Transcript Poetry and Thought in Early China Ca 1000 – 600 BC

Poetry and
Thought in
Early China
Ca 1000 – 600 BC
A Chapter Overview
• Chinese civilization first developed in the
Yellow River basin.
• The Classic of Poetry, also called The
Book of Songs, is a lyric poetry collection
that stands at the beginning of the
Chinese literary tradition.
• Greatly valued by Confucius who
supposedly edited the first copy from an
earlier work. Doubtful but he certainly
valued The Book of Songs and refers to
them often in his own writing.
• The fusion of ethical thought and idealized Chou
traditions associated with Confucius were recorded in
The Analects by Confucius's disciples following his
death.
• The Chuang Tzu offers philosophical meditations in a
multitude of forms, ranging from jokes and parables
to intricate philosophical arguments.
• During the period of the Warring States, Ssu-ma
Ch'ien produced the popular Historical Records
chronicling the lives of ruling families and dynasties
in a comprehensive history of China up to the time of
Emperor Wu's reign.
• The end of ancient China is often linked with
the rise of the draconian ruler
Ch'in Shih-huang. (first emperor of China)
The Mythic Beginning:
Pangu
盤古
• The first living being and the
creator of all in Chinese
mythology.
• In the beginning there was nothing
in the universe except a formless
chaos. However this chaos
coalesced into a cosmic egg for
about 18,000 years. Within it, the
perfectly opposed principles of
Yin and Yang became balanced
This myth is featured in the
and Pangu emerged (or woke up) film liked to in Moodle:
from the egg.
Ancient China
• Pangu set about the task of creating the
world: he separated Yin from Yang with a
swing of his giant axe, creating the Earth
(murky Yin) and the Sky (clear Yang).
• To keep them separated, Pangu stood
between them and pushed up the Sky.
This task took 18,000 years; with each
day the sky grew ten feet (3 meters)
The Ying Yan
higher, the Earth ten feet wider, and
idea is spoken
Pangu ten feet taller.
about by Huston
• In some versions of the story, Pangu is Smith in the
Moodle linked
aided in this task by the four most
film:
prominent beasts, namely the Turtle,
Confucianism
the Qilin, the Phoenix, and the Dragon.
• After the 18,000 years, Pangu dies.
• His breath became the wind; his voice the
thunder; left eye the sun and right eye the
moon;
• His body became the mountains and
extremes of the world; his blood formed
rivers; his muscles the fertile lands; his
facial hair the stars and milky way; his fur
the bushes and forests; his bones the
valuable minerals; his bone marrows sacred
diamonds;
• His sweat fell as rain; and
the fleas on his fur carried
by the wind became the fish
and animals throughout the
land.
• Nüwa the Goddess then used
the mud of the water bed to
form the shape of humans.
Chines History Begins at The Yellow
River, or Huanghe
Timeline Chinese:
http://www-chaos.umd.edu/history/time_line.html
The Layout of History
Note: The "Common Era" (CE/BCE) notation has been adopted by numerous authors
and publishers wishing to be "neutral" or "sensitive to non-Christians
Image Drawn from the Web Site:
http://myweb.uiowa.edu/cfillebr/prereading.html
Xia Dynasty . Before1600 BC ?
• Almost mythical—the great flood
was supposed to have occurred then,
and brought under control by Yu the
Great.
• “Early Chinese history is a tale told
and retold for generations, during
which new elements were added to
the front end” ("Rethinking Erlitou:
legend, history and Chinese
archaeology")
• The implied dualism between the Shang and
Xia which is brought up later, is that while
the Shang represent fire or the sun, birds
and the east, the Xia represent the west and
water.
• The development of this mythical Xia,
Allan argues, is a necessary act on the part
of the Zhou Dynasty, who justify their
conquest of the Shang by noting that the
Shang had supplanted the Xia. (The Shape
of the Turtle: Myth, Art and Cosmos in
Early China)
Shang Dynasty (1600 BC)
http://www.uic.edu/educ/bctpi/whittier/curriculum/china/
Chinese Civilization
First Developed in
the Yellow River
Basin
• The first dynasty, the
Shang, was a loose
confederation of city-states
ruled by princes with a
common ancestry.
• Chinese writing based on
characters developed during
http://www.artsmia.org/art-of-asia/history/dynasty-shang.cfm
the Shang era.
Shang Writing
• Other than bronze making, the
most significant achievement
of the Shang period was the
extensive practice of writing.
• From the Oracle Bones, people
had the chance to study and
determine the earliest and most
complete evidence of writing in
China.
