Transcript Chapter 9 Alcohol Fermentation Products  Fermentation  Yeast recombines the carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen of sugar into ethyl alcohol and carbon dioxide.  Forms.

Chapter 9
Alcohol
Fermentation Products
 Fermentation
 Yeast recombines the carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen of sugar into
ethyl alcohol and carbon dioxide.
 Forms the basis of all alcoholic beverages
 Raw materials
 Fruit contains sugar and will ferment with the addition of yeast
 Cereal grains contain starch rather than sugar, and before
fermentation can begin the starch must be converted to sugar. This is
accomplished by making malt, which contains enzymes that convert
starch into sugar.
 Yeast has a limited tolerance for alcohol
 When the concentration reaches 12-15% the yeast dies and
fermentation ceases
Distilled Products
• To obtain alcohol concentrations above 15 percent, distillation
is necessary.
• Distillation is a process in which the solution containing
alcohol is heated, and the vapors are collected and condensed
into liquid form again.
• Alcohol has a lower boiling point than water, so there is a
higher percentage of alcohol in the distillate ( the condensed
liquid) than there was in the original solution.
• In the United States the alcoholic content of distilled
beverages is indicated by the term proof. The percentage of
alcohol by volume is one- half of the proof number: for
instance, 90- proof whiskey is 45 percent alcohol.
Beer
 Production process:
 In American beer the primary grain is barley, which is malted by
steeping it in water and allowing it to sprout. The sprouted grain is
then slowly dried to kill the sprout but preserve the enzymes
formed during the growth. This dried, sprouted barley is called malt,
and when crushed and mixed with water, the enzymes convert the
starch to sugar.
 Hops are added with yeast to give beer its distinctive flavor
 Most beer sold in the United States is massproduced by the two largest brewers
 Imported beers and microbreweries are growing in popularity
 Who's the country's biggest brewer?
Types of Beer
 Lager (Most common type in U.S.)
 Most of the beer sold today in America is lager, from the
German word lagern, meaning “ to store.”
 Uses a type of yeast that settles to the bottom of the mash
to ferment
 Cool temperature and slower fermentation
 Ale
 Uses a top-fermentation yeast
 Warmer temperature and shorter fermentation
 In general, ales have a stronger taste and lagers the lighter
taste favored by most American beer drinkers.
 Because most American beer is sold in bottles or cans, the
yeast must be removed to prevent it from spoiling after
packaging. This is usually accomplished by heating it
( pasteurization), but some brewers use microfilters to remove the
yeasts while keeping the beer cold. The carbonation is added
at the time of packaging.
Types of Beer

Light beer
 Light beers have about 10 percent less
alcohol and 25 to 30 percent fewer
calories.
 The mash is fermented at a cooler
temperature for a longer time, so that
more of the sugars are converted to
alcohol.
 Then the alcohol content is adjusted by
adding water, resulting in a beverage
with considerably less remaining sugar
and only a bit less alcohol.
Wine
 Production:
 Made from fermented grapes
 Produced by both small and large
wineries
 Most wines contain about 12%
alcohol
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Factors in quality include
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Selection and cultivation of grapevines
Good weather
Timing of harvest
Careful monitoring of fermentation and aging
Varieties of Wine
 Generics vs. varietals
 Generics usually have names taken from European land areas where
the original wines were produced: Chablis, Burgundy, and Rhine are
examples.
 Varietals are named after one variety of grape, which by law must
make up at least 51 percent of the grapes used in producing the wine.
Chardonnay, Merlot, and Zinfandel are some examples.
 Red vs. white
 Most white wines are made from white grapes, although it is possible
to use red grapes if the skins are removed before fermentation.
 Red wines are made from red grapes by leaving the skins in the
crushed grapes while they ferment.
 “ Blush” wines such as white zinfandel have become quite popular.
With the zinfandel grape, which is red, the skins are left in the
crushed grapes for a short while, resulting in a wine that is just slightly
pink.
Varieties of Wine
 Sparkling wines
 Because carbon dioxide is produced during fermentation,
it is possible to produce naturally carbonated sparkling
wines by adding a small amount of sugar as the wine is
bottled and then keeping the bottle tightly corked. French
champagnes are made in this way, as are the more
expensive American champagnes, which might be labeled
“ naturally fermented in the bottle,”
 Fortified wines
 Sealing the wine in charred oak casks for aging further refined its
taste, and soon sherry was in great demand throughout Europe. Other
fortified wines, all of which have an alcohol content near 20 percent,
include port, Madeira, and Muscatel.
