Transcript 6.869 Advances in Computer Vision http://people.csail.mit.edu/torralba/courses/6.869/6.869. computervision.htm Lecture 4 The structure of images Spring 2010

6.869 Advances in Computer Vision
http://people.csail.mit.edu/torralba/courses/6.869/6.869. computervision.htm
Lecture 4
The structure of images
Spring 2010
Local image representations
A pixel
[r,g,b]
An image patch
Gabor filter
pair in quadrature
Gabor jet
V1 sketch:
hypercolumns
J.G.Daugman, “Two dimensional spectral analysis of cortical receptive field profiles,” Vision Res., vol.20.pp.847-856.1980
L. Wiskott, J-M. Fellous, N. Kuiger, C. Malsburg, “Face Recognition by Elastic Bunch Graph Matching”, IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine
Intelligence, vol.19(7), July 1997, pp. 775-779.
Gabor Filter Bank
or = [4 4 4 4];
or = [12 6 3 2];
Linear transforms


F  Uf
transformed image
r
r
1
f U F
Linear transform
Vectorized image

Note: not all important transforms need to have an inverse
Linear transforms
Orthonormal transforms
Subband transforms
U U  I
U+ = U transpose and complex conjugate

Fourier decomposition
Karhunen-Loeve transform
Result of convolving the image
with a set of bandpass filters
and subsampling the results.


F  Uf
Linear transforms
Pixels
U=
1
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
1


F  Uf
Linear transforms
Pixels
U=
1
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
1
Integration
Derivative
U=
1
-1 0
0
1
0
-1 0
0
0
1
-1
0
0
0
1
U-1=
1
1
1
1
0
1
1
1
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
1
- No locality for reconstruction
- Needs boundary


F  Uf
Haar transform
The simplest set of functions:
U=
1
1
1
-1
U-1=
0.5
0.5
0.5
-0.5


F  Uf
Haar transform
The simplest set of functions:
U=
1
1
1
-1
U-1=
0.5
0.5
0.5
-0.5
To code a signal, repeat at several locations:
U=
1
1
1
1
1
-1
1
-1
1
1
1
1
1
-1
1
-1
1
1
1
-1
U-1= ½
1
1
1
-1
1
1
1
1
1
-1
1
-1


F  Uf
Haar transform
1
1
1
-1
1
Low pass
1
1
1
1
1
-1
1
1
1
Reordering rows
1
1
1
-1
1
1
High pass
-1
1
1
1
1
-1
1
-1
1
-1
1
-1
Apply the same decomposition to the Low pass component:
1
1
1
-1
1
1
1
1
1
1
-1
1
1
=
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
-1 -1
1
1
1
1
1
1
-1 -1
And repeat the same operation to the low pass component, until length 1.


F  Uf
Haar transform
The entire process can be written as a single matrix:
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
-1 -1 -1 -1
1
1
-1 -1
1
1
1
1
1
1
Average
-1 -1
Multiscale derivatives
-1
1
-1
1
-1
1
-1
But the subsampling procedure will require less operations producing identical results