<http://www.library.utoronto.ca/east/students02/hoi_wan_lai/writing.htm>
• From the unearthed evidence,
150,000 inscriptions have been
discovered; 5,000 ancient Chinese
characters were found and published;
• and 3,000 of those ancient words
were successfully translated into
modern Chinese characters.
• Actually, writing was not only found
on Oracle Bones but on some other
materials as well, including wood,
bamboo, and silk.
• However, all of these materials were
perishable.
• The writings found on the Shang Oracles
was highly developed and sophisticated in
form.
• Scholars found that the inscriptions on the
Oracle Bones contained many pictographs
(characters created based on real objects),
proving that the Chinese writing structure
and technique had been well developed
before the Shang period.
• Scholars realized that the stage of writing in
Shang had been stylized and that the
characters were geometric lines and shapes.
• The characters were written from top to
bottom, and from left to right.
• Therefore, as the form of writing was
sophisticated, the creation of words must
have occurred at least a few hundred years
before Shang; and may even have been
created during the Hsia Dynasty.
• Certainly, our modern Chinese language
developed from ancient language. We can
see that some of the ancient characters are
still in use today, just slightly different in
shape.
The Chau (Zhao) Dynasty
http://www.artsmia.org/art-of-asia/history/dynasty-chou.cfm
A Change – the Chou (Zhou)
• By the end of the second millennium B.C., the
Chou (Zhou) people migrated from the west
and conquered the Shang.
• Tracing their origins from Hou-Chi (Lord
Millet), the Chou put forth the argument that
the last rulers of the Shang had been guilty of
misrule and had caused hardship to the people,
which led Heaven to transfer power to the
Chou.
• Over the centuries, the idea of heaven changed:
sometimes it was an anthropomorphic deity, a
natural and moral force, or a collection of
ancestral spirits.
• Because those in power were expected to
rule virtuously, rulers typically adhered to
the statutes and models put in place by
former kings.
• These ideas were recorded in three
important texts: The Book of Documents, a
collection of statements and proclamations
from the early Chou period; the Classic of
Poetry; and the Book of Changes.
The Spring and Autumn Period
(Chinese: 春秋時代; pinyin: Chūnqiū Shídài)
• This was a period in Chinese history, which
roughly corresponds to the first half of the
Eastern Zhou dynasty (from the second half
of the 8th century BC to the first half of the
5th century BC).
• Its name comes from the Spring and
Autumn Annals, a chronicle of the state of
Lu between 722 BC and 481 BC, which
tradition associates with Confucius.
• During this time, China was ruled by a
feudal system.
– The Zhou dynasty kings held nominal power,
but only directly ruled over a small Royal
Domain, centered around their capital (modernday Luoyang).
– They granted fiefdoms over the rest of China to
several hundreds of hereditary nobles (Zhuhou
諸侯).
• As the era unfolded, larger more powerful
states annexed or claimed suzerainty over
smaller ones. By the 6th century BC, most
small states had disappeared
Warring States Period
• This covers the period from some time in
the 5th century BCE to the unification of
China by the Qin Dynasty in 221 BCE.
• It is nominally considered to be the second
part of the Eastern Zhou Dynasty, following
the Spring and Autumn Period, although the
Zhou dynasty itself ended in 256 BCE, 35
years earlier than the end of the Warring
States period.
• As with the Spring and Autumn Period, the king
of Zhou acted merely as a figurehead.
• The name Warring States Period was derived from
the Record of the Warring States, a work
historically compiled early in the Han Dynasty.
The date for the beginning of the Warring States
Period is somewhat in dispute. While it is
frequently cited as 475 BCE (following the Spring
and Autumn Period), 403 BCE — the date of the
tripartition * of the Jin — is also sometimes
considered as the beginning of the period.
* Tripartition: A division by threes, or into three
parts; the taking of a third part of any number or
quantity
• The Warring States Period, in contrast to
the Spring and Autumn Period, was a period
when regional warlords annexed smaller
states around them and consolidated their
rule.
• The process began in the Spring and
Autumn Period, and by the 3rd century BC,
seven major states had risen to prominence.
The Classic of Poetry is a lyric poetry
collection that stands at the beginning of
the Chinese literary tradition.
• Although it circulated among the Chou (Zhow)
aristocracy, it is a heterogeneous text that
includes many types of songs, ranging from
hymns, temple songs, and hunting songs to love
and marriage songs.
• Serving as a the basic educational text of upper
class Chou, it eventually became part of the
canon of Confucian classics, along with the
Book of Changes and the Book of Documents.