Distilled Spirits
 Grain neutral spirits
 Clear, tasteless, nearly pure alcohol (190 proof) produced by distillation
 Sold as Everclear to consumers and used in research
 Used to make various beverages
 Gin: distillate filtered through juniper berries and then diluted with
water . By filtering the distillate through juniper berries and then
diluting it with water, a medicinal- tasting drink was produced. First
called “ jenever” by the Dutch and “ genievre” by the French, the
British shortened the name to “ gin.” Gin became a popular beverage
in England and now forms the basis for many an American martini.
 Vodka: mixture of grain neutral spirits and water
 Contains relatively few congeners
 When alcohol is formed, other related substances, known as congeners,
are also formed. These may include alcohols other than ethanol, oils, and
other organic matter. Luckily they are present only in small amounts,
because some of them are quite toxic.
 Grain neutral spirits contain relatively few congeners and none of the
flavor of the grains used in the mash.
Distilled Spirits
 Whiskey
 Distillate of fermented grain
 Distilled at a lower proof (160) and so contains
more congeners and some flavor from the grain
 Whiskey accumulates congeners during aging, at
least for the first five years, and the congeners and
the grain used provide the variation in taste
among whiskeys.
 Types of whiskey include:
 Rye whiskey
 Corn whiskey (bourbon)
 Blended whiskey
Early U.S. Views on Alcohol Use
 Before American Revolution
 At the time of America’s revolution against the English in the late
1700s, most Americans drank alcoholic beverages and most people
favored these beverages compared with drinking water, which was
often contaminated.
 Drunkenness was viewed as misuse of positive product
 After American Revolution
 Alcohol itself viewed as the cause of serious problems
 Alcohol was first psychoactive substance to become demonized in
American culture
Temperance Movement
 Benjamin Rush
 As a physician, Rush had noticed a relationship between heavy
drinking and jaundice ( an indicator of liver disease), “ madness”
( perhaps the delirium tremens of withdrawal) and “ epilepsy”
( probably the seizures seen during withdrawal).
 All of those are currently accepted and well documented
consequences of heavy alcohol use. However, Rush also
concluded that hard liquor damaged the drinker’s morality,
leading to a variety of antisocial, immoral, and criminal behaviors.
 Rush believed that this was a direct toxic action of distilled spirits
on the part of the
 For the first time this condition was referred to as a disease (
caused by alcohol), and he recommended total abstinence from
alcohol for those who were problem drinkers. brain responsible
for morality.
Temperance Movement
 Temperance societies
 Initially promoted abstinence from distilled spirits only
 Temperance societies were formed in many parts of the country,
at first among the upper classes of physicians, ministers, and
business people. In the early 1800s, it became fashionable for the
middle classes to join the elite in this movement
 People “ took the pledge” to avoid spirits and to be temperate in
their use of beer or wine.
 With societies continued consumption of beer and wine, and
related problems, the temperance workers now advocated total
abstinence from all alcoholic beverages, and pressure grew to
prohibit the sale of alcohol altogether.
Prohibition
 States began passing prohibition laws in 1851
 The first state prohibition period began in 1851 when Maine passed
its prohibition law.
 Between 1851 and 1855, 13 states passed statewide prohibition
laws, but by 1868 9 had repealed them.
 The National Prohibition Party and the Women’s Christian
Temperance Union ( WCTU), both organized in 1874, provided the
impetus for the second wave of statewide prohibition, which
developed in the 1880s. From 1880 to 1889 7 states adopted
prohibition laws, but by 1896 4 had repealed them. By 1917, 64% of
Americans lived in “dry” territory
 Between 1907 and 1919, 34 states enacted legislation enforcing
statewide prohibition, whereas only 2 states repealed their
prohibition laws.
 But a state prohibition law did not mean that the residents did not
drink. They did, both legally and illegally. They drank illegally in
speakeasies and other private clubs.
Prohibition
 Federal prohibition
 18th Amendment (1919): banned the sale of alcohol
 It soon became clear that people were buying and selling alcohol
illegally and that enforcement was not going to be easy. The majority
of the population might have supported the idea of Prohibition, but
such a large minority insisted on continuing to drink that speakeasies,
hip flasks, and bathtub gin became household words.
 Outcomes of Prohibition included:
 Organized crime became more organized and profitable
 Alcohol dependence and alcohol-related deaths initially declined and
remained lower until the end of prohibition, with the greatest decline
at the beginning.
Prohibition
 Repealed by the 21st Amendment (1933)
 Reasons for the repeal:
 Alcohol taxes had been a major source of revenue
 Concerns that widespread disrespect for Prohibition laws
encouraged a general sense of lawlessness not just among the
bootleggers and gangsters but also in the public at large. The
Great Depression, which began in 1929, not only made more
people consider the value of tax revenues but also increased fears
of a generalized revolt.
