I.

Edward T. Hall

Cultural patterns

 4 distinguishing features (dimensions):

1. Time

Monochronous cultures - people do one thing after the other - time is very important  punctuality  making plans  keeping to plans - job/work is very important - more short-term relationships Polychronous cultures - people do things simultaneously - time schedules are not so important  people are notoriously unpunctual  plans are flexible - people are very important  more time spent on maintaining or building up relations with family/friends/business partners - more life-long relationships - Work time is clearly separable from personal time - Work time is not clearly separable from personal time © DS

2. Context

 characterizes the way in which information is transmitted low context the majority of the information is explicitly communicated in the verbal message

e.g. an apology must be clearly articulated

high context - a lot of information is embedded in the context  feelings, thoughts and information are not explicitly expressed, but also through a variety of

contexts

, such as voice tone, body language, facial expressions, eye contact, speech patterns, use of silence, past interactions, status, common friends, etc. The message is more implicit.

the same message can be communicated through a variety of nonverbal gestures such as a smile, a sigh, a shrug, or a frown.

- high context communication assumes a prior relationship, i.e. we are members of a common culture, company, family, or other group   people care for good relationships conflicts must be resolved before work can progress  business relationships depend on trust and build slowly - few rules are given and information is accessed through informal networks © DS

3. Space

 refers to the distance people need for the protection of their privacy If people come too close, they can offend other people's privacy Cultures that need more (private) space e.g. Germany (big 'bubble' needed)  people have distinctive places which they call "mine" and don't want them to be "disturbed"  closed doors  private offices and partitions  minimal interruptions and disruption  permission needed to enter private space  no touching without agreement Cultures that need less (private) space e.g. Mediterranean countries (small 'bubble')  large rooms, few if any partitions  managers mix with employees  open doors  no problems with interruptions and disruption  private and "public" space not so clearly distinct  touching is more common, e.g. greeting rituals © DS

4. Information

Cultures with slow flow of information Information is planed carefully and therefore flows slowly Cultures with fast flow of information polychronous, high context cultures monochronous, low context cultures © DS

II.

Geert Hofstede

 5 distinguishing features (dimensions):

1. Power Distance Index (PDI)

extent to which inequalities of power and wealth are commonly accepted Cultures with low PDI - hierarchies are less strict - superiors are expected to socialise with staff - employees expect to take part in decision-making or to be asked for their opinions - tendency to delegate tasks and responsibility - ideal boss: good democrat - co-determination - less difference in incomes tax laws support equitable distribution of income Cultures with high PDI - strict hierarchies are accepted and expected - superiors don't mix/socialise with staff - employees expect directives and rules - tendency to centralize decision-making and responsibility - ideal boss: kind/benevolent autocrat - autocracy high dependence of employees on their superiors/ senior staff - big difference in incomes are accepted © DS

2. Individuality Index (individuality versus collectivism - IDV)

 extent to which individual interests prevail over the interests of a group Cultures with high IDV - ties between individuals are loose - everyone is expected to look after themselves and their immediate family - emphasis on individual goals, which are more important than the group ("Selbstverwirklichung") - "I" distinctive from other people - people emphasize their success/achievements in job or private wealth and aim to reach more and/or a better job position - personal freedom is more important than equality Cultures with low IDV people from birth onwards are integrated into strong, cohesive in-groups, which throughout people’s lifetime continue to protect them in exchange for unquestioning loyalty - great emphasis on groups, people think more in terms of "we" - harmony and loyalty within a company/group is very important and should always be maintained, confrontation should be avoided  China: - never disagree with someone's opinion in public discussion in private atmosphere to avoid "loss of face" - saying "no" would also mean to destroy the harmony in the group other expressions must be used The well-being of the company/groups/society is more important than individual freedom.

© DS

3. Masculinity Index (masculinity versus femininity - MAS)

Cultures with high MAS dominant values: performance and success self-assertion/resolution (Durchsetzungsvermögen) career/ambition performance work is very important in life competition and competitive conflict behaviour analytical approach to problem-solving big and fast are beautiful Cultures with low MAS dominant values: quality of life and care for others willingness to adapt (Anpassungsbereitschaft) quality of life sensitivity/empathy work is necessary to make a living cooperation/compromising, strive for consensus intuitive approach to problem-solving Small and slow are beautiful © DS

4. Uncertainty Avoidance Index (UAI)

extent to which people feel threatened by uncertain or unknown situations Cultures with high UAI (cultures which avoid uncertainty) Cultures with low UAI (cultures which accept uncertainty) - desire for detailed rules and their control - resistance against change/innovation - people tend to worry about the future - higher demand for details in contracts - aversion to rules - open for new things and change - little worries about the future - avoidance of too many rules and formalities - expert and specialist knowledge are accepted - acceptance of generalist knowledge and common sense - formalization and standardization - flexible organisation and work environment © DS

5. Long-Term Orientation versus Short-Term Orientation (LTO)

Cultures with high LTO - fostering of virtues oriented toward sustainable future rewards:  perseverance  thrift  strong work ethic  willingness to subordinate oneself for a purpose  development is sometimes slow Cultures with low LTO - fostering of virtues related to the past and present:  efforts should produce quick results  change is welcome and may happen rapidly  respect for traditions  social and status obligations are important  preservation of "face" © DS

What are cultural standards (patterns) and what is their purpose?

- with variations they are valid for a majority of the members of a culture - they describe and explain how a cultural group perceives and evaluates things, how they think and why they act in specific ways - they regulate behaviour (how to act in certain situations and with other people) - variations (individual and group specific) are tolerated within certain boundaries - behaviours outside these boundaries are socially rejected and sanctioned people‘s own cultural standards are not perceived consciously any more after their successful socialisation makes understanding between cultures more difficult own cultural standards become conscious if they are compared with other cultures‘ standards