“By the Poems you can stir people and you
can observe things through them; you can
express your resentment in them and you
can show sociable feelings. Clot to home
you can use them to serve your father, and
on a large scale you can use them to serve
your ruler. Moreover, you can learn to
recognize many names of birds, beasts,
plants, and trees.”
Confucius speaking about Classics of Poetry
Aspects of the Classics of
Poetry
• In poetry people within the early
Chinese could say things which were
forbidden in other parts of their
structured culture.
• Often were used as a means of
diplomacy.
• The “Feng” ("wind" but also
"mores," "folkways," or "customs" )
often involves the communication
across lines of authority.
• Usually, the Chinese poem is fairly
simple on the surface.
– Western culture, which was influenced
by Shakespeare, Milton, and the
Romantic poets, had a pronounced
tendency to think of poems as ornate,
elaborate creations made by a few men
of genius.
– Chinese culture, influenced by the
anonymity of the Shih Ching, had a
tendency to think of poems as
something written by common
humanity for the eyes of other humans.
.
• Usually the poem deals with either
agrarian imagery, courtship and
marriage, or dynastic concerns.
– The Zhou (or Chou) dynasty was agrarian
in its roots, and for its people, "their sense
of beauty and order is closely related to the
cycles and abundance of the agricultural
year," as Stephen Owen suggests (xx).
– Likewise, the poems often revolve around
the sorrows and joys of romance, or dealt
with the heroic and legendary exploits of
rulers and kings.
– Other poems, which probably originated in
folk-songs, deal with the everyday trials and
tribulations of love, life, and the family
• Each poem is usually composed of
lines of four syllables,
– Usually they will with rhymed endings
in the original Chinese.
– Often these four syllables appear as
four pictograms.
– The normal form of the courtship and
marriage songs is three verses of four
lines each.
– Only a single non-fragmentary poem
consists of a single quatrain, the form
that later became popular in modern
Chinese poetry.
• The poetic principle organizing the poem is
often one of contrast:
– Often Chinese poetry will juxtapose a natural
scene with a social or personal situation. The
reader of the poem sees the similarity in the natural
description and the human condition, and comes to
a new awareness of each by this contrast.
– In Chinese, this idea is embodied in the terms fu,
bi, and xing (pronounced "shing"). Fu refers to a
straightforward narrative with a beginning, middle,
and conclusion, that stands by itself.
– Bi, literally "against," implies a comparison or
contrast, placing two things side by side.
– When one takes two different fu, and
places them together, the two create a bi.
– This results in xing, a mental stimulation
or "lightning" that pervades the mind of the
reader, bringing new insight or awareness
into the nature of the individual fu that
compose the poem. Confucius stated that
this xing is the purpose of poetry, that the
point of a poem was to make the mind
contemplate its subject deeply.
II. YA
• The second section of the Book of Songs, known
as the ya or "Courtly Songs,"
• It consists of 105 poems. Ya translates as "elegant"
or "refined," the word here seeming to indicate
that most of the songs are by courtiers or members
of the aristocracy, not the common folk.
• The ya are further subdivided into seventy-four
hsiao ya ("Lesser Courtly Songs") and thirty-one
ta ya ("Greater Courtly Songs"), probably
distinguished on the basis of differing musical
accompaniments, now lost.
• The Lesser Courtly Songs
– concern the aristocratic life centering around the Chou
court.
– Even these latter poems, while seeming to focus on
romantic love, have traditionally been viewed as
allegories--political satires disguised as folksongs.
– And, indeed, there are many bitter reflections on war,
as well as outright complaints about misgovernment,
lying officials, administrators living luxuriously, and
other political scams.
– The poems in this section also contain many references
to specific historical persons and events--are topical, in
other words; a few, likewise, include some kind of
identification of the poet in the last line, especially the
political complaints.
• The Greater Courtly Songs
– They manifest, however, a difference in tone and
superior literary artistry.
– More reverent, ornate, and formal, a number of these
poems celebrate the myths and legends of the Chou
dynasty.
– Many poems exhibit considerable length, yet are
marked by more variety and consistency in their rhyme
schemes, tighter transitions between stanzas, and
sustained thematic development. The most common
themes are good wishes, congratulations, eulogies,
offerings to gods and ancestors, and dining and
drinking.
– But there are also poems of "change"--sharp, passionate
outcries against rulers whose indecent behavior brings
grief to their subjects and threatens their kingdoms with
ruin.
III. SUNG
• The sung section can also be read as "Hymns."
