States felt compelled to act against Communism • In January 1957 the American government promised economic and/or military aid to countries in the Middle East threatened by Communist countries • In April 1957 aid was sent to King Hussein of Jordan who was threatened by left-wing opposition

• In 1958 10,000 American troops were sent to Lebanon to help support President Camille Chamoun from Muslim extremists • Both of these actions caused a great deal of resentment towards Americans in the Middle East and the Doctrine proved unpopular with Americans • In 1959 the Eisenhower Doctrine was removed

The U2 Incident

• In 1956 the US introduced U2 spy planes that could fly at higher altitudes and therefore cannot be shot down • The planes took pictures that proved that Soviet military and technology were not superior to US, despite claims by Nikita Khrushchev • Eisenhower does not publicly announce Khrushchev's lying, which embodies his moderation policy • Days before a scheduled conference between the Soviet Union and the United States, on May 1, 1960 a U2 plane piloted by Gary Powers was shot down over the Soviet Union

• Initially the American government claimed the plane had been in Soviet airspace by accident • Days later it accepted responsibility and the secretary of State stated that the plane was engaged in military espionage - a policy approved of by the president • The Paris Summit between Eisenhower and Khrushchev was cancelled • Powers was charged with espionage and served over a year of his sentence before being exchanged for a Soviet prisoner • The end result of the embarrassing incident was the United States accelerated it satellite spy program

West Germany

• After WWII, the US put $600 billion into rebuilding West Germany, in order to make it superior to Communist-controlled East-Germany • Because of the Marshall Plan the economy boomed so fast it was called

wirtschaftswunder

(economic miracle) • Millions of East Germans escaped to a better life in the West, especially in Berlin

Flexible Response

• The “Flexible Response” defense strategy was Kennedy’s new initiative it replaced Eisenhower’s Massive Retaliation and New Look policy • Required strong military at all times capable of fighting different types of war with a variety of weapons - not just nuclear • Also in 1961, Kennedy and Khrushchev met for negotiations regarding the Arms Race and Cold War in general – Failure, marked as a meeting of misunderstanding – US vowed to continue to use force to stop revolutions in Third World countries and Europe to maintain the “status quo” balance of Communism

Berlin Wall

• On August 13, 1961 construction started on the most iconic symbol of the Cold War - the Berlin Wall • East German leader Walter Ulbricht, with approval from Khrushchev ordered the wall to be built to stop the exodus of citizens to the West • Soldiers, with orders to shoot anyone who tried to defect, stood guard over the construction • The mayor of West Berlin, Willy Brandt criticized the United States for not acting

Soviet Cold War Continues

• August 1961: Khrushchev announced that Russia was breaking the 3 year US-Soviet ban on nuclear testing • American public pressured JFK to conduct US tests, but he refused – Worried about nuclear fallout • Introduced policy of “Brinkmanship”: the threatened use of nuclear weapons as a military strategy – Brinkmanship epitomized in the Cuban Missile Crisis

Cuba

• In 1959 Cuban dictator Batista was overthrown by Fidel Castro – Castro instituted land-reforms and nationalization of US-owned land – Thousands of Cubans fled to the United States and established a large Cuban community in Miami – Castro declared himself to be a supporter of communism • The United States did not approve of Castro and refused him loans and financial aid • In 1960 Khrushchev supported Castro and the first aid shipment arrived in Cuba • The United States placed a trade embargo on Cuba, which forced Castro closer to the Soviets 1961: US severed diplomatic relations with Cuba

Cuba: The Bay of Pigs 1961

• In 1960 the CIA (with Eisenhower’s approval), began the operation by training troops for guerilla warfare because the president disapproved of Castro’s Communist inclinations • April 1961 the US sends ships and warplanes with Cuban exiles to try to take-over Castro • Castro crushed the revolt • It was an embarrassment for the US; the blame was placed on the CIA and the Joint-Chiefs of Staff – JFK ordered Castro assassinated by the CIA due to the embarrassment. The CIA failed to carry out these orders.

Cuban Missile Crisis: October 1962

• American U2 spy planes document the Soviets building a launch pad for medium-range ballistic missiles in Cuba • Kennedy forms a special committee to help him handle the problem: The Executive Committee (Ex-Comm) • Led by Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy, (JFK’s brother) • Choose a naval blockade surrounding Cuba as a response to the Soviet missiles

The Cuban Missile Crisis: Soviet Response

• Khrushchev sends Kennedy a letter immediately following the blockade, stating that the Soviets will not observe the blockade • In a second letter Khrushchev states that the Russians will take the missiles out of Cuba if the US withdraws the blockade and promises not to attack Cuba • A third letter demands that the US remove American missiles from Turkey – The US does not initially agree to remove the Turkish missiles, but Robert Kennedy meet with the Russian ambassador to the United States Anatoly Dobryrnin, and the US agreed to withdraw missiles from Turkey and Italy (which they claim they planned to do anyway), and the Soviets removed their missiles from Cuba

