BTEC National Diploma in Sport

Unit 11 - Sport and Society

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Learning Intentions

• By the end of the lesson students will have; – Been introduced to the Sport & Society unit.

– An understanding of the requirements for successful completion of the unit.

– Some knowledge of the development of sport through certain historical periods.

– Been introduced to the key organisations within sport in the UK

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Introduction

• This unit will investigate how society can affect sports and how society can be influenced by sport. Sports are more than just games or activities won or lost and an opportunity to meet new friends; they are also a social phenomena that have meanings that go far beyond scores, results or statistics. Sport forms a major part of people’s lives. “Sport signifies a great deal about ourselves and about different ways of living and in so doing contributes to the ongoing production of social life itself.” (Richard Gruneau, Social Scientist, University of British Columbia, 1988)

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Unit Requirements

• • • • 3 Assignments; Assignment 1 will assess the following grading criteria – P1, P2 & M1 Assignment 2 will assess the following grading criteria – P3,M2 & D1 Assignment 3 will assess the following grading criteria – P4, P5, P6 , M3, M4, M5, D2 & D3

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• •

How the Development of Sport has Influenced How it is Organised

Sport is now a multinational business and operates as such. There are a wide range of activities available now, but to understand how sport operates today we must also understand its historical origins; the following slides will briefly outline how sport has developed through different historical periods.

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Historical Period Characteristics

Medieval period 1200 - 1485 People had little time or energy for recreational activities Leisure time activities were originally confined to feast days Games were local in nature, each village having its own particular activities for feast days From time to time the government banned traditional activities in favour of archery training Tudor and Stuart period 1485 - 1714 Traditional folk games and activities flourished in Tudor times Puritanism greatly reduced the opportunities to play and types of activity allowed After the restoration in 1660, traditional activities were revived Sport moved away from its former links with merrymaking and lawlessness Hanoverian period Play and sport were largely ignored by the government 1714 - 1790 People of all classes enjoyed their leisure to the full Increasing industrialisation demanded regular working patterns There was some pressure for Sunday to be a day of rest Large gatherings for sport often meant social disorder Regular, organised, rule-governed sport on a national scale emerged

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Changing times 1790 -1830 Traditional sport was under attack from all sides Factory owners wanted a regular working week Property owners feared the damage caused by large crowds Churches criticised idleness, drunkenness and slack morality Commercialisation of sport developed, especially in horse racing, cricket and prize fighting Victorian sport 1830 - 1901 Sport developed in the context of industrial capitalism and class inequality Sport became linked to a moral code defined by the middle classes It was accepted that sport developed character and morality competition had to be fair and rule-governed with similar conditions for all players Sport was to be played, not for reward, but for its own sake Nationwide sport developed through the influence of technology, the public schools and the national governing bodies For the masses, Saturday afternoon free from work was the turning point, enabling them to play and spectate Amateur and professional sport became increasingly separated Working class sport in school was limited largely to drill and therapeutic gymnastics

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Edwardian Sport 1901 - 1918 Organised sporting involvement expanded rapidly across all classes Increasingly, the different classes played their sport separately Public school athleticism still dominated sport Male working class influence increased, notably in football in England and rugby in Wales. However, working class women were largely excluded from sporting involvement Commercialisation of sport continued with large numbers of spectators and increased numbers of professionals in major sports Sport was increasingly a matter of national concern Between the World Wars 1918 - 1940 Steady growth in sports participation continued for all classes of society, although working class were least involved Most sports were still class orientated Football (in all its versions) continued to increase in popularity and by the 1930s, was the most popular sporting activity Lack of facilities became an issue, particularly when national teams failed There was little government involvement in sport, apart from physical education in schools School physical education moved from therapeutic exercises to creative physical training Commercialisation of sport expanded rapidly, especially the provision for spectator sport Sport, as a part of a national culture, now extended to the majority of the population

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Football in the 1930’s

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British sport 1940 - today An improved standard of living has enabled greater participation in sport for most social groups Amateur administrators only reluctantly allowed commercial forces to enter the world of sport Professional sportspeople had a long battle to be given fair rewards Television coverage increased in importance for sport and the sponsors The definition of amateurism for competition was replaced by the concept of eligibility Central government involvement in sport has always been fragmentary There has been a long standing under funding of sport by central government An advisory Sports Council was established in 1965 and the independent executive Sports Council in 1972 Physical education was established in the 1944 Act for its educational value The movement approach conflicted with traditional games teaching Physical education moved away from educational values towards physical recreation and more recently towards health-related fitness Various academic qualifications in physical education stimulated scrutiny of the subject (for example, BEd, CSE, GCSE, A-Level) Physical education is now established in the national curriculum as a foundation subject There has been an increasing influence of market forces on schools, physical education, sports facilities and sport

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Organisation of sport

•

The role of government

As early as 1541 when legislation dictated that all men under the age of 60 practise archery in their spare time in order to defend the country the government has been involved in the organisation of sport. • As in 1541 the majority of government involvement in sport has been reactionary. For example the introduction of physical activity in elementary schools in the early 1900’s was in reaction to the poor performance of the British army in the Boer War in South Africa, which was attributed to the poor physical state of the troops.

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• More recently the Taylor Report (1990) into the Hillsborough disaster where 96 football fans died prompted government legislation concerning the safety of football stadiums to help battle the issue of football hooliganism.

• In 1960 following the Wolfenden Committee report on the state of sport and physical recreation both the government and the opposition rejected the idea of forming a Ministry for Sport. • Instead of initiating a Ministry for Sport the government opted for the idea of a Sports Council, which would be headed by a Minister for Sport. This movement away from political control was highlighted in 1972 when the Sports Council received the Royal Charter, which makes the Sports Council autonomous and free from political control.

