Transcript Document 7120864

Chapter 1
THE PROBLEM AND REVIEW OF
LITERATURE AND STUDIES
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Introduction
Background of the Study
Review of Literature and Studies
Synthesis
Theoretical / Conceptual Framework
Research Paradigm
Statement of the Problem / Objectives
Hypothesis
Significance of the Study
Scope and Delimitation of the Study
Definition of Terms
Chapter 1
THE PROBLEM AND REVIEW OF
LITERATURE AND STUDIES
Introduction
This part encapsulates the whole study or to put it more simply,
what the study is all about. A good introduction is backed-up
by a relevant/familiar related literature and studies that serve
as a strong conceptual groundwork of the study.
It represents the surrounding situations or problems that
prompted the researcher to undertake the study.
Effective introduction shows the actual scenario
related to the problem in focus.
Good starters may be any of the following: relevant
statistical data; an attention-grabbing expression or
timely quotation, a personal experience, a piece of
related information from literature and studies
reviewed and others.
The introductory statement must be eye-catching.
The issues relating to the investigation should be quoted
or documented to encourage readers to read on.
The study should also be recent.
The last part of the study is a brief situational analysis to
present information on the problem and what prompts
the researcher to venture into such a study.
The analysis attempts to show that the study is relevant
and contributes to the existing fund of knowledge.
Background of the Study
This section is optional, the researcher explains the approach to be
used/employed to solve the problem. The introduction usually
ends with the last or closing paragraph stating the primary
purpose of the study or the title of the thesis itself.
There should be a theme in writing the background of the study.
The theme serves an outline so that there is continuity of ideas.
The theme is based on the important variables of the study, their
scope, nature and characteristics.
Furthermore, the presentation must be from macro to micro,
sometimes known as the deductive approach to data
presentation.
Review of Literature and Studies
Review of literature is composed of discussions of
facts and principles to which the present study is
related. Related studies, on the other hand, are
studies, inquiries, or investigations already
conducted to which the present proposed study is
related or has some bearing or similarity.
The review of literature is divided into two parts:
(1) Professional Literature and
(2) Related Studies.
All related ideas, concepts, theories and principles are to
be reviewed to support the investigation.
The term “related” in the title is deleted because all
reviewed literature has significant relationships or have
a direct bearing on the investigation.
Professional literature comes from published
materials like books, journals, magazines,
pamphlets, etc., while related studies are from
unpublished materials like theses, research
reports and dissertations.
Some writers prefer to review the literature first
before framing the introduction, theoretical
framework, statement of the problem, scope,
delimitation and research methodology.
Advantages:
• It helps the researcher look for possible
theories, concepts or principles to
support his investigation.
• It is essential in formulating a sound
research problem or research title,
hypotheses, assumptions, etc.
• It enlightens the researcher as to the
direction of the study.
• It proves that the study is researchable and
possesses novelty.
• It helps to identify the statistical instruments to be
used in the study.
• It serves as a guide to writing the findings,
conclusions and recommendations.
Characteristics:
• The surveyed materials must be as recent as possible.
• Materials reviewed must be objective and unbiased.
• Materials surveyed must be relevant to the study.
• Surveyed materials must have been based upon
genuinely original and true facts or data to make them
valid and reliable.
• Review materials must not be too few nor too many.
Sources:
• Primary Sources:
• Books, encyclopedias, almanacs, and other similar
references,
• Articles published in professional journals, magazines,
periodicals, newspapers, and other publications.
• Manuscripts, monographs, memoirs, speeches, letters,
and diaries.
• Unpublished theses and dissertations.
• The Constitution, and laws and statutes of the land.
• Bulletins, circulars, and orders emanating from
government offices and departments, especially from the
Office of the President of the Philippines and the
Department of Education Culture and Sports,
Commission on Higher Education Technical and Skills
Development Authority and other academic government
institutions.
• Records of schools, public and private, especially reports
of their activities.
• Official reports of all kinds, educational, social, economic,
scientific, technological, political, etc., from the
government and other entities.
Secondary, and Tertiary Sources of
Information:
• Experimentation
• Firs hand investigation: the interview and the
questionnaire
• Doctoral dissertations and monographs in professional
journals
• Letters, diaries, and autobiographies
• Original creative work in art and literature
• Reports of governments and their agencies: national,
regional, provincial, city and municipal
• Annual reports of research foundations, universities,
and corporations
• Newspapers
• Secondary sources are the reports of a person who
relates the testimony of an actual witness or, or
participant in an event.
• The writer of the secondary sources was not on the
scene of the event, but merely reports what the person
who was these said or wrote.
