Slide 1

Key topic/chapter 13…Urban Patterns
Key terms:
Annexation
Concentric zone model
Density gradient
Edge cities
Filtering
Galactic city
Gentrification
Greenbelts
Megalopolis
MSA
Multiple nuclei model
Peripheral model

Public housing
Redlining
Renovated housing
Scattered site
Squatter settlement
Sector model
Smart growth
Sprawl
Underclass
Urban renewal
Zone in transition
Zoning
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Chapter 13…Urban Areas.
How are Cities planned?
Why

are cities where they are?
How are they organized?
Why are some areas of a city
different from
other areas of the same city?
What is the future of cities?
2

Settlement


Settlement - permanent collections of buildings,
where people live, work, and obtain services

3

ORIGINS OF SETTLEMENTS


Religious - graves, churches, temples



Cultural - schools, libraries



Political/Military - leader’s house, walls



Economic - stores, food
4

TYPES OF SETTLEMENTS


Rural Settlements - agriculture as the
predominant occupation.



Urban settlements - principal industries are
secondary and tertiary.

5

RURAL SETTLEMENTS
Clustered rural settlements –grouped
settlements in rural areas to minimize travel

Dispersed rural Settlements - isolated farms
with enclosed continuous fields (Found only in
N. America and Britain).

6

Urban Geographers want to know the global distribution of urban
settlements. MDC’s have a high percentage of people living in urban
areas because of the shift from agriculture-manufacturing-services.
Geographers are also interested in where people and activities are
distributed within urban spaces. What are the differences between the
inner-city and suburban areas and why?
As we saw in the last chapter, many downtowns are unique and can
often be recognized in photos where the suburbs often look very
much alike (Placelessness). Why? Suburbs offer the chance to avoid
some of the city problems (crime, tight living area, expensive
land/rent, noise, age of buildings) while still keeping a connection with
the goods and services of the city: jobs, sports teams, culture, shops,
recreation, etc.
7

Where is this place?

8

Today’s cities are evolving and changing. Although different internal
situations characterize urban areas in the US and elsewhere, the
problems arising from current spatial trends are quite similar in all cities.
Where have urban areas grown: in the early 1800’s only 3% of the earth’s
people lived in cities and only Beijing China had more than 1 million
people. Today over ½ of the world’s people live in cities and we have over
400 cities of at least 1 million people.

Urbanization: is the process by which city population grows.
Cities population growth is measured in 2 dimensions;
1. An increase in the number of people living in the cities.
2. An increase in the percentage of people living in the cities.
This distinction is important because they happen for different reason and
have different global distributions.
9

Increasing Percentage of People in Cities: a large percentage of people living in urban
areas is a measure of a country’s level of development. In MDC’s about ¾ of the people
live in urban areas compared to about 2/5 of people in LDC’s. (Except in Latin America
where the level is closer to MDC’s.)
The higher percentage of people in urban areas comes from the changes that have
occurred in the last 200 years as we went from agriculture (primary jobs) to industrial
(secondary jobs) and now service jobs, all created by the Industrial Revolution of the
1800’s.
People moved to the cities for industrial jobs, but in MDC’s this process has largely
ended because nearly everyone interested in moving to the cities from farms has already
done so.
In LDC’s the percentage of people living in urban areas is growing as people are pushed
off of their farms and replaced by machines and as people move to cities looking/hoping
for industrial jobs.
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Increasing Number of People in Cities: MDC’s have a higher percentage of
people living in urban settlements but LDC’s have more of the very large urban
settlements (Primate cities). (Rank-size rule, primate cities, chapter 12.)

This is interesting because typically the large cities are created from the
improvements brought by the Industrial Revolution. This is not the case with the
large LDC cities. Migration to the primate city in LDC’s is happening even though
job opportunities may not be available. Increasing the population growth in LDC
cities is the fact that medical services are better in these cities, thus the child
mortality rate is lower.
Defining Urban Settlements: defining where urban areas end and rural areas
begin is not easy. Geographers have formulated definitions that distinguish
between urban and rural areas in two ways: Social differences and Physical
differences.
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Percent Urban Population

Percent of the population living in urban areas is usually higher in MDCs
than in LDCs.

12

The most populated cities in the world

Of the top
20, only
Moscow,
Tokyo and
New York
are in MDC’s

Shanghai China has 14,608,512 people
13

14

15

Social Differences Between Urban and Rural Settlements: it is fair to say that rural
people and urban people follow different ways of life. A city can be defined as having 3
characteristics:
1. Large size. People in rural settlements know most of the other people in the
settlement. Not true in big cities. Social relationships are often described as “colder” in
urban areas because you only see some people at work instead of growing up with
them in the settlement.
2. High Density. Having lots of people in a tiny area creates social consequences. A
high density of people living in a small area can only be supported if the people
specialize (they can’t all be farmers). People are encouraged to compete for jobs, room,
and survival in a tightly limited space. Social groups compete to occupy the same space
(ethnic/ race problems). Rural settlements have very little of this problem.
3. Social Heterogeneity. The larger the settlement, the greater the variety of people.
Being “unusual” in a large settlement is more likely to be accepted than in a small rural
one. But despite the freedom to be different that large urban settlements give you,
people living there often feel alone because so many people are different from them.
There is a stronger feeling of belonging together in small rural settlements.
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These 3 differences do not fully answer the question of where urban settlements
begin and rural ones end because in today’s MDC’s most everyone has access to
cars, telephones, televisions, and “urban type” jobs which reduce the differences
between urban and rural lifestyles. “City folk” and “Country folk” are more alike
today than they are different. To help distinguish between urban and rural areas we
need to add the physical definition of rural and urban to the equation.
Physical Definitions of Urban Settlements: In ancient time, cities had defensive
walls for protection which clearly defined the physical boundaries of the city. Today
the walls are gone but we can still define the physical boundaries in 3 ways:
1. Legal boundary. These are the official boundaries of a city as recognized by
the government of the country or state. These “city limits” have been officially given
to the city and are physically marked on official maps. The local government of the
city has authority to make laws and protect the people inside the city boundaries.
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2. Urbanized area. This is the city plus its suburbs or urbanized area that
surrounds the city. About 70 percent of US residents live in urbanized areas with
40% being in the suburbs and 30% inside the city limits. The suburbs may have
their own city governments but the huge central city dominates what happens in
the entire area.
3. Metropolitan Statistical Area. Cities have an even bigger influence on people
than just those living in their city limits and surrounding urbanized areas. People
from far away come to shop, use the services, support the sports teams, read
the newspapers and watch the television broadcasts of the city. Thus the city
has a “functional area” which is its total zone of influence. The US Bureau of
Census has created a method of measuring the functional area of the city.
Known as the Metropolitan statistical area (MSA) this area includes:
•An urbanized area with a population of at least 50,000
•The county within which the city is located.
•Adjacent counties with a high population density and a large percentage of
residents working in the central city’s county.
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Metropolitan Area of Philadelphia

City of
Philadelphia

Urbanized
area
(suburbs)
Metropolitan
Statistical
Area

The metropolitan area of Philadelphia is
spread over several counties and four states.
It is also a diversified trade center, given its
position on the Delaware river.

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20

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Micropolitan Statistical Areas: Smaller areas with between
10,000 and 50,000 people, the county where it is found, and
adjacent counties tied to the city. This would be a small town and
the area dominated by it.
Overlapping Metropolitan Areas: Some adjacent MSA’s overlap.
A county between two central cities may send a large number of
commuters to jobs in both cities. In some areas the cities are so
close that they form one continuous urban complex. This is
known as a Megalopolis (great city).
In a megalopolis, the downtown CBD often has its own
distinctive look and the urban areas are visually separated by
parks, open spaces, and dairy/truck farms. But at the periphery
of the urban areas, the boundaries overlap.
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Colorado Springs, population 431,000

Ocala, Florida, population 56,000

Florala, Alabama, population 1,900

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Megalopolis, from northern Va. To Maine.
This Illustrates the
difference between
strict city proper
definitions and broader
urban agglomerations.
To define urbanized
areas, the U.S. Census
Bureau uses the term
Metropolitan Statistical
Area (MSA) or
Consolidated MSA
(CMSA) if two or more of
them overlap.
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Where are People Distributed within Urban Areas? People are not
just distributed at random in urban areas. For the most part they
concentrate in particular neighborhoods depending on their social
characteristics. Geographers want to see where people with
particular characteristics are likely to live and why.

Three models which try to explain the growth of a city:

The Burgess Model

The Hoyt Sector Model

The Harris and Ullman
multiple Nuclei Model
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Burgess Concentric Zone Model

In the concentric zone model, a city grows in a series of rings surrounding the CBD.

Burgess Concentric Zone Model: This is the first used to explain the
distributions of different social groups within urban areas. It says that a
city grows outward from a central place in a series of concentric rings.
The precise size and width of the rings vary from one city to another, but
some basic types of rings appear in all cities in the same order (see chart
above).
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•Hoyt Sector Model: In this model the city develops in a
series of sectors not rings. Certain areas of the city are
more attractive for various activities, originally because
of an environmental factor (or even pure chance). As the
city grows, activities extend outward in a wedge shape.
For example, once a wealthy neighborhood is built the
next wealthy neighborhood will extend from the first
neighborhood further outward from the center. In this
way, the best housing is found in a corridor extending
outward from the center to the outer edge (see chart on
the next page).
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The Hoyt Sector Model

In the sector model, a city grows in a series of
wedges or corridors extending out from the
CBD.
28

•Harris and Ullman’s Multiple Nuclei Model: According
to this model, a city is a complex structure that includes
more than one center around which activities revolve.
Examples of these nodes include a port, parks,
stadium, neighborhood business center, university, and
airport (see chart). This theory states that some
activities are attracted to particular nodes, whereas
others try to avoid them. A university node may attract
well educated people and bookstores while the port will
attract hotels and warehouses. Heavy industry and
expensive houses rarely are found together. This
model shows the effect of the automobile more than
any other model.
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The Harris and Ullman Multiple Nuclei model

The multiple nuclei model views a city as a
collection of individual centers, around which
different people and activities cluster.