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•

The Department of Culture, Media and Sport

In the 1960’s after its inception the Sports Council campaigned for a Department for Sport and Tourism to be set up. The government rejected these calls and sport was placed under the jurisdiction of the existing Office of Arts and Libraries. • In 1992 The Department of Heritage was set up who had overall responsibility for sport and recreation. The Department of Heritage had a diverse responsibility, which included the arts, media, and heritage with a sub-division for sport the

Sport and Recreation Division

. • In 1997 the department was renamed the Department of Culture, Media and Sport. The DCMS was instrumental in the development of the National Lottery. The Lottery was set up in 1993 with the first draw in November 1994. The Lottery helps raise funds for 5 areas of

good causes

, which include sport.

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•

Local authority provision

Local authorities are the largest providers of sports facilities in the UK. City, borough and district councils provide a large range of sports facilities including sports centres, municipal golf courses, swimming pools etc. Facilities provide sporting and recreational opportunities for the local community. There are approximately 1500 swimming pools and 2000 local leisure centres in the UK which according Sport England leaves the country under resourced in local sports provision.

• Traditionally the funding for local sports provision comes directly from central government through grants and local taxes such as the council tax. The initial aim of this provision was to offer affordable, subsidised facilities for all the local communities to utilise. However, the tightening of local authority budgets coupled with changing government priorities has led to local authority provision becoming inferior to private sector provision and less affordable .

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International Olympic Committee International Sports Federation Department of Culture, Media and Sport

British Olympic Association SportsAid

The structure of sport in the UK

Governing Bodies UK Sports Council/Sport England Central Council of Physical Recreation Four Sports Councils Former National Coaching Foundation now SCUK Regional Sports Councils Regional Associations Sports Clubs Local Sports Councils

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Key Organisations in the structure of British sport

The English Sports Council/Sport England

• The English Sports Council (ESC) was set up in 1997. It was charged by the Royal Charter to take the lead in all aspects of sport and physical recreation, which require administration, co-ordination and representation in England. According to the charter the council’s main objective is “the development of sport and physical recreation and the achievement of excellence therein among the public at large in England and the provision of facilities therefore”

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The council consists of 14 members who are selected by the Secretary of State for Culture, Media and Sport.

The ESC publication “England the Sporting Nation” identified the following the objectives of sport in England: • • • • For everyone to develop the skills and competence to enable sport to be enjoyed For all to follow a lifestyle which includes active participation in sport and recreation For people to achieve their personal goals at whatever their chosen level of involvement in sport For developing excellence and for achieving success in sport at the highest level In 1999 The English Sports Council was re-marketed and is now known as Sport England.

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The Central Council of Physical Recreation (CCPR)

The CCPR was set up in 1935 with two main objectives: • • To encourage as many people as possible to participate in sport and physical recreation (both male and female) To provide the separate governing bodies of sports with a central organisation which would both represent and promote their individual and collective interests The CCPR is an autonomous voluntary organisation. The Sports Council has close links with the CCPR as an advisory body.

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Sports Coach UK (SCUK) (Formerly National Coaching Foundation)

The NCF was originally set up in 1983 by the Sports Council with the intention of organising coaching in all different sports. Sports Coach UK is a totally independent, self funded body with members from other organisations such as the Sports Council, CCPR and The BOA (British Olympic Association). Sports Coach UK’s activities include: • • • • Administering coaching qualifications Providing coaching resources Assist governing bodies in increasing the quality of their coaching awards Assist in the publication of a national register of coaches in order to meet child protection needs

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• • • •

Governing Bodies

The majority of popular sports played today were developed and organised in the late 1800’s. This development required members of committees to agree sets of rules and regulations, which would govern the particular sport. These committees became known as governing bodies of which there are currently over 265 in the UK. Examples of these governing bodies in the UK include the FA (Football Association), RFU (Rugby Football Union), ABA (Amateur Boxing Association) and the LTA (Lawn Tennis Association).

These governing bodies administer their particular sport and also organise competitions and the national team.

National governing bodies are also members of International governing bodies such as UEFA, FIFA and the IRB (International Rugby Board). These international governing bodies organise the sport at international level and are responsible for multi national events such as the Champions League, the World Cup and the Rugby World Cup.

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International Governing Bodies (FIFA, IRB) National Governing Bodies (IFA,IRFU) Regional Member Associations (County Football Associations) Local Sports Clubs

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• • •

International Olympic Committee (IOC)

The IOC is the governing body of the Olympic movement and was created by the Paris Congress in 1894 by Pierre De Coubertin. The IOC owns the rights to the Olympic symbol and also the games. The IOC is responsible for selecting the cities which host both the summer and winter Olympic Games. • The headquarters for the IOC are in Lausanne, Switzerland.

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• • • • •

British Olympic Association (BOA)

The BOA was formed in 1905 and is the governing body of the Olympic movement in the UK. The BOA is responsible for the arrangements for British athletes competing in both the summer and winter games. The UK is currently one of only five nations to send representation to every modern Olympic Games since its inception in 1896.

The BOA receives no funding from central government to pay for the costs involved in sending well prepared teams to the Olympic Games unlike other nations such as the USA who receive direct government funding. The BOA therefore undertakes a great deal of fundraising predominantly through commercial sponsorship and donations.

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Sports Aid (Formerly Sports Aid Foundation)

• • • • • Dennis Howell, then Minister for Sport formed the Sports Aid Foundation in 1976. SportsAid is a fund-raising organisation led by a board of trustees who raise and distribute funds to talented predominantly young sports performers. The funding aims to assist athletes to pay for essentials such as travel and kit. The aim of SportsAid is to allow athletes to train as full time professionals without the burden of money worries. The SportsAid slogan of ‘Giving Britons a Better Sporting Chance’ reinforces their aims. The funding is generated through donations, fundraising activities, commercial sponsorship and the National Lottery.