• Khrushchev seen as weak by fellow Communists, especially China • In 1963 the United States and the Soviet Union signed the Partial Test Ban Treaty, prohibiting nuclear testing in the atmosphere

Counterinsurgency

• Kennedy had forced Khrushchev to back down in Cuba because of the overwhelming superiority in nuclear weapons, delivery systems and on the high seas • After the crisis the Green Berets were created and Kennedy assumed that these best of the best young officers would win the battle of the third world • Counterinsurgency became Kennedy’s policy toward communism after the Cuban missile crisis • One of its appeals was that it avoided direct confrontation with the Soviet Union • Kennedy believed that counterinsurgency would show that there was a liberal middle ground between colonialism and communism

Vietnam

• The Vietnamese communists or Viet Cong (VC), created the National Front for the Liberation of South Vietnam (NLF) as its political arm • Secretary of State Rusk believed that the VC were being backed by communist China and warned of a “far eastern Munich”, equating Ho Chi Minh to Hitler and reminding people of the failure of appeasement • Ngo Dinh Diem asked the American government for aid and military assistance

Taylor-Rostow Report

• National Security Advisor Walt Rostow and General Maxwell Taylor, a war hero, were sent to Vietnam to see what was going on in 1962 • They reported that there was enough vitality to justify a major U.S. effort • They wanted the South Vietnamese army to go on the offensive while American troops provided airlift and reconnaissance • Between 1955 and 1961, only 650 military advisors were sent to Vietnam • In 1962 there were 1,364 troops in Vietnam and after the Taylor-Rostow mission there was a massive escalation

Overthrowing Diem

• Diem imposed many pro-Catholic policies, while his family members were widely recognized as being corrupt • In 1963 relations with the majority Buddhists led to uprisings against Diem, which Diem stopped by using the military and attack dogs • Several protestors were killed and this dampened American optimism and became an embarrassment to the American government • In June a Buddhist monk set himself on fire in the middle of Saigon. Pictures of the burning monk quickly spread around the world • The CIA was soon dealing with plots in Saigon to overthrow Diem and bring an honest government to power

Overthrowing Diem

• When the United States heard of a military coup to overthrow Diem they promised not to interfere • On November 1, 1963 Diem was assassinated, the United States publicly expressed outrage and disappointment • Three weeks later, Kennedy was assassinated • The replacement of Diem did not lead to political stability in South Vietnam as one corrupt and ineffective government replaced another

Vice President Johnson

• Lyndon Baines Johnson became president in 1963 when Kennedy was assassinated in Dallas • LBJ was behind Kennedy on many of the issues that he dealt with • Johnson believed that the South Vietnamese could fight the war, aided by U.S. equipment and sent an additional 5,000 advisors • He felt it necessary to show the world that the America would not just back out of a treaty because things were not going well

President Johnson

• He continued to use Kennedy’s policies of flexible response, counterinsurgency, and the new theories of limited war • Johnson refused to meet at a world conference concerning fighting in Laos and Vietnam and he replied that he did not meet at conferences to ratify terror

Gulf of Tonkin Resolution

• In August 1964 President Johnson claimed that American destroyers were involved in an unprovoked attack by North Vietnamese gunboats in the Gulf of Tonkin • The destroyer U.S. Maddox was actually involved in intelligence-gathering • Johnson charged Vietnam with committing open aggression on the high seas • Congress issued the Tonkin Gulf Resolution, which gave Johnson a blank check that would allow him to expand the war as he saw fit without consulting congress

Negotiations

• Perhaps frightened by the reckless manner of Goldwater’s 1964 election campaign, or the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution, Ho Chi Minh secretly offered to negotiate • This would have created a coalition government which would have eliminated the corrupt military regime and the North and South would have reunited and ordered American troops out of Vietnam • Johnson did not want to give Goldwater the chance to say that he was appeasing the communists so Johnson did not accept a treaty and won the election of ‘64 in a landslide

LBJ President

• Johnson had to either choose between negotiations or introduce American combat troops to retrieve the dire situation in Vietnam.

• Rostow and Taylor mentioned that Vietnam was a testing ground for the rest of the world and if the U.S. negotiated with the Communists, then that is what they will always do • Johnson’s special assistant for national security affairs McGeorge Bundy argued that within three months of starting the air bombing, the VC would give up • Johnson did not want to become the first American president to lose a war

Johnson’s Plan

• Johnson wanted to establish something similar to the Marshall Plan for SE Asia, but said that there would be no appeasement in Vietnam as long as he was President • In June 1965 Air Vice-Marshal Nguyen Cao Ky, who had fought the French, became the new President in Vietnam - he was extremely anti communist • Acts of terrorism ensued and the war heightened to new extremes

• Johnson gave a speech in 1965 saying that the other side had not responded to America’s search for peace • Johnson sent an additional 50,000 troops to Vietnam making the grand total 125,000 • Johnson found himself doing what others had warned him against: fighting a ground battle in SE Asia • By 1967 there were 500,000 American troops in Vietnam • As the numbers increased victory seemed more unlikely • At first the Americans resorted to a policy of pacification - reclaiming areas from the Viet Cong and returning the area to the South Vietnamese • The South Vietnamese were unable to secure the areas and when the Americans left the Viet Cong returned