• Most history textbooks and encyclopedias are
examples of secondary sources, for they are often
several times removed from the original, firsthand
account of events.
• Tertiary sources are those compiled from, or based
on, secondary source material.
• Many textbooks are examples of third hand
information.
• Since textbooks often have simplified treatment,
concise entries, and broad coverage, they are
considered acceptable reference tools.
The Mechanics of Note Taking:
• Best (1981) classifies readingreference notes under four
principal categories:
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Quotation
Paraphrase
Summary
Evaluation
• Cards for note taking purposes vary
in size. There are 3” x 5” cards, 4”x 6”
cards, and 5” x 8” cards.
• The researcher should select the size
of the cards which is suitable for his
purposes and needs.
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In the absence of cards, half sheets
of typing paper may be used.
Methods for taking notes:
• Skim the reference source before copying
any notes.
• A bird’s-eye view is essential before one can
decide what material to record and use.
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Selecting the most significant material is an
art to be cultivated.
• Use 4” x 6” cards. They are easily
sorted by subject headings, and are
large enough to include a
reasonable amount of material.
• Some students prefer 5” x 8” cards,
which are less convenient to carry
but provide more space for notes.
• File each note card under a definite
topic or heading.
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Place the subject heading at the top
of the card for convenient filing.
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A complete bibliographic citation
should be placed at the bottom of
the note card.
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If a book has been used, the call
number should be indicated to
facilitate library collection in the
future.
• Include only one topic on a card. This makes
organization of notes flexible. If the notes
are lengthy, use consecutively numbered
cards, and slip a rubber band around them
before filing.
• Be sure that notes are complete and clearly
understandable, for they are not likely to be
used for some time after they have been
copied.
• Distinguish clearly between a summary, a
direct quotation of the author, a reference to
the author’s source, and an evaluative
statement.
• Don’t plan to recopy or type your
notes. It wastes time and increases
possibility of error and confusion.
Copy your notes carefully the first
time.
• Keep a supply of note cards with you
at all times, so that you can jot down
ideas that come to you while waiting,
riding the bus, or listening to a lecture
or discussion.
• Be careful not to lose your notes. As
soon as they are copied, file them in
a card index box. If you must carry
them with you, use the 4” x 6” or 5” x
8” accordion file folder, and be sure
that your name and address is
clearly printed on it.
• Keep a permanent file of your notes.
You may find the same notes useful
in a number of courses or in writing a
number of reports.
Guide to Preparing the Review of
Literature
• For the review of literature you may
need to visit a number of libraries for
articles related to your investigation.
• At the library, look into the card
catalogs for titles of articles, books,
monographs and documents. Write the
call numbers of these materials, and if
necessary, ask the help of the librarian.
• Index cards can help you organize
your materials.
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On these cards, write the names of
authors, titles of the books, sources,
year of publication, publisher and
place of publication.
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If the materials are unpublished
indicate authors, titles, and classify if
thesis or dissertation, the college or
university where the study was
made, year and page, etc.
Author: Juan Dela Cruz
Book: Educational Planning Dev’t.
Page: 312 – 315
Publisher: ISPSC Press
Place: Ilocos Sur
Year: 2001
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Author: Juan Dela Cruz
Year: 2003
Type: M.A. Thesis
Pages:
College/University: Ilocos Sur Polytechnic State University
Place: Tagudin, Ilocos Sur
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• Refrain from copying entire chapters
without proper documentation or
acknowledgements. Plagiarism is
punishable by law.
• If you are a third party, you need to
acknowledge the original author and
the second party if you include their
views, findings and articles in your
study.
• Make a related study on the needs and
relevance of your investigation.
• If you wish to combine professional
and related studies, make a theme of
your review based on the important
variables of the study.
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A thematic approach to writing a
review of related literature makes it
logical, systematic and convenient to
the researcher.
Ways of Citing Related Literature and
Studies:
By author or writer
In this method the ideas, facts, or principles,
although they have the same meaning, are
explained or discussed separately and cited in
the footnote with their respective authors or
writers.
Examples:
According to Enriquez (1981), praise helps much
in learning…
By Topic.
In this case, if different authors or writers have the
same opinion about the same topic, the topic is
discussed and cited under the names of the authors
or writers. This is a summary of their opinions. This
is to avoid separate and long discussion of the same
topic.
Examples:
It has been found out that praise is an important aid in the
learning of children (Enriquez, 1981).
Chronological.
Related materials may also be cited chronologically,
that is, according to the year were written. Materials
which were written earlier should be cited first before
those which were written later.
