Transcript Developmental Theory Theory of Psychosocial Development Within Erik Erikson's stages of psychosocial development, the stage that he discusses the most is the IDENTITY.

Developmental
Theory
Theory of Psychosocial Development
Within Erik Erikson's stages of psychosocial development, the stage
that he discusses the most is the IDENTITY VS. ROLE CONFUSION
stage. For Erikson believed that during the adolescent years,
establishing one's identity is difficult but fundamental. In discussing
identity development, there are three major factors that can affect it:
1. GENDER ROLES - They establish patterns for many types of
behavior. For example, thirty years ago, traditional gender roles
consisted of the husband working and the wife staying at home.
2. CHANGES IN GENDER ROLES - Obviously, traditional gender roles
have dramatically changed today. For example, over 60% of mothers
now work outside of the home. Also, the high rate of divorce has led to
an increase in single-parent households. Last, in a growing number of
families, both parents work.
3. GENDER TYPING VS. PSYCHOLOGICAL ANDROGYNY
- Gender typed individuals endorse stereotyped conceptions
of femininity or masculinity. Androgynous individuals possess
both male and female characteristics.
SO... WOULD ERIKSON SAY GENDER
STEREOTYPES ARE INHERITED OR
SOCIALLY MANUFACTURED?
WHAT DO YOU THINK?
Stages of Cognitive Development
Sensorimotor stage
Ages: Birth - Two
 Object Permanance
 Deferred imitation
Preoperational stage
Ages: Two - Seven
 Mastery of symbols
Illogical thinking (i.e.
irreversibility and
egocentrism)
Concrete operational stage
Ages: Seven - Eleven
 Generalization from
concrete experiences
 Unable to solve abstract
problems
Formal operational stage
Ages: Eleven - Adolescent
 Abstract thought; critical
thinking
 Capable of directing emotions
to abstract ideas (Ginsburg
and Opper)
 Adolescent thought centered
around self (David Elkind)
** Eventually adolescents
come to see that people are
more concerned with their own
problems than that of the
adolescents'.
(Sl ide 45)
Age Group Characteristics
Preschool to Kindergarten
Physical
Emotional
Social
Cognitive
Extremely active
Express feelings
openly
Socially flexible
Kindergartners are
skillful with language
Need frequent rest
Extremely jealous
Group is small
Competence is
encouraged through
interaction, interest
and affection
Good gross motor
skills
Fine motor skills need
to be developed
Developing hand-eye
coordination
(Sl ide 45)
Various type of play
depending on Social
Class and Gender
Quarrels frequently
Aware of gender roles
Age Group Characteristics
Primary Grades
(Sl ide 45)
Physical
Social
Emotional
Cognitive
Still extremely active
More selective in their
choice of friends
Sensitive to criticism
and ridicule
Eager to learn
Need rest periods
Prefers organized
games in small groups
Eager to please the
teacher
Verbal skills superior
to writing skills
Large muscle control
is superior to fine
coordination
May have difficulty
focusing on small
objects or print
Excellent control of
their bodies
Quarrels frequently
Sensitive to the
feelings of others
Tattletales
Age Group Characteristics
Elementary Grades
Physical
Emotional
Cognitive
Bodies become leaner Peer group becomes
and stronger
powerful
Develop a self image
Eager to learn
Obesity can become a Friendships become
problem
more selective
Disruptive family
relationships begin to
affect the child
Cognitive styles are
preferences for
dealing with
intellectual tasks
Gender differences in
motor skill
performance are
apparent
(Sl ide 45)
Social
Age Group Characteristics
Middle School
Physical
Social
Emotional
Cognitive
Growth tends to be
uneven and rapid
Greater understanding
of the feelings of
others develops
Desire to conform
Storm and stress
Gender differences in
specific abilities
Egocentric thought
Self-efficacy becomes
an influence
Pubertal development
is evident
Curious about sex
(Sl ide 45)
Age Group Characteristics
High School
Physical
Social
Emotional
Cognitive
Maturity level attained
Parents influence
values and plans
Psychiatric disorders
become apparent
Capable of engaging
in formal thought
Become sexually
active
Peers influence status
Depression
Political thinking
becomes more
abstract
Girls experience
anxiety about friends
(Sl ide 45)
Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development
• Level 1: Preconventional Morality
• Stage 1: Punishment-obedience orientation
• Stage 2: Instrumental relativist orientation
• Level 2: Conventional Morality
• Stage 3: Good boy-nice girl orientation
• Stage 4: Law-and-order orientation
• Level 3: Postconventional Morality
• Stage 5: Social contract orientation
• Stage 6: Universal ethical principle orientation
(Sl ide 45)
Are Gender Stereotypes Inherited or Socially
Manufactured?
