Transcript Energy concept for future oil refineries with an emphasis on separation processes Antonio Carlos Brandão de Araújo Department of Chemical Engineering Norwegian University of.

Energy concept for future oil refineries with an
emphasis on separation processes
Antonio Carlos Brandão de Araújo
Department of Chemical Engineering
Norwegian University of Science and Tecnology (NTNU)
Trondheim, Norway
January 2007
1
About this presentation
• Motivation:
– Focus on environmental aspects in oil refining is not enough ([Szklo 2007],
[DOE 2000]).
– Energy-efficient processes in oil refining are paramount.
– Need for research in this field is a must.
• Focus:
– What’s up on the future of energy consumption.
– Opportunities: I’ll give directions.
– Looking at the big picture: Not restricted to separation processes.
• Goal:
– Attempting to show what one can expect in terms of more energy-efficient
refineries.
2
About this presentation
• Let’s tear things down:
Energy concept = Energy efficiency.
Keep it simple!
Energy concept for Catalytic
future refineries. cracking +
separation
unit
Directions will
be given but
problems
wont’t be
solved here!
Future = Next 20 years.
Nothing futuristic! No revolution!
3
• Directions will be given… Well, it cannot be different since there are
lots of alternatives to consider and details cannot be given here!
Outline
1.
2.
3.
4.
A vision for the future
A simple guide to oil refining
Energetic issues in an oil refinery
Thermodynamic analysis and measures to improve energy consumption.
•
•
•
•
•
Crude oil distillation (atmospheric and vacuum)
Fluid catalytic cracking
Catalytic hydrotreating
Catalytic reforming
Alkylation
5. Separation processes
6. Recap and future directions
7. References
4
A vision for the future
•
5
According to the API’s Technology Vision 2020: A Technology Vision for
the U.S. Petroleum Refining Industry [API 2000] report,
–
The petroleum industry of the future will be environmentally sound, energyefficient, safe and simpler to operate. It will be completely automated,
operate with minimal inventory, and use processes that are fundamentally
well-understood. Over the long term, it will be sustainable, viable, and
profitable, with complete synergy between refineries and product consumers.
–
To improve energy and process efficiency, the industry will strive to use costeffective technology with lower energy-intensity. Refineries will integrate
state-of-the-art technology (e.g., separations, catalysts, sensors and controls,
biotechnology) to leapfrog current refinery practice and bring efficiency to
new levels.
Outline
1.
2.
3.
4.
A vision for the future
A simple guide to oil refining
Energetic issues in an oil refinery
Thermodynamic analysis and measures to improve energy consumption.
•
•
•
•
•
Crude oil distillation (atmospheric and vacuum)
Fluid catalytic cracking
Catalytic hydrotreating
Catalytic reforming
Alkylation
5. Separation processes
6. Recap and future directions
7. References
6
A simple guide to oil refining
•
According to the North American Industry Classification System
(NAICS) [DOE 2006], petroleum refineries are defined as:
Establishments primarily engaged in refining crude petroleum into
refined petroleum.
Picture of the oil
refinery of the
future, if the oil
consumption
maintains its
crazy growth…
Actually, this is a
1876 oil refinery
in California.
7
A simple guide to oil refining [Exxon 2005]
8
A simple guide to oil refining
•
In short:
–
–
–
–
–
–
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Everything is upgraded to valuable products: More fuel!
Over 43% of production is gasoline.
Almost 80% is converted to fuel.
It is a huge process facility!!!
Lots of reactions and separations to add value to the product.
Many opportunities for energy savings.
Outline
1.
2.
3.
4.
A vision for the future
A simple guide to oil refining
Energetic issues in an oil refinery
Thermodynamic analysis and measures to improve energy consumption.
•
•
•
•
•
Crude oil distillation (atmospheric and vacuum)
Fluid catalytic cracking
Catalytic hydrotreating
Catalytic reforming
Alkylation
5. Separation processes
6. Recap and future directions
7. References
10
Energetic issues in an oil refinery ([DOE 2000],
[Pellegrino 2005])
Energy by source in an oil refinery
Other
7%
Electricity
5%
Natural gas
25%
Refinery
gas
46%
Petroleum
coke
17%
•
•
•
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•
Refinery gas + petroleum coke + other oil-based by-products accounts for
65% of the energy sources in an oil refinery.
38% of the energy sources in an oil refinery are used to produce non-fuel
products like lubricant oils, wax, asphalt, and petrochemical feedstocks.