This can be done especially when citation is author or
written. If citation is by topic, chronological citation
can be done in the footnote.
What to Cite:
It should be emphasized that only the major findings,
ideas, generalizations, principles, or conclusions in
related materials relevant to the problem under
investigation should be discussed. Generally, such
findings, ideas, generalizations, principles, or
conclusions are summarized, paraphrased, or
synthesized.
Quoting a Material:
• A material may be quoted if the idea conveyed
is so perfectly stated or it is controversial and is
not too long. It is written single spaced with
wider margins at the left and right sides of the
paper but without any quotation marks.
Example:
Suppose the following is a quotation: said
Enqiquez,
“Praise is an important factor in children’s
learning. It encourages them to study their
lessons harder. Praise, however, should be
given very appropriately”.
The Evaluation of Material:
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Accuracy and Dependability
Up-to-date
Suitability for Specific Requirements
Authority
Scope
Treatment and Style
Arrangement
Illustrations, Tables and Diagrams
Author
Publisher
Synthesis
• The review of related literature should conclude with a
brief summary of the literature and its implications.
• This consists of 1 or 2 paragraphs which discuss in
brief how similar or different the previously read and
included literatures are to the current study.
Theoretical / Conceptual Framework
• A research study should be supported with various
theories and concepts, to show that the study is
researchable on a scientific basis.
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The theories relative to the investigation provide
directions on undertaking the study.
• The conceptual framework becomes the central
theme, the focus, the main thrust of the body.
• It serves as a guide in conducting the investigation.
• Theories are formulated after reviewing related literature.
• In looking for theories, you must be organized and logical
because you are gathering data for Chapter II (Review of
Related Literature) of your study.
• From the review of related literature and studies, the
researcher may formulate a theoretical scheme for his
research problem.
• This scheme is a tentative explanation or theoretical
explanation of the phenomenon or problem and serves as
the basis for the formulation of research hypothesis.
• After incorporating the theories and concepts, the
conceptual framework is made.
• These concepts are presented in the form of a
paradigm or model showing the steps or processes to
be used in the study.
• A paradigm is a diagrammatic representation of a
conceptual framework.
• It depicts in a more vivid way what the conceptual
framework wants to convey.
Variables
Are the conditions or characteristics that the
experimenter manipulates, controls, or
observes.
• Independent variables are the input variables; in
descriptive research, they are not manipulated.
• They are the conditions or characteristics that
the experimenter manipulates in his or her
attempts to ascertain their relationship to
observed phenomena.
• Moderator variables are the secondary
input variables, which affect or influence
the independent variable.
• The dependent variable is the outcome of
the study. They are the conditions or
characteristics that appear, disappear, or
change as the experimenter introduces,
removes, or changes independent
variables.
Research Paradigm
This part is presented in figure form as the model of the
research study.
The figure shows the interrelationships of the variables of
the study: independent and dependent; variates and covariates; Input-Process-Output (IPO);and in
experimental studies: the pre-test/post-test and other
researcher-made or crafted paradigm.
Statement of the Problem
After the title is approved, the statement of the
main problem and sub-problems of the study
may now be made.
Guidelines in formulating the general
problem and the specific sub-problems or
specific questions:
• The major problem of the study can be stated by
briefly pointing out the objectives, the subject
and the coverage as well as the time frame.
• Specify the sub-problems of the main problems.
• Include all possible components under the subproblems of the study.
• State the sub-problems in either
interrogative or declarative form. If the
study is experimental, it is advisable to
state it in the declarative form.
• You should also have advance
information on the instrument to be used
for data gathering. This will help you
prepare the methodology of the study.
• The statement of the problem must be
brief, clear, specific and relevant.
Sources of Problems:
• Actual problems encountered.
• Technological changes and curricular
developments.
• The graduate academic experience.
• Consultation.
• Specialization.
• Analysis of an area of knowledge.
• Consideration of existing practices and
needs.
• Repetition or extension of investigation.
• “Off-shoots” of studies under way.
Hypothesis
• A hypothesis is a working guide in research, the expected
outcome of the study.
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Hypothesis is defined as an “educated guess.”
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Hypotheses are based on the statement of the problem and subproblems. The number of sub-problems is also the number of
hypotheses in the study.
• A hypothesis is a suggested answer to the problem.
• It may be defined as an expectation about events based on
generalizations of the assumed relationship between variables.
A hypothesis has the following
characteristics:
• It should conjuncture upon a relationship
between two or more variables.
• It should be stated clearly and
unambiguously in the form of a declarative
sentence.