30

Applications of the Models: The three models help explain where and in some
cases, why people live where they do. None of the models by themselves fully
explains why and where different types of people live, but combined they give
you as good a look as possible at the “Why” of “Where.” Effective use of the
models depends on getting good data on the areas. Most countries take a
census every 10 years to help determine useful data about the people and
places of the country. In our country we divide the census data into areas
known as census tracts of about 5,000 people. Each census tract has the data
that summarizes the characteristics of the people living within that tract. This
information includes things like the race, income, age, and education of the
people living in that tract.
Social Area Analysis: The data from the census tracts can all be plotted onto
maps to show the characteristics of the people living in that tract. This map is
known as a social area analysis.
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Using Census tract information…Seattle, Washington
Each lined area is a
census tract of about 5000
people in Seattle
Washington. These maps
show average household
income for 1990 and
2000…note the changes in
income in some areas
between 1990 and 2000.
Using this information, a
business can make
decisions about where
they want to locate a new
store or the future of
existing stores.
You can find census tract
information on many topics
such as; age, education
level, race, ethnicity, crime
rate, and land ownership.
Note the areas with
incomes over
$63,000.

All can be very valuable
information to people
looking to open
businesses.

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Examine the changes
between 1990 and
2000.

Oakland, California’s Ethnic neighborhoods
The small bordered areas are census tracks of 5000 people.

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Use of the Models Outside of North America: The 3 models will also work in other
places in the world; however social groups in other countries may not have the
same reasons for selecting particular neighborhoods as Americans do.
European Cities: As in the US, wealthier people in European cities cluster along a
sector extending outward from the CBD, however unlike the US, wealthy and
middle class Europeans still live in the inner rings of the neighborhoods near the
CBD not out in the suburbs. In the past, poorer people lived in the center of the
city. Before electricity, social segregation was vertical: richer people lived on the
first or second floor of a building while the poorer people lived in the basement or
upper floors. In the Industrial Revolution, housing for the poor was constructed
near the factories and away from the rich.
Today poorer Europeans are less likely to live in the inner-city. Poor quality
housing has been renovated for the rich or turned into office buildings. Poorer
Europeans tend to live in the outskirts of the city. Vast suburbs with dozens of high
rise apartments house the poor. They face long commutes to reach their jobs in
the city.
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European cities generally do not have the “suburban
sprawl” that US cities have. European cities tend to be
more pedestrian friendly with more parks downtown as
Europeans tend to still live downtown.
US cities have taller buildings as European cities tend to
be older and more historic.

American cities have more ethnic neighborhoods than
European cities. Ethnic neighborhoods that do exist in
European cities tend to be in the suburbs. WHY?
Because the established richer neighborhoods tend to be
downtown in European cities.
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Less Developed Countries: Like Europe, most LDC’s accommodate their poor in the
suburbs with their middle class and rich living near the center of the city. LDC’s have
passed through 3 periods of city building: before the Europeans arrived, during the
period of European colonialism, and since independence from European control.

Pre-colonial Cities: Before the Europeans arrived few cities existed in Africa, Asia, and
Latin America and most people lived in small rural settlements. Those cities that existed
were mostly laid out surrounding a religious center; with the rest of the city laid out in a
hieratical concentric pattern (like the Burgess model) from government buildings,
homes of the wealthy, and businesses related to the religion out to other businesses
and shops.
Colonial cities: When the Europeans took over these lands, they changed the cities by
adding services to help the Europeans control the conquered people. Often a new
European style city would be build next to the existing native one. The new European
cities contained wider streets, a public square, larger houses and a much lower density.
The Spanish used the “Law of the Indies” which was a city plan designed specifically to
build cities in a “Spanish” style. (Gridiron pattern for streets centered on a church and
central plaza, walls around individual houses and neighborhoods centered around
smaller plazas and more churches.)
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Early Mexico city was laid out in a grid pattern of streets. This followed
the Spanish “Law of the Indies.”

37

Central Plaza in Mexico City 1920 photo. Typical Colonial City plan.

Part of downtown Mexico city today still shows the
building plan of the “Law of the Indies.”

38

Cities since Independence: Following independence, cities have become
the focal point of the development of most LDC’s. Millions of people have
migrated to the cities (Primate cities) looking for jobs and services. Some
capitals have been moved to isolated areas in an attempt to help develop
that area of the country (Brasília) This is know as a forward capital. Latin
American cities have developed their own unique style.
Squatter settlements: The LDC’s are unable to house the rapidly growing
number of poor who are flowing into the cities. Because of the housing
shortages, the poor have constructed their own settlements around the city.
These settlements have few services because neither the city nor the
residents can afford them. Squatters have two basic choices for housing.
1. Illegally move into empty real houses located in the city or,
2. Rent slum housing.
(85% of the population of Addis Ababa in Ethiopia lives in squatter
settlements, slums or other illegal housing.)
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Squatter shacks in Manila, the Philippines

40

Squatter settlement in Ethiopia

41

Zimbabwe, Africa

42

Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

43

Latin American City Model:
In many Latin
American cities,
the wealthy live in
the inner city and
in a sector
extending along a
commercial spine.
In situ accretion- businesses
and homes constantly under
construction/repair.
Zone of maturity-2nd best
housing in the city.
The poor live in squatter settlements on the
periphery of the city.

Disamenity- unpleasant area
used by the poor to get to the
market.

44

The City Outline of Rio de Janeiro
The rich tourist areas and expensive condo apartments are along the coast
and beach while the poor live in squatter shacks in the hills.

45

City problems:
Inner-City Physical Problems: Most US inner cities were constructed before the 1950’s
(people began to move to the suburbs in the 1950’s so new construction moved out of
the city).
Process of Deterioration (how a city deteriorates): A city doesn’t suddenly become old
and full of slummy areas. It happens over time. When a group of low-income people
inhabit an area of a city, nearby neighborhoods will often look to move out. They sell or
rent to more low-income occupants thus expanding the low-income area. Two processes
cause/speed up the devaluation of areas:
1. Filtering, 2. Redlining.
Filtering: Large houses and buildings that once housed rich downtown workers (who
moved to the suburbs) are taken over by landlords who don’t live in that area (they
moved to the suburbs too). Rents are low so the landlord doesn’t take as good care of
the property as they should and the property becomes run down or abandoned. Stores
close, or move, due to lack of sales. 100 years ago these neighborhoods would be used
by immigrants and ethnic businesses would succeed in those areas. Now, with a decline
in immigration, these neighborhoods have shrunk and so have schools, businesses and
other services. Thousands of vacant houses and buildings stand empty in inner cities
across America.

46

Redlining: Some banks refuse to give loans in what they consider
risky neighborhoods. They draw a red line on a map around areas
where they will not give loans. Without loans, these neighborhoods
have a hard time rebuilding/remodeling. Though illegal, this still
happens. Bankers just don’t put these “no-loan” areas on a map.

Urban Renewal: This is the series of projects to improve European
and N. American cities by buying up the blighted neighborhoods,
moving the people to new government built housing projects, and
building new roads, and other projects to make the inner city
attractive for business again. National and State government grants
help pay for these projects.
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Public housing: Housing for the poor, built with government funding as part of
urban renewal. In the US this is only about 2% of the housing while in some
countries it may be more (Britain is 30%). Public housing built in the 50’s & 60’s
were largely high rise apartments, but those are seen as being unsatisfactory.
Problems arise from cramming large numbers of poor people into one area.
Today most public housing projects are one to three story buildings with many of
them being scattered around different parts of the city rather than clustered into
one area.
Because urban renewal has been criticized for destroying the social cohesion of
older neighborhoods, many governments (like the US) have stopped funding
most projects since the 1970’s. What do we do instead?
Renovated Housing: An alternative often used since the 70’s is to renovate a
building instead of urban renewal. The process where middle-class people
move into inner-city neighborhoods and renovate them is called gentrification.
Gentrified inner-city neighborhoods also attract middle-class people who work
downtown. Living close to work saves the hassle of commuting and rejuvenates
run down inner-city neighborhoods
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Gentrified building downtown Harlem, NY. Note the supermarket.

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Inner-City Social Problems: Inner-city residents are often referred to as the
permanent underclass because they are trapped in an unending cycle of
economic and social problems. High unemployment, alcoholism, drug
addiction, literacy, juvenile delinquency, and crime all exist at a higher rate
among those who live in the inner-city. Lack of jobs means lack of tax dollars
to pay for police and fire protection as well as good schools. Lack of job skills
and homelessness are also tremendous problems.
Culture of Poverty: Inner-city residents are trapped in a permanent underclass
culture that reproduces itself. In the US, unwed mothers give birth to 2/3 of the
babies in the inner-city. 90% of these children live with only one parent and it
is real hard for one parent to keep a job and take care of children. Both suffer
and a shortage of care and daily attention by the parent contributes to the kids
not learning the skills necessary to do well in school which leads to poor jobs
for their futures. Poverty leads to more poverty. Many families on welfare have
only one parent because it is financially better if one parent is gone, that way
the single parent gets food stamps and other services from the government
that they would not get if it was a 2 family household.
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Crime: Trapped in a hopeless environment, some inner-city
residents turn to drugs. Drug use is a problem in inner-city
areas and the suburbs, but rates of drug use in inner-cities
are the highest.
Ethnic and Racial Segregation: As seen in chapter 7, many
neighborhoods in the US are segregated by ethnicity with
African Americans and Hispanics concentrated in one or two
continuous areas and whites living in the suburbs. Even small
cities display a strong distinction among neighborhoods. A
frequent division is between the east and west or north and
south side of town, or the railroad tracks. A family seeking a
new residence will seek the areas where the characteristics
of the people meet their own.

