Transcript Udine Lectures Lecture #1: Introduction to Biology ¦ Bud Mishra Professor of Computer Science and Mathematics (Courant, NYU) Professor (Watson School, CSHL) 7 ¦ 5 ¦ 2002 11/6/2015 ©Bud.

Udine Lectures
Lecture #1:
Introduction to Biology
¦
Bud Mishra
Professor of Computer Science and Mathematics (Courant, NYU)
Professor (Watson School, CSHL)
7 ¦ 5 ¦ 2002
11/6/2015
©Bud Mishra, 2002
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Goal
• The goal of this course is to understand, design and
create a large-scale computational system centered
on the biology of
–
–
–
–
individual cells,
population of cells,
intra-cellular processes, and
realistic simulation and visualization of these processes at
multiple spatio-temporal scales.
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Why?
• Such a reasoning system, in the hands of a working
biologist, can then be used to
– gain insight into the underlying biology,
– design refutable biological experiments, and
– ultimately, discover intervention schemes to suitably
modify the biological processes for therapeutic purposes.
• The course will focus primarily on two biological
processes:
– genome-evolution and
– cell-to-cell communication.
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Genomics
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Introduction to Biology
• Genome:
– Hereditary information of an organism is
encoded in its DNA and enclosed in a cell
(unless it is a virus). All the information
contained in the DNA of a single organism is its
genome.
• DNA molecule can be thought of as a very long
sequence of nucleotides or bases:
S = {A, T, C, G}
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Complementarity
• DNA is a double-stranded polymer and should be thought
of as a pair of sequences over S. However, there is a relation
of complementarity between the two sequences:
– A , T, C , G
– That is if there is an A (respectively, T, C, G) on one
sequence at a particular position then the other sequence
must have a T (respectively, A, G, C) at the same
position.
• We will measure the sequence length (or the DNA length)
in terms of base pairs (bp): for instance, human (H. sapiens)
DNA is 3.3 £ 109 bp measuring about 6 ft of DNA polymer
completely stretched out!
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Genome Size
The genomes vary widely in size:
measuring from »
• Few thousand base pairs for viruses to
2 » 3 £ 1011bp for certain amphibian
and flowering plants.
• Coliphage MS2 (a virus) has the
smallest genome: only 3.5 £ 103bp.
• Mycoplasmas (a unicellular organism)
has the smallest cellular genome: 5 £
105bp.
• C. elegans (nematode worm, a
primitive multicellular organism) has a
genome of size » 108bp.
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Species
Haploid Genome
Size
Chromo
some
Numer
E. Coli
4.64 £ 106
1
S.cerevisae
1.205 £ 107
16
C. elegans
108
11/12
D. melanogaster
1.7 £ 108
4
M. musculus
3 £ 109
20
H. sapiens
3 £ 109
23
A. Cepa (Onion)
1.5 £ 1010
8
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DNA )
Structure and Components
• The usual configuration of DNA is in terms of a double helix
consisting of two chains or strands coiling around each other
with two alternating grooves of slighltly different spacing. The
“backbone” in each strand is made of alternating big sugar
molecules (Deoxyribose residues: C5 O4 H10) and small
phosphate ((P O4)-3) molecules.
• Now, one of the four bases (the letters in our alphabet S), each
one an almost planar nitrogenic organic compound, is
connected to the sugar molecule. The bases are:
–
–
–
–
Adenine ) A
Thymine ) T
Cytosine ) C
Guanine ) G
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Genome in Detail
The Human Genome at
Four Levels of Detail.
Apart from reproductive
cells (gametes) and mature
red blood cells, every cell in
the human body contains
23 pairs of chromosomes,
each a packet of compressed
and entwined DNA (1, 2).
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DNA )
Structure and Components
(contd.)
• The sequence of bases defines the information encoded by the
DNA.
• Complementary base pairs (A-T and C-G) are connected by
hydrogen bonds and the base-pair forms a coplanar “rung”
connecting the two strands.