Oil refineries generate large amounts of electricity on-site. In the U.S.,
over 40% (1994) of electricity in refineries are on-site generated.
The cost of energy for heat and power accounts for 40% of the
operating costs in the refinery!!!
Energetic issues in an oil refinery [DOE 1998]
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•
•
•
•
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According to the
NAICS, the petroleum
refineries consumed 3.1
quadrillion Btu in 2002,
almost 20% of the fuel
energy consumed by
the U.S..
From the Table 35% is
consumed in two
distillation processes.
As expected,
hydrotreating is also
very high, 19% alone.
Units in circles are
prone to be “optimized”
energetically as they
represent approx. 80%
of the energy consumed
by the refining process.
We will focus on these
units.
Energetic issues in an oil refinery [Worrell 2005]
• Hydrogen generation is yet another high energy consumption process.
• Large amounts of energy are consumed as fuel, while the rest is basically
steam.
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Energetic issues in an oil refinery
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Energetic issues in an oil refinery [DOE 2000]
•
Future characteristics of oil refineries in terms of energy use:
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–
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–
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How?
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–
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Energy use is optimized throughout the refinery complex.
Energy efficiency and process controls are integrated.
Fouling of heat exchangers is essentially eliminated.
Innovative heat exchangers are in place (all helical, vertical, no baffles)
Use of cogeneration in refineries is optimized, and refineries are power
producers.
Use of very energy-intensive processes (e.g., distillation, furnaces) is
minimized.
Source of heat loss (e.g., in pipes) are easily identified through monitoring.
Identify entirely new technology.
Upgrade existing inefficient technology.
Energetic issues in an oil refinery [DOE 2000]
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•Replacing the
conventional energyintensive separation
processes has a
tremendous impact
on energy
consumption.
•Waste recovery in
the short term.
•Fouling mitigation
and new refining
processes in the mid
and long terms.
•Membrane is the
first step.
•Catalytic distillation
is in the mid run.
•Long run:
distillation beyond
membrane.
•[Pelegrino 1999]
say the target is 1520% energy
reduction for U.S.
refineries.
0-3 years
3-10 years
10-20 years
Outline
1.
2.
3.
4.
A vision for the future
A simple guide to oil refining
Energetic issues in an oil refinery
Thermodynamic analysis and measures to improve energy consumption.
•
•
•
•
•
Crude oil distillation (atmospheric and vacuum)
Fluid catalytic cracking
Catalytic hydrotreating
Catalytic reforming
Alkylation
5. Separation processes
6. Recap and future directions
7. References
17
Thermodynamic analysis… [DOE 2006]
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Remember the 5 processes with the largest energy consumption?
A thermodynamic analysis of these 5 processes is performed.
Three measures are defined:
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TW = Theoretical Work: The least amount of energy that a process would
require under ideal conditions.
CW = Current Work: Energy consumed under actual plant conditions.
PW = Practical Work: Minimum energy required to run the process in realworld, non-standard conditions by applying cutting edge technologies still on
the drawing board.
By applying these state-of-the-art technologies the maximum potential
for energy savings can be quantified by
PI (Potential Improvement) = CW (Current Work) – PW (Practical Work)
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Crude oil distillation (atmospheric and vacuum)
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Atmospheric distillation:
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Vacuum distillation:
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It is the heart of the refinery.
It produces a range of products, from LPG to heavy crude residue.
High temperature (bottom 600oC), low pressure (near atmospheric) process.
It has heavy crude (high boiling point) as feedstock.
It must then be conducted at vacuum conditions.
It produces light and heavy gas oil and asphalt (or resid).
These products are upgraded.
Crude oil distillation (atmospheric and vacuum)
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Crude oil distillation (atmospheric and vacuum)
•
Atmospheric distillation energetic assessment [DOE 2006]:
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–
–
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•
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Theoretical work
Current work
Practical work
Potential improvement
= 22 x 103 Btu/bbl feed
= 109 x 103 Btu/bbl feed
= 50 x 103 Btu/bbl feed
= 59 x 103 Btu/bbl feed
The potential improvement can be achieved by ([Gadalla 2003a],
[Gadalla 2003b], [ANL 1999], [TDGI 2001], [Liporace 2005], [Seo
2000], [Rivero 2004], [Yeap 2005], [Hovd 1997], [Sharma 1999])
– Control of fouling in the crude preheat train and fired heater.