51

The exodus
from the
American city.
This has
happened in
many American
cities since the
1960’s.

52

Changes in Cities in the U.S.
U.S. population has been moving out of the city centers to the suburbs:
suburbanization and counter urbanization

Developed Countries: suburbanization

 wealthy move to suburbs
 automobiles and roads; ‘American
Dream’ of the home in the suburbs.
 better services
 wealthy move to suburbs
Counter urbanization

idyllic settings
cost of land for retirement
slow pace, yet high tech
connections to services and markets
53

U.S. intraregional migration during 1990s.

Inner city economic problems: the concentration of low income
residents in inner cities has caused economic problems. These
people require public services but can pay very little in taxes to
support the services. They need stores and jobs but have little
money to spend in the store and few skills for jobs (so the stores
close). To try to fight these problems many local and state
governments use tax monies to try to renovate these areas, but this
shifts tax money needed for other areas to the inner city (votes on
election day).
Annexation: Many cities could help their tax problem by adding the
new suburbs to be part of their city (annexation). After all, many of
these suburban people use the city for its’ jobs etc., so why not add
them into the city? Today, most people in the suburbs do not want
to be annexed into the city and so they do not vote to be annexed.
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The Peripheral Model: According to this model, an urban area
consists of an inner city surrounded by large suburban residential
and business areas (MSA) tied together by a beltway or highway
that circles the city. Around the beltway are nodes of consumer
and business services called edge cities (see diagram of multiple
nuclei model). These edge cities sprang up to provide services
and jobs to the people in the suburbs.
Density Gradient: As you travel outward from the center of the
city, the density of people declines. Inner city has big apartments
of 250 of more people per acre. Suburbs have fewer people per
acre (but lots of acres) and finally you leave the cities periphery
you find few people. The number of houses per unit of land
diminishes as distance from the center of the city increases.
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The Edge cities (bedroom communities) of Houston

The central city is surrounded by a ring road, around which are
suburban areas and edge cities, shopping malls, office parks,
industrial areas, and service complexes.

Known as
bedroom
communities
because
people live
there but
mostly don’t
work there.
They drive
into the city
for work.
56

As you move from the center of the city outward, the density of the population
changes. This is know as the density gradient. Two big changes have occurred in
the density gradient of today’s cities:
1. The number of people living in the center has decreased.
2. The density difference between the inner city and the suburbs is declining
because the inner city density is dropping and the suburban density is growing
due to more large apartments being built in the suburbs.
Cost of Suburban or Urban Sprawl: Urban Sprawl is the progressive spread of
development over the landscape. As long as we Americans want single-family
detached houses, land on the fringe of urban areas will be converted from open
space to residential use. The cost of this growth is more than the loss of land, it is
also the cost of new roads, utilities, building stores and offices and the cost of
automobiles to move these people over even longer distances. Lots of these new
developments are built on what was once farmland. Wonderful productive soil now
under concrete.

Greenbelts: are areas where, by law, the open space can not be used for any
construction. This is mostly found in Europe.

57

Once farmland that is being converted to suburbs and cities.

58

Tyson’s Corner Virginia in 1940

59

Washington, DC. MSA.

Tyson’s Corner Virginia
today.
Washington D.C. is off
In the distance.

60

Suburban Segregation: The “new” segregation.
Suburban segregation takes two forms:
1. Residents are separated from commercial and manufacturing activities
which are confined someplace else. (The whole neighborhood is
nothing but houses because they drive for services.)
2. The price of the house eliminates some from being able to live there. This
creates a homogeneous suburb of the same economic class of people.
This never existed before in history. Where we once had vertical
segregation of the classes we now we have horizontal segregation.
3. But this may be reversing as new statistics show that people are beginning
to move back to the city. Why? Cost of transportation.
Zoning Ordinances: This idea developed in Europe and later America in the
early decades of the 20th century. This means that businesses are allowed only
in certain areas of the settlement. (No all night taco stands inside your single
family neighborhood.)
Motor vehicles: The wide use of the automobile is largely responsible for the
American movement to the suburbs. Not only did people move out but 1/4 of
the land inside all American cities are now roads, streets, and parking lots.

61

Public Transportation: Because few US workers live within walking distance
of their jobs, urban areas are characterized by extensive commuting and the
problems that come with it. As much as 40% of all trips made into or out from
a city during the day takes place within just 4 hours. (2 in the morning and 2 in
the late afternoon). RUSH HOUR!!! In large cities, public transportation, like
subways and busses, are better suited to move people but Americans still
prefer their own cars. Public transportation is cheaper, cleaner, and more
energy efficient than personal cars, yet in the US only 5% of city travel is
done using public transit systems. American’s love their personal car too
much.
Local Government Fragmentation: Because of the large number of local
governments in the US (look at the settlements in Pinellas County) it is
difficult to solve some of the regional problems like garbage disposal, water
management, traffic and public housing.
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Metropolitan government: This idea tries to put many local governments into a
larger unit that can better handle the urban problems. The 2 ways to do this
are:
1. Federations in which the individual settlements have their own police,
firemen, and tax collection but they all agree to be part of a second
government which handles transportation, water, sewage, parks and
welfare for all the communities.
2. Consolidations: In this method, several cities and the county may form one
government. Jacksonville’s government runs not only the town but the
county too, this makes Jacksonville the largest city, in land size, in the US.
Smart growth: A new movement by many states to curb suburban sprawl by
limiting where new construction can take place. Smart growth laws require that
land near cities be used up before any land further out can be developed. So
far, this is only being done an a few parts of our country.
63

The new
US as
some
people
see it.

64

Quiz Yourself:
1. The process where middle-class people move into inner city neighborhoods and
renovate them is called ____________
2. ____________ happens when banks refuse to give loans in what they consider
risky neighborhoods.
3. Because of the housing shortages, the poor have constructed their own settlements
around the city known as __________ _________

4. Businesses are allowed only in certain areas of the settlement because of
____________ ____________
5. Areas known as _____ _______ are areas of about 5,000 people. The data from
that area is used to help define needed services for that area.
6. When cities are so close that they form one continuous band of development this is
known as a ____________
65

7. Social relationships are often described as “colder” in urban areas because…
8. In this model the city develops in a series of sectors not rings. _______

9. ______ (LDC’s or MDC’s) have a higher percentage of people living in urban
settlements but ________ (LDC’s or MDC’s) have more of the very large urban
settlements.
10. _____________ was the first model developed to explain the distributions
of different social groups within urban areas.
11. New cities which develop around the beltway are nodes of consumer and
business services known as ________ _________.

12. When the Europeans took over lands around the world, they changed the
cities by adding services to help the Europeans control the conquered people.
These European planned cities are known as __________ cities.
66

Answer Key:
1.

Gentrification

2.

Redlining

3.

Squatter Settlements

4.

Zoning ordinances

5.

Census tracks

6.

Megalopolis

7. There is a stronger feeling of belonging together in small rural settlements.
8. Hoyt sector model
9. MDC, LDC
10. Burgess Concentric Zone model
11. Edge cities
12. Colonial cities
67

Test Key topic/chapter 13:
These questions come from a combination of our slides, your text book, and common knowledge you should
have discussed in your AP classroom. They are very typical of what you will see on the National Exam.
1) The multiple nuclei theory best explains why different neighborhoods of a city attract people of different… A) ages.
B) ethnic origin C) income D) marital status.
2) Sprawl is the… A) change in density within an urban area from the center to the periphery B) development of new
housing sites not contiguous to the existing built-up area. C) land maintained as open space surrounding an urban area.
D) period in the morning and evening with the heaviest volumes of traffic.
3) People are attracted to suburbs in part because suburbs are characterized by…A) heavy traffic. B) lower opportunity
for home ownership. C) private land surrounding the house. D) row houses and apartments.
4) Megalopolis refers to… A) adjacent, overlapping Metropolitan Statistical Areas. B) central cities. C) consolidated
Metropolitan Statistical Areas. D) central cities plus urbanized areas.
5) Which statement best describes the relationship between urbanization and the Industrial Revolution? A) Urbanization
promoted the Industrial Revolution. B) The Industrial Revolution promoted urbanization. C) Urbanization preceded the
Industrial Revolution by thousands of years. D) Urbanization and the Industrial Revolution are no longer related.
6) The process of legally adding land area to a city in the United States is… A) annexation. B) accreditation. C) an
application of eminent domain. D) defined by urbanized area.