 Outcomes of repeal included:
 Alcohol per capita sales and consumption increased
 Returned to pre-Prohibition levels after World War II
Regulation and Taxation
 Regulation after 1933
 After national Prohibition, control over alcohol was returned to the
states.
 Some states remained dry initially
 but most allowed beer sales
 Mississippi was the last dry state
 allowed alcohol purchase and consumption in 1966
 In 1970s, drinking ages were lowered to 18–19 in 30 states
 but raised again to 21 following safety concerns
 in the 1980s Congress authorized the Transportation Department to
withhold a portion of the federal highway funds for any state that
did not raise its mini-mum drinking age to 21.
 Taxation
 Federal and state taxes and licensing fees = about half the price of an
alcoholic beverage
 When taxes go up, consumption goes down
 but not dramatically – These taxes have not increased since 1991
Alcohol Consumption Patterns
 Consumption patterns are influenced by
cultural factors
 For example, both the Irish and the Russian cultures are associated with
heavy drinking, especially of distilled spirits; Mediterranean countries
like Italy and Spain have been characterized by wine consumption
 Trends in U.S. alcohol consumption
 Similar to other drugs, alcohol use peaked in 1981 and then
declined
 American consumption per person per year:
 Beer (27 gallons or over 1 gallon of alcohol)
 Spirits (0.75 gallon of alcohol)
 Wine (0.33 gallon of alcohol)
U.S. Alcohol Consumption
Figure 9.1 Per Capita Ethanol Consumption by Beverage Type, United
States, 1977– 2009. (note: peak alcohol consumption in 1981,about the same time illicit
drug use peaked)
U.S. Alcohol Consumption
 Regional differences in the U.S.
 One third of U.S. population abstain
 The two-thirds who use alcohol consume an amount that averages out
to about three drinks per day. Most don’t drink anything near that
amount, in fact, another consistent finding is that half the alcohol is
consumed by about 10 percent of the drinkers.
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Whites are more likely to drink than blacks,
Northerners more than southerners,
Younger adults more than older,
Catholics and Jews more than Protestants,
Nonreligious more than religious,
Urban more than rural,
Large city dwellers more than small city residents,
And college educated people more than those with only a high school or
grade school education.
U.S. Alcohol Consumption by State
Figure 9.2 Shows estimated overall alcohol consumption combining beer, wine, and
distilled spirits ( about half the total U. S. alcohol consumption comes from beer) for each state, based
on sales. Nevada and New Hampshire have the highest per capita sales, along with
the District of Columbia.
U.S. Alcohol Consumption
 Stress index:
 Drinking rates higher in states
where people experience a
great deal of social stress and
tension (as in cities) and who
approve of the use of alcohol
to release tension and stress
drink more and have more
drinking problems.
 Overall, both the stress index
and the drinking norms were
significantly correlated with
indicators of heavy drinking
and alcohol related arrests.
U.S. Alcohol Consumption
 Gender differences
 Males more likely to drink than
females
 The difference in proportions of those
who have drunk alcohol in their
lifetimes is not great, but 58 % of
males and 46 % of females report
current ( past month) drinking.
 Males more likely to drink more
 When “ binge” drinking is defined as
having five or more drinks on the
same occasion, males are more likely
than females to report binge drinking
within the past 30 days ( 32 % of
males versus 15 % of females).
 About 7 % of males and 3.5 % of
females report “ heavy” drinking,
defined as binge drinking on five or
more separate days during the past
month.
12 Person Beer Bong
Cultural “Glorification” of
Binge Drinking (video)
U.S. Alcohol Consumption
 Drinking among college
students
 College students drink more
than their nonstudent peers
 Many campuses have banned
sale and advertising of alcohol
 Many fraternities have
banned keg parties
 Despite this, alcohol use has
not changed significantly
 In fact, there has been a
slight increase in binge
drinking and driving after
drinking since 2002.
Cultural “Glorification” of Binge Drinking
(video)
What is One Drink?