Middle East Trouble

• In 1967 Egyptian leader Nasser wanted to revive Egypt by fighting the Israelis • The Egyptians demanded the removal of UN troops from the Sinai area between Egypt and Israel • In June the Israelis responded by launching a pre emptive strike against the Egyptian air force • Jordan launched an attack on West Jerusalem • Syria, Saudi Arabia, Algeria, Iraq, and Kuwait all contributed in the war against Israel

The Six Day War

• Johnson decided that he had to be involved and supported Israel • The U.S. became the chief supplier of sophisticated weaponry with the 1968 sale of fifty Phantom F-4s (supersonic jet fighter bombers) • The Arabs were mad at the Russians for not coming to their aid but the Russians knew that world war could have erupted • Egypt and her allies were crushed in just six days - shocking the world

Results of the Six Day War

• The first was the interpretation of a great victory for Israel • The second was Israeli occupation of Arab national territory • The third was Israeli overconfidence; a feeling of invincibility • The strength of the Soviet Union was questioned • Arabs believed that Israelis could have peace or territory but not both

The Tet Offensive

• In January 1968 the VC launched a surprise attack and showed in a direct fashion that everything the Generals had said about progress in Vietnam was wrong • Even though the VC sustained huge losses, the fighting continued for two months before the Americans and their allies regained control • America was not winning. The enemy retained enormous strength and vitality • The American public was getting frustrated and riots and protests were popping up all over major cities

Johnson’s Last Efforts

• In March 1968, Johnson changed his military policy and stopped major bombings in North Vietnam • He then pulled out of the 1968 Presidential election • Johnson, the President who had done more for black Americans since Lincoln, had been accused of fighting a racist war with racist methods • Johnson went out a loser who had brought death and destruction to SE Asia

Back to Vietnam

• The policy of Pacification as replaced with a policy of Relocation - the South Vietnamese were sent to camps of to the cities and then villages were destroyed to keep the Viet Cong from getting the resources • The exorbitant amounts of men and money made Johnson’s critics question not only Vietnam but containment itself • By the end of the decade public resentment against the war was increasing, especially on university campuses

The Election of 1968

• The Democrats nominated Johnson’s Vice President Hubert Humphrey and the Republicans nominated Richard Nixon from California who had been the Vice President candidate in 1960 and who had made his reputation fighting Communism • The main issue in the election was Vietnam. Neither party was for the immediate removal of American forces from Vietnam • Nixon appealed to the “silent majority” and promised “peace with honor”

• Humphrey, in order to gain votes, claimed that he was going to have peace talks to halt all air, naval, and artillery bombardment of North Vietnam • Nixon met with the South Vietnamese president and told him that he would benefit more from the Republican Party victory • The president then undercut Humphrey and said he was not having any more peace talks • Nixon came out looking better after this and he won by a slim margin over Humphrey

Nixon’s First Moves

• Nixon had to decide whether to keep fighting a full out offensive, bring all the troops home, hand the war over to the South Vietnamese using U.S. weapons, or use nuclear weapons to win • Nixon chose the most appeasing move for the American people. He would hand the war over to the South Vietnamese with the aid of U.S. weapons • In 1969, 60,000 troops were withdrawn from Vietnam

Vietnamization

• Nixon’s plan was called “Vietnamization” • The plan was really harmful because it prolonged the war, caused double digit inflation, more dissension and discontent among the American people, and the eventual loss of the war • It was, though, a way of buying time so Nixon would not have to answer the question in his re-election campaign “Who lost the war?” • Secret peace talks began in 1969 • In 1969, Nixon ordered the secret bombing of neutral Cambodia • In the spring of 1970 American troops illegally invaded Cambodia to destroy enemy bases

Linkage

• Nixon’s Secretary of State, Dr. Henry Kissinger came up with a plan to stop the U.S.S.R and China from backing North Vietnam.

• The process was called linkage and dealt with getting the world powers to meet and agree on certain terms that would help everybody • By 1972 there were only 24,000 American troops left in Vietnam, basically stopping the protest movement

Strategic Arms Limitations Treaty

• First Kissinger and Nixon talked to the Soviet Union culminating in the SALT I treaty • Talks in Helsinki started in November 1969 and ended in May 1972 and focused on limiting the number of nuclear weapons • It turned out to be just another incentive to participate in the arms race and although it was the first arms agreement of the Cold War, it was badly flawed

China

• In 1971, Nixon, the surprise of everyone, announced that he was going to visit China • Nixon thought that the way to get China and Russia to cooperate was to keep them guessing about the United States’ intentions • Nixon met with Mao and in a sensational move China and the United States agreed to take further steps toward normalization of relations between the two countries

Peace?