68

7) The process of change in the use of a house, from single-family owner occupancy to abandonment, is… A) blockbusting.
B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining.
8) A process by which banks designate an area within which they refuse to lend money for improvements is… A) blockbusting.
B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining.
9) A recent change in the density gradient has been… A) the elimination of the gap traditionally found in the center. B) an
increase in the extremes between the inner and outer areas. C) an increase in the number of people living in the center.
D) a reduction in the differences in densities found within an urban area.
10) U.S. central cities face fiscal problems because… A) federal and state funds are available. B) low-income people are
concentrated there. C) middle-class families are attracted there. D) redlining is no longer legal.
11) A legal form of segregation in U.S. cities is achieved through...A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) zoning. D) greenbelts.
12) Factories have moved to suburban locations in part because of… A) access to main highways. B) adequate space to build
vertical structures. C) availability of large tracts of high-priced land. D) good rail connections.
13) According to the sector model, the best housing is located in…A) a corridor from downtown to the edge of the city.
B) an outer ring surrounding the city. C) nodes near universities and parks. D) renovated inner-city neighborhoods.
14) Ramshackle houses on the periphery of cities in less developed countries are known as… A) squatter settlements. B) council
estates. C) public housing. D) zone in transition.
15) Higher income people tend to live near the center of the city in all but which of the following regions? A) Latin America
B) North America C) South Asia D) Western Europe

16) The wide boulevards built in cities in less developed countries were most likely built during what era? A) pre-colonial
B) colonial C) independence D) all of the above equally

69

17) According to the multiple nuclei model, an airport is likely to attract nearby… A) industries. B) residences. C) shops.
D) universities.
18) The largest percentage of the U.S. population lives in…A) central cities. B) suburbs. C) non-metropolitan areas. D) all of the
above
19) In U.S. cities, the underclass is… A) clustered in inner-city neighborhoods. B) dispersed throughout the city. C) clustered in
suburbs. D) distributed uniformly in the city.

20) A process of converting a neighborhood from low-income to middle-class is…A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) gentrification.
D) redlining.
21) Higher social heterogeneity in urban settlements means that… A) the people with whom you relax are probably the same ones you
see at work. B) you play a specialized role in the urban economy. C) you compete for limited space. D) you may feel lonely and
isolated in a crowd.
22) The city plus its contiguous built-up suburbs is the… A) central city. B) urbanized area.
D) consolidated metropolitan statistical area

C) metropolitan statistical area.

23) The process whereby an increasing percentage of people live in an urban area is known as… A) demographic transition.
B) rank-size rule. C) urbanization. D) central place theory.
24) Of the ten largest urban areas in the world, how many are in More Developed Countries today? A) 1 B) 4 C) 7 D) 10 E) 2
25) Public housing is…A) conversion of low-income housing to middle-class housing. B) illegally established low-income housing.
C) housing that has changed from single-family owner occupancy to abandonment. D) low-income government-owned housing.
26) According to the concentric zone model, a city develops in a series of… A) corridors. B) nodes. C) rings. D) all of the above

70

27) Chicago is a good location in which to develop urban models because it is located… A) at the hub of the nation's transportation
system. B) in the center of the country. C) on a flat prairie. D) on the shore of Lake Michigan.
28) According to the sector model, the best housing is located in… A) a corridor from downtown to the edge of the city. B) an outer
ring surrounding the city. C) nodes near universities and parks. D) renovated inner-city neighborhoods.
29) The zone of transition in US cities generally contain…A) warehouses B) wealthy neighborhoods C) transportation hubs
D) universities and hospitals E) suburban homes
30) The attractions of shopping malls include all but which of the following? A) frequent concerts and exhibitions B) generous
parking lots C) place to meet friends D) walking distance from homes
The following questions are written at the high school level. You will find some questions from part one often rewritten
here. This is all designed to help you transition to the college/AP style of written questions. Any question preceded with ***
are questions that have been on the national exam before.
31. Most Latin American cities are focused on a…A) central plaza B) government housing project C) zone of heavy industry
D) skyscraper office building E) squatter settlement
32. The multiple-nuclei model of a city structure tends to be most applicable to…A) small cities B) traditional C) Latin American
cities D) newer, fast growing cities E) cities with homogeneous land use
33. ***Locational advantages important to the development of the earliest cities include…A) availability of good harbors for large
ships B) productive agricultural land and defensible sites C) temperate climate and proximity to coal mines D) good
connections by road and canal E) proximity to manufacturing areas

34. In cities, the CBD’s often show uniqueness while the suburbs usually show…A) a large hinterland. B) placelessness C) more
than one node. D) newer zones of transition.

71

35. Many LDC’s have tried to help a previously under-developed part of their country develop by moving their capital
city to that area. This new capital is known as a…A) forward capital B) new development zone C) enterprise zone
D) neocolonial city
36. Today the greatest number of urban dwellers is found in…A) North America
D) Europe E) Asia

B) South America C) Africa

37. ***All of the following have helped create ghettos in North American cities except…A)blockbusting and racial
steering B) redlining by financial institutions C) concentration of public housing and social services D) fixed school
districts E) Economic Enterprise Zones

38. Which of the following is NOT as reason for rapid suburbanization in the US after WW2? A) Mass production of
the automobile B) Reduction of long distance commuting C) Expansion of home construction D) Expansion of the
interstate highway system E) Availability of low down payment terms and long-term mortgages.
39. New cities which developed in the hinterland of large urban areas because of the automobile, are known as…
A) edge cities B) census tracts C) suburban sprawl D) squatter settlements. E) none of these
40. Gentrification refers to… A) moving the homeless into inner city shelters B) The “White Flight” from the urban city
C) losing tax revenue because of stores closing in downtown areas D) middle-class people moving into and renovating
inner city neighborhoods E) the creation of “beltway cities” around the city.

72

4
7
3

5

1
6

2

41-48 all use the sketch above.
41. The sketch in box A above represents which model of the inner structure of urban areas?
C) multiple nuclei model D) Burgess concentric zone model E) peripheral model
42. The models in boxes B and C represent A) Concentric zone and multiple nuclei
concentric zone D) peripheral and concentric zone E) Von Thunen and peripheral

A) Hoyt sector model B) VonThunen’s model

B) Multiple nuclei and Hoyt sector C) Hoyt sector and

43. In which ring (1, 2, etc.) of sketch A above would high-status households in North American cities likely live? A) 1 B) 2 C) 3 D) 4&5
44. In which ring (1, 2, etc.) of sketch A above would high status households in a European city likely live? A) 1

B) 2

C) 3

D) 4&5

45. In model B, zone # 2 is where it is likely because of: A) greenbelting B) squatter settling C) the culture of poverty D) transportation
E) no one knows
46. The model in sketch B is the; A) Hoyt sector model B) Burgess model C) multiple nuclei model D) peripheral model
47. The model in sketch C is the; A) Hoyt sector model B) Burgess model C) multiple nuclei model D) peripheral model
48. Which of these models best describes what has happened in US cities in the last 40 years? A)

B)

C)

73

49.*** In the U.S. a city plus its contiguous built-up suburbs is known as an…A) urbanized area B) zoned area
C) census tract D) Squatter settlement E) none of these
50. Done mostly in Europe, these are areas where land is kept as parks, farms or other kinds of open space and urban
sprawl is not allowed. A) Smart growth
B) zoning
C) filtering
D) census tracts E) greenbelts
51. Which statement best describes the relationship between urbanization and the Industrial Revolution?
A) Urbanization promoted the Industrial Revolution. B) The Industrial Revolution promoted urbanization.
C) Urbanization preceded the Industrial Revolution by thousands of years. D) Urbanization and the Industrial
Revolution are no longer related.
52. The process whereby an increasing percentage of people live in an urban area is known as…
A) Demographic transition. B) rank-size rule. C) Urbanization. D) Central place theory.
53. The city (if it has 50,000 or more people) plus its contiguous built-up suburbs AND the county it is in as well as any
other counties it influences, is known as the ...A) central city B) urbanized area
C) metropolitan statistical area
D) consolidated metropolitan area E) micropolitan statistical area
54. ***Higher social heterogeneity in urban settlements means that …A) the people with whom you relax are probably
the same ones you see at work. B) you play a specialized role in the urban economy. C) you compete for limited
space. D) you may feel lonely and isolated in a crowd.

55. The process of change in the use of a house, from single-family owner occupancy to smaller dwellings for the poor
and then sometimes to abandonment, is…A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining. E) none of
these

74

Free Response #1:
The Bid Rent theory says that the closer you get to the
CBD the higher the cost for land, yet in most American
cities you find the poorest people living near the
expensive CBD and the richest living further away.
Explain:
A. Why neighborhoods near the CBD are often poor and
run down?
B. Why are there few grocery and other retail stores in
these neighborhoods?
C. Why is this not really true in European and Latin
American countries?

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75

FR #2:
Think of the map of your school, explain the
layout of your school using the Multiple Nuclei
Model
The main office is the CBD.
Completely explain your answer using specific
buildings and/or land areas in your explanation
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76

Answer Key:
1. B

14. A

27. C

40. D

53. C

2. B

15. B

28. A

41. D

54. D

3. C

16. B

29. A

42. B

55. B

4. A

17. A

30. D

43. D

5. B

18. B

31. A

44. A

6. A

19. A

32. D

45. D

7. B

20. C

33. B

46. A

8. D

21. D

34. B

47. C

9. D

22. B

35. A

48. C

10. B

23. C

36. E

49. A

11. C

24. C

37. E

50. E

12. A

25. D

38. B

51. B

13. A

26. C

39. A

52. C
77

FR. #1: ( 15 pts. for each section…total of 45 pts.)
A. In the US the move of the wealthy and middle class to the suburbs has left the older houses and apartments near the CBD empty.
This has lowered their value to the point where the poor can afford these dwellings and have made these neighborhoods their
homes. The poor can not pay for upkeep of these dwellings, or to pay high taxes. The lack of upkeep and tax money to repair the
roads and schools, adds to the downward spiral of the neighborhood. With little spending money for shopping, the poor do not
spend much in the stores. This causes many stores to close and move to the suburbs where the spending customers and money
went. The closing of the stores adds to the poverty of the area by taking away some of the jobs that were in the neighborhood. This
becomes a vicious cycle of poverty and deterioration. (15 points)

B. There are few retail stores and groceries is the area because the poor do not have money to shop. The lack of spending forces
many stores out of business or forces them to move to better locations. There also can be higher crime in these areas and the
crime often takes place at the stores. This is another reason for the stores to move out of the neighborhood. (15 points)
C. Neighborhoods in European and Latin American cities are different from those of US cities. In Europe and Latin America, the
wealthy and middle class still live near or in the CBD. The higher tax base and more spending ability of the upper and middle
classes, keeps the CBD area flourishing with jobs and in constant repair and upkeep of the cities’ physical condition. (15 points)

FR #2: (10 total points.)
You will need to judge how effectively you displayed you school
in the Multiple Nuclei Model. Refer to the model itself to help you
determine your success and grade.
School’s main office
78

Calculating your grade on test 13.
Add how many you got correct on the multiple choice part (55 possible) to how many
points you scored on the FR portion (55 possible)…110 total.
The following scale will show the approximate score if this test were the real AP exam. Remember that this
is an approximation. While 65-74% is normally the range for a 3 on the test, it is not definite. Over the
years I have seen scores as low as 60% be the low portion of a 3 score.