– Improved heat integration between the atmospheric and vacuum towers.
– Improved tray design and heat integration between trays, and optimization of
the number of trays and operating conditions for improved vapor-liquid
contact and higher throughput.
– Enhanced cooling to lower overhead condenser cooling water from 75°F to
50°F.
– Implementation of advanced control.
Crude oil distillation (atmospheric and vacuum)
•
Vacuum distillation energetic assessment [DOE 2006]:
–
–
–
–
•
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Theoretical work
Current work
Practical work
Potential improvement
= 46 x 103 Btu/bbl feed
= 89 x 103 Btu/bbl feed
= 54 x 103 Btu/bbl feed
= 35 x 103 Btu/bbl feed
The potential improvement can be achieved by ([Gadalla 2003a],
[Gadalla 2003b], [ANL 1999], [TDGI 2001], [Sharma 1999], [Liporace
2005], [Seo 2000], [Rivero 2004], [Yeap 2005])
– Control of fouling in the fired heater.
– Improved heat integration between the atmospheric and vacuum towers.
– Improved tray design and heat integration between trays, and optimization of
the number of trays and operating conditions for improved vapor-liquid
contact and higher throughput.
– Enhanced cooling to lower overhead condenser cooling water from 75°F to
50°F.
– Implementation of advanced control.
Fluid catalytic cracking
•
•
Objective: Convert heavy oils into more valuable gasoline and lighter
products.
Feedstocks are light and heavy gas oil from atmospheric or vacuum
distillation, coking, and deasphalting operations.
High temperature, catalytic cracking
reactions:
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Fluid catalytic cracking
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Fluid catalytic cracking
•
Energetic assessment [DOE 2006]:
–
–
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•
= 40 x 103 Btu/bbl feed
= 183 x 103 Btu/bbl feed
= 132 x 103 Btu/bbl feed
= 51 x 103 Btu/bbl feed
The potential improvement can be achieved by ([Linhoff 2002], [ANL
1999])
–
–
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–
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Theoretical work
Current work
Practical work
Potential improvement
Addition of a power recovery turbine.
Conversion of condensing turbine drive to electric motor drive (wet gas
compressor).
Improved heat integration, pinch analysis.
Minimization of other miscellaneous losses.
Catalytic hydrotreating
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•
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Objective: Remove sulfur, nitrogen, and metals and upgrade heavy
olefinic feed by saturation with hydrogen to produce paraffins.
It commonly appears in multiple locations in a refinery (5 or more of
these units).
They are usually placed upstream of units where catalyst deactivation
may occur.
Typically we can distinguish: Naphtha hydrotreater, kerosene
hydrotreater, and gas oil hydrotreater.
Main reactions:
Catalytic hydrotreating
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Catalytic hydrotreating
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Energetic assessment [DOE 2006]:
–
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= 30 x 103 Btu/bbl feed
= 81 x 103 Btu/bbl feed
= 55 x 103 Btu/bbl feed
= 26 x 103 Btu/bbl feed
The potential improvement can be achieved by ([ANL 1999], [Gary
2001], [Linhoff 2002], [Liebmann 1998])
–
–
–
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Theoretical work
Current work
Practical work
Potential improvement
Improved pre-heater performance.
Improved catalyst.
Improved heat integration, pinch analysis.
Minimization of other miscellaneous losses.
Catalytic reforming
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Objective: Convert naphthas and heavy straight-run gasoline into highoctane gasoline blending components and hydrogen production.
It essentially restructures hydrocarbon molecules to increase the octane of
motor gasoline.
Main reactions:
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Dehydrogenation of naphthenes to aromatics:
Methylcyclohexane → Toluene + 3H2
Methylcyclopentane → Cyclohexane → Benzene + 3H2
Dehydrocyclization of paraffins to aromatics:
n-Heptane → Toluene + 4H2
Isomerization:
n-Hexane → Isohexane
Methylcyclopentane → Cyclohexane
Hydrocracking:
n-Decane → Isohexane + nButane
Catalytic reforming
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Catalytic reforming
•
Energetic assessment [DOE 2006]:
–
–
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•
= 79 x 103 Btu/bbl feed
= 264 x 103 Btu/bbl feed
= 203 x 103 Btu/bbl feed
= 61 x 103 Btu/bbl feed
The potential improvement can be achieved by ([ANL 1999], [Gary
2001], [Packinox 2003])
–
–
–
–
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Theoretical work
Current work
Practical work
Potential improvement
–
Improved feed and interstage process heater performance (e.g., improved
convection section heat recovery).