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•

Youth Sports Trust (YST)

The Youth Sports Trust is a sports agency founded in 1994 which aims to develop sport for young people through a series of schemes called the TOP programmes. These programmes intend to encourage children of all ages to pursue a healthy lifestyle.

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• •

The Sports Industry in the UK Today

•

Scale

Sport now has a massive role to play within society and has a significant economic impact; the amount of people that participate in sport has direct relation to the amount of revenue created. Many sporting organisations do not reveal the specific details of the revenue they create and as you can imagine it can vary dramatically depending upon factors such as the popularity of the sport and the equipment needed. Participation rates are a good indicator of the popularity of the activity or sport and surveys such as the census and general household surveys can often give important information regarding the amount of people who are active in sport; an example of such data can be found below

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Participation in Sports, Games & Physical Activities

• • • • • In 2002 three quarters of adults (75%) had taken part in some sport, game or physical activity during the twelve months before interview. Fifty-nine per cent of adults had done so in the four weeks before interview.

Excluding people whose only activity was walking, the corresponding overall participation rates were 66% of adults in the last twelve months and 43% of adults in the last four weeks.

In terms of participation in the last twelve months the five most popular sports, games or physical activities among adults were: Walking (46%), Swimming (35%), Keep fit/yoga – including aerobics and dance exercise (22%), Cycling (19%)

,

Cue sports - billiards, snooker and pool (17%)

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As in previous years men were more likely than women to participate in sports activities (either including or excluding walking) in the four weeks before being interviewed. In 1996, 54% of men and 38% of women had participated in at least one activity, excluding walking, in the four weeks before interview. By 2002 participation had fallen to just over half (51%) of men compared with 36% of women. In general participation rates decreased with age. In 2002, 72% of young adults (aged 16 to 19) compared with 54% of adults aged 30 to 44 and 14% of adults aged 70 and over had participated in at least one activity (excluding walking) in the last four weeks before interview.

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Adults living in Scotland were more likely than those living in England or Wales to have participated in at least one activity in the four weeks before interview (62% compared with 58% in England and 57% in Wales). The higher participation rate in Scotland was mainly due to the higher proportions who had been walking in the previous four weeks (43% compared with 34% in England and 35% in Wales).

The Government also indirectly fund sport through many of the agencies discussed in part 1; below are some further examples of the economic importance of sport,

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The Government will be investing £62 million in the development of grass roots football, and the sport's community and education initiatives, over the four years to 2004 through the Football Foundation.

World Class Programme Funding.

Overall approximately £60 million per annum is awarded under the World Class Programme.

UK Sport awards approximately £25 million per annum for the World Class Performance and Events Programme.

Sport England awards approximately £35 million per annum for the World Class Performance, Potential, Start and Events Programme.

Up to 31 March 2001 awards of £181.9 million had been made under the World Class Performance Programme (WCPP) administered by UK Sport and Sport England and over 35 sports had benefited. Up to 31 March 2001 awards of over £55 million had been made under the Potential and Start Programme administered by Sport England.

As you can see the amounts of money invested in sport are massive and this triggers employment as all schemes and initiatives require organisation and delivery. This could range from the coaches who have direct contact with the athletes to the staff behind the scenes who may organise and administer it.

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The retail industry and consumer spending

With the increases in participation and changes to sports there has been a growing need for the manufacture of sporting goods and equipment; this has led to retailers becoming very successful and making vast profits. Organisations such as Nike, Addidas, Reebok, Spalding, Speedo and Topflight have cornered the market in their chosen sports becoming a household name in many cases. Furthermore recently sports clothing and certain types of equipment have become fashionable and people who may have never participated in sport will be wearing sports brands; this has also had significant impacts upon the profit made.

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Arguably Nike is one of the most successful sports retailers and their example can be seen below.

• • • • A lot has happened at Nike in the 33 years since it entered the industry, most of it good, some of it downright embarrassing. What started with a handshake between two running geeks in sleepy Eugene, Oregon, is now the world's most competitive sports and fitness company. The world headquarters is in Beaverton, Oregon. The Pacific Northwest is Nike's hometown, but like so many ambitious souls, they have expanded their horizons to every corner of the world. Nike employs approximately 24,300 people, and every one of them is significant to their mission of bringing inspiration and innovation to every athlete in the world.

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• •

Founders:

There are two: Bill Bowerman, the legendary University of Oregon track & field coach, and Phil Knight, a University of Oregon business student and middle-distance runner under Bowerman. The long-lived business partnership began in January 1964 as Blue Ribbon Sports (BRS). First-year sales totalled $8,000. In 1972, BRS introduced a new brand of athletic footwear called Nike, named from the Greek winged goddess of victory.

•

Employees:

Nike employs approximately 24,300 people worldwide. In addition, approximately 650,000 workers are employed in Nike contracted factories around the globe.

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•

Revenue FY'05:

Nike reported net revenues of $13.7 billion, a 12 percent increase from FY’04.

•

Stock Symbol:

NKE. Went public in December 1980 and is traded on the New York Stock Exchange.

•

Facilities:

Nike owns facilities in Oregon, Tennessee, North Carolina and The Netherlands, and operates leased facilities for 14 Niketowns, over 200 Nike Factory Stores, a dozen NikeWomen stores and over 100 sales and administrative offices.

• Nike are just one example of the scale of the retail industry and gives a significant example as to the scale of the retail industry and consumer spending.

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B.