• These forty sacrficial and temple songs are
subdivided into three parts on the basis of
geographical origin--thirty-one attributed to the
Chou court, four to the court of the Duchy of Lu,
and five hymns attributed to the Shang dynasty,
which preceded Chou.
• These songs seem to have been sung to the
accompaniment of music and group dancing when
the King or lord worshipped his ancestors and
commemorated their heroic deeds.
• The poems in this section are hymns of praise,
ritual pieces describing sacrifices, feasts, musical
performances, or celebrations of the dynasty's
glory and its military victories.
• The mood of the poems is celebratory throughout-no complaints about misrule, disorder, or
personal hardships. As a result, most critics regard
these poems as Chou propaganda pieces. The
poems in this section are believed to be the earliest
in the Book of Songs, some composed as early as
1700 B. C. (Shang dynasty) and many by no later
than 700 B. C.
• This antiquity accounts for the stylistic
awkwardness displayed in a number of the songs.
Of the poems in our text, number 157 provides an
example of the sung.
Qin Dynasty
• By 770 B.C., the Chou dynasty (the Zhou) had lost
much of its power, and the bordering new
kingdoms—the Ch'u, Wu and Y¸eh—grew
stronger.
• Culturally, they absorbed many of the Chou ways.
The Lu province also saw itself as the preserver of
Chou traditions. (It was also the home of
Confucius.)
• There is a fusion of ethical thought and
idealized Chou traditions associated with
Confucius were recorded in the Analects by
Confucius's disciples following his death.
• Many of the philosophers that followed Confucius
were influential, but Confucianism's emphasis on
the connection between idealized history and
• With new technological advances, the nature of
warfare changed, resulting in increasingly
destructive wars between domains. In the period
known as the Spring and Autumn Annals,
regions were ruled by aristocratic families with
officials chosen from lesser clans.
• Because the domains were gradually evolving into
centralized states during a period of upheaval, this
era is known as the Warring States.
• In addition to the massive political upheaval, there
was also significant intellectual upheaval.
• Schools of thought concerned with the individual
rather than the polity began to emerge.
Independent thinkers such as Chuang Chou
without patronage or school were also important.
Chinese Philosophy
• Philosophy has had a tremendous effect on
Chinese civilization, and East Asia as a whole.
• Many of the great philosophical schools were
formulated during the Spring and Autumn Period
and Warring States Period, and came to be known
as the Hundred Schools of Thought.
• The four most influential of these were
–
–
–
–
Confucianism,
Taoism,
Mohism, and
Legalism.
• Later on, during the Tang Dynasty, Buddhism
from India also became a prominent philosophical
and religious discipline.
• Eastern thought, unlike Western philosophy, did
not express a clear distinction between philosophy
and religion.
• Like Western philosophy, Chinese philosophy
covers a broad and complex range of thought,
possessing a multitude of schools that address
every branch and subject area of philosophy.
• In China, the Tao Te Ching (Dào dé jīng, in pinyin
romanisation) of Lao Tzu (Lǎo zǐ) [10] and the
Analects of Confucius (Kǒng fū zǐ; sometimes
called Master Kong) both appeared around 600
BC, about the time that the Greek pre-Socratics
were writing.
Confucius
551 – 479 BC
A man who only learns
the truth at the last
moment of his life has not
wasted his opportunities.
• 孔夫子, transliterated Kong Fuzi or
K'ung-fu-tzu, lit. "Master Kong," but most
frequently referred to simply as Kongzi 孔
子,
• The most famous thinker and social
philosopher of China, whose teachings
have deeply influenced East Asia for
centuries.
• Living in China between 722 BC and 481
(a time when feudal states fought against
each other), he was convinced of his ability
to restore the world's order, but in the end
failed.
• After much traveling around China to promote his ideas
among rulers, he eventually became involved in
teaching disciples.
• His philosophy emphasized personal and governmental
morality, correctness of social relationships, and justice
and sincerity.
• These values gained prominence in China after being
chosen among other doctrines such as Legalism or
Taoism during the Han dynasty.
• Used since then as the imperial orthodoxy, Confucius'
thoughts have been developed into a vast and complete
philosophical system known in the west as
Confucianism.
• They were introduced to Europe by the Jesuit Matteo
Ricci, the first to Latinise the name as "Confucius".
• Of all the Chinese philosophies it is quite
safe to say Confucianism has had the
greatest impact throughout East Asia.
• His philosophy focused in the fields of
ethics and politics, emphasizing personal
and governmental morality, correctness of
social relationships, justice,
traditionalism, and sincerity.