F  Uf
Haar transform
U=
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
-1 -1 -1 -1
1
1
-1 -1
1
1
1
1
1
1
-1 -1
-1
1
-1
1
-1
1
-1
U-1=
0.125 0.125
0.25
0
0.5
0
0
0
0.125 0.125
0.25
0
-0.5
0
0
0
0.125 0.125 -0.25
0
0
0.5
0
0
0.125 0.125 -0.25
0
0
-0.5
0
0
0.125 -0.125
0
0.25
0
0
0.5
0
0.125 -0.125
0
0.25
0
0
-0.5
0
0.125 -0.125
0
-0.25
0
0
0
0.5
0.125 -0.125
0
-0.25
0
0
0
-0.5
Properties:
• Orthogonal decomposition
• Perfect reconstruction
• Critically sampled
2D Haar transform
Basic elements:
1
1
1
-1
1
1
1
-1
2D Haar transform
Basic elements:
1
1
1
-1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
=
-1
1
1
1
1
2
Low pass
2D Haar transform
Basic elements:
1
1
1
-1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
-1 =
1
1
=
1
-1
=
-1
1
-1
1
1
=
-1
1
1
1
1
2
Low pass
2D Haar transform
Basic elements:
1
1
1
-1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
-1 =
1
1
-1
1
-1
1
1
1
-1
=
=
=
-1
1
1
1
1
1
-1
1
-1
1
1
-1
-1
1
-1
-1
1
2
2
2
2
Low pass
2D Haar transform
Basic elements:
1
1
1
-1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
-1
1
=
-1 =
1
-1
1
1
1
-1
=
=
-1
1
1
1
1
1
-1
1
-1
1
1
-1
-1
1
-1
-1
1
2
Low pass
2
High pass
vertical
2
High pass
horizontal
2
High pass
diagonal
2D Haar transform
Sketch of the Fourier transform
1
1
1
1
1
-1
1
-1
1
1
-1
-1
1
-1
-1
1
2
2
2
2
2D Haar transform
Sketch of the Fourier transform
1
1
1
1
1
-1
1
-1
1
1
-1
-1
1
-1
-1
1
Horizontal low pass,
Vertical low-pass
2
2
Horizontal high
pass, vertical
low-pass
2
Horizontal low
pass, vertical
high-pass
2
Horizontal high
pass, vertical
high pass
Simoncelli and Adelson, in “Subband coding”, Kluwer, 1990.
Pyramid cascade
Wavelet/QMF representation
1
-1
1
-1
1
1
1
-1
-1
-1
-1
1
Same number of pixels!
puzzle
• Low-pass band and high-pass bands are both
subsampled, yet the transform gives perfect
reconstruction.
• Is there aliasing in the low-pass and high-pass
bands?
Simoncelli and Adelson, in “Subband transforms”, Kluwer, 1990.
Analysis / synthesis filter bank
Simoncelli and Adelson, in “Subband transforms”, Kluwer, 1990.
Analysis / synthesis filter bank
Simoncelli and Adelson, in “Subband transforms”, Kluwer, 1990.
Analysis / synthesis filter bank
Output is equal to input if the reconstruction is perfect
Simoncelli and Adelson, in “Subband transforms”, Kluwer, 1990.
Cascaded Analysis / synthesis
filter bank
Non-uniform cascade
Octave band splitting
produced by a 4 level
pyramid cascade of a
2 band A/S system.
What is a good representation for
image analysis?
• Fourier transform domain tells you “what”
(textural properties), but not “where”. In space,
this representation is too spread out.
• Pixel domain representation tells you “where”
(pixel location), but not “what”. In space, this
representation is too localized
• Want an image representation that gives you a
local description of image events—what is
happening where. That representation might be
“just right”.
Good and bad features of
wavelet/QMF filters
• Bad:
– Aliased subbands
– Non-oriented diagonal subband
• Good:
– Not overcomplete (so same number of
coefficients as image pixels).
– Good for image compression (JPEG 2000).
– Separable computation, so it’s fast.
What is wrong with orthonormal basis?
Input
Decomposition
coefficients
What is wrong with orthonormal basis?
(shifted by one pixel)
Input
Decomposition
coefficients
The representation is not translation invariant. It is not stable.
Shifttable transforms
The representation has to be stable under typical transformations that undergo
visual objects:
Translation
Rotation
Scaling
…
Shiftability under space translations corresponds to lack of aliasing.
http://www.cns.nyu.edu/pub/eero/simoncelli91-reprint.pdf
Steerable filters
Derivatives of a Gaussian:
h(x, y)
x 
hx (x, y) 

e
4
x
2
x 2 y 2
2
2
h(x, y)
y 
hy (x, y) 

e
y
2 4
x 2 y 2
2 2
An arbitrary orientation can be computed
as a linear combination of those two

basis functions:
ha (x, y)  cos(a )hx (x, y)  sin(a )hy (x, y)
The representation is “shiftable” on orientation: We can interpolate any other
orientation from a finite set of basis functions.