Out of 110 possible points:
72-83 is most likely a 3
84-94 is most likely a 4

95-110 is most likely a 5

Now lets start our review for the national exam by
reviewing the 33 key models and theories of the
course…the next PowerPoint.


Slide 2

Key topic/chapter 13…Urban Patterns
Key terms:
Annexation
Concentric zone model
Density gradient
Edge cities
Filtering
Galactic city
Gentrification
Greenbelts
Megalopolis
MSA
Multiple nuclei model
Peripheral model

Public housing
Redlining
Renovated housing
Scattered site
Squatter settlement
Sector model
Smart growth
Sprawl
Underclass
Urban renewal
Zone in transition
Zoning
1

Chapter 13…Urban Areas.
How are Cities planned?
Why

are cities where they are?
How are they organized?
Why are some areas of a city
different from
other areas of the same city?
What is the future of cities?
2

Settlement


Settlement - permanent collections of buildings,
where people live, work, and obtain services

3

ORIGINS OF SETTLEMENTS


Religious - graves, churches, temples



Cultural - schools, libraries



Political/Military - leader’s house, walls



Economic - stores, food
4

TYPES OF SETTLEMENTS


Rural Settlements - agriculture as the
predominant occupation.



Urban settlements - principal industries are
secondary and tertiary.

5

RURAL SETTLEMENTS
Clustered rural settlements –grouped
settlements in rural areas to minimize travel

Dispersed rural Settlements - isolated farms
with enclosed continuous fields (Found only in
N. America and Britain).

6

Urban Geographers want to know the global distribution of urban
settlements. MDC’s have a high percentage of people living in urban
areas because of the shift from agriculture-manufacturing-services.
Geographers are also interested in where people and activities are
distributed within urban spaces. What are the differences between the
inner-city and suburban areas and why?
As we saw in the last chapter, many downtowns are unique and can
often be recognized in photos where the suburbs often look very
much alike (Placelessness). Why? Suburbs offer the chance to avoid
some of the city problems (crime, tight living area, expensive
land/rent, noise, age of buildings) while still keeping a connection with
the goods and services of the city: jobs, sports teams, culture, shops,
recreation, etc.
7

Where is this place?

8

Today’s cities are evolving and changing. Although different internal
situations characterize urban areas in the US and elsewhere, the
problems arising from current spatial trends are quite similar in all cities.
Where have urban areas grown: in the early 1800’s only 3% of the earth’s
people lived in cities and only Beijing China had more than 1 million
people. Today over ½ of the world’s people live in cities and we have over
400 cities of at least 1 million people.

Urbanization: is the process by which city population grows.
Cities population growth is measured in 2 dimensions;
1. An increase in the number of people living in the cities.
2. An increase in the percentage of people living in the cities.
This distinction is important because they happen for different reason and
have different global distributions.
9

Increasing Percentage of People in Cities: a large percentage of people living in urban
areas is a measure of a country’s level of development. In MDC’s about ¾ of the people
live in urban areas compared to about 2/5 of people in LDC’s. (Except in Latin America
where the level is closer to MDC’s.)
The higher percentage of people in urban areas comes from the changes that have
occurred in the last 200 years as we went from agriculture (primary jobs) to industrial
(secondary jobs) and now service jobs, all created by the Industrial Revolution of the
1800’s.
People moved to the cities for industrial jobs, but in MDC’s this process has largely
ended because nearly everyone interested in moving to the cities from farms has already
done so.
In LDC’s the percentage of people living in urban areas is growing as people are pushed
off of their farms and replaced by machines and as people move to cities looking/hoping
for industrial jobs.
10

Increasing Number of People in Cities: MDC’s have a higher percentage of
people living in urban settlements but LDC’s have more of the very large urban
settlements (Primate cities). (Rank-size rule, primate cities, chapter 12.)

This is interesting because typically the large cities are created from the
improvements brought by the Industrial Revolution. This is not the case with the
large LDC cities. Migration to the primate city in LDC’s is happening even though
job opportunities may not be available. Increasing the population growth in LDC
cities is the fact that medical services are better in these cities, thus the child
mortality rate is lower.
Defining Urban Settlements: defining where urban areas end and rural areas
begin is not easy. Geographers have formulated definitions that distinguish
between urban and rural areas in two ways: Social differences and Physical
differences.
11

Percent Urban Population

Percent of the population living in urban areas is usually higher in MDCs
than in LDCs.

12

The most populated cities in the world

Of the top
20, only
Moscow,
Tokyo and
New York
are in MDC’s

Shanghai China has 14,608,512 people
13

14

15

Social Differences Between Urban and Rural Settlements: it is fair to say that rural
people and urban people follow different ways of life. A city can be defined as having 3
characteristics:
1. Large size. People in rural settlements know most of the other people in the
settlement. Not true in big cities. Social relationships are often described as “colder” in
urban areas because you only see some people at work instead of growing up with
them in the settlement.
2. High Density. Having lots of people in a tiny area creates social consequences. A
high density of people living in a small area can only be supported if the people
specialize (they can’t all be farmers). People are encouraged to compete for jobs, room,
and survival in a tightly limited space. Social groups compete to occupy the same space
(ethnic/ race problems). Rural settlements have very little of this problem.
3. Social Heterogeneity. The larger the settlement, the greater the variety of people.
Being “unusual” in a large settlement is more likely to be accepted than in a small rural
one. But despite the freedom to be different that large urban settlements give you,
people living there often feel alone because so many people are different from them.
There is a stronger feeling of belonging together in small rural settlements.
16

These 3 differences do not fully answer the question of where urban settlements
begin and rural ones end because in today’s MDC’s most everyone has access to
cars, telephones, televisions, and “urban type” jobs which reduce the differences
between urban and rural lifestyles. “City folk” and “Country folk” are more alike
today than they are different. To help distinguish between urban and rural areas we
need to add the physical definition of rural and urban to the equation.
Physical Definitions of Urban Settlements: In ancient time, cities had defensive
walls for protection which clearly defined the physical boundaries of the city. Today
the walls are gone but we can still define the physical boundaries in 3 ways:
1. Legal boundary. These are the official boundaries of a city as recognized by
the government of the country or state. These “city limits” have been officially given
to the city and are physically marked on official maps. The local government of the
city has authority to make laws and protect the people inside the city boundaries.
17

2. Urbanized area. This is the city plus its suburbs or urbanized area that
surrounds the city. About 70 percent of US residents live in urbanized areas with
40% being in the suburbs and 30% inside the city limits. The suburbs may have
their own city governments but the huge central city dominates what happens in
the entire area.
3. Metropolitan Statistical Area. Cities have an even bigger influence on people
than just those living in their city limits and surrounding urbanized areas. People
from far away come to shop, use the services, support the sports teams, read
the newspapers and watch the television broadcasts of the city. Thus the city
has a “functional area” which is its total zone of influence. The US Bureau of
Census has created a method of measuring the functional area of the city.
Known as the Metropolitan statistical area (MSA) this area includes:
•An urbanized area with a population of at least 50,000
•The county within which the city is located.
•Adjacent counties with a high population density and a large percentage of
residents working in the central city’s county.
18

Metropolitan Area of Philadelphia

City of
Philadelphia

Urbanized
area
(suburbs)
Metropolitan
Statistical
Area

The metropolitan area of Philadelphia is
spread over several counties and four states.
It is also a diversified trade center, given its
position on the Delaware river.

19

20

21

Micropolitan Statistical Areas: Smaller areas with between
10,000 and 50,000 people, the county where it is found, and
adjacent counties tied to the city. This would be a small town and
the area dominated by it.
Overlapping Metropolitan Areas: Some adjacent MSA’s overlap.
A county between two central cities may send a large number of
commuters to jobs in both cities. In some areas the cities are so
close that they form one continuous urban complex. This is
known as a Megalopolis (great city).
In a megalopolis, the downtown CBD often has its own
distinctive look and the urban areas are visually separated by
parks, open spaces, and dairy/truck farms. But at the periphery
of the urban areas, the boundaries overlap.
22

Colorado Springs, population 431,000

Ocala, Florida, population 56,000

Florala, Alabama, population 1,900

23

Megalopolis, from northern Va. To Maine.
This Illustrates the
difference between
strict city proper
definitions and broader
urban agglomerations.
To define urbanized
areas, the U.S. Census
Bureau uses the term
Metropolitan Statistical
Area (MSA) or
Consolidated MSA
(CMSA) if two or more of
them overlap.
24

Where are People Distributed within Urban Areas? People are not
just distributed at random in urban areas. For the most part they
concentrate in particular neighborhoods depending on their social
characteristics. Geographers want to see where people with
particular characteristics are likely to live and why.

Three models which try to explain the growth of a city:

The Burgess Model

The Hoyt Sector Model

The Harris and Ullman
multiple Nuclei Model
25

Burgess Concentric Zone Model

In the concentric zone model, a city grows in a series of rings surrounding the CBD.