• In October 1972, right in time for the election, Kissinger announced that “peace is at hand” • In December, Nixon continued with the “Christmas Bombings” • He claimed it was to get POWs out, but it cost America almost 20 B-52 bombers • In January, Nixon called off the bombers and agreed to sign a cease-fire agreement

Paris Accord

• In 1972 Kissinger met with North Vietnamese foreign secretary Le Duc Tuo in Paris to obtain an armistice that would lead to the return of American POWs, President Thieu retaining power, and a cease-fire • In return, the U.S. would withdraw all of its troops from Vietnam, and would recognize communist possession of sections of South Vietnam countryside • When the talks broke down the bombing of North Vietnamese resumed

• The communists did not want to settle for half of what they already had in their grasp so there was no armistice • Nixon had to try to keep things calm on the domestic front • He said that Americans had a duty to try to protect the innocent people living in the capital of Saigon • On January 27, 1973 an agreement was signed that ended the war

Aftermath

• Over the next two years, the battle in Vietnam raged on • The South was eventually crushed and the two Vietnams were reunited again under communism • Saigon was renamed Ho Chi Minh City • Communist forces controlled Laos • SE Asia became very unstable with fighting between Cambodia and Vietnam in later years • In 1973 Congress passed the War Powers Act which forced the president to report the use of American troops to Congress within 48 hours and end involvement within 60 days unless Congress declared war

South America

• Between 1970 and 1973 the United States sent money to help overthrow Salvador Allende, the Marxist president of Chile • Allende’s economic policies and his close ties with Communist states including Cuba, worried Nixon • The CIA was ordered to develop a plan to encourage the Chilean military to overthrow the president • Faced with major economic problems, Allende defaulted on his debts and froze foreign assets • Allende reported committed suicide during a coup in 1973

America in the Middle East and Africa

The Conflict

• Since 1948, most Arabs have refused to accept Israel has a right to exist, whilst most Israelites are convinced that the Palestinian refugees have no right to a national state of their own.

• The issue of providing national homelands for both Israelites and Palestinians came to the forefront of American foreign policy for the Middle East during the late 60’s and throughout the 70’s.

Sadat and Egypt

• Anwar el-Sadat, president of Egypt during this time period, wanted Israelis out of Sinai • The Soviet Union gave him military hardware and financial support, yet treated him indifferently • Kissinger thought that Sadat would not take up arms to rectify the situation in Sinai. Therefore, the U.S. did nothing to try and persuade Israel to compromise • Essentially, the United States, nor most countries for that matter, seemed to take Egypt that seriously • Sadat sent his security advisor, Hafez Ismail, to tell Kissinger that unless the present situation came to an end, there would be war

Choosing Sides

• Because the Egyptians had been easily defeated in the Six-Day War of 1967 they realized that they needed better military hardware • Sadat turned to the Soviet Union for help • On October 6, 1973, during Yom Kippur, the Egyptians and the Syrians attacked Israel • The Soviet Union was now backing Egypt and the Arabs, while the U.S. found itself on Israel’s side • The American people and Congress seemed to regard Israel as the victim of aggression

• On October 13, Kissinger got Nixon to order an air-lift by American military aircraft straight to Israel • By October 15, with the help of American equipment, the Israelis began their counterattack against Egypt and Syria • Russians immediately called for a cease fire, and Kissinger was more than willing, as he did not want a huge victory for the Israelis nor did he want to humiliate Sadat

Step-by-Step Diplomacy

• Kissinger knew he had to take action in order to save the situation. He implemented his plan, known as step-by-step diplomacy • He flew to Israel and every Arab capital in an effort to promote peace and compromise • On November 7, 1973, Kissinger flew to Cairo to meet with Sadat. This allowed for the U.S. and Egypt to reestablish diplomatic relations that had been broken since 1967

In the Long Run

• Kissinger’s step-by-step diplomacy was rewarded on March 18, 1974, when the Arab states lifted the oil embargo • In the remaining two and a half years of the Nixon and Ford administrations, the U.S. sent the Israelis more than $3 billion worth of weapons • As the 70’s wore on, Congress was determined to stand by Israel. On May 21 “defensible frontiers” st , 1975, 76 member of the U.S. senate wrote a joint letter to President Ford requesting an endorsement of Israel’s demand for

The Final Reckoning

• Ultimately, many people believe that Nixon and Kissinger failed to reach their foreign policy goals: they lost Vietnam to the communists they could not establish full diplomatic relations with the Chinese they could not establish a permanent détente they did not put any controls on the arms race they failed to bring lasting peace in the Middle East

The Energy Crisis

• In 1973, OPEC (Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries) imposed an oil embargo on the United States because of their support for Israel in the Yom Kippur War • Kissinger’s worst nightmare had come true • In 1974 oil prices increased 400% and a 55 MPH speed limit was introduced • The Nixon administration realized that the Arabs were serious and that the U.S. needed them (their oil) more than they needed the U.S.