• Confucianism, along with Legalism, is
responsible for creating the world’s first
meritocracy, which holds that one's status
should be determined by ability instead of
ancestry, wealth, or friendships. It is
arguable that Confucianism is most
responsible for shaping the Chinese
culture and state of China.
孔夫子
Legalism
• In Chinese history, Legalism (Chinese: 法家;
Pinyin: Fǎjiā; Wade-Giles: Fa-chia; literally
"School of law") was one of the four main
philosophic schools in the Spring and Autumn
Period and the Warring States Period (Near the
end of the Zhou dynasty from about the sixth
century B.C. to about the third century B.C.).
• It is actually rather a pragmatic political
philosophy, with maxims like "when the epoch
changed, legalism is the act of following all laws ,"
and its essential principle is one of jurisprudence.
• "Legalism" here can bear the meaning of "political
philosophy that upholds the rule of law", and is
thus distinguished from the word's Western sense.
Mohism
• In China, a contemporary of Confucius, Mozi, "Master Mo",
is credited with founding the Mohist school, whose canons
dealt with issues relating to valid inference and the
conditions of correct conclusions.
• The Mohist school of Chinese philosophy contained an
approach to logic and argumentation that stresses analogical
reasoning over deductive reasoning, and is based on the
three fa, or methods of drawing distinctions between kinds
of things.
• One of the schools that grew out of Mohism, the Logicians,
are credited by some scholars for their early investigation of
formal logic.
• It disappeared during the Qin dynasty. Mozi's philosophy
was described in the book Mozi, compiled by his students
from lecture notes.
• In Mohism, morality is
defined not by tradition, but
rather by a constant moral
guide that parallels
utilitarianism.
• Tradition is inconsistent, and
human beings need an extratraditional guide to identify
which traditions are
acceptable.
Mo Tzu (Master Mo),
Latinized as Micius),
470 BCE–c.391 BCE
• The moral guide must then promote and
encourage social behaviors that maximize
general utility. He also believed in the 2nd law
and was in conflict with the ancients.
• Mohism promotes a philosophy of
universal love, i.e. an equal affection for all
individuals.
• This universal love is what makes man
good. This advocacy of universal love was a
target of attack by other schools, most
notably the Confucians who believed, for
example, that children should hold a greater
love for their parents than for random
strangers. He also had much conflicts with
Confucian ideas.
Lao Tzu: Father of Taoism
• Although ascetics and hermits such as Shen Tao
(who advocated that one 'abandon knowledge
and discard self') first wrote of the 'Tao' it is with
the sixth century B.C. philosopher Lao Tzu (or
'Old Sage' -- born Li Erh) that the philosophy of
Taoism really began.
• Some scholars believe he was a slightly older
contemporary of Confucius.
• Other scholars feel that the Tao Te Ching, is
really a compilation of paradoxical poems
written by several Taoists using the pen-name,
Lao Tzu. There is also a close association
between Lao Tzu and the legendary Yellow
Emperor, Huang-ti.
The five colours blind the eye.
The five tones deafen the ear.
The five flavours dull the taste.
Racing and hunting madden the mind.
Precious things lead one astray.Therefore the sage
is guided by what he feels and not by what he sees.
He lets go of that and chooses this.
• In Lao Tzu's view things were said to create
"unnatural" action (wei) by shaping desires (yu).
• The process of learning the names (ming) used
in the doctrines helped one to make
distinctions between good and evil, beautiful
and ugly, high and low, and "being" (yu) and
"non- being" (wu), thereby shaping desires. To
abandon knowledge was to abandon names,
distinctions, tastes and desires. Thus
spontaneous behavior (wu-wei) resulted.
• Lao-tzu is venerated as a philosopher by
Confucianists and as a saint or god by some of
the common people and was worshiped as an
imperial ancestor during the T'ang dynasty
(618–907).
Taoism (also called of Daoism)
• Taoism is an indigenous religio-philosophical
tradition that has shaped Chinese life for more
than 2,000 years.
• In the broadest sense, a Taoist attitude toward life
can be seen in the accepting and yielding, the
joyful and carefree sides of the Chinese character,
an attitude that offsets and complements the moral
and duty-conscious, austere and purposeful
character ascribed to Confucianism.
• Taoism is also characterized by a positive, active
attitude toward the occult and the metaphysical
(theories on the nature of reality), whereas the
agnostic, pragmatic Confucian tradition considers
these issues of only marginal importance, although
the reality of such issues is, by most Confucians,
not denied.