• It should be testable, that is, it should be
possible to restate it in an operational form,
which can then be evaluated based on data.
Types of Hypothesis:
• Null hypothesis. The use of the null
hypothesis has become more common in
research whether it be psychological,
social, or educational.
• The reason for the use of the null
hypothesis by researchers is that it is
easier to disprove.
In using a null hypothesis, one assumes that
no significant relationship or difference
exists, after which the researcher seeks to
ascertain the improbability of such null
hypothesis.
Alternative (or deductive) Hypothesis is
considered the operational statement of
the research hypothesis.
Another type of hypothesis is the inductive
hypothesis, which is based on
observations of behavior.
Significance of the Study
• There is a need to specify the direct beneficiaries of the
study. Just like in the scope and delimitation of the
study, its importance shall be pointed out especially to
the end users to serve as a guide in identifying its value.
• This part of the chapter justifies the conduct of the
research undertakings. It clarifies to the readers and
future researchers the significance of the results of the
study and their potential contribution to the discovery of
new knowledge and policy implications.
• It includes the persons who will benefit from the
results of the study who maybe mentioned individually
or by cluster.
• In making the importance of the study, the macro to
micro (deductive) approach, or from general to
specific approach, is ideal.
Guidelines in explaining the significance of the study
• The rationale, timeliness, and/or relevance of the study
must be discussed.
• Possible solutions to existing problems or improvements
to unsatisfactory conditions.
• Who are to be benefited and how they are going to be
benefited. It must be shown who are the individuals,
groups, or communities who may be placed in a more
advantageous position on account of the study.
• Possible contribution to the fund of knowledge.
Scope and Delimitation of the Study
Scope of the study answers the “what,” “where,”
“when,” “who,” and “why” of the study.
Sevilla, et. Al., (1992) states that the scope of the
study sets the delimitation and establishes the
boundaries of the study.
• The scope refers to the area of the study usually
large enough to be significant, but sufficiently
narrowed down to allow careful treatment.
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The scope of the problem should state clearly the
nature of any subject/s treated, their number and
treatment received.
• Delimitation refers to the limits, parameters or
boundaries of the study.
• These limitations may be with reference to place/s,
population, instrument/s or test/s employed or even
in the research design
• . In this portion of the research paper, the
researcher clarifies with his/her reader/panel what
is exactly covered by the study and what this
particular coverage plays in the attainment of its
purpose.
• Limitations of the study include the weaknesses of
the study beyond the control of the researcher.
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Limitation of the study points out the variables not
included. It discusses the reasons for excluding
them in the investigation.
Guidelines in writing the Scope and Delimitations:
• A brief statement of the general purpose of the study.
• The subject matter and topics studied and discussed.
• The locale of the study, where the data were gathered or the
entity to which the data belong.
• The population or universe from which the respondents were
selected. This must be large enough to make generalizations
significant.
• The period of the study. This is the time, either months or
years, during which the data were gathered.
• Possible implications. It must be discussed here that the
implications include the possible causes of the problems
discovered, the possible effects of the problems, and the
remedial measures to solve the problems. Implications
also include good points of a system, which ought to be
continued or to be improved if possible.
Definition of Terms
• Clear definitions as frames of reference composed of
selected terminologies are needed and must be
provided in the study.
• These terms are defined within the context of the study,
i.e. variables of the study, which are to be measured by
appropriate statistical instruments or based on
dictionary meanings (conceptual definitions).
• They help the readers/panel of examiners understand
what the researcher is driving at.
• Although conceptual definitions may be used,
operational definitions are preferred.
• The terms are arranged in alphabetical order and
defined in complete sentences.
• In qualitative research studies, definition of terms are
optional, i.e. may not be required.
Operational definition of terms is when a researcher
defines the terms as he uses them in the study.
They can be defined according to the variables included in
the instrument of the study.
Conceptual definitions is mostly concerned with attributing
authorities like books, magazines, etc., including
unpublished materials. Terms are usually quoted by a
researcher.
Technical studies usually define terms as an explanatory
device.
Guidelines in defining terms:
• Only terms, words, or phrases, which
have special or unique meaning in the
study, are defined.
• Terms should be defined operationally,
that is, they are used in the study.
• The researcher may develop his own
definition from the characteristics of the
term defined.
• Definitions may be taken from
encyclopedias, books, magazines, and
newspaper articles, dictionaries, and
other publications but the researcher
must acknowledge his sources.
(Conceptual or theoretical definitions)
• Definitions should be as brief, clear,
and unequivocal as possible
• Acronyms should always be spelled
out fully especially if it is not commonly
known or if it is used for the first time.
The End