• Oil prices and spending on Vietnam caused a severe recession

Foreign Policy in Africa

• The Soviets and Cubans had long been trying to gain influence in Portuguese colony of Angola • The United States supported the principle of self-determination but did little to facilitate the movement • American interest in Angola was centered around $100 million in coffee and a newly developed oil refinery

Portugal, Angola and South Africa

• The of Angola was waging guerrilla warfare against the Portuguese government • The U.S. tried to remain neutral, yet in 1971 Nixon moved towards Portugal’s side, giving them a $463 million loan as well as military transports • As for South Africa, total U.S. investment in that area was about $1.2 billion • Americans were torn and confused about their relations with South Africa: on one hand they continued to trade and have diplomatic relations, while on the other hand many, many people were against the apartheid

• American policy, as summed up by NSSM 39, was “to try to balance our economic, scientific and strategic interests in the white states with the political interest of dissociating the U.S. from the white minority regimes and their repressive racial policies”

Helsinki Accords

• In 1975 the United States, the Soviet Union, and Western nations legitimized the borders for Eastern Europe after World War II • The Soviet Union and its allies signed a “human rights” guarantee

Carter for President

• In 1976, Jimmy Carter beat Gerald Ford for the presidency • He saw America’s desire for a less active, less involved foreign policy • He did not regard communism as the ultimate enemy • In his inaugural address, he said his chief goal was the complete elimination of nuclear weapons from the face of the earth • He also made a firm commitment to defending human rights

Falling Short Immediately

• Rather than cutting back on the production of nuclear arms, the Carter administration continued to increase the American nuclear arsenal • Also, Carter’s emphasis on human rights seemed to damage America’s relationship with many communist countries, including the Soviet Union (and in turn damaging the policy of détente), as well as the country of Iran

Panama Canal Treaty 1977

• Carter took a bold stand on the Panama Canal Treaty, also known as the Carter-Torrijos Treaty • Relinquished American control of the canal by 2000 • Guaranteed neutrality of the canal • Conservatives in Congress worried that the United States were giving up control of strategic assets • Carter put all of his efforts behind ratification, and the treaty narrowly passed

Soviet Union Relations

• Carter’s main goals were to rid America from its “inordinate fear of Communism” and to complete a SALT II treaty that would limit the chances of a nuclear war • His first step came with the immediate withdrawal of American nuclear weapons from South Korea • The move elicited no response. As America seemed to back down from some of its more advanced positions, the Soviet Union increased their arms build up and strategic locations

SALT II Treaty

• SALT II negotiations started in 1972 with the goal of creating a long-term comprehensive treaty • At Vladivostok in 1974 President Ford met General Secretary Brezhnev to agree on the framework • In June 1979, Carter met with Brezhnev in Vienna to sign the SALT II treaty • The treaty limited the U.S. and the Soviet Union to 2,400 launchers of all types

Camp David Accords

• Perhaps the most significant achievement of President Carter’ foreign policy involved his attempt to promote peace between Egypt and Israel • In the fall of 1978 Carter invited Egyptian President Sadat and Israeli Prime Minister Begin to Camp David for secret negotiations • After 11 days the three men signed an agreement on September 17, 1978 • The Accords led to the Israel-Egypt Peace Treaty in 1979

China

• Carter furthered diplomatic relations with China as well • He announced that as of January 1 st , 1979, America and China would extend full recognition to one another and exchange ambassadors • He further withdrew recognition of the Nationalistic regime in Taiwan, thus recognizing Taiwan as a part of China

The Soviets in Afghanistan 1979

• As soon as the president had sent the SALT II treaty to the Senate for ratification the global situation changed dramatically • In December 1979, around 85,000 Soviet troops invaded Afghanistan • Carter stated that “aggression unopposed becomes a contagious disease” • In response, the U.S. curtailed grain sales to Russia, suspended high-technology sales, and boycotted the 1980 Olympic games in Moscow

• In 1982 President Reagan promised he would do nothing to hinder SALT if the Russians made the same promise • In 1984 and 1985 Reagan claimed the Russians had violated the treaty • In May 1986 Reagan stated that American policy regarding defense must be based on the magnitude of the Soviet threat

The Carter Doctrine - 1980

• In his state of the union address in 1980, President Carter issued the Carter Doctrine • The basis of the doctrine was to state that the United States would use force to defend its interest in the Persian Gulf region • Carter defined the Persian Gulf area as within the zone of American interest, and he declared that America would fend off an assault in that region by the Russians “by any means necessary including military force”

Carter’s Foreign Policy towards the Soviets: A Breakdown

• Relations between the U.S. and the Soviet Union were worse off after Carter left office • Carter began his term with a firm policy of genuine détente. Yet, he was unable to hold strong to his policy, as the Soviets responded negatively to his “positive incentives,” and he also tended to overreact to situations

Iran

• President Carter furthered the Nixon/Kissinger opinion that the Shah of Iran was of strong political importance to America • Carter sent the Shah military equipment at a record pace • Yet Iran was in a stage of rebellious activity, as the Shah was under attack from both the left and right wing extremists • Also, the Shah had an incurable cancer; his spirit was dwindling