• More strictly defined, Taoism includes: the ideas
and attitudes peculiar to the Lao-tzu (or Tao-te
Ching; “Classic of the Way of Power”), the
Chuang-tzu, the Lieh-tzu, and related writings; the
Taoist religion, which is concerned with the ritual
worship of the Tao; and those who identify
themselves as Taoists.
• The Taoist philosophy can perhaps best be
summed up in a quote from Chuang Tzu:
• "To regard the fundamental as the
essence, to regard things as coarse, to
regard accumulation as deficiency, and to
dwell quietly alone with the spiritual and
the intelligent -- herein lie the techniques
of Tao of the ancients."
• Whatever the truth, Taoism and Confucianism have
to be seen side-by-side as two distinct responses to
the social, political and philosophical conditions of
life two and a half millennia ago in China. Whereas
Confucianism is greatly concerned with social
relations, conduct and human society, Taoism has a
much more individualistic and mystical character,
greatly influenced by nature.
• Contemplating the remarkable natural world Lao Tzu
felt that it was man and his activities which
constituted a blight on the otherwise perfect order of
things. Thus he counseled people to turn away from
the folly of human pursuits and to return to one's
natural wellspring.
The Chuang Tzu (Chung Chou) offers
philosophical meditations in a multitude
of forms, ranging from jokes and parables
to intricate philosophical arguments.
• Along with the Lao Tzu, it is considered one
of the foundational texts of philosophical
Taoism and explores how Tao (way)
represents the natural course of things.
• Confucians define it in a moral sense as it
operates within society; in the Chuang Tzu,
the way is often immoral.
• Pseudo-historical knowledge of the
sage Chuang-tzu (Zhuangzi) is even
less well defined than that of Lao-tzu.
• Most of Ssu-ma Ch'ien's brief portrait
of the man is transparently drawn from
anecdotes in the Chuang-tzu (Chung
Chou) itself and as such has no
necessary basis in fact.
• The Chuang-tzu, (Zhuangzi) however,
is valuable as a monument of Chinese
literature and because it contains
considerable documentary material,
describing numerous speculative trends
and spiritual practices of the Warring
States period (475–221 BC).
• Whereas the Tao-te Ching is addressed to the
sage-king, the Chuang-tzu is the earliest
surviving Chinese text to present a philosophy for
private life, a wisdom for the individual.
• Chuang-tzu is said to have preferred the doctrine
of Lao-tzu over all others; many of his writings
strike the reader as metaphorical illustrations of
the terse sayings of the “Old Master.”
• Whereas Lao-tzu in his book as well as in his life
(in legend) was concerned with Taoist rule,
Chuang-tzu, some generations later, rejected all
participation in society.
• He compared the servant of state to the well-fed
decorated ox being led to sacrifice in the temple
and himself to the untended piglet blissfully
frolicking in the mire.
Ssu-ma Ch'ien
145 BC-185 BC
Also spelled “Sima Qian”
• Astronomer,
• Calendar expert,
• The first great Chinese
historian,
– Noted for his authorship of the
Shih-chi (“Historical Records”)
also spelled “Shiji. ”
– Considered to be the most
important history of China down
to the end of the 2nd century.
• Sima Qian was born and grew up in Longmen, near
present-day Hancheng, Shaanxi. He was raised in a family
of historiographers. His father, Sima Tan (司馬談), served
as the Prefect of the Grand Scribes of Emperor Wu of Han
(Emperor "Han Wudi"). His main responsibilities were
managing the imperial library and calendar. Under the
influence of his father, at the age of ten, Sima Qian was
already well versed in old writings. He was the student of
the famous Confucians Kong Anguo (孔安國) and Dong
Zhongshu (董仲舒).
• At the age of twenty, with the support of his father, Sima
Qian started a journey throughout the country, collecting
useful first-hand historical records for his main work, Shiji.
The purpose of his journey was to verify the ancient
rumors and legends and to visit ancient monuments,
including the renowned graves of the ancient sage kings
Yu and Shun. Places he had visited include Shandong,
Yunnan, Hebei, Zhejiang, Jiangsu, Jiangxi and Hunan.
• After his travels, he was chosen to be the Palace
Attendant in the government whose duties were to
inspect different parts of the country with Emperor Han
Wudi. In 110 BC, at the age of thirty-five, Sima Qian was
sent westward on a military expedition against some
"barbarian" tribes. That year, his father fell ill and could
not attend the Imperial Feng Sacrifice. Suspecting his
time was running out, he summoned his son back to
complete the historical work he had begun.