Structure of the sports industry

• There is a wide variety of facilities available for the public to use to occupy their sport and leisure time and these can generally be divided into three main areas, the public, private and voluntary sectors.

• The table below outlines what each of the different sectors can offer to the public and the way that they are organised.

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Sector Details Public sector

•This sector includes local authority run facilities, such as local leisure centres. •It aims to provide a wide range of provision from swimming pools to exercise classes. •It caters for the needs of the community running sessions for specialist groups such as the over 50’s or mums and toddlers.

•Schemes to enable the under-privileged, unwell or unemployed are often run in these centres •These centres are subsidised by the local authority and do not operate at a profit.

•This sector has paid employees.

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Private sector

•This sector includes private health clubs such as Fitness First or David Lloyd.

•They provide specialist provision in the health and fitness industry to a narrower range of clients.

•Only those who can afford to pay can use these centres.

•This sector’s main focus is the creation of profit for its owners.

•This sector has paid employees.

Voluntary sector

•This sector includes any voluntary sports clubs, for example community run sports teams such as a youth soccer team or an after school club.

•These are non profit making clubs and teams; any money charged is only to cover the costs of equipment or facilities.

•There are no paid employees in this sector.

•The sector’s main focus is to give opportunities for participation.

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Provision

It must be understood that sport has not only competitive elements but many people take part just for fun or health benefits; in fact the majority of people that take part in sport do not compete.

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•

Foundation

The largest stage, many people learn how to play a sport but then may never take part or compete. For example most people learn how to swim; however it is only something they do for survival or for fun on holiday.

• • •

Participation

Many people may decide to take part in a sport for fun or health benefits and have no intention of competing or achieving excellence.

Performance

Some people may train to compete or train to win; therefore they would be in the performance stage. They could also be striving for excellence in this stage but never achieve it .

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•

Excellence

Very few people achieve this but many strive towards it; it also may be the case that an athlete may only be in this stage for a short period of their career moving back into the performance stage and perhaps into participation if they decide to retire.

Strategies and funding are put in place to support each of the stages. Many link to health initiatives but the majority aim to promote excellence.

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Strategies to Promote Excellence

• With the drive to promote elite sport in the UK for success at the 2012 Olympics a number of funding initiatives have been put in place to encourage young athletes to stay within sport and become successful athletes. The main programme to drive this success is the world class pathway system which is managed by UK sport.

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• • • •

World Class Podium

This programme will support sports with realistic medal capabilities at the next Olympic/Paralympic Games (i.e. a maximum of four years away from the podium). At this level, an assessment of realistic medal projections determines the required investment per sport using the models introduced post-Athens for Olympic and Paralympic sports. Athlete places will be distributed to a sport based on a combination of the sport's results at the last Games, competitive track record; projected medal capability in the future and demonstrated ability to constantly produce athletes through the pathway. Support is provided through a performance programme with the governing body and an athlete personal award.

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• • •

World Class Development

This programme is designed to support the stage of the pathway immediately beneath the Podium. It will comprise of sports that have demonstrated that they have realistic medal winning capabilities for 2012. For sports already funded by the Podium Programme their continued success will only be possible if there is investment in the next wave of talented athletes coming through the system. Olympic athletes at this level are typically six years away from the podium, whereas this timeframe may be considerably shortened for Paralympic athletes.

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• • Other sports not yet funded at Podium Programme level but where there is performance evidence that they have the potential to medal in the next Olympic/Paralympic cycle are eligible for consideration for funding at World Class Development level. In the period to the home Games in 2012, additionally and exceptionally, World Class Development will also embrace those sports with realistic capabilities to be competitive in 2012 but where medal achievement is unlikely.

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• • • •

World Class Talent

This programme is designed to support the identification and confirmation of athletes who have the potential to progress through the World Class pathway with the help of targeted investment. Funding provided through the programme will allow sports to identify the athletes with all the right attributes to ensure they can go on to compete effectively on the world stage. In addition, this programme will look to raise the level of sophistication by which sports approach the identification of new athletes and examine ways in which talent, where appropriate, can be transferred across sports. Olympic athletes will be a maximum of 8 years away from the podium, but again could be much less for Paralympic athletes.

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BTEC National Diploma in Sport

Unit 11 - Sport and Society

PowerPoint 2

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How Contemporary Issues Affect Sport

•

The media

Issues of media coverage have always been at the centre of elite sport. The information below will aid understanding of media issues affecting sport and leisure activities.

• Types of media coverage: There are many different types of media coverage. They can include: television, radio, internet, newspapers, magazines, mobile phone. Each of these has its own strengths and weaknesses.

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Type of coverage

Television Newspapers Radio Internet Magazines Mobile phone

Strengths Weaknesses

Can see the activity Visual stimulation Exciting Instant Recorded for all time Can read at own leisure Easy to focus upon the event Easily missed Expensive Sometimes boring Misreporting Opinion based Out of date by time released Easily missed Technology needed Bulky technology needed Instant feedback Constant updates Can be seen and heard Glossy, easy to read Interesting Instant results Out of date by time released Screen size Technology needed Constantly updating

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•

B. Media coverage of women in sport

Over the past 30 years media coverage of women’s participation in sport has been instrumental in increasing popularity and participation rates. Despite this female sport is hugely under-represented by the media “you can be 90% certain that media coverage of sports is based on or around male performance or male accounts of the events” (Hargreaves, 1997). • Coverage of men’s sport covers a wider range of sports at a multitude of levels compared to the elite coverage of women’s sport in a limited number of events.

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• Media coverage of women’s sport has tended to focus on female athletes’ non playing attributes such as their femininity and sexuality rather than their on field performances. • An example of this would be Anna Kournikova who in 2002 was the highest paid female tennis player in the world and darling of the media due to her perceived attractiveness and femininity rather than her tennis ability. Anna Kournikova has never won a major singles title. However, could the same be said of David Beckham’s earning power?