• By 1978, a leader, Ayatollah Khomeini emerged for the Iranian revolution against the Shah • He gave orders to Iranians to create chaos until the Shah was forced to abdicate • His plan worked, as the Shah left the country in October 1979 to fly to New York for cancer treatment • Two weeks later Ayatollah arrived from Paris, where he had been in exile • Carter and his administration had no intention of trying to restore the Shah • He simply wanted to restore normal relations with Iran

Hostages

• In response, on November 4, 1979, infuriated Iranian students overran the U.S. embassy in Teheran and took 53 hostages. The Ayatollah condoned it • The Ayatollah promised to free the hostages when the Shah was returned to Iran to stand trial • In response, Carter suspended arms sales to Iran, froze Iranian assets in American banks, and announced an embargo on Iranian oil • President Carter focused the rest of his presidency on the hostage crisis

Show Down

• Negotiations did not arise until February of 1980, when Iran finally had a new President and more stable government • The list of Iran’s demands were unacceptable to Carter, and he went through a large amount of compromise until finally the Iranian President Bani Sadr appeared ready to let the hostages go • However, Bani-Sadr double crossed Carter and refused to let the hostages go.

• In response, Carter announced on April 7 the severing of diplomatic relations with Iran • On Aril 25 th , 1980 Carter tried to implement a military rescue of the hostages, yet it failed miserably

• After 444 days and much compromise, bribery, and deceit, President Carter, on his last day of office, was able to cut a deal. The Iranians got $8 billion worth of assets that had been frozen in exchange for the release of the hostages • Both countries ultimately suffered from this 14 month long ordeal, as Khomeini was left with a bankrupt and divided country, now in a war with Iraq. The U.S. had been humiliated, and Carter suffered a terrible defeat in the 1980 election • The general consent is that Carter did a rather miserable job of handling the whole situation. Had his military rescue operation worked, then there is little doubt he would have served for a second term

The Iran-Iraq War

• American foreign policy since the start of the Cold War has been built around the idea of “my enemies’ enemy is my friend” • In many cases this philosophy has seriously backfired, perhaps the best example was American relations with Iraq • In 1980 the warring nations Iran and Iraq also threatened world stability • When these nations started attacking oil tankers in the Persian Gulf with missiles, oil flow was greatly disrupted

• In 1987, an Iraqi plane hit the U.S.S.

Stark

• After this incident, many Americans wondered why the US even had a warship in a war zone without a specific mission

Reagan Doctrine

• American foreign policy changed once again under the Reagan administration • Reagan and his Secretary of State Alexander Haig were much tougher in their political statements than Carter had been - Reagan said the United States would support the opponents of communism anywhere in the world • They wanted to restore American prestige, resolved to defeat Communism in Central America, and escalated the arms race • As a result of this, the arms industry became the leading growth industry in America and military spending skyrocketed, reaching $550 billion annually • However, despite this massive military buildup, Reagan found that he was no more successful in influencing Eastern European events than Truman and Eisenhower had been

Economic Problems

• During the eighties, many Third World countries were spending huge sums on war • Thus, American and European banks, which had excess capital built up from the economic boom in the 1970s, lent money to the Third World countries • This money went to consumer goods and the purchase of weapons rather than investment capital. When the economic recession occurred in the early 1980s, many of these Third World countries went bankrupt thus putting the Western banking system at risk • The world was now faced with a potential depression worse than that of the 1930s

Grenada

• US foreign policy did experience some success in dealing with the Caribbean island of Grenada • In October 1982 a military coup deposed the Prime Minister. The council that took over was pro-communist, which worried the US • Reagan sent in 1,900 marines to depose the leader of the council, General Austin • The invasion was successful and a new government was formed under Governor General Sir Paul Scoon

• Latin Americans didn’t like this US action, and the UN General Assembly “deeply deplored” it • Reagan saw it as a success, however, because it increased American credibility, prevented the Russians from gaining a strategic base, and it added to Reagan’s popularity • The British were outraged at the action. The US had failed to consult the British about Grenada, which was part of the British Commonwealth. This marked a set-back in Anglo-American relations

Lebanon

• America got involved in the war in Lebanon to contain the Soviet Union influence • Haig and Defense Secretary Weinberger wanted Israel to become our ally because they believed Israel was the strongest power in the Middle East • There was difficulty in gaining their full support because the Israelis viewed the PLO and not the Russians as their main enemy. They wanted to solve their problems with the PLO before they turned their attention to the Soviet Union • Therefore the US focused on providing Israel with security. They would do so by destroying the PLO base in Lebanon

• The US would destroy the PLO base by both military action and providing the Palestinians with a homeland nobody would agree to the homeland though • Therefore, Haig thought the best way to deal with the PLO was with military force. He encouraged the Israelis to invade Lebanon • On June 6, 1982 Israel invaded Lebanon • As Israel continued to bomb Lebanon, the American public demanded that Reagan dissociate himself from Israeli action. Haig resigned and was replaced by Shultz • For a while Israel agreed to stop bombing Beirut, but they soon moved back in and occupied the city • The situation continued to deteriorate and it became evident that the Israeli invasion of Lebanon had solved nothing and in fact made the situation much worse