• Sima Tan wanted to follow the Annals of Spring and
Autumn (春秋左氏傳) - the first chronicle in the history
of Chinese literature. Fuelled by his father's inspiration,
Sima Qian started to compile Shiji in 109 BC. In 105 BC,
Sima was among the scholars chosen to reform the
calendar. As a senior imperial official, Sima was also in
the position to offer counsel to the emperor on general
affairs of state.
•In 99 BC, Sima Qian got involved in the
Li Ling Affair: Li Ling (李陵) and Li
Guangli (李廣利), two military officers
who lead a campaign against the Xiongnu
(匈奴) in the north, were defeated and
taken captive. Emperor Han Wudi
attributed the defeat to Li Ling, and all
the officials in the government
condemned Li Ling for the defeat. Sima
was the only person to defend Li Ling,
who had never been his friend but who he
respected.
Emperor Han Wudi interpreted Sima’s defence of Li Ling as
an attack on his brother-in-law, who had also fought against
the Xiongnu without much success, and sentenced Sima to
death. At that time, execution could be commuted either by
money or castration.
• Since Sima did not have enough money to atone his
"crime", he chose the latter and was then thrown into
prison, where he endured three years. He described his
pain thus: "When you see the jailer you abjectly touch the
ground with your forehead. At the mere sight of his
underlings you are seized with terror... Such ignominy can
never be wiped away."
• In 96 BC, on his release from prison, Sima chose to live on
as a palace eunuch so to complete his histories, rather than
commit suicide as was expected of a gentleman-scholar.
As Sima Qian's words explained:
• “The losses he [Li Ling] had formerly inflicted on the
enemy were such that his renown filled the Empire! After
his disgrace, I was ordered to give my opinion. I extolled
his merits, hoping the Emperor would take a wider view,
but ...in the end it was decided I was guilty of trying to
mislead the Emperor...I had not the funds to pay a fine in
lieu of my punishment, and my colleagues and associates
spoke not a word in my behalf. “
• “Had I chosen suicide, no one would have credited me
with dying for a principle. Rather, they would have
thought the severity of my offense allowed no other way
out. It was my obligation to my father to finish his
historical work which made me submit to the knife...If I
had done otherwise , how could I have ever had the face to
visit the graves of my parents?”
• ...There is no defilement so great as castration. One who
has undergone this punishment is nowhere counted as a
man. This is not just a modern attitude; it has always been
so. Even an ordinary fellow is offended when he has to do
business with a eunuch -- how much more so, then, a
gentleman! Would it not be an insult to the court and my
former colleagues if now I, a menial who sweeps floors, a
mutilated wretch, should raise my head and stretch my
eyebrows to argue right and wrong?
• “I am fit now for only guarding the palace women's
apartments. I can hope for justification only after my
death, when my histories become known to the world."[1]
As an Historian
• Although the style and form of Chinese historical
writings varied through the ages, Shiji has defined
the quality and style from then onwards.
• Before Sima, histories were written as dynastic
history; his idea of a general history affected later
historiographers like Zhengqiao (鄭樵) in writing
Tongshi (通史) and Sima Guang (司馬光) in
writing Zizhi Tongjian (資治通鑑).
• The Chinese historical form was codified in the
second dynastic history by Ban Gu’s (班固)
History of Han (漢), but historians regard Sima’s
work as their model, which stands as the "official
format" of the history of China.
• In writing Shiji, Sima initiated a
new writing style by presenting
history in a series of
biographies. His work extends
over 130 chapters — not in
historical sequence, but was
divided into particular subjects,
including annals, chronicles,
treatises — on music,
ceremonies, calendars, religion,
economics, and extended
biographies. Sima's influence
on the writing style of histories
in other places is also evident
in, for example The History of
Korea
As a Literary Figure
• Sima's Shiji is respected as a model of biographical
literature with high literary value, and still stands as a
"textbook" for the study of classical Chinese worldwide.
• Sima’s writings were influential to Chinese writing, and
become a role model for various types of prose within the
neo-classical ("renaissance" 复古) movement of the TangSong (唐宋) period. The great use of characterization and
plotting also influenced fictional writing, including the
classical short stories of the middle and late medieval
period (Tang-Ming), as well as the vernacular novel of
the late imperial period.
• The influence is derived from the following key elements
of his writing:
• Skillful depiction: Sima portrayed many distinguished
subjects based on true historical information. He would
illustrated the response of the subject by placing him in a
sharp contrast or juxtaposition, and then letting his words and
deeds speak for him. The use of conversations in his writing
also makes the descriptions more vibrant and realistic.