– Cytosine and thymine are smaller (lighter) molecules, called
pyrimidines
– Guanine and adenine are bigger (bulkier) molecules, called purines.
– Adenine and thymine allow only for double hydrogen bonding, while
cytosine and guanine allow for triple hydrogen bonding.
• Thus the chemical (through hydrogen bonding) and the mechanical
(purine to pyrimidine) constraints on the pairing lead to the
complementarity and makes the double stranded DNA both chemically
inert and mechanically quite rigid and stable.
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DNA Structure.
The four nitrogenous bases of
DNA are arranged along the sugarphosphate backbone in a particular
order (the DNA sequence),
encoding all genetic instructions
for an organism. Adenine (A) pairs
with thymine (T), while cytosine
(C) pairs with guanine (G). The
two DNA strands are held together
by weak bonds between the bases.
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DNA )
Structure and Components
(contd.)
•
The building blocks of the DNA molecule are four kinds of
deoxyribonucleotides,
– where each deoxyribonucleotide is made up of a sugar residue, a phosphate
group and a base.
– From these building blocks (or related, dNTPs deoxyribonucleoside
triphosphates) one can synthesize a strand of DNA.
• The sugar molecule in the strand is in the shape of a pentagon (4 carbons and 1
oxygen) in a plane parallel to the helix axis and with the 5th carbon (5' C)
sticking out.
• The phosphodiester bond (-O-P-O-) between the sugars connects this 5' C to a
carbon in the pentagon (3' C) and provides a directionality to each strand.
• The strands in a double-stranded DNA molecule are antiparallel.
• Most of the enzymes moving along the backbone moves in the 5'-3' direction.
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The Central Dogma
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The Central Dogma
• The intermediate molecule carrying the information out of the nucleus
of an eukaryotic cell is RNA, a single stranded polymer.
• RNA also controls the translation process in which amino acids are
created making up the proteins.
• The central dogma(due to Francis Crick in 1958) states that these
information flows are all unidirectional:
“The central dogma states that once `information' has passed into
protein it cannot get out again. The transfer of information from
nucleic acid to nucleic acid, or from nucleic acid to protein, may be
possible, but transfer from protein to protein, or from protein to
nucleic acid is impossible. Information means here the precise
determination of sequence, either of bases in the nucleic acid or of
amino acid residues in the protein.”
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RNA and Transcription
•
•
The polymer RNA (ribonucleic acid) is similar to DNA but differ in several ways:
– it's single stranded;
– its nucleotide has a ribose sugar (instead of deoxyribose) and
– it has the pyrimidine base uracil, U, substituting thymine, T-- U is
complementary to A like thymine.
RNA molecule tends to fold back on itself to make helical twisted and rigid
segments.
– For instance, if a segment of an RNA is
5' - GGGGAAAACCCC - 3',
– then the C's fold back on the G's to make a hairpin structure (with a 4bp
stem and a 5bp loop).
– The secondary RNA structure can even be more complicated, for instance,
in case of E. coli, Ala tRNA (transfer RNA) forms a cloverleaf shape.
– Prediction of RNA structure is an interesting computational problem.
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RNA, Genes and Promoters
•
•
•
A specific region of DNA that determines the synthesis of proteins (through the
transcription and translation) is called a gene
– Originally, a gene meant something more abstract---a unit of hereditary
inheritance.
– Now a gene has been given a physical molecular existence.
Transcription of a gene to a messenger RNA, mRNA, is keyed by an RNA
polymerase enzyme, which attaches to a core promoter (a specific sequence
adjacent to the gene).
Regulatory sequences such as silencers and enhancers control the rate of
transcription
– by their influence on the RNA polymerase through a feedback control loop
involving many large families of activator and repressor proteins that bind
with DNA and
– which in turn, transpond the RNA polymerase by coactivator proteins and
basal factors.
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Transcriptional Regulation
• The entire structure of transcriptional regulation of gene expression is
rather dispersed and fairly complicated:
– The enhancer and silencer sequences occur over a wide region spanning
many Kb's from the core promoter on either directions;
– A gene may have many silencers and enhancers and can be shared among
the genes;
– They are not unique---different genes may have different combinations;
– The proteins involved in control of the RNA polymerase number around 50
and
– Different cliques of transcriptional factors operate in different cliques.