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One of the most notable examples of media focussing on female achievement was the Sydney 2000 Olympic Games. Some of the major media friendly moments of the games involved female achievement in sport. For example: • Cathy Freeman winning the 400m in front of an ecstatic home crowd • Marion Jones quest to win an unprecedented 5 Olympic gold medals • Naoko Takahashi winning the marathon with an 84% share of the TV audience in Japan • Denise Lewis winning the gold medal in the heptathlon • The Williams sisters winning gold in the tennis doubles in only 49 minutes.

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Aside from the media portrayal of female performances in the Games some of the main human interest stories surrounding the Games involved women: • Reigning Olympic 400m champion Marie-Jose Perec leaving Sydney without explanation prior to competing • Mrs. Marion Jones being excluded from the Games for failing a drugs test • Nigerian Glory Alozie just losing out for the gold medal days after her husband was run over and killed in a Sydney street.

• Cathy Freeman lighting the Olympic flame

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• Despite the performances of female athletes in the Games of 2000 it was still felt that female popularity in the media was due to their femininity and attractiveness to the male audience. • This was highlighted by Jill Greer, former runner and head of communications for the US track and field team;

“….women’s sport is a glamour thing. You’re out there wearing your underwear, basically, in front of 100,000 people, and you’re putting on your make-up and doing your hair”.

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•

C.

Cheating and drug use in sport

In order to examine the effects of drugs in sport it is important to understand the different terms associated with the subject. • •

Performance enhancing drugs

– Performance enhancing drugs are those banned substances which are taken to specifically enhance sporting performance.

Steroids

– These are artificial male hormones that allow the performer to train harder and longer.

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• •

Blood doping

– Removing blood after training at high altitude. The blood is stored and then reinfused shortly before competition in order to improve the aerobic capacity by increasing the number of erythrocytes. Blood doping is very difficult to detect.

Recreational drugs

– These are illegal substances that are banned but are not beneficial in improving sports performance.

As the rewards for excellence in sport increase more risks are taken by athletes to acquire the edge to become the very best.

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The following slides will examine the areas detailed below: • Brief history of drugs in sport • Why people take drugs • Banned performance enhancers and their effects

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• • • • • • • • • •

Brief history of drugs in sport

400BC – Greeks known to eat extract of certain plants and mushrooms in order to improve performance Roman Period – Gladiators were drugged in order for them to fight more effectively 1886 – Pro cyclist Linton died from a reported overdose of strychnine amphetamine 1904 - Olympic marathon runner Thomas Hicks almost dies from strychnine 1930’s – Amphetamines were first produced 1950’s – Soviet Union athletes used male hormones to improve strength and power 1952 – Speed skaters taken ill at the Winter Olympics due to amphetamine usage 1960 – Danish cyclist Kurt Jensen collapsed and died from an amphetamine overdose 1967 – Tommy Simpson died during Tour De France again due to amphetamine usage 1968 – I.O.C. produce the first list of banned substances

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• • • • 1976 – First steroid tests introduced at the Olympic Games 1983 – Sports Council call for the expansion of random drug testing in the UK 1984 – Olympic 1000m champion Finn Vaataninen was proved to have used blood doping 1988 – Ben Johnson was tested positive and stripped of his 100m gold medal and world record after testing positive for anabolic steroids • 1996 – Olympic Gold medallist Michelle Smith (De Bruin) tested positive for anabolic steroids • 1999/2000 – A number of athletes particularly British test positive for the banned substance nandrolone • 2003 – British sprinter Dwain Chambers banned from athletics for being found guilty of using nandrolone.

• 2004 – Greek sprinters Kostas Kenteris and Katerina Thanou pulled out of the 2004 Athens Olympics after missing a drugs test and then being involved in a bike crash.

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Why people take drugs in sport

• One of the major reasons for athletes to use drugs is dissatisfaction with their progress and performance • Belief that other athletes are taking them thus creating an uneven playing field • The financial reward for improved performance in the form of appearance fees, sponsorship, wages etc • Pressure from coaches, family, friends and media to succeed • Lack of knowledge of the side effects that are associated with taking performance enhancing drugs • Values – some people think that the use of performance enhancing drugs is acceptable including notable sport sociologists

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Examples of banned performance enhancers and their effects

• Performance enhancing substances and their use in sport in governed by WADA (world anti doping agency). For the most up to date lists of the banned substances and their affects refer to their website.

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D. Changes to the rules of games

• There have also been modifications made by individual sports to increase interest, the number of spectators and funding gained. The table below gives some examples of modifications that have been made to different sports.

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Sport

Soccer Cricket Rugby league Beach volleyball Boxing Motor sports

Changes made

Changes to kick off times Penalty shootouts instead of replays Changes to the league systems New leagues created Introduction of floodlit night games Changes to the number of games played Changed from a winter to a summer sport Restrictions upon the amount of material to be worn Introduction of points system More weight divisions made Changes to the courses Changes to the length of events Restrictions on cars

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E. Sponsorship in sport

• Sponsorship is a major contributor to the funding of the sports industry, The Nationwide Building Society make a significant contribution to sport; outlined below is an example of the division or allocation of funding.

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Sponsorship: A Sponsor’s Perspective by Nationwide The role of sponsorship

• Potential sponsors are looking to dominate the collective interest of groups in a manner which is capable of moving consumer attitudes in a positive direction. They want the kind of regular media exposure that delivers a continuous communications platform. They also want a cost effective way to reach targeted customers (either niche or mass interest) in numbers sufficient to allow them to achieve their communications objectives.