Replace horizontal feed/effluent heat exchangers with vertical plate and
frame exchanger.
Improved equipment efficiency (e.g., recycle and net gas compressor, reactor
product air cooler).
Additional process cooling to improve light ends recovery (vapor
compression vs. ammonia absorption).
Minimization of other miscellaneous losses.
Alkylation
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•
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Objective: Produce branched paraffins that are used as blending
components in fuels to boost octane levels without increasing the fuel
volatility.
There are two alkylation processes: sulfuric acid-based and hydrofluoric
acid-based.
Both are low-temperature, low-pressure, liquid-phase catalyst reactions.
Main reaction:
Alkylation (H2SO4 process)
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Alkylation (H2SO4 process)
•
Energetic assessment [DOE 2006]:
–
–
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•
Theoretical work
Current work
Practical work
Potential improvement
= -58 x 103 Btu/bbl feed
= 250 x 103 Btu/bbl feed
= 156 x 103 Btu/bbl feed
= 94 x 103 Btu/bbl feed
The potential improvement can be achieved by ([Gadalla 2003a], [TDGI
2001], [DOE 2006], [Schultz 2002])
– Improved compressor efficiency, from 25% to 50%.
– Improved heat integration, pinch analysis.
– Use of a dividing wall column design or other advanced separation
technology.
– Upgraded control system.
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Summary
Process
TW PW CW PI PI (%)
103 Btu/bbl feed
•
•
•
•
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1. Atmospheric distillation
22
50
109 59
54
2. Vacuum distillation
46
54
89 35
39
3. Alkylation H2SO4
-58 156
250 94
38
3. Alkylation HF
-58 152
245 93
38
4. Catalytic hydrotreating
30
55
81 26
32
5. Fluid catalytic cracking
40 132
183 51
28
6. Catalytic reforming
79 203
264 61
23
As expected, crude distillation (atmospheric and vacuum) has the largest
potential for savings.
Followed by alkylation and catalytic treatments.
Note that separation sections are also included in the conversion
processes.
As a general potential improvement, I particularly would also include
assessment of the control structure design of the refinery.
Outline
1.
2.
3.
4.
A vision for the future
A simple guide to oil refining
Energetic issues in an oil refinery
Thermodynamic analysis and measures to improve energy consumption.
•
•
•
•
•
Crude oil distillation (atmospheric and vacuum)
Fluid catalytic cracking
Catalytic hydrotreating
Catalytic reforming
Alkylation
5. Separation processes
6. Recap and future directions
7. References
36
Separation processes
•
•
The majority of the available literature is related to the issue concerning
distillation and they are heavily concentrated in the atmospheric and
vacuum columns. I bet you know the reason!
Future solutions for improving energy efficiency in separation processes in
oil refineries are basically related to:
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Membrane technology.
Fouling mitigation.
Advanced process control and optimization.
Heat integration.
Design of efficient separation systems.
What follows are mostly on the drawing board, i.e., no real-world
implementation.
Separation processes
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Membrane technology:
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[Wauquier 2000] discusses that membrane technology is still an infant in the
world of grown-up inefficient processes in the oil industry. Its main application
is in hydrodesulfurization processes in catalyst hydrotreating units, replacing
existing separation processes with energy savings up to 20%.
Nevertheless, [Goulda 2001] and [White 2000] claimed a fuel reduction of
36,000 bbl/year (or 20% w.r.t. the conventional process) by adding a membrane
unit in the dewaxing unit to recover part of the solvent stream. The membrane
is selective to the solvent from the solvent/oil/wax mix.
According to [Szklo 2007], further research is needed to develop appropriate
membrane materials that can withstand the harsh conditions in petroleum
refining processes.
Separation processes
•
Fouling mitigation:
–
[Panchal 2000] presented a performance monitoring via an Excel® spreadsheet
of the preheat train for a crude distillation unit. The authors claim that by using
their technique the energy loss in a period of 2 years can be reduced by almost
60%.
– [Nasr 2006] proposed a model of crude oil fouling in preheat exchangers with
the aim of better controlling fouling formation. In contrast with other models,
the one proposed by the authors consider the mechanisms of formation and
natural removal.
– [Yeap 2005] presented the application of existing fouling models to maximize
heat recovery in the preheat train of the crude oil distillation. The authors’
conclusion was that designing for maximum heat recovery results in a less
efficient system over time due to fouling effects.