• Any disorder in their proper operation can lead to cancer, immune
disorder, heart disease, etc.
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Transcription
• The transcription of DNA in to mRNA is performed with a single strand
of DNA (the sense strand) around a gene.
• The double helix
– Untwists momentarily to create a transcriptional bubble which moves along
the DNA in the 3' - 5' direction (of the sense strand)
– As the complementary mRNA synthesis progresses adding one RNA
nucleotide at a time at the 3' end of the RNA, attaching an U (respectively,
A, G and C) for the corresponding DNA base of A (respectively, T, C and
G),
– Ending when a termination signal (a special sequence) is encountered.
• This newly synthesized mRNA are capped by attaching special
nucleotide sequences to the 5' and 3‘ ends.
• This molecule is called a pre-mRNA.
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Gene Expression
•When genes are expressed, the genetic
information (base sequence) on DNA is
first transcribed (copied) to a molecule of
messenger RNA, mRNA.
•The mRNAs leave the cell nucleus and
enter the cytoplasm, where triplets of bases
(codons) forming the genetic code specify
the particular amino acids that make up an
individual protein.
•This process, called translation, is
accomplished by ribosomes (cellular
components composed of proteins and
another class of RNA) that read the genetic
code from the mRNA, and transfer RNAs
(tRNAs) that transport amino acids to the
ribosomes for attachment to the growing
protein.
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The Genome Structure
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Exons and Introns
• In eukaryotic cells, the region of DNA transcribed into a pre-mRNA
involves more than just the information needed to synthesize the
proteins.
• The DNA containing the code for protein are the exons, which are
interrupted by the introns, the non-coding regions.
• Thus pre-mRNA contains both exons and introns and is altered to
excise all the intronic subsequences in preparation for the translation
process---this is done by the spliceosome.
• The location of splice sites, separating the introns and exons, is dictated
by short sequences and simple rules such as
– “introns begin with the dinucleotide GT and end with the dinucleotide AG”
(the GT-AG rule).
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Protein and Translation
• The translation process begins at a particular location of the mRNA
called the translation start sequence (usually AUG) and is mediated by
the transfer RNA (tRNA), made up of a group of small RNA molecules,
each with specificity for a particular amino acid.
• The tRNA's carry the amino acids to the ribosomes, the site of protein
synthesis, where they are attached to a growing polypeptide.
• The translation stops when one of the three trinucleotides UAA, UAG
or UGA is encountered.
• Each 3 consecutive (nonoverlapping) bases of mRNA (corresponding to
a codon codes for a specific amino acid.
• There are 43 = 64 possible trinucleotide codons belonging to the set
{U, A, G, C}3
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Genetic Codes
• The codon AUG is the start codon and the codons UAA,
UAG and UGA are the stop codons.
– That leaves 60 codons to code for 20 amino acids with an expected
redundancy of 3!
– Multiple codons (one to six) are used to code a single amino acid.
• The line of nucleotides between and including the start and
stop codons is called an open reading frame (ORF)
• All the information of interest to us resides in the ORF's.
• The mapping from the codons to amino acid (and naturally
extended to a mapping from ORF's polypeptides by a
homomorphism) given by
FP : {U, A, G, C}3 ! {A, R, D, N, C, E, Q, G, H, I, L, K, M, F, P, S, T, W, Y, V}
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Amino Acids with Codes
A
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
K
L
M
N
P
Q
R
S
T
V
W
Y
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Ala
Cys
Asp
Glu
Phe
Gly
His
Ile
Lys
Leu
Met
Asn
Pro
Gln
Arg
Ser
Thr
Val
Trp
Tyr
alanine
cysteine
aspertic acid
glutamic acid
phenylanine
glycine
histine
isoleucine
lysine
leucine
methionine
asparginine
proline
glutamine
arginine
serine
threonine
valine
tryptophan
tyrosine
GC(U+A+C+G)
UG(U+C)
GA(U+C)
GA(G+A)
UU(U+C)
GG(U+A+C+G)
CA(U+C)
AU(U+A+C)
AA(A+G)
(C+U)U(A+G) + CU(U+C)
AUG
AA(U+C)
CC(U+A+C+G)
CA(A+G)
(A+C)G(A+G)+CG(U+C)
(AG+UC)(U+C)+UC(A+G)
AC(U+A+C+G)
GU(U+A+C+G)
UGG
UA(U+C)
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Interrupted Genes:
• An open reading frame (containing a gene)
consists of
– INTRONS: Intervening sequences a Noncoding regions
– EXONS: Protein coding regions
• Introns are abundant in eukaryotes and certain
animal viruses.