• Innovative approach: Sima's new approach in writing
involved using language which was informal, humorous and
full of variations. This was an innovative way of writing at
that time and thus it has always been esteemed as the highest
achievement of classical Chinese writing; even Lu Xun (魯迅)
regarded Shiji as "the first and last great work by historians,
poems of Qu Yuan without rhyme." (史家之絕唱，無韻之離
騷) in his Hanwenxueshi Gangyao (《漢文學史綱要》).
• Concise language: The style was simple, concise, fluent, and
easy-to-read. Sima made his own comments while recounting
the historical events. In writing the biographies in Shiji, he
avoided making general descriptions, and instead tried to
catch the essence of the events. He would portray the subjects
concretely, giving the readers vivid images with strong artistic
appeal.
Conclusion
• Throughout history, Chinese philosophy has been molded to
fit the prevailing school of thought in China. The Chinese
schools of philosophy, except during the Qin Dynasty, have
been relatively tolerant of one another.
• Instead of competing, they generally have cooperated and
shared ideas, which they would usually incorporate with their
own. For example, Neo-Confucianism was a revived version
of old Confucian principles that appeared around the Song
Dynasty, with Buddhist, Taoist, and Legalist features.
• philosophy has spread around the world in forms such as the
so-called New Confucianism and New Age ideas such as
Chinese traditional medicine.
• Many in the academic community of the West, however,
remain skeptical, and only a few assimilate Chinese
philosophy into their own research, whether scientific or
philosophical.
Matteo Ricci = a footnote
• Born in 1552 in Macerata, then part of the Papal
States, Ricci started learning theology and law in a
Roman Jesuits' school. In 1577,
• He filed an application to be a member of a
Missionary to India, and his journey began in March
1578 from Lisbon, Portugal, arrived in Goa, a
Portuguese Colony, in September 1578, and four
years later hwas dispatched to China.
• In 1582, he started learning the Chinese language
and customs in Macao, a Portuguese trading post in
Southern China, and became a rarely seen Western
scholar who mastered Chinese classical script. He
moved to Beijing in 1601, where he presented
himself at the Imperial court of Wanli.
• Not only could he write in ancient Chinese, he was
also renowned for his great understanding of
Chinese culture.
• He later discovered that Confucian thought was
dominant in the Ming dynasty in China. Ricci
became the first to translate the Confucian classics
into a western language, Latin; in fact "Confucius"
was Ricci's own Latinisation.
Matteo Ricci
(left) and Xu
Guangqi(徐光啟)
(right) in the
Chinese edition
of Euclid's
Elements (幾何
原本).
Sites Cited
• Norton Anthology Resource
http://www.wwnorton.com/nawol/s3_overview.ht
m
• Clothing of China
http://www.library.utoronto.ca/east/students03/tai
_amy/ancient.htm
• The Art of China http://www.artsmia.org/art-ofasia/history/dynasty-chou.cfm
• China’s Ancient Dynasties and Geography
http://www.uic.edu/educ/bctpi/whittier/curriculum
/china/
• About the Yellow River
http://www.cis.umassd.edu/~gleung/geofo/geogre
n.html
Sites Consulted
• Confucius: K'ung-fu-tzu or Kongfuzi
http://www.friesian.com/confuci.htm
• Multi-Lingual Web Site of Confusions Publishing
http://www.confucius.org/maine.htm
• Quotations by Author: Confusions
http://www.quotationspage.com/quotes/Confucius/
• Taoism Information Page
http://www.clas.ufl.edu/users/gthursby/taoism/cztext2.htm
• Lao Tzu: Father of Taoism
http://www.chebucto.ns.ca/Philosophy/Taichi/lao.
html
• "Taoism: The interpretation of Chuang-tzu” Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2005. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. 1 Nov. 2005 <http://search.eb.com/eb/article59714>.
• Wheeler, L.Kip, “Chinese Poetry” Dr. Wheeler’s Home
Page. http://web.cn.edu/kwheeler/chinese_poetry.html 27
Oct. 2005.
• "Taoism." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2005. Encyclopædia
Britannica
Online. 1 Nov. 2005 <http://search.eb.com/eb/article9105866>.
• "Lao-tzu." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2005. Encyclopædia
Britannica
Online. 1 Nov. 2005 <http://search.eb.com/eb/article9047153>
• Music used in opening slides found at
http://logic.csc.cuhk.edu.hk/~b402755/gallery.html