cos(a)
+sin(a)
=
Freeman & Adelson 92
Simple example
“Steerability”-- the ability to synthesize a filter of any orientation from a linear
combination of filters at fixed orientations.
0o
90o
Synthesized 30o
Filter Set:
Response:
Raw Image
Taken from:
W. Freeman, T. Adelson, “The Design
and Use of Sterrable Filters”, IEEE
Trans. Patt, Anal. and Machine Intell.
vol 13, #9, pp 891-900, Sept 1991
Steering theorem
Change from Cartesian to polar coordinates
f(x,y)
H(r,q)
A convolution kernel can be written using Fourier series in polar angle as:
Theorem: Let T be the number of nonzero coefficients an(r). Then, the
function f can be steer with T functions.
Steering theorem for polynomials
f(x,y) = W(r) P(x,y)
For an Nth order polynomial with even symmetry N+1 basis
functions are sufficient.
Steerability
Important example is 2nd derivative of Gaussian
(~Laplacian):
Taken from: W. Freeman, T. Adelson, “The Design and Use of Steerable Filters”, IEEE Trans. Patt, Anal. and Machine Intell., vol 13, #9, pp 891-900, Sept 1991
37
Two equivalent basis
These two basis can use to steer 2nd order Gaussian derivatives
Approximated quadrature filters for 2nd order Gaussian derivatives
(this approximation requires 4 basis to be steerable)

Quadrature filter pairs
A quadrature filter is a complex filter whose real part is related to its imaginary part
via a Hilbert transform along a particular axis through the origin
Gabor wavelet:

(x, y)  e
x 2 y 2
2 2
e j 2u0x
(.)2
+
(.)2
How quadrature pair filters work
How quadrature pair filters work
(.)2
+
(.)2
Steerable quadrature pairs
For the Gaussian derivatives we can approximate a quadrature pair
G2
H2
G22  H22

| FT(G2 ) |, | FT(H2 ) |

Second directional derivative of a Gaussian and its quadrature pair
Orientation analysis
High resolution in
orientation requires
many oriented filters
as basis (high order
gaussian derivatives).
Orientation analysis
Phase information
Local
energy
Phase ~ 0
Analysis of phase
in pixels of max of
local energy output
along dominant orientation
Phase ~ 90
Orientation maps
Derivatives are symmetric:
Using G4/H4
Simoncelli, Farid; 1996
Steerable wedge filters
Asymmetric quadrature pair:
Simoncelli, Farid; 1996
Steerable wedge filters
N=9
N=5
Some structures are not
sufficiently sampled in orientation
Simoncelli, Farid; 1996
Steerable illumination
http://www.cns.nyu.edu/pub/eero/nimeroff94a.pdf
Image pyramids
• Steerable pyramid
Reprinted from “Shiftable MultiScale Transforms,” by Simoncelli et al., IEEE Transactions
on Information Theory, 1992, copyright 1992, IEEE
Steerable Pyramid
We may combine Steerability with Pyramids to get a Steerable Laplacian Pyramid as
shown below
Decomposition
…
Reconstruction
…
56
Images from: http://www.cis.upenn.edu/~eero/steerpyr.html
Steerable Pyramid
We may combine Steerability with Pyramids to get a Steerable Laplacian Pyramid as
shown below
Decomposition
Reconstruction
57
Images from: http://www.cis.upenn.edu/~eero/steerpyr.html
But we need to get
rid of the corner
regions before
starting the
recursive circular
filtering
http://www.cns.nyu.edu/ftp/eero/simoncelli95b.pdf
Simoncelli and Freeman, ICIP 1995
Steerable Pyramid
Low pass
residual
2 Level decomposition
of white circle example:
Subbands
There is also a high pass residual…
59
Images from: http://www.cis.upenn.edu/~eero/steerpyr.html
Steerable Pyramid
We may combine Steerability with Pyramids to get a Steerable Laplacian Pyramid as
shown below
Decomposition
Reconstruction
Low Pass
2 Level decomposition
of white circle example:
60
Images from: http://www.cis.upenn.edu/~eero/steerpyr.html
Non-oriented steerable pyramid
http://www.merl.com/reports/docs/TR95-15.pdf
3-orientation steerable pyramid
http://www.merl.com/reports/docs/TR95-15.pdf
Monroe
Dog or cat?
Almost no dog information
Residual is removed from feature analysis
Steerable pyramids
• Good:
–
–
–
–
Oriented subbands
Non-aliased subbands
Steerable filters
Used for: noise removal, texture analysis and synthesis,
super-resolution, shading/paint discrimination.
• Bad:
– Overcomplete
– Have one high frequency residual subband, required in
order to form a circular region of analysis in frequency
from a square region of support in frequency.
http://www.cns.nyu.edu/ftp/eero/simoncelli95b.pdf Simoncelli and Freeman, ICIP 1995
• Summary of pyramid representations
Image pyramids
• Gaussian
• Laplacian
• Wavelet/QMF
• Steerable pyramid
Progressively blurred and
subsampled versions of the
image. Adds scale invariance
to fixed-size algorithms.
Shows the information added in
Gaussian pyramid at each
spatial scale. Useful for noise
reduction & coding.
Bandpassed representation, complete, but with
aliasing and some non-oriented subbands.
Shows components at each
scale and orientation
separately. Non-aliased
subbands. Good for texture
and feature analysis. But
overcomplete and with HF
residual.
Schematic pictures of each matrix
transform
Shown for 1-d images
The matrices for 2-d images are the same idea, but more
complicated, to account for vertical, as well as horizontal,
neighbor relationships.