• In February 1983, Reagan made a historic pledge when he guaranteed the safety of Israel’s borders if Israel would withdraw its army • Then Secretary Shultz helped create an Israeli Lebanese agreement in 1983. The agreement did little good • The US encouragement of the Israeli invasion was a huge mistake, but Reagan refused to back down. On the contrary, he sent warships to the Lebanese coast making matters worse

• In October 1983 a suicide truck driven by an Islamic fundamentalist killed 241 Marines. Reagan refused to remove the Marines stating that the US needed to maintain its credibility • As the situation worsened, Reagan was forced to concede and by February 1984 the Marines had left Lebanon • Lebanon then canceled its agreement with Israel. Nothing good had come out of the US policies in Lebanon • It’s interesting to note that the Lebanon crisis didn’t even factor into the 1984 election

Nicaragua

• In 1979 in Nicaragua, the Sandinistas, led by Daniel Ortega, overthrew Anastasio Somoza • Reagan believed the Soviet Union and Cuba were supporting the pro-Comminists • Consequently the United States started to provide the Contras with equipment and advisors • Reagan tried again to get Congressional support, but he again failed to get the necessary funds to help the Contras. In the Boland Amendment, Congress ordered a ban on military support of the Contras. • It lasted for two years

Iran-Contra Affair

• In the spring of 1985, Reagan came up with a plan to solve his problems in Central America and the Middle East • The US would sell weapons to Iran, which Reagan believed would promote better relations between the two countries. The sale of the weapons would also be ransom to help release the American hostages in Lebanon • The profits of these weapon sales would then be used to help the Contras in Nicaragua • Reagan kept his plan very secret, failing to tell his Secretary of State the new policy • Reagan even told the American public that the US would never pay ransom and that it wasn’t selling arms to Iran

• In 1986, Reagan increased his pressure on Congress to provide aid to the Contras. Once again, Congress stood firm and Reagan was denied • He continued to fund the Contras anyways, through the weapon sales to Iran and private funding • This was a clear violation of the Boland Amendment and raised the question of who should control foreign policy of the US. Congress believed they had the authority over foreign policy, demonstrated with the Boland Amendment, but Reagan continued to ignore it

Discovery of Iran-Contra

• In 1986, Reagan’s Iran-Contra policy was discovered • Congressional hearings revealed that a secret organization within the government had been conducting illegal activity for years • Reagan was not linked to the most serious crime and although Reagan was not impeached, his administration was severely damaged • Congress charged that Reagan hadn’t lived up to his responsibility to make sure the laws were executed • Reagan was never able to overthrow the Sandinista government in Nicaragua, and by 1988 Reagan’s Central American policy was near complete destruction

Reagan and Terrorism

• Reagan took a strong stance against terrorism.

• He warned terrorists around the world “you can run but you can’t hide” • The American public heartily approved of this policy, and by 1986 terrorism was high on their list of greatest concerns • Reagan’s policy towards terrorism greatly increased his prestige, and as a result he was able to get Congress to rescind the Boland Amendment

Libya

• During the early 1980s the world witnessed numerous terrorist plots including hijackings and car bombings • In October 1985 the cruise ship

Achille Lauro

was seized and an American Jew was killed and thrown overboard • A West German nightclub frequented by American servicemen was bombed by a Libyan-backed group • Muammar al-Qaddafi, the Libyan leader, was believed to be sponsor of terror groups • In 1986 Reagan ordered the bombing of targets in Libya, to punish terrorists

Relations with the Soviet Union

• Reagan had much clearer goals with the Soviet Union than he did in the Middle East, and had much more support than his policies in Central America • Reagan wanted peace, limitations on the arms race, reduction in nuclear arsenals, good trade relations, and in general d the “evil empire” étente • His tactics for achieving these goals consisted of maintaining a hard-line approach to the Soviet Union. He often called the Soviet Union

• In the area of arms control, Reagan actually increased defense spending in order achieve superiority over the Russians • His military buildup alarmed the Russians but not enough for them to negotiate • Relations with the Soviet Union at this point were very low and the arsenals of both nations had reached dangerous levels

Reagan’s Second Term Policy Towards the Soviet Union

• During his second term, Reagan stopped called the Soviet Union the “evil empire” and indicated he would be willing to discuss arms control with the new Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev • A summit meeting was set up between the two leaders in Geneva for November 1985 • Reagan, at the same time, was pushing for a Strategic Defense Initiative, SDI, which would create a defensive shield over the US. Scientists said it would never work, but Reagan remained firm and billions of dollars went to the development of SDI • The Geneva summit proved to be unsuccessful, as Reagan wouldn’t back down on SDI and no agreements were made

• In 1986, Gorbachev implemented a ban on nuclear testing and asked the US to do the same. Reagan refused and in 1987 the Russians resumed testing • Reagan and Gorbachev agreed to have another summit meeting in Reykjavik, Iceland • Again, no agreement was made because Reagan refused to give up his SDI • Reagan came under strong criticism • In 1987, Reagan and Gorbachev agreed on the elimination of short and medium-range missiles in Europe