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Different types of commercial objectives:

• Depending on their objectives organisations will require differing commercial returns. The type of sponsorship organisations are seeking can be generally categorised under the following headings: • Brand • Increased sales • Revenue generation • Corporate hospitality

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The evaluation process:

• When considering a sponsorship proposal potential sponsors will usually evaluate the following: • The audience • Brand relevance/profile • Exposure • Impact • Image rights • Cost, term • Exclusivity

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Nationwide Building Society’s sponsorship history

• 1996 - 2004 • 1999 - ongoing Title sponsor of The Nationwide Football League Title sponsor of The Nationwide Conference (from 2004 inc north and south feeder leagues) Wales team sponsor Associate sponsor of The Scotland team • 1999 – 2002 England team sponsor • 1999 – 2002 Title sponsor of The Irish Gold Cup • 2003 - ongoing The FA Partnership in association with The England team, . FA Cup and women’s football

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• • • •

F. Globalisation in sport

Globalisation as the very word suggests means the spread of all things that once had local origins or roots to the rest of the world.

Globalisation does not just simply refer to sport but works in all contexts. For example someone in Italy many years ago invented ice cream; now it is widely available all over the world. This is also very similar for sports; as we all shold know from our previous research the game of Rugby was invented by William Webb Ellis picking up a football and deciding to run with it. However Rugby has now grown and developed into an international sport played very successfully as far as you can possibly get from Rugby school in South Africa, Australia and New Zealand.

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What are the possible reasons for globalisation and what are the factors that have made sports more accessible?

• Increased movement of people across countries and continents • Increased global communication and travel.

• Increased finance and disposable income • Increased leisure time • Increased global sponsorship and advertising • The importance of globalisation is profound and many would say has increased the competitiveness within sport, none better an example than with soccer where many of the most successful national teams come from South America far from where it was invented in Western Europe.

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G. Child protection issues in sport

The issue of protecting children and vulnerable adults within sport is now of national significance. In 2004 government figures indicated that over 32,000 children in the UK were officially registered as being in need of protection from abuse; however it is felt that there are thousands more unregistered. People who work with children on a regular basis may be able to provide an important link identifying a child who is at risk or is being harmed.

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With this in mind there are certain government legislations to govern this: • For child welfare and protection - Children Act 1989 and 2004 • For criminal offences against children - Sexual Offences Act 2003 • In recruitment and selection of staff and volunteers - Protection of Children Act 1999 - The Police Act 1997 - Criminal Justice and Court Services Act 2000 • All of these are underpinned by the Human Rights Act and the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child.

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• • • Generally it is mostly teachers, parents and in the sports context coaches who will have the opportunity to work with children and be in a position of trust. With this in mind Sports Coach UK (ScUk) provide guidance for coaches to identify the issues regarding child protection. They identify key principles that coaches must adhere to:

Rights

– coaches must respect and champion the rights of every individual to participate in sport

Relationships

– coaches must develop a relationship with athletes (and others) that is based on openness, honesty, mutual trust and respect

Responsibilities

: personal standards – coaches must demonstrate proper personal behaviour and conduct at all times

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•

Responsibilities

: professional standards – to maximise benefits and minimise the risks to athletes, coaches must attain a high level of competence through qualifications, and a commitment to ongoing training, that ensures safe and correct practice.

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They also identify five types of abuse that can occur: • Emotional abuse – the ill treatment of a child that results in severe and persistent adverse effects upon their emotional development • Physical abuse – when someone causes physical harm or injury to a child • Sexual abuse – when adults or other young people use children to meet their own sexual needs • Neglect – when an adult fails to meet a child’s basic physical or psychological needs • Bullying and harassment – deliberately hurtful behaviour, usually over a period of time

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BTEC National Diploma in Sport

Unit 11 - Sport and Society

PowerPoint 3

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Understand Cultural Influences and Barriers That Affect Participation

A. Ethnicity in sport

Popular beliefs about race and ethnicity have a major impact on what happens in sport. Sport has the ability to either reinforce popular beliefs about race or to challenge and change major beliefs. According to Coakley (1999) race and ethnicity can be defined as: “….race refers to a category of people regarded as socially distinct because they share genetically transmitted traits believed to be important in a group or a society” “Ethnicity refers to the cultural heritage of a particular group. Ethnicity is NOT based on genetically determined physical traits; instead, it is based on characteristics related to culture and cultural background” (Coakley, 1999)

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• The racial categories used to divide human beings in society are based on popular beliefs developed by society rather than tangible biological differences. Scientists have been attempting to racially categorise human beings for the past 300 years. However, these attempts to categorise humans on the basis of genetics have proved futile as highlighted by Boyd (1996); “Race has no basic biological reality. The human species simply doesn’t come packaged that way” The characteristics we see with the naked eye that help us distinguish individuals from different continents are, in reality, skin deep. Whenever, we look under the veneer, we find that the differences that seem so conspicuous to us are really trivial” Coakley (1999).

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Despite the lack of a comprehensive racial classification system sociologists have debated why athletes from certain races are more successful in certain sports than others. The debate can be loosely split into two areas: •

The physiological approach

– Argument focuses on success purely from a physiological perspective suggesting success in sport depends on genetics.

•

The sociological approach

– Argument suggests success is not due to biology but a series of sociological factors in which we find ourselves.

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The physiological approach

• In athletics the rise of black athletes has been phenomenal. • Black athletes hold every track world record from the 100m sprint through to the marathon. • Of the 32 finalists in the 2000 Olympics in Sydney not a single competitor was not of West African decent. • More than 50% of the fastest times in middle and long distance running have been recorded by athletes from East African decent (Kenya and Ethiopia predominantly). • Similarly in the US 80% of NBA basketball players are black despite making up only 13% of the population.