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Interrupted Genes:
Intron1
Intron3
Intron2
Exon1
Exon2
DNA
Transcription
RNA
Splicing
Primary transcript
mRNA
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Interrupted Genes:
• Introns can occur between individual codons or
within a single codon
Nucleus
hnRNA
(heterogeneous nuclear
RNA)
Mixture of primary transcripts
with varying numbers of
introns spliced.
Cell
mRNA
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Some Genes…
Gene Product
Organism
Exon
Length
#Introns
Intron
Length
Adenoshine deaminase
Human
1500
11
30,000
Apolipoprotein B
Human
14,000
28
29,000
Erythropoietin
Human
582
4
1562
Thyroglobulin
Human
8500
= 40
100,000
a-interferon
Human
600
0
0
Fibroin
Silk Worm
18,000
1
970
Phaseolin
French Bean
1263
5
515
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Regulation of Gene Expns
• Motifs (short DNA sequences) that regulate transcription
– Promoter
– Terminator
• Motifs that modulate transcription
– Repressor
– Activator
– Antiterminator
Promoter
Terminator
10-35bp
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Transcriptional
Initiation
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Gene
Transcriptional
Termination
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Promoters
• pol I (RNA polymerase I)
– Transcribes ribosomal RNA genes 100 » 1000 bp in
front of the gene
• pol II (RNA polymerase II)
– Transcribes genes encoding polypeptides
– Complex and variable regulatory regions
• pol III (RNA polymerase III)
– Transcribes transfer RNA and other small RNAs
– Both up and down stream
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Motifs
• Each motif is a binding site for a specific protein
• Transcription Factor:
– Transcription factors (specific to a cell/environmental conditions)
bind to regulatory regions and facilitate
• Assembly of RNA polymerase into a transcriptional complex
• Activation of a transcriptional complex.
• Termination Factor:
– Assembly of proteins for termination and modification of the end
of the RNA
• Epigenetic Changes
– Methylation of the cytosine in the 5’ region
– Structural changes in cromatin
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Organization of Genetic
Info
• Bacterial Genome:
– Genes are closely spaced along the DNA.
– The sequences of genes may overlap.
– Related genes (encoding enzymes whose functions are
part of the same pathway or whose activities are related)
are linked as a single transcription unit.
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Organization of Genetic
Info
• Eukaryotic Genome:
– Genes are separated by long stretches of noncoding DNA
sequences.
– Multiple genes in a single transcription unit is extremely
rare.
– Multiple chromosomes – Linear
– Chloroplasts and mitochondria – Circular
– Genes appearing on the same chromosome are syntenic.
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Gene Locations
Genes
chromosomes
Genes
chromosomes
a-globin cluster
16
Insulin
11
b-globin cluster
11
Galactokinase
11
Immunoglobulin
Viral oncogene homologues
k (light chain)
2
C-sis
22
l (light chain)
22
C-mos
8
Heavy Chain
14
C-Ha-Ras-1
11
Pseudogenes
9,32,15,18
C-myb
6
Growth Hormone gene
cluster
17
Thymidine kinase
17
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Interferons
a & b cluster
9
g
12
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Eukaryotic Genome
• Multiple copies of the same gene
– Solve “supply problem”
– There are several hundred ribosomal RNA genes I
mammals
• Pseudogenes
– Nonfunctional copies of genes…(Deletions or
alterations in the DNA sequence)
– Number of pseudo genes for a particular gene varies
greatly…Different from one organism to another.