• In December 1987 at a summit meeting in Washington, Reagan and Gorbachev signed the Intermediate Nuclear Force (INF) treaty. This called for the destruction of all short and medium range missiles, and provisions for on-site weapons inspection • This was a breakthrough in the Cold War. Never before had the Soviets agreed to on-site inspection of their weapons • The INF treaty reduced the destructive capability of both nations and was one of the most successful meetings in the Cold War • In 1988, the Soviets agreed to withdraw their army from Afghanistan. This was the first time in 33 years that the Soviets would pull out of any country

• When Reagan left office in 1989, international terrorism was declining, the Soviets were leaving Afghanistan, and d administration étente had been achieved between the US and the Soviet Union • His second term was more successful in bringing an end to the Cold War than any other • However, Reagan handed over an astronomical debt due to the huge sums spent on defense

“The End of the Cold War”

President Bush

• President Bush pledged to continue the policies of Reagan, especially in regards to foreign policy • Prudence and commitment were the guiding principles of Bush’s foreign policy

1989

• Many momentous changes occurred around the world in 1989 • There were unprecedented, unpredictable, and unimaginable events in China, Eastern Europe, the Soviet Union, South Africa, and Central America • However, except in Central America, the United States played almost no role in the worldwide revolution

China

• Prior to the Spring of 1989, the United States pursued the policy of increasing trade with communist China, but at the same time denounced China’s record on human rights and the imposition of martial law • In April 1989, students staged mass demonstrations in Tiananmen Square demanding “more freedom, an open government, an end to privileges enjoyed by the elite, and democracy”

China

• The Chinese government imposed martial law, which the demonstrators defied, and on June 2, Deng Xiaoping moved in troops and tanks killing and wounding thousands of the students • The United States denounced his actions and cut off relations with China; however, within several weeks, Bush secretly sent representatives to confer and mollify the Chinese • Bush’s foreign policy was to maintain relations with China regardless of China’s actions

Central America

• In Central America, Bush continued the Reagan policy of hostility, and he continued to supply the Contras in Nicaragua and to maintain an economic embargo, which greatly hurt Ortega’s government • In Nicaragua’s 1990 election, Ortega was upset by Chamorro, and shockingly abided by the rules and peacefully handed over power to the government • The United States’ continual support of the Contras almost wrecked the peace process and could have had a disastrous effect on the elections; however, democracy triumphed in Central America

Central America

• In dealing with dictators in Central America, the United States generally attempts to organize a coup to overthrow them • This was Bush’s response when Panama declared Noriega “head of state” who in turn announced “state of war” with the United States • In Operation

Just Cause

, Bush sent troops to Panama, captured Noriega, and took him to a Miami jail until he could be tried for drug dealing charges

Central America

• European commentators found it ironic that the United States criticized the USSR for invading Afghanistan, but had no problem invading Panama • Central American countries were the beneficiaries of more economic aid from the United States than all the countries of Europe

Middle East

• The majority of American foreign aid at this time was going to Israel and Egypt • Both countries wanted to take the United States’ aid but not advice • Bush was unable to force Israel to negotiate with the PLO

South Africa

• Progress toward peace and democracy in South Africa was achieved when President deKlerk lifted a ban that been in effect for 30 years on the ANC and released the ANC leader, Nelson Mandela, from prison where he had been held for 27 years • This did not signify the end of apartheid, but it was a hopeful development

Central and Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union

• Unanticipated events linked to the fall of communism in Central and Eastern Europe brought about the end of the Cold War • The five major factors that led to the end of communism were: “the culmination of four decades of patient containment by the NATO alliance and especially the NATO leader, the United States”, “the burden of the arms race, which was bankrupting the Soviet Union”, “the people of Eastern Europe themselves and their refusal to ever abandon their hopes for freedom,” “the objective fact that Communism is a rotten system,” and “opportunity”

Central and Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union

• The opportunity for democracy was provided by Gorbachev who wanted his policies of

glasnost

and

perestroika

to succeed • In 1989 Hungary tore down the 150 mile barbed-wire fence between Hungary and Austria, and the Berlin Wall was pulled down • Thousands living behind the “Iron Curtain” fled into Austria and West Germany

Central and Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union

• The Berlin Wall was the symbol of the Cold War for 28 years, and with its fall came the promise of free elections, the dismantling of the Warsaw pact, and the end of the Cold War • The United States was not actively involved in any of these startling events • Despite the end of the Cold War, Bush refused to bring troops home or cut defense spending • Bush maintained a hard line on defense

Central and Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union

• Plans for the unification of East and West Germany were rapidly approaching and were cause for concern throughout the world • The world changed from the domination of two super powers to three major regional economic superblocs, Western Europe, Pacific in East Asia, and North America • A more isolationist policy developed in the United States characterized by a reluctance to spend money on foreign affairs