The inheritance of the X or Y chromosome
results in the differentiation of sexual
characteristics for each gender.
Some researchers believe this
leads to behavior and social
differences as well, due to the
release and suppression of
certain hormones.
(Sl ide 45)
Kohlberg’s Cognitive - Development Theory
Some researchers believe that it is
social influences, biases, and
pressures that form gender roles.
Identity
Gender Stability
Gender Consistency
(Sl ide 45)
Gilligan’s Stages of Female Moral Reasoning
Level 1: The Orientation Toward Self-Interest
•
At the simplest level of moral reasoning, woman are
pragmatically and egocentrically preoccupied with selfinterest and survival.
Level 2: Identification of Goodness with Responsibility for
others.
•
Self interest falls into the background and and the need to please
others surfaces.
Level 3: Focusing on the dynamics between self and
others.
•
(Sl ide 45)
Self interest reemerges combined with the need to please
others.
Justice vs. Care Argument
• Men tend to use a
Justice orientation to
make decisions
regarding moral
dilemmas.
(Sl ide 45)
• Women tend to use
a Care orientation to
make decisions
about moral
dilemmas.
Schemes
FORMAL OPERATIONAL STAGE
CONCRETE OPERATIONAL STAGE
Assimilation/Accommodation
PRE-OPERATIONAL STAGE
SENSORIMOTOR STAGE
Object Permanence Organization/Adaptation
(Sl ide 45)
Piaget's Cognitive Development
Basic Principles
• Basic Tendencies
1. Organization - combine processes into general systems
2. Adaptation - adjustment to environment
• Schemes
1. Assimilation - fitting in new experiences with existing schemes
2. Accommodation - changing or creating schemes
3. Equilibration - organizing schemes to fit conception of the world
(Sl ide 45)
Piaget and Vygotsky
Piaget's View
1. Peer interaction spurs more cognitive
development than adult interaction.
Vygotsky's View
1. Children's earliest psychological tools develop
through interaction with parents.
2. Later tools and schemes are developed through
formal instruction.
(Sl ide 45)
Piaget and Vygotsky (cont.)
Similarities
1. Research based on Piaget's theories shows that
schemes can be refined faster through the use of
quality instruction at a slightly higher level than
the child already functions.
2. Vygotsky also believed that children should be
taught at a higher level than they are presently at,
citing that older, adolescent children will give up
altogether if the work is not sufficiently
challenging.
(Sl ide 45)
NOTES,
RESEARCH
STUDIES AND
BIBLIOGRAPHIES
Notes
A much debated issue with equal rights activists and educators has been about gender stereotypes and roles. The main question
of the debate is if gender differences are inborn traits or socially determined characteristics. Also, parents and educators play a
role in the development of gender identity and stereotypes. Last, they can both help to ensure that each child becomes a secure
and productive adult. One explanation for inherited sex differences is the biological variations between the two sexes. The first
major event during conception is the inheritance of an X or Y chromosome. Next, the chromosome and hormones produce the
appropriate sex organs. For example, if the child receives a Y chromosome(male), testosterone will be produced and will lead to
the growth of a penis and scrotum. However, female sex organs will form if testosterone is not produced. Through many
experiments, there is evidence with animals and humans that hormones determine activity levels, maternal behavior, and
aggression. Once a child is born, the process of socialization has begun. They are brought home to live in a room that is very
male or female-like. Sex roles develop early when parents bombard their children with gender appropriate clothing, toys, and
hairstyles. In a study, 98% of shoppers bought boys "male" toys like trucks and blocks. Infants, from the get go, are treated in
gender specific ways. Within Kohlberg’s Cognitive-Development theory, he believes that a child’s cognitive ability to comprehend
gender and its effect on themselves determines sex role development. Also, he says that children play major roles in socializing
themselves and that they go through three Stages. The stages are gender identity, gender stability, and gender consistency.
Last, Kohlberg believes that a child seeks out gender specific toys and behaviors after they’ve reached the third stage and have
developed a strong sense of gender. Problems related to gender differences appear to arise from devaluing one set of
characteristics from the other. In schools, teachers treat boys and girls differently. Starting from preschool, boys and girls begin
to learn distinctively different academic skills. Research has also found that teachers call on boys more often and they also give
praise and correct feedback to them more than girls. More often, teachers give more attention to the most aggressive students,
which is usually the boys. Also, other problems have been stereotyped pictures of women in books and the lack of female role
models. Last, boys are expected to do well in math and science, while girls are expected to do well in reading and social skills. It
is obvious why there is an under-representation of males and females in certain careers. There are several things that parents
and educators can do to help their child become a productive adult no matter what their sex is. First, they must be aware of their
personal stereotypes. Second, teachers must alter their curriculum to promote a non-gender bias environment. Both boys and
girls should be able to play with dolls and trucks. Next, teachers’ curriculums should meet the needs of all students. They are
individuals with individual needs. Therefore, everyone must have awareness and want to change the unequal treatments.