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In Britain the figures are also extraordinary. The black population in Britain was 4% in 2002 but: • Over 50% of the UK athletics team was black • Over 50% of British boxing champions were black • 40% of premiership footballers were black Despite this huge success black athletes are still under-represented in other sports, for example: • Only one black swimmer has ever won an Olympic medal • There is a lack of black participants in cycling, golf and tennis

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There has been some controversial research undertaken to establish if black athletes held a biological advantage in certain events over their white counterparts. Whilst the studies proved inconclusive some tentative conclusions were made: • Black middle distance runners have different composition of muscle fibres compared to white athletes.

• Noakes (1990) found that black runners were able to run at a higher percentage of their VO  max for longer periods than white athletes.

• Black athletes have longer limbs, less fat, more skeletal muscle and have leaner bodies

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Sociological approach

“It is important for people who study sports to know about the biological meaningless of race” (Hallinan, 1994). As previously mentioned there has been no biological evidence linking race to excellence in certain sports. • Coakley (1999) notes that the Swiss are never accredited as having an in built skiing gene to explain their huge success in major skiing championships • Sociologists believe that the following factors are instrumental in the emergence of black athletes in certain sports:

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Role models

• Young people’s participation in sport can depend greatly on the availability of role models with whom they can associate. • The emergence of successful black role models such as Muhammad Ali, Karem Abdul-Jabbar, Michael Jordan, Carl Lewis, Jesse Owens, John Barnes, Linford Christie and Lennox Lewis may inspire other black performers to participate in those sports in which their role models have excelled.

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Access

• People’s access to sports has a huge bearing on the success of athletes at the elite level. For instance, the Winter Olympics is dominated by athletes from countries such as Switzerland and Austria who have access to mountains in the appropriate climate. • Access for performers in sports such as golf have not been fair and have in some cases deliberately excluded black performers. When Tiger Woods burst into the golfing world in the 1990’s he was barred from playing at a number of courses in the US due to the colour of his skin.

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Socio-economic factors

• Although sport is not the sole privilege of the upper classes participation in sport is not equal among social classes. This has led to some ethnic minority groups being under-represented in certain sports and over represented in others. • Socio-economic factors have led football becoming a truly world sport due to the fact it can be played with little equipment and resources. This may also be a reason why long distance running has become the national sport in poverty stricken countries such as Ethiopia. • In 1998 about 36.5 million Americans (14% of the population) were living below the poverty line. This segment of the population contained a disproportionate number of ethnic minority groups who lacked resources, equipment and facilities to participate in organised sport.

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• Youths from inner cities whether they be in the US or the UK gravitate towards sports such as basketball and football which are inexpensive and are also seen as a vehicle through which to gain great wealth and popularity.

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The concept that black people have differing natural athletic abilities from their white counterparts is not a recent development in the sociological study of sport. • For centuries scientists have attempted to develop a race logic to explain the physical differences between races. This race logic suggested that black athletes have great physical capabilities such as speed and power and lower levels of intelligence and decision making capabilities

“….the magnificent animal …He eats. He sleeps. He fights … Is he all instinct, all animal? Or have a hundred million years left a fold upon his brain? I see in this coloured man something so cold, so hard so cruel that I wonder as to his bravery. Courage in the animal is desperation. Courage in the human is something incalculable and divine”

(New York Times)

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The previous quote was taken from the New York Times after Joe Louis easily beat Primo Carnera who was a white heavyweight champion of the world. • Louis was portrayed in the press as being animal like and brutal but in reality he has been remembered as an ambassador of goodwill and of boxing skill and judgement. • This race logic has led sociologists to believe that it is sociological reasons and not biological ones that have led to the over-representation of black athletes in certain sports. In British football the emergence of black footballers has been dramatic.

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B.

Gender issues

• • “We feel that the Olympic Games must be reserved for the solemn and periodic exaltation of male athleticism, with internationalism as a base, loyalty as a means, arts for its setting and female applause as reward.” (Pierre De Coubertin, founder of the modern Olympics) (circa 1896) The role of women in sport has come a long way since the comments of Pierre De Coubertin but the issue of equality in sport has been the focus of sports sociologists the world over. This is highlighted by Coakley (1999

) “possibly the most significant and most prolific change that has occurred throughout the sporting world over the past 30 years has been the increase in the levels of participation of women in sport”.

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Participation patterns among women

•

Increased opportunities

- There are a number of reasons for the increase in participation rates among women. The primary reason for the increase in participation is the fact that women have more opportunities to participate than ever before. • Girls and women have become increasingly included in various coaching programmes and initiatives, which sparked interest previously absent. This has led to women’s football becoming the fastest growing participation sport in the UK (Sprito).

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The feminist movement –

In the late 19th Century there were campaigns for the rights of women in the UK. These campaigns were focussed on improving females social/political/economic status within the UK. • The feminist movement gained more strength during the 2nd World War when women were required to take on more traditionally male roles in society whilst the males were away fighting. • This development led society to perceive women as being more capable of undertaking tasks, which previously they were considered unable to do. This then had a knock on effect with women’s participation in sport.

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The health and fitness movement

- The health and fitness movement developed in the 70’s was instrumental in improving women’s participation rates. The awareness of the benefits of health and fitness encouraged women to participate in health related exercise. • The main focus of the movement towards physical activity was through activities such as aerobics and jogging as opposed to the more traditional sports activities. • Much of the emphasis of participation by women was still based on the traditional views of femininity and sexual attractiveness.