 Standard drink has about 0.5 ounces of pure
alcohol (equivalents)
 ≈12 ounces of beer
 ≈ 4 - 5 ounces of wine
 ≈ 1 – 1.5 ounces of 100 - 80 proof spirits
Pharmacology
 Absorption
 Most absorbed in the small intestine
 Some absorbed in the stomach
 Slower if there is food (especially protein and fat) or water in the
stomach
 Faster in the presence of carbonated beverages
 Distribution
 Blood alcohol concentration (BAC)
 measure of the concentration of alcohol in blood, expressed as a
percentage in terms of grams per 100 ml
 Alcohol is distributed throughout body fluids but not fatty tissues
 Thus, a lean person will have a lower BAC than an fatter person of the
same weight
Pharmacology
 Ethanol Metabolism
 Liver metabolizes (alcohol
dehydrogenase) about 0.25 ounces
of alcohol per hour
 If rate of intake = rate of
metabolism, BAC is stable
 If rate of intake exceeds rate of
metabolism, BAC increases
Alcohol Metabolism
 About 90 percent is metabolized in the liver
 About 2 percent of alcohol is excreted unchanged
 Breath
 Skin
 Urine
Alcohol
Acetaldehyde
+
+
Alcohol
dehydrogenase
Aldehyde
dehydrogenase
Acetic acid
Alcohol Metabolism
 Metabolism is based on a stable rate
 Exercise, coffee, and other strategies do not speed up the rate of
metabolism
 Liver responds to chronic intake of alcohol by
increasing enzyme activity
 Contributes to tolerance among heavy users (alcohol gets
preferential treatment in metabolism, other drugs do not)
 For heavy alcohol users
 When alcohol is present, metabolism of other drugs is slower
 When alcohol is not present, metabolism of other drugs if faster
Sex Differences
 Women may be more susceptible than men to
the effects of alcohol after consuming the same
amount
 Explanations:
 Absorption: women tend to weigh less and have a higher
proportion of body fat
 Thus, women absorb a greater proportion of the alcohol they
drink
 Metabolism: alcohol dehydrogenase is less active in women
Mechanism of Action
 In general, alcohol is a central nervous system
depressant
 Exact mechanism of action is not clear
 Alcohol has many effects on the CNS (Cognitive, Sensory, and
Locomotor)
 Alcohol enhances the inhibitory effect of GABA at the GABA-A
receptor
 Similar to barbiturates and benzodiazepines - This would
explain the similarity of behavioral effects among these
three different kinds of chemicals. But alcohol has many
other effects in the brain, so it has been very difficult to
determine a single mechanism.
 No matter what neurotransmitter or receptor or transporter is
examined, alcohol appears to alter its function in some way.
Mechanism of Action
 Because alcohol’s ability to enhance GABA inhibition at the
GABA- A receptor occurs at very low doses, this mechanism
probably has special importance.
 Remember that GABA is a very widespread inhibitory
neurotransmitter, so alcohol tends to have widespread inhibitory
effects on neurons in the brain.
 At higher doses alcohol also blocks the effects of the excitatory
transmitter glutamate at some of its receptors, so this may
enhance its overall inhibitory actions.
 Alcohol also affects dopamine, serotonin, and acetylcholine
neurons - One of the oldest and chemically simplest
psychoactive drugs also seems to have the most complicated set
of effects on the nervous system.
Behavioral Effects
 Mood changes can include:
 euphoria
 reduced anxieties
 reduced inhibitions – disruption of normal critical thinking
 Effects are dose-dependent
 Blood alcohol concentration determines effects
 For example:
 At low blood levels, complex and abstract behaviors may be
disrupted
 At higher blood levels, simpler behaviors may be affected
Behavioral Effects
 Effects depend on the time course
 For example, effects are greater when BAC rises rapidly
 Effects are influenced by the individual’s alcohol
experience
 For example, a higher BAC is needed to impair a chronic heavy
drinker (CNS may adapt; and can adapt when intake is spaced over
time)
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Effects are influence by expectations

For example, placebo effects explain many of the
effects on social behavior
BAC and Behavioral Effects
Table
9.3
BAC
(%)
Behavioral Effects
0.05
Lowered alertness, release of inhibitions, impaired
judgment
0.10
Slower reaction times, impaired motor function, less
caution
0.15
Large, consistent increases in reaction time
0.20
Marked depression in sensory and motor capability,
intoxication
0.25
Severe motor disturbance, staggering, great
impairment
0.30
Stuporous but conscious—no comprehension of
what’s going on
0.35
Surgical anesthesia; about LD1, minimal level
causing death
0.40
About LD50
Behavioral Effects
One important component of alcohol use is that drinking serves as a
social signal, to the drinker and others, indicating a “time-out” from
responsibilities, work, and seriousness.
After drinking, people tend to focus more on the here and now and to
pay less attention to peripheral people and activities, and to longterm consequences. That might be why some people are more
violent after drinking, whereas others become more helpful even if
there is personal risk or cost involved.
The idea is that alcohol releases people from their inhibitions, largely
because the inhibitions represent concerns about what might happen
….. whereas the intoxicated individual focuses on the immediate
irritant or the person who needs help right now.