– However, [Szklo 2007] states that the very complex mechanisms which lead to
fouling are still not properly understood to the extent they can be safely used
for fouling mitigation techniques (anti-fouling agents and coatings).
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Separation processes
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Advanced process control and optimization:
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[Domijan 2005] optimized a crude distillation unit by using a model that, according to
the authors, has some advantages over commercial ones since it is adapted to real plant
conditions, it is open source as well as flexible and fast. Moreover, it can also identify
fouling level and be applied for planning shutdowns and maintenance stops. They
claimed they found an optimal solution that saves up to 3.2% of energy consumption visà-vis actual operating conditions.
[Seo 2000] considered the optimal design of the crude distillation unit (atmospheric,
vacuum, and naphtha stabilizer) by optimizing feed locations, heat duties of
pumparounds and operating conditions of the preheat train. They use a MINLP
framework. They claim the energy recovery in pumparounds and preheat train could save
up to 20 million kcal/h.
[Hovd 1997] proposed the implementation of MPC in a crude oil distillation. They used
the MPC package (D-MPC) of Fantoft Prosess and a linear model of the process obtained
using first-principle model equations and laboratory data. They implemented the MPC
strategy in a refinery in Sweden and reported a reduction in energy consumption
equivalent to USD20,000/year for a project investment of USD250,000.
[Gadalla 2003b] performed a very simple optimization of existing heat-integrated
distillation systems for crude oil units where the column (with fixed configuration) and
the associated heat exchanger network are considered simultaneously. Only one design
(retrofit) variable is assumed: area of the HEN. They claimed savings up to 25% over the
base case.
Separation processes
•
Heat integration:
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[Gadalla 2006] optimized an existing crude distillation column where a gas
turbine/generator is integrated with the preheat furnace. They claim energy
reductions of up to 21%. The idea was then to maximize the energy generated
in the gas turbine by adjusting the temperature of the feed, reflux ratio, steam
flow rates, temperature difference of each pumparound, and the flow rate of the
liquid through each pumparound.
[Gadalla 2005] studied the design of an internally heat-integrated distillation
column for separating an equimolar propylene-propane mixture where the 57
stages of the stripping column are heated by the first 57 stages of the
rectification column. They claim that by increasing the heat transfer rate per
stage, energy savings can reach up to 100% of reboiler duties. For this, the
compressor power would increase only 15% w.r.t. the base HIDiC case.
By applying pinch analysis, [Plesu 2003] propose to thermally couple crude
distillation units and delayed coking units through the utility system. They
basically proposed to send the vacuum bottoms to the delayed coking unit at a
higher thermal load and use this artifice to generate part of the steam needed in
the crude distillation unit. They do not report energy saving figures.
Separation processes
•
Heat integration:
–
[Liebmann 1998] proposed a systematic algorithm based on pinch analysis that
lends to automation of the design procedure of crude oil distillation units where
the column, the heat exchanger network, and their simultaneous interactions
are considered together. Modifications that further increase the efficiency of the
process are: installation of reboilers rather than stripping stream and the
thermal coupling of column sections. They claimed that units conceived by this
method can save up to 20% energy w.r.t. the base case.
– [Szklo 2007] states that heat integration and waste heat recovery appears as one
of the main options for saving fuel in the short to mid terms.
42
Separation processes
•
Design of efficient separation systems:
–
[Szklo 2007] discussed the use of catalytic distillation (CD) as an alternative to
hydrotreating units, namely to FCC gasoline. The idea is to fractionate the
gasoline by distillation, which yields several gasoline fractions, and then treat
these fractions for sulfur according to their prevailing sulfur compound
reactivities, all in the same unit. Lighter fraction are treated more severely
while the heavier ones undergo desulfurization at higher temperatures at the
bottom of the CD column. The authors claimed that up to 62% of energy can be
saved w.r.t. conventional HDS processes.
– [Szklo 2007] also discussed the application of biodesulfurization in
replacement of conventional HDS with energy savings of up to 80%. This is at
the very beginning of development and the main barriers are the understanding
of biological mechanisms of biocatalysts and the development of efficient twophase biodesulfurization systems.
– [Schultz 2002] defended the thesis that dividing-wall columns (DWC) can save
up to 30% in energy costs. In this technology, remixing of components towards
the bottom or top of a direct sequenced train which causes thermal inefficiency
is mitigated by cutting the product at their maximum compositions. However,
[Szklo 2007] emphasized the need for further development of DWC for major
distillation processes in the oil refining industry.