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• •

Factors why men achieve more in sport than women

Sports traditional status as a male preserve –

The vast majority of sports were invented by men for the sole enjoyment of men. Throughout history sport has been utilised for male purposes and has been shaped to fit their abilities (Houlihan, 2000). By the outbreak of the First World War there were very few sports which women had not tried. Despite this participation opposition to female participation came from both within and outside sport.

• Throughout history through to contemporary society the administration of sports both in governing bodies and clubs has been dominated by men and in some cases the sole preserve of men. An example of which would be the exclusion of women in some areas of the MCC (Marylebone Cricket Club) at Lords.

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Role models

– One of the main contributors to participation in sport is the presence of role models to encourage and inspire young performers. Due to the historical lack of female participation in sport there is also a lack of role models for young females to aspire to. This is predominantly still the case within team sports such as football and cricket in the UK. Individual sports have however produced some powerful role models.

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C.

Barriers

• Participation in sport and leisure more recently has been in decline, with rising levels of sedentary lifestyle related illnesses. We need to identify the possible reasons for this decline and assess how we get people more involved in sports and leisure activities.

• The following information will provide guidance on the possible reasons why there is a current decline in sports and leisure activities.

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• • • •

Time:

This is often cited as a reason for non-participation in sport. With demanding jobs and family issues people often find it difficult to find the time to exercise.

Provision:

It may be the case that there are no facilities or the facilities are not of the appropriate standard for the activity the consumer would like to take part in, e.g. it is difficult to train for skiing in the UK as there is very little snow.

Transport or location:

In many sports and leisure activities the nearest club or facility is not always local leading to issues regarding access and transport.

Cost:

Consumers who are on a low income or are unemployed may not have the finances available to enable them to take part in the sport or leisure activity of their choice. Furthermore some sports require large sums of money in order to participate, e.g. polo or horse or motor racing.

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• • • •

Religion:

This can be a barrier as the clothing required for certain religions can be restrictive to sport and leisure activities. Furthermore some religions do not allow their followers to compete or train at certain times as they have duties to undertake.

Disability:

This can be restrictive as in certain cases there is not integration between able bodied and disabled people and some sports or activities require certain modifications or different equipment to enable disabled people to take part.

Sega culture:

The computer games console revolution has led to a decline in participation among teenagers as many of them would rather play computer games rather than take part in sport and leisure activities.

Age:

As people age their participation in sport and leisure activities declines.

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D. Strategies to encourage participation in sport

• • As previously discussed participation in sport and leisure more recently has been in decline. However there have been many strategies put in place to prevent this gradual decline. We need to identify some of those strategies and comment on any other ways the barriers to participation can be broken down.

There is a range of strategies employed to increase participation in sports and leisure; most governing bodies have their own strategies. However there are also national projects to increase participation. Below are some examples of projects to aid the increase in participation in sport.

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Name of strategy

Everyday sport Active communities Award for all

Details

A Sport England national strategy to give people opportunities and access to sport and leisure activities. Activities are run and coordinated regionally with activities run locally. www.everydaysport.com The services, products and funding sources aim to increase sports opportunities in local communities and encourage more people to participate in sport. Provides small grants to schools, local groups and health bodies to run community based sessions or provide facilities.

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TOP programmes

Girlsport TOP Play and TOP Sport is a joint venture between Sport England and the Youth Sport Trust and is delivered as part of the Active Schools and Communities Programmes. TOP Play teaches core skills and fun sports to children aged four to nine. It nurtures young children's natural enthusiasm, and introduces them to essential basic sporting skills: running and jumping, throwing and catching, striking and kicking, travelling with a ball and receiving a ball. GirlSport is an exciting new programme that enhances communication and understanding of the issues that affect teenage girls’ enjoyment, involvement and progress in sport and physical activity. It is designed to encourage teenagers, and the adults that influence them, to share ideas and problems associated with the conflicts that often occur as girls approach and experience puberty. By raising awareness and tackling these issues it is hoped that fewer young women will drop out from sport and physical activity at this crucial time.

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Every child matters Sporting equals A project funded by the Department of Culture, Media and Sport to provide children and young people with "things to do and places to go".

They are working to improve access to culture, sport and play for children and young people, so that they can develop their talents and enjoy the benefits of participation. The DCMS works through its sponsored bodies to mobilise the national culture, sport and play networks to deliver change for children.

Funded by Sport England, sporting equals is a national initiative aiming to promote racial equality in sport. It was set up in 1998 in partnership with the commission for racial equality and aims to address the under representation of black and ethnic minorities in the decision making roles within sport. Sporting equals works with national governing bodies and key partners to attempt to provide equality at the highest levels within sport.

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TASS A Department of Culture, Media and Sport funded project in which sport works with further education to bridge the talent pathway for 16 to 25 year old sportspeople. The TASS programme gives bursaries for talented athletes to support them to combine their high performance training and competition with education.

Coaching task force 2002 A report commissioned by the DCMS to evaluate the current coaching happening in the UK and provide recommendations for future practice nationally. It compared coaching in England with other countries, examined the feasibility of creating a coaching license, reviewed the role of Sports Coach UK and their role within sport.

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Plan for sport 2001 Sportsmark A report again commissioned by the DCMS to evaluate the current provision of sport and physical activity in the UK. It examined and gave suggestions of how to develop sports education, community sport and modernise the organisations involved. It has driven the changes in sport over the last 4 to 5 years.

Sportsmark is Sport England's accreditation scheme for secondary schools. It is a developmental and auditing tool that rewards and recognises a school for its out of hours sports provision and a broad and balanced PE curriculum.

There are two levels of award: Sportsmark and Sportsmark Gold. Schools can receive a distinction at either level. In Nov 2004, 1,512 schools have a Sportsmark (24 with distinctions) and 269 hold the gold award (14 with distinctions). Overall, 5% of Sportsmark holders are special schools.

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