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Genes in Eukaryotes
• A gene may appear exactly once
• It may be part of a family of repeated sequence . Members
of a family may be clustered or dispersed.
• Members of a gene family may be related and functional
(expressed at different times in development, or in different
cells) or may be pseudo genes.
• Chromosomal Morphology:
– Nucleolar organizers (genes for ribosomal RNA)
– Telomeric and Centromeric regions (Tandemly repeated sequences)
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Genome Rearrangement
• Reshuffling of genes between homologous
chromosomes via reciprocal crossing-over during
both meiosis and mitosis.
• Gene synteny and linkages are usually preserved.
• Most rearrangements are random.
• Some rearrangements are normal processes altering
gene expressions in an orderly and programmed
manner.
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Chromosomal Aberrations
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Breakage
Translocation (Among non-homologous chromosomes.)
Formation of acentric and dicentric chromosomes.
Gene Conversions
Amplification and deletions
Point mutations
Jumping genes a Transposition of DNA segments
Programmed rearrangements a E.g., antibody responses.
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Repeat Structure
• Copy Number: 2 » 106
• Direct Repeats “head-to-tail”
– Tandem repeats or separated by other sequences
• Inverted Repeats “head-to-head”
– Stem-and-loop structure
– Hairpin structure
• Reverse Palindrome
• True Palindrome
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Repeat Structure
• Tandem Direct Repeats
• Inverted Repeats
• Reverse Palindrome
• True Palindrome
5’-AAGAG AAGAG AAGAG-3’
G
C
A
T
C
G
C
G
T
A
G
C
5’-GTCCAGNL NCTGGAC-3’
CAGGTCNL NGACCTG
Stem-and-loop structure
Associated with inverted repeats
5’-GAATTC-3’
CTTAAG
5’-GTCAATGA AGTAACTG-3’
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Repeats within the Genome
• Gene Family
– Genes and its cognate pseudogenes
• Satellite: Repeats made of noncoding units
– Minisatellites: Tandem repeats…Mostly in centromeric
regions
– Satellite repeat units vary in length freom 2 base pairs to
several thousands.
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Interspersed Repeats
• SINES: Short Interspersed Repeats
– Each repeat unit is of length 100 – 500 bps
– Processed pseudogenes derived from class III genes
– Example: Alu repeats…dimeric head-to-tail repeats of
130 bp
• LINES: Long Interspersed Repeats
– Each unit is of length > 6 Kb.
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The Cell
• A cell is a small coalition of a set of genes held together in a
set of chromosomes (and even perhaps unrelated
extrachromosomal elements).
• They also have set of machinery made of proteins, enzymes,
lipids and organelles taking part in a dynamic process of
information processing.
– In eukaryotic cells the genetic materials are enclosed in the cell nucleus
separated from the other organelles in the cytoplasm by a membrane.
– In prokaryotic cells the genetic materials are distributed
homogeneously as it does not have a nucleus.
– Example of prokaryotic cells are bacteria with a considerably simple
genome.
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Organelles
• The organelles common to eukaryotic plant and animal cells
include
– Mitochondria in animal cells and chloroplasts in plant cells
(responsible for energy production);
– A Golgi apparatus (responsible for modifying, sorting and packaging
various macromolecules for distribution within and outside the cell);
– Endpolastic reticulum (responsible for synthesizing protein); and
– Nucleus (responsible for holding the DNA as chromosomes and
replication and transcription).
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Chromosomes
• The entire cell is contained in a sack made of plasma
membrane. In plant cells, they are further surrounded by a
cellulose cell wall.
• The nucleus of the eukaryotic cells contain its genome in
several chromosomes, where each chromosome is simply a
single molecule of DNA as well as some proteins (primarily
histones).
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Chromosomes
• The chromosomes can be a circular molecule or linear, in
which case the ends are capped with special sequence of
telomeres.