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Separation processes
•
Design of efficient separation systems:
–
According to [Pellegrino 1999] a potentially attractive refining process
modification is to input the crude directly into controlled thermal cracking
units, thereby bypassing CDU. The idea is to crack large hydrocarbon
molecules (e.g., large asphaltene-type molecules) into smaller ones. They
reported a reduction in energy consumption of 23% in addition to the fact that
up to 80% of the energy generated in the unit can be recovered as reusable
energy.
– [EIPCCB 2001] discussed the use of a radical revamp that encompasses
atmospheric and vacuum distillation, gasoline fractionation, naphtha stabilizer
and gas plant in one unit: progressive distillation. It consists of a fairly
complex set of separation steps and extensively uses pinch technology to
minimize heat supplied by external means. This technology is called
progressive distillation and the savings can reach up to 30% on total energy
consumption for these units.
44
Outline
1.
2.
3.
4.
A vision for the future
A simple guide to oil refining
Energetic issues in an oil refinery
Thermodynamic analysis and measures to improve energy consumption.
•
•
•
•
•
Crude oil distillation (atmospheric and vacuum)
Fluid catalytic cracking
Catalytic hydrotreating
Catalytic reforming
Alkylation
5. Separation processes
6. Recap and future directions
7. References
45
Recap and future directions
•
It seems there is no radical revolution going on in oil refining industrial
so to handle energy efficiency. Instead, the 2020 Vision report [API 2000]
lists:
–
–
–
–
Reduction of fouling in heat exchangers is a definite priority.
Improved convection in furnaces.
Cogeneration needs to be optimized.
Use of conventional distillation is minimized. Try membrane and catalytic
distillation.
– Let’s not forget research in catalysis.
– Comprehensive models in oil refinery are a must [DOE 2000].
– Process optimization is definitely in the oil refinery agenda [Domijan 2005].
•
•
46
•
Investments in R&D represent one way to help drive the industry toward
a higher level o energy efficiency. However, implementation is still at its
very infancy as there are still technological barriers.
Accordingly, separation processes need to be updated. However, one
should loop at the big picture.
Needless to say, energy reduction → CO2 emission reduction!
Recap and future directions
•
Wanna a hint to decide your PhD project? Energy efficiency program
for future oil refineries. Ease, 5 PhD projects:
–
–
–
–
–
47
Fouling: modeling and elucidation of its mechanism in the crude distillation
unit (atmospheric and vacuum columns and respective HEN) as well as
development of anti-fouling chemicals that little affects the refining product
quality.
Membrane: there’s still a technological barrier with the current membranes.
More research is needed to extend the application to other separation units
throughout the refinery.
Advanced process control and optimization: investigation of plantwide
control and optimization (I only found these issues applied to individual
units).
Heat integration: investigation of more plantwide heat integration
opportunities by pinch or exergy analysis.
Distillation design: more on reactive (catalytic) distillation and dividing-wall
technology applied to energy-intensive units (FCC, alkylation, hydrotreating,
reforming, and crude distillation units). Especially, biodesulfurization.
Outline
1.
2.
3.
4.
A vision for the future
A simple guide to oil refining
Energetic issues in an oil refinery
Thermodynamic analysis and measures to improve energy consumption.
•
•
•
•
•
Crude oil distillation (atmospheric and vacuum)
Fluid catalytic cracking
Catalytic hydrotreating
Catalytic reforming
Alkylation
5. Separation processes
6. Recap and future directions
7. References
48
References
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
49
•
[Gadalla 2003a] – Gadalla, M., Jobson, M., and Smith, R., Increase Capacity and Decrease
Energy for Existing Refinery Distillation Columns, Chemical Engineering Progress, April 2003,
p. 44.
[ANL 1999] - Petrick, M. and Pellegrino, J., The Potential for Reducing Energy Utilization in
the Refining Industry, Argonne National Laboratory, ANL/ESD/TM-158, August 1999.
[Linhoff 2002] - Linhoff March, a division of KBC Process Technology Ltd., The Methodology
and Benefits of Total Site Pinch Analysis, 2002,
http://www.linnhoffmarch.com/resources/technical.html.
[Gary 2001] - Gary, J.H., and Handwerk, G.E., Petroleum Refining: Technology and
Economics, 4th Edition, Marcel Dekker, Inc., New York, NY., 2001.
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