Burgess Concentric Zone Model: This is the first used to explain the
distributions of different social groups within urban areas. It says that a
city grows outward from a central place in a series of concentric rings.
The precise size and width of the rings vary from one city to another, but
some basic types of rings appear in all cities in the same order (see chart
above).
26

•Hoyt Sector Model: In this model the city develops in a
series of sectors not rings. Certain areas of the city are
more attractive for various activities, originally because
of an environmental factor (or even pure chance). As the
city grows, activities extend outward in a wedge shape.
For example, once a wealthy neighborhood is built the
next wealthy neighborhood will extend from the first
neighborhood further outward from the center. In this
way, the best housing is found in a corridor extending
outward from the center to the outer edge (see chart on
the next page).
27

The Hoyt Sector Model

In the sector model, a city grows in a series of
wedges or corridors extending out from the
CBD.
28

•Harris and Ullman’s Multiple Nuclei Model: According
to this model, a city is a complex structure that includes
more than one center around which activities revolve.
Examples of these nodes include a port, parks,
stadium, neighborhood business center, university, and
airport (see chart). This theory states that some
activities are attracted to particular nodes, whereas
others try to avoid them. A university node may attract
well educated people and bookstores while the port will
attract hotels and warehouses. Heavy industry and
expensive houses rarely are found together. This
model shows the effect of the automobile more than
any other model.
29

The Harris and Ullman Multiple Nuclei model

The multiple nuclei model views a city as a
collection of individual centers, around which
different people and activities cluster.

30

Applications of the Models: The three models help explain where and in some
cases, why people live where they do. None of the models by themselves fully
explains why and where different types of people live, but combined they give
you as good a look as possible at the “Why” of “Where.” Effective use of the
models depends on getting good data on the areas. Most countries take a
census every 10 years to help determine useful data about the people and
places of the country. In our country we divide the census data into areas
known as census tracts of about 5,000 people. Each census tract has the data
that summarizes the characteristics of the people living within that tract. This
information includes things like the race, income, age, and education of the
people living in that tract.
Social Area Analysis: The data from the census tracts can all be plotted onto
maps to show the characteristics of the people living in that tract. This map is
known as a social area analysis.
31

Using Census tract information…Seattle, Washington
Each lined area is a
census tract of about 5000
people in Seattle
Washington. These maps
show average household
income for 1990 and
2000…note the changes in
income in some areas
between 1990 and 2000.
Using this information, a
business can make
decisions about where
they want to locate a new
store or the future of
existing stores.
You can find census tract
information on many topics
such as; age, education
level, race, ethnicity, crime
rate, and land ownership.
Note the areas with
incomes over
$63,000.

All can be very valuable
information to people
looking to open
businesses.

32

Examine the changes
between 1990 and
2000.

Oakland, California’s Ethnic neighborhoods
The small bordered areas are census tracks of 5000 people.

33

Use of the Models Outside of North America: The 3 models will also work in other
places in the world; however social groups in other countries may not have the
same reasons for selecting particular neighborhoods as Americans do.
European Cities: As in the US, wealthier people in European cities cluster along a
sector extending outward from the CBD, however unlike the US, wealthy and
middle class Europeans still live in the inner rings of the neighborhoods near the
CBD not out in the suburbs. In the past, poorer people lived in the center of the
city. Before electricity, social segregation was vertical: richer people lived on the
first or second floor of a building while the poorer people lived in the basement or
upper floors. In the Industrial Revolution, housing for the poor was constructed
near the factories and away from the rich.
Today poorer Europeans are less likely to live in the inner-city. Poor quality
housing has been renovated for the rich or turned into office buildings. Poorer
Europeans tend to live in the outskirts of the city. Vast suburbs with dozens of high
rise apartments house the poor. They face long commutes to reach their jobs in
the city.
34

European cities generally do not have the “suburban
sprawl” that US cities have. European cities tend to be
more pedestrian friendly with more parks downtown as
Europeans tend to still live downtown.
US cities have taller buildings as European cities tend to
be older and more historic.

American cities have more ethnic neighborhoods than
European cities. Ethnic neighborhoods that do exist in
European cities tend to be in the suburbs. WHY?
Because the established richer neighborhoods tend to be
downtown in European cities.
35

Less Developed Countries: Like Europe, most LDC’s accommodate their poor in the
suburbs with their middle class and rich living near the center of the city. LDC’s have
passed through 3 periods of city building: before the Europeans arrived, during the
period of European colonialism, and since independence from European control.

Pre-colonial Cities: Before the Europeans arrived few cities existed in Africa, Asia, and
Latin America and most people lived in small rural settlements. Those cities that existed
were mostly laid out surrounding a religious center; with the rest of the city laid out in a
hieratical concentric pattern (like the Burgess model) from government buildings,
homes of the wealthy, and businesses related to the religion out to other businesses
and shops.
Colonial cities: When the Europeans took over these lands, they changed the cities by
adding services to help the Europeans control the conquered people. Often a new
European style city would be build next to the existing native one. The new European
cities contained wider streets, a public square, larger houses and a much lower density.
The Spanish used the “Law of the Indies” which was a city plan designed specifically to
build cities in a “Spanish” style. (Gridiron pattern for streets centered on a church and
central plaza, walls around individual houses and neighborhoods centered around
smaller plazas and more churches.)
36

Early Mexico city was laid out in a grid pattern of streets. This followed
the Spanish “Law of the Indies.”

37

Central Plaza in Mexico City 1920 photo. Typical Colonial City plan.

Part of downtown Mexico city today still shows the
building plan of the “Law of the Indies.”

38

Cities since Independence: Following independence, cities have become
the focal point of the development of most LDC’s. Millions of people have
migrated to the cities (Primate cities) looking for jobs and services. Some
capitals have been moved to isolated areas in an attempt to help develop
that area of the country (Brasília) This is know as a forward capital. Latin
American cities have developed their own unique style.
Squatter settlements: The LDC’s are unable to house the rapidly growing
number of poor who are flowing into the cities. Because of the housing
shortages, the poor have constructed their own settlements around the city.
These settlements have few services because neither the city nor the
residents can afford them. Squatters have two basic choices for housing.
1. Illegally move into empty real houses located in the city or,
2. Rent slum housing.
(85% of the population of Addis Ababa in Ethiopia lives in squatter
settlements, slums or other illegal housing.)
39

Squatter shacks in Manila, the Philippines

40

Squatter settlement in Ethiopia

41

Zimbabwe, Africa

42

Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

43

Latin American City Model:
In many Latin
American cities,
the wealthy live in
the inner city and
in a sector
extending along a
commercial spine.
In situ accretion- businesses
and homes constantly under
construction/repair.
Zone of maturity-2nd best
housing in the city.
The poor live in squatter settlements on the
periphery of the city.

Disamenity- unpleasant area
used by the poor to get to the
market.

44

The City Outline of Rio de Janeiro
The rich tourist areas and expensive condo apartments are along the coast
and beach while the poor live in squatter shacks in the hills.

45

City problems:
Inner-City Physical Problems: Most US inner cities were constructed before the 1950’s
(people began to move to the suburbs in the 1950’s so new construction moved out of
the city).
Process of Deterioration (how a city deteriorates): A city doesn’t suddenly become old
and full of slummy areas. It happens over time. When a group of low-income people
inhabit an area of a city, nearby neighborhoods will often look to move out. They sell or
rent to more low-income occupants thus expanding the low-income area. Two processes
cause/speed up the devaluation of areas:
1. Filtering, 2. Redlining.
Filtering: Large houses and buildings that once housed rich downtown workers (who
moved to the suburbs) are taken over by landlords who don’t live in that area (they
moved to the suburbs too). Rents are low so the landlord doesn’t take as good care of
the property as they should and the property becomes run down or abandoned. Stores
close, or move, due to lack of sales. 100 years ago these neighborhoods would be used
by immigrants and ethnic businesses would succeed in those areas. Now, with a decline
in immigration, these neighborhoods have shrunk and so have schools, businesses and
other services. Thousands of vacant houses and buildings stand empty in inner cities
across America.

46

Redlining: Some banks refuse to give loans in what they consider
risky neighborhoods. They draw a red line on a map around areas
where they will not give loans. Without loans, these neighborhoods
have a hard time rebuilding/remodeling. Though illegal, this still
happens. Bankers just don’t put these “no-loan” areas on a map.

Urban Renewal: This is the series of projects to improve European
and N. American cities by buying up the blighted neighborhoods,
moving the people to new government built housing projects, and
building new roads, and other projects to make the inner city
attractive for business again. National and State government grants
help pay for these projects.
47

Public housing: Housing for the poor, built with government funding as part of
urban renewal. In the US this is only about 2% of the housing while in some
countries it may be more (Britain is 30%). Public housing built in the 50’s & 60’s
were largely high rise apartments, but those are seen as being unsatisfactory.
Problems arise from cramming large numbers of poor people into one area.
Today most public housing projects are one to three story buildings with many of
them being scattered around different parts of the city rather than clustered into
one area.
Because urban renewal has been criticized for destroying the social cohesion of
older neighborhoods, many governments (like the US) have stopped funding
most projects since the 1970’s. What do we do instead?
Renovated Housing: An alternative often used since the 70’s is to renovate a
building instead of urban renewal. The process where middle-class people
move into inner-city neighborhoods and renovate them is called gentrification.
Gentrified inner-city neighborhoods also attract middle-class people who work
downtown. Living close to work saves the hassle of commuting and rejuvenates
run down inner-city neighborhoods
48

Gentrified building downtown Harlem, NY. Note the supermarket.

49

Inner-City Social Problems: Inner-city residents are often referred to as the
permanent underclass because they are trapped in an unending cycle of
economic and social problems. High unemployment, alcoholism, drug
addiction, literacy, juvenile delinquency, and crime all exist at a higher rate
among those who live in the inner-city. Lack of jobs means lack of tax dollars
to pay for police and fire protection as well as good schools. Lack of job skills
and homelessness are also tremendous problems.
Culture of Poverty: Inner-city residents are trapped in a permanent underclass
culture that reproduces itself. In the US, unwed mothers give birth to 2/3 of the
babies in the inner-city. 90% of these children live with only one parent and it
is real hard for one parent to keep a job and take care of children. Both suffer
and a shortage of care and daily attention by the parent contributes to the kids
not learning the skills necessary to do well in school which leads to poor jobs
for their futures. Poverty leads to more poverty. Many families on welfare have
only one parent because it is financially better if one parent is gone, that way
the single parent gets food stamps and other services from the government
that they would not get if it was a 2 family household.
50

Crime: Trapped in a hopeless environment, some inner-city
residents turn to drugs. Drug use is a problem in inner-city
areas and the suburbs, but rates of drug use in inner-cities
are the highest.
Ethnic and Racial Segregation: As seen in chapter 7, many
neighborhoods in the US are segregated by ethnicity with
African Americans and Hispanics concentrated in one or two
continuous areas and whites living in the suburbs. Even small
cities display a strong distinction among neighborhoods. A
frequent division is between the east and west or north and
south side of town, or the railroad tracks. A family seeking a
new residence will seek the areas where the characteristics
of the people meet their own.

51

The exodus
from the
American city.
This has
happened in
many American
cities since the
1960’s.

52

Changes in Cities in the U.S.
U.S. population has been moving out of the city centers to the suburbs:
suburbanization and counter urbanization

Developed Countries: suburbanization

 wealthy move to suburbs
 automobiles and roads; ‘American
Dream’ of the home in the suburbs.
 better services
 wealthy move to suburbs
Counter urbanization

idyllic settings
cost of land for retirement
slow pace, yet high tech
connections to services and markets
53

U.S. intraregional migration during 1990s.

Inner city economic problems: the concentration of low income
residents in inner cities has caused economic problems. These
people require public services but can pay very little in taxes to
support the services. They need stores and jobs but have little
money to spend in the store and few skills for jobs (so the stores
close). To try to fight these problems many local and state
governments use tax monies to try to renovate these areas, but this
shifts tax money needed for other areas to the inner city (votes on
election day).
Annexation: Many cities could help their tax problem by adding the
new suburbs to be part of their city (annexation). After all, many of
these suburban people use the city for its’ jobs etc., so why not add
them into the city? Today, most people in the suburbs do not want
to be annexed into the city and so they do not vote to be annexed.
54

The Peripheral Model: According to this model, an urban area
consists of an inner city surrounded by large suburban residential
and business areas (MSA) tied together by a beltway or highway
that circles the city. Around the beltway are nodes of consumer
and business services called edge cities (see diagram of multiple
nuclei model). These edge cities sprang up to provide services
and jobs to the people in the suburbs.
Density Gradient: As you travel outward from the center of the
city, the density of people declines. Inner city has big apartments
of 250 of more people per acre. Suburbs have fewer people per
acre (but lots of acres) and finally you leave the cities periphery
you find few people. The number of houses per unit of land
diminishes as distance from the center of the city increases.
55

The Edge cities (bedroom communities) of Houston

The central city is surrounded by a ring road, around which are
suburban areas and edge cities, shopping malls, office parks,
industrial areas, and service complexes.

Known as
bedroom
communities
because
people live
there but
mostly don’t
work there.
They drive
into the city
for work.
56

As you move from the center of the city outward, the density of the population
changes. This is know as the density gradient. Two big changes have occurred in
the density gradient of today’s cities:
1. The number of people living in the center has decreased.
2. The density difference between the inner city and the suburbs is declining
because the inner city density is dropping and the suburban density is growing
due to more large apartments being built in the suburbs.
Cost of Suburban or Urban Sprawl: Urban Sprawl is the progressive spread of
development over the landscape. As long as we Americans want single-family
detached houses, land on the fringe of urban areas will be converted from open
space to residential use. The cost of this growth is more than the loss of land, it is
also the cost of new roads, utilities, building stores and offices and the cost of
automobiles to move these people over even longer distances. Lots of these new
developments are built on what was once farmland. Wonderful productive soil now
under concrete.

Greenbelts: are areas where, by law, the open space can not be used for any
construction. This is mostly found in Europe.

57

Once farmland that is being converted to suburbs and cities.

58

Tyson’s Corner Virginia in 1940

59

Washington, DC. MSA.

Tyson’s Corner Virginia
today.
Washington D.C. is off
In the distance.

60

Suburban Segregation: The “new” segregation.
Suburban segregation takes two forms:
1. Residents are separated from commercial and manufacturing activities
which are confined someplace else. (The whole neighborhood is
nothing but houses because they drive for services.)
2. The price of the house eliminates some from being able to live there. This
creates a homogeneous suburb of the same economic class of people.
This never existed before in history. Where we once had vertical
segregation of the classes we now we have horizontal segregation.
3. But this may be reversing as new statistics show that people are beginning
to move back to the city. Why? Cost of transportation.
Zoning Ordinances: This idea developed in Europe and later America in the
early decades of the 20th century. This means that businesses are allowed only
in certain areas of the settlement. (No all night taco stands inside your single
family neighborhood.)
Motor vehicles: The wide use of the automobile is largely responsible for the
American movement to the suburbs. Not only did people move out but 1/4 of
the land inside all American cities are now roads, streets, and parking lots.

61

Public Transportation: Because few US workers live within walking distance
of their jobs, urban areas are characterized by extensive commuting and the
problems that come with it. As much as 40% of all trips made into or out from
a city during the day takes place within just 4 hours. (2 in the morning and 2 in
the late afternoon). RUSH HOUR!!! In large cities, public transportation, like
subways and busses, are better suited to move people but Americans still
prefer their own cars. Public transportation is cheaper, cleaner, and more
energy efficient than personal cars, yet in the US only 5% of city travel is
done using public transit systems. American’s love their personal car too
much.
Local Government Fragmentation: Because of the large number of local
governments in the US (look at the settlements in Pinellas County) it is
difficult to solve some of the regional problems like garbage disposal, water
management, traffic and public housing.
62

Metropolitan government: This idea tries to put many local governments into a
larger unit that can better handle the urban problems. The 2 ways to do this
are:
1. Federations in which the individual settlements have their own police,
firemen, and tax collection but they all agree to be part of a second
government which handles transportation, water, sewage, parks and
welfare for all the communities.
2. Consolidations: In this method, several cities and the county may form one
government. Jacksonville’s government runs not only the town but the
county too, this makes Jacksonville the largest city, in land size, in the US.
Smart growth: A new movement by many states to curb suburban sprawl by
limiting where new construction can take place. Smart growth laws require that
land near cities be used up before any land further out can be developed. So
far, this is only being done an a few parts of our country.
63

The new
US as
some
people
see it.

64

Quiz Yourself:
1. The process where middle-class people move into inner city neighborhoods and
renovate them is called ____________
2. ____________ happens when banks refuse to give loans in what they consider
risky neighborhoods.
3. Because of the housing shortages, the poor have constructed their own settlements
around the city known as __________ _________

4. Businesses are allowed only in certain areas of the settlement because of
____________ ____________
5. Areas known as _____ _______ are areas of about 5,000 people. The data from
that area is used to help define needed services for that area.
6. When cities are so close that they form one continuous band of development this is
known as a ____________
65

7. Social relationships are often described as “colder” in urban areas because…
8. In this model the city develops in a series of sectors not rings. _______

9. ______ (LDC’s or MDC’s) have a higher percentage of people living in urban
settlements but ________ (LDC’s or MDC’s) have more of the very large urban
settlements.
10. _____________ was the first model developed to explain the distributions
of different social groups within urban areas.
11. New cities which develop around the beltway are nodes of consumer and
business services known as ________ _________.

12. When the Europeans took over lands around the world, they changed the
cities by adding services to help the Europeans control the conquered people.
These European planned cities are known as __________ cities.
66

Answer Key:
1.

Gentrification

2.

Redlining

3.

Squatter Settlements

4.

Zoning ordinances

5.

Census tracks

6.

Megalopolis

7. There is a stronger feeling of belonging together in small rural settlements.
8. Hoyt sector model
9. MDC, LDC
10. Burgess Concentric Zone model
11. Edge cities
12. Colonial cities
67

Test Key topic/chapter 13:
These questions come from a combination of our slides, your text book, and common knowledge you should
have discussed in your AP classroom. They are very typical of what you will see on the National Exam.
1) The multiple nuclei theory best explains why different neighborhoods of a city attract people of different… A) ages.
B) ethnic origin C) income D) marital status.
2) Sprawl is the… A) change in density within an urban area from the center to the periphery B) development of new
housing sites not contiguous to the existing built-up area. C) land maintained as open space surrounding an urban area.
D) period in the morning and evening with the heaviest volumes of traffic.
3) People are attracted to suburbs in part because suburbs are characterized by…A) heavy traffic. B) lower opportunity
for home ownership. C) private land surrounding the house. D) row houses and apartments.
4) Megalopolis refers to… A) adjacent, overlapping Metropolitan Statistical Areas. B) central cities. C) consolidated
Metropolitan Statistical Areas. D) central cities plus urbanized areas.
5) Which statement best describes the relationship between urbanization and the Industrial Revolution? A) Urbanization
promoted the Industrial Revolution. B) The Industrial Revolution promoted urbanization. C) Urbanization preceded the
Industrial Revolution by thousands of years. D) Urbanization and the Industrial Revolution are no longer related.
6) The process of legally adding land area to a city in the United States is… A) annexation. B) accreditation. C) an
application of eminent domain. D) defined by urbanized area.

68

7) The process of change in the use of a house, from single-family owner occupancy to abandonment, is… A) blockbusting.
B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining.
8) A process by which banks designate an area within which they refuse to lend money for improvements is… A) blockbusting.
B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining.
9) A recent change in the density gradient has been… A) the elimination of the gap traditionally found in the center. B) an
increase in the extremes between the inner and outer areas. C) an increase in the number of people living in the center.
D) a reduction in the differences in densities found within an urban area.
10) U.S. central cities face fiscal problems because… A) federal and state funds are available. B) low-income people are
concentrated there. C) middle-class families are attracted there. D) redlining is no longer legal.
11) A legal form of segregation in U.S. cities is achieved through...A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) zoning. D) greenbelts.
12) Factories have moved to suburban locations in part because of… A) access to main highways. B) adequate space to build
vertical structures. C) availability of large tracts of high-priced land. D) good rail connections.
13) According to the sector model, the best housing is located in…A) a corridor from downtown to the edge of the city.
B) an outer ring surrounding the city. C) nodes near universities and parks. D) renovated inner-city neighborhoods.
14) Ramshackle houses on the periphery of cities in less developed countries are known as… A) squatter settlements. B) council
estates. C) public housing. D) zone in transition.
15) Higher income people tend to live near the center of the city in all but which of the following regions? A) Latin America
B) North America C) South Asia D) Western Europe

16) The wide boulevards built in cities in less developed countries were most likely built during what era? A) pre-colonial
B) colonial C) independence D) all of the above equally

69

17) According to the multiple nuclei model, an airport is likely to attract nearby… A) industries. B) residences. C) shops.
D) universities.
18) The largest percentage of the U.S. population lives in…A) central cities. B) suburbs. C) non-metropolitan areas. D) all of the
above
19) In U.S. cities, the underclass is… A) clustered in inner-city neighborhoods. B) dispersed throughout the city. C) clustered in
suburbs. D) distributed uniformly in the city.

20) A process of converting a neighborhood from low-income to middle-class is…A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) gentrification.
D) redlining.
21) Higher social heterogeneity in urban settlements means that… A) the people with whom you relax are probably the same ones you
see at work. B) you play a specialized role in the urban economy. C) you compete for limited space. D) you may feel lonely and
isolated in a crowd.
22) The city plus its contiguous built-up suburbs is the… A) central city. B) urbanized area.
D) consolidated metropolitan statistical area

C) metropolitan statistical area.

23) The process whereby an increasing percentage of people live in an urban area is known as… A) demographic transition.
B) rank-size rule. C) urbanization. D) central place theory.
24) Of the ten largest urban areas in the world, how many are in More Developed Countries today? A) 1 B) 4 C) 7 D) 10 E) 2
25) Public housing is…A) conversion of low-income housing to middle-class housing. B) illegally established low-income housing.
C) housing that has changed from single-family owner occupancy to abandonment. D) low-income government-owned housing.
26) According to the concentric zone model, a city develops in a series of… A) corridors. B) nodes. C) rings. D) all of the above

70

27) Chicago is a good location in which to develop urban models because it is located… A) at the hub of the nation's transportation
system. B) in the center of the country. C) on a flat prairie. D) on the shore of Lake Michigan.
28) According to the sector model, the best housing is located in… A) a corridor from downtown to the edge of the city. B) an outer
ring surrounding the city. C) nodes near universities and parks. D) renovated inner-city neighborhoods.
29) The zone of transition in US cities generally contain…A) warehouses B) wealthy neighborhoods C) transportation hubs
D) universities and hospitals E) suburban homes
30) The attractions of shopping malls include all but which of the following? A) frequent concerts and exhibitions B) generous
parking lots C) place to meet friends D) walking distance from homes
The following questions are written at the high school level. You will find some questions from part one often rewritten
here. This is all designed to help you transition to the college/AP style of written questions. Any question preceded with ***
are questions that have been on the national exam before.
31. Most Latin American cities are focused on a…A) central plaza B) government housing project C) zone of heavy industry
D) skyscraper office building E) squatter settlement
32. The multiple-nuclei model of a city structure tends to be most applicable to…A) small cities B) traditional C) Latin American
cities D) newer, fast growing cities E) cities with homogeneous land use
33. ***Locational advantages important to the development of the earliest cities include…A) availability of good harbors for large
ships B) productive agricultural land and defensible sites C) temperate climate and proximity to coal mines D) good
connections by road and canal E) proximity to manufacturing areas

34. In cities, the CBD’s often show uniqueness while the suburbs usually show…A) a large hinterland. B) placelessness C) more
than one node. D) newer zones of transition.

71

35. Many LDC’s have tried to help a previously under-developed part of their country develop by moving their capital
city to that area. This new capital is known as a…A) forward capital B) new development zone C) enterprise zone
D) neocolonial city
36. Today the greatest number of urban dwellers is found in…A) North America
D) Europe E) Asia

B) South America C) Africa

37. ***All of the following have helped create ghettos in North American cities except…A)blockbusting and racial
steering B) redlining by financial institutions C) concentration of public housing and social services D) fixed school
districts E) Economic Enterprise Zones

38. Which of the following is NOT as reason for rapid suburbanization in the US after WW2? A) Mass production of
the automobile B) Reduction of long distance commuting C) Expansion of home construction D) Expansion of the
interstate highway system E) Availability of low down payment terms and long-term mortgages.
39. New cities which developed in the hinterland of large urban areas because of the automobile, are known as…
A) edge cities B) census tracts C) suburban sprawl D) squatter settlements. E) none of these
40. Gentrification refers to… A) moving the homeless into inner city shelters B) The “White Flight” from the urban city
C) losing tax revenue because of stores closing in downtown areas D) middle-class people moving into and renovating
inner city neighborhoods E) the creation of “beltway cities” around the city.

72

4
7
3

5

1
6

2

41-48 all use the sketch above.
41. The sketch in box A above represents which model of the inner structure of urban areas?
C) multiple nuclei model D) Burgess concentric zone model E) peripheral model
42. The models in boxes B and C represent A) Concentric zone and multiple nuclei
concentric zone D) peripheral and concentric zone E) Von Thunen and peripheral

A) Hoyt sector model B) VonThunen’s model

B) Multiple nuclei and Hoyt sector C) Hoyt sector and

43. In which ring (1, 2, etc.) of sketch A above would high-status households in North American cities likely live? A) 1 B) 2 C) 3 D) 4&5
44. In which ring (1, 2, etc.) of sketch A above would high status households in a European city likely live? A) 1

B) 2

C) 3

D) 4&5

45. In model B, zone # 2 is where it is likely because of: A) greenbelting B) squatter settling C) the culture of poverty D) transportation
E) no one knows
46. The model in sketch B is the; A) Hoyt sector model B) Burgess model C) multiple nuclei model D) peripheral model
47. The model in sketch C is the; A) Hoyt sector model B) Burgess model C) multiple nuclei model D) peripheral model
48. Which of these models best describes what has happened in US cities in the last 40 years? A)

B)

C)

73

49.*** In the U.S. a city plus its contiguous built-up suburbs is known as an…A) urbanized area B) zoned area
C) census tract D) Squatter settlement E) none of these
50. Done mostly in Europe, these are areas where land is kept as parks, farms or other kinds of open space and urban
sprawl is not allowed. A) Smart growth
B) zoning
C) filtering
D) census tracts E) greenbelts
51. Which statement best describes the relationship between urbanization and the Industrial Revolution?
A) Urbanization promoted the Industrial Revolution. B) The Industrial Revolution promoted urbanization.
C) Urbanization preceded the Industrial Revolution by thousands of years. D) Urbanization and the Industrial
Revolution are no longer related.
52. The process whereby an increasing percentage of people live in an urban area is known as…
A) Demographic transition. B) rank-size rule. C) Urbanization. D) Central place theory.
53. The city (if it has 50,000 or more people) plus its contiguous built-up suburbs AND the county it is in as well as any
other counties it influences, is known as the ...A) central city B) urbanized area
C) metropolitan statistical area
D) consolidated metropolitan area E) micropolitan statistical area
54. ***Higher social heterogeneity in urban settlements means that …A) the people with whom you relax are probably
the same ones you see at work. B) you play a specialized role in the urban economy. C) you compete for limited
space. D) you may feel lonely and isolated in a crowd.

55. The process of change in the use of a house, from single-family owner occupancy to smaller dwellings for the poor
and then sometimes to abandonment, is…A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining. E) none of
these

74

Free Response #1:
The Bid Rent theory says that the closer you get to the
CBD the higher the cost for land, yet in most American
cities you find the poorest people living near the
expensive CBD and the richest living further away.
Explain:
A. Why neighborhoods near the CBD are often poor and
run down?
B. Why are there few grocery and other retail stores in
these neighborhoods?
C. Why is this not really true in European and Latin
American countries?

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75

FR #2:
Think of the map of your school, explain the
layout of your school using the Multiple Nuclei
Model
The main office is the CBD.
Completely explain your answer using specific
buildings and/or land areas in your explanation
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76

Answer Key:
1. B

14. A

27. C

40. D

53. C

2. B

15. B

28. A

41. D

54. D

3. C

16. B

29. A

42. B

55. B

4. A

17. A

30. D

43. D

5. B

18. B

31. A

44. A

6. A

19. A

32. D

45. D

7. B

20. C

33. B

46. A

8. D

21. D

34. B

47. C

9. D

22. B

35. A

48. C