• The protein in the nucleus binds to the DNA and effects the
compaction of the very long DNA molecules.
• In somatic cells (as opposed to gametes: egg and sperm
cells) of most eukaryotic organisms, the chromosomes
occur in homologous pairs, with the only exceptions being
the X and Y chromosomes---sex chromosomes.
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Chromosomes
•Karyotype.
•Microscopic examination
of chromosome size and
banding patterns identifies
24 different chromosomes
in a karyotype, which is
used for diagnosis of
genetic diseases.
•The extra copy of
chromosome 21 (trisomy)
in this karyotype implies
Down's syndrome.
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Ploidy
• Gametes contain only unpaired chromosomes; the
egg cell contains only X chromosome and the
sperm cell either an X or an Y chromosome. The
male has X and Y chromosomes; the female, 2 X's.
• Cells with single unpaired chromosomes are called
haploid; the cells with homologous pairs, diploid;
the cells with homologous triplet, quadruplet, etc.,
chromosomes are called polyploid---many plant
cells are polyploid.
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The dynamics of cell:
• The cell cycle ) the set of events that occur within a
cell between its birth by mitosis and its division
into daughter cells again by mitosis
– interphase period when DNA is synthesized and
– mitotic phase
• The cell division by mitosis (into 2 daughter cells) and meiosis
(into 4 gametes from germ-line cells);
• Working of the machinery within the cell---mainly the ones
involving replication of DNA, transcription of DNA into RNA
and translation of RNA into protein.
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The Cell Cycle
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The Cell Cycle:
•In growing cells, the four phases proceed
successively, taking from 10-20 hrs.
•Interphase: comprises the G1, S, and G2
phases. DNA is synthesized in S and other
cellular macromolecules are synthesized
throughout interphase, roughly doubling
cell’s mass.
•During G2 the cell is prepared for mitotic
(M) phase when the genetic material is
evenly proportioned and the cell divides.
G0
M
G1
G2
S
•Nondividing cells exit the normal cycle,
entering the quiesecent G0 state.
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Differentiation & Suicide
• Cellular dynamics controls how a cell changes (or
differentiates) to carry out a specialized functions
– Structural or morphological changes (muscles, neural, skin..)
– Immune systems: Many cell types come together in organized
tissues designed to let the body distinguish self from non-self.
• Programmed Cell Death/Apoptosis:
– Condensation of the nucleus.
– Fragmentation of the DNA.
– Morphological changes followed by consumption by macrophages.
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Cell Talk
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Cell Talk
• Cell Surface Receptors
Ligand
Binding
Receptor
extracellular
domain
transmembrane
domain
Lipid
Layer
cytoplasmic
domain
Coupling with
Membrane
associated
molecules
Trafficking
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Signalling
– Extracellular domain for binding
ligands (e.g., growth factors,
adhesion molecules, etc.)
– Transmembrane domain
– Intracellular cytoplasmic
domain
• Receptor driven cellular behavior
are extremely important
– E.g., Growth, Secretion,
Contraction, Motility and
Adhesion
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Receptors and Gene
Regulation
• Ligands bind to receptors at the
cell surface.
• Bound receptors activate various
intracellular enzymes and initiate
entire cascades of intracellular
reactions
signal
cascade
gene
regulation
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Short term
response
Long term
response
– Some of these regions trigger
short term (of the order of
milliseconds to minutes)
responses.
– Some eventually trigger longterm responses..e.g., requiring
protein synthesis and additional
molecular interactions
©Bud Mishra, 2002
Lec.1-55
A Complex Picture
binding
signaling
internalization
coupling
Surface
binding
events
recycling
synthesis
degradation Intracellular
signaling
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©Bud Mishra, 2002
trafficking
events
Lec.1-56
A Complex Picture
• Trafficking
– Receptor population undergoes many complex events of
coupling with other cell surface molecules
– Internalization (RME: receptor-mediated endocytosis)
– Recycling
– Degradation
– Synthesis
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©Bud Mishra, 2002
Lec.1-57