Driving Under the Influence
 Approximately 40 percent of all traffic crash
fatalities are linked to alcohol use
Driving Under the Influence
 Risk of a fatal crash is dose-related
 At a BAC of 0.08 percent the relative risk of being involved in a fatal
crash is about three times as great as for a sober driver.
 Sharp increase in fatalities with BAC over 0.10
 Single-vehicle fatalities are more likely to involve alcohol than are
multiple-vehicle fatalities.
 Men are more likely than women to be involved in
an alcohol-related fatal crash
 Any given car is more likely to have a male than a female driver, men
might take more chances when driving even when they’re sober, and
male drivers are more likely than female drivers to have been
drinking
 The majority of alcohol-related individuals are not
“problem drinkers” – the highest rate is among 21-24 yr olds.
Behavioral Effects
 Sexual behavior
 Alcohol use may enhance interest in sex but impair physiological
arousal
 Linked to risky sexual behavior
 Blackouts
 Alcohol-induced blackouts are periods during alcohol use in which the
drinking individual appears to function normally but later, when the
individual is sober, he or she cannot recall any events that occurred during
that period.
 A danger sign of excessive alcohol use
 Crime and violence
 Alcohol use is statistically related to:
 Homicide
 Assault, including family violence, sexual assault, and date rape
 Suicide
Physiological Effects
 Peripheral circulation
 Dilation of peripheral blood vessels
 drinkers lose body heat but feel warm
 Fluid balance
 Alcohol has a diuretic effect that:
 Increases urine flow
 Lowers blood pressure in some individuals
 Hormonal effects
 Chronic alcohol abusers can develop a variety of hormone-related
disorders
 For example, disrupted reproductive functioning
Acute Physiological Toxicity
 Alcohol overdose is relatively common and
dangerous
 Two pieces of advice:
 If someone drinks enough to pass out
 Do not leave the person alone
 Place her or him on side and monitor
breathing or take to ER immediately
 If someone drinks enough to vomit
 S/he should stop drinking
 Vomiting reflex is suppressed at BACs
above 0.20 and can quickly reach lethal
levels
What is a Hangover?
 Hangovers are not well understood
 Symptoms:
 upset stomach, fatigue, headache, thirst, depression, anxiety, and
general malaise
 Possible causes:
 alcohol withdrawal, exposure to congeners, cellular dehydration,
gastric irritation, reduced blood sugar, and/or the accumulation of
acetaldehyde
Chronic Toxicity in Heavy Users
 Brain tissue loss and cognitive impairment
 Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome
 Heart disease:
 Cardiomyopathy, heart attack, hypertension, stroke
 Although moderate alcohol use may reduce heart attack risk

Liver disease:
 Hepatitis, fatty liver, cirrhosis
Fetal Alcohol Syndrome
 Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS)
 Facial and developmental abnormalities associated with mother’s alcohol use
during pregnancy
 Related to peak BAC and to duration of alcohol exposure
 Prevalence: 0.2–1.5 per 1,000 births
 Diagnostic criteria (one must be present)
1. Growth retardation before
and/or after birth
2. Pattern of abnormal
features of the face and
head
3. Evidence of CNS
abnormality
Alcohol and Pregnancy
 Fetal alcohol effects
 All alcohol-related developmental abnormalities associated with
prenatal alcohol exposure
 Prevalence: 80–200 per 1,000 births
 Drinking during pregnancy increases risk of
spontaneous abortion
 Data do not prove that low levels of alcohol use
during pregnancy are safe or that they are unsafe
Withdrawal Syndrome
 Abstinence syndrome is medically more severe and more
deadly than opioid withdrawal
 If untreated, mortality can be as high as 1 in 7
 Stages of withdrawal:
 Stage 1: tremors, rapid heartbeat, hypertension, heavy sweating, loss
of appetite, insomnia
 Stage 2: hallucinations (auditory, visual, and/or tactile)
 Stage 3: delusions, disorientation, delirium
 Stage 4: seizures
 Detoxification should be carried out in an inpatient
medical setting
 Sedatives given in stage 1 or 2 prevent stages 3 and 4
Dependent Behaviors
 Alcoholics Anonymous view
 Alcohol dependence as a progressive disease characterized by loss of
control over drinking
 Only treatment is abstinence from alcohol
 Disease model: alcohol dependence is the primary disease and not
the result of another underlying cause
 Alternative view: APA explicitly defines alcohol
abuse and dependence
 Alcohol dependence is a complex psychosocial disorder
 Cognitive and genetic factors are of current scientific interest