F  Uf
transformed image
Vectorized image
Fourier transform, or
Wavelet transform, or
Steerable pyramid transform
Fourier transform
=
Fourier
transform
*
Fourier bases
are global:
each
transform
coefficient
depends on
all pixel
pixel domain
image
Gaussian pyramid
=
Gaussian
pyramid
*
pixel image
Overcomplete
representation. Low-pass
filters, sampled
Laplacian pyramid
=
*
Laplacian
pyramid
pixel image
Overcomplete
representation.
Transformed pixels
Wavelet (QMF) transform
Wavelet
pyramid
=
*
Ortho-normal
transform (like
Fourier transform),
but with localized
basis functions.
pixel image
Steerable pyramid
Multiple
orientations
at one scale
=
Steerable
pyramid
*
pixel image
Multiple
orientations
at the next
scale
the next
scale…
Over-complete
representation,
but non-aliased
subbands.
Matlab resources for pyramids (with tutorial)
http://www.cns.nyu.edu/~eero/software.html
Matlab resources for pyramids (with tutorial)
http://www.cns.nyu.edu/~eero/software.html
Why use these representations?
• Handle real-world size variations with a
constant-size vision algorithm.
• Remove noise
• Analyze texture
• Recognize objects
• Label image features
• Image priors can be specified naturally in
terms of wavelet pyramids.
Image priors
• Gaussian priors
– Noise removal
– Pixel interpolation
• Heavy-tailed priors on bandpass filtered
images
– Noise removal
• Multi-dimensional priors
– Noise removal
Supplementary reading for this
lecture
http://www.cns.nyu.edu/pub/eero/simoncelli05a-preprint.pdf
Image statistics
Digital forensics
Digital forensics
Digital forensics
Digital forensics
How can we
characterize the
statistical
characteristics
of those
collections of
numbers that
we call images?
Scatterplots revealing correlations between pixel
values, as a function of pixel separation
http://www.cns.nyu.edu/pub/eero/simoncelli05a-preprint.pdf
(1) A probability model respecting
those covariance observations:
Gaussian
• Maximum entropy probability distribution for a given
covariance observation (shown zero mean forInverse
notational
covariance matrix

convenience):
1 T 1 
P( x)  exp( 2 x Cx x)
Image pixels
• If we rotate coordinates to the Fourier basis, the
covariance matrix in that basis will be diagonal. So in
that model, each Fourier transform coefficient is an
independent Gaussian random variable of covariance
D()  E(| F () |2 )
Power spectra of typical images
Experimentally, the
power spectrum as a
function of Fourier
frequency is observed
to follow a power law.
E (| F ( ) | ) 
2
http://www.cns.nyu.edu/pub/eero/simoncelli05a-preprint.pdf
A

Random draw from Gaussian spectral model
http://www.cns.nyu.edu/pub/eero/simoncelli05a-preprint.pdf
Noise removal (in frequency domain), under
Gaussian assumption
Posterior
Observed Fourier
component
Estimated Fourier
probability for X component
Power law prior
probability on
estimated Fourier
component
P( X | Y )  exp(  || Y  X ||2 2 n2 ) exp(  X (
1
)
X 2)

A

Variance of white,
Gaussian additive noise
Setting to zero the derivative of the the log probability of
X gives an analytic form for the optimal estimate of X (or
just complete the square):
Xˆ ( ) 

A
Y ( )

2
A  n
Noise removal, under Gaussian assumption
original
With Gaussian noise of
std. dev. 21.4 added,
giving PSNR=22.06
(try to ignore JPEG compression artifacts from the PDF file)
http://www.cns.nyu.edu/pub/eero/simoncelli05a-preprint.pdf
(1) Denoised with
Gaussian model,
PSNR=27.87