REFERENCES
•Bentler, Peter M., O. Ivar Lovaas, George A. Rekers, and Alexander C. Rosen,(1976), Sex-Role Stereotypy and Professional
Intervention for Childhood Gender Disturbance. Internet: http://www.leaderu.com/offices/rekers/docs/role.html
•Hom,
Elizabeth,(1996), Effects of Gender Stereotypes in Children. Internet: http://www.ematusov.com/psych100G
(Sl ide 45)
•Nelson, Tracy L.,(1997), Gender Differences: Predetermined or Manufactured? Internet: Cd169
Abstract
It is my personal belief that due to technological and sociological changes throughout the past 50 years that
cognitive development is not reaching it full potential. Especially when you look at today’s youth and
adolescent, it seems problem solving and thinking skills are not developing enough to sustain to complex
issues people are facing at younger and younger ages.
My research on this idea has lead my to two pieces of literature. The first article stresses the lack of and
need for teenagers to have such problem solving skills. The second is an alternative approach to how we as
adults and as a society should consider teaching the principles of cognitive development.
(Sl ide 45)
Facing life size issues— Empowering teens with problem
solving skills
•
15 teens from 14-17 comment on issues and educational approaches to such issues.
•
The article develops 3 ways to facilitate problem solving skills:
1. Caring
2. Dialog
3. Confirmation
•
Implicit problems with school attitudes towards adolescents is identified.
American Montessori Society—Key Concepts and Practices
•
Montessori promotes quality education from birth to age 18 through with unique criteria.
1. Key concepts
2. Teacher Background
3. Basic Characteristics
•
All of this criteria promotes cognitive as well intellectual development.
References
Biehler, Robert, and Jack Snowman. Psychology Applied to Teaching. 8th ed. Boston/ New York: Houghton Mufflin Company,
1997.
(Sl ide 45)
Abstract
Many studies have been done investigating gender differences and how they affect moral development. The two most
notable researchers at odds are Lawrence Kohlberg and Carol Gilligan. Gilligan accuses Kohlberg’s theory of the Stages of
Moral Development of being biased against females. Gilligan feels that women cannot be evaluated by the same set of
criterion that men are. Traditionally this argument has become known as the Justice vs. Care Orientation debate. The idea
behind this argument is that men make more justice-based decisions, while females tend to make more care- based
decisions. According to Gilligan, women cannot be rated, in terms of moral development, on the Kohlberg scale because his
scoring mechanism, rates justice- based decisions higher than care- based decisions.
This implies that women are less capable of advancing on to the higher stages of moral development. Peter D. Lifton, staff
at the University of North Carolina, summarizes Gilligans ideas well when he states; "Caring is defined as a morality of
responsibility and relationship, a sensitivity to the needs of persons. For persons who base their moral judgements on the
principle of caring, development progresses from concern of survival (caring for self), to concern for goodness (caring for
others), to concern for truth (caring for self and others). Gilligan views men and women as preferring different, not superior
or inferior, bases for their moral judgements (Lifton, 314). Researchers agree that it is unclear which theory best describes
moral development. It is also unclear to what extent gender interferes with moral reasoning.
•It is clear however that no one theory can be used across the board, because different moral dilemmas involve unique sets
of circumstances.
"Only by integrating these complimentary male and female orientations-justice and care- will we ever be able to realize our
full human potential in moral and general development"(Muuss,233).
Bibliography
Biehler, R.F. & Snowman, J. (1997). Psychology Applied to Teaching (8th ed.) Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin.
Gilligan, C. (1997). Moral Orientation and Moral Development. In Carol C. Gould (Ed.). Gender: Key Concepts in Critical
Theory (pp.272-281). Atlantic Highlands, NJ: Humanities Press.
Lifton, P.D. (1985). Individual Differences in Moral Development: The Relation of Sex, Gender, and Personality to Morality.
Journal of Personality, 53. 306-334.
Muuss, R.E. (1988). Carol Gilligan’s Theory of Sex Differences in the development of Moral Reasoning During Adolescence.
Adolescence,
23. 229-243.
(Sl ide 45)
Wark, G.R. & Krebs, D.L. (1996). Gender and Dilemma Differences in Real- Life-Moral Judgement. Developmental
Psychology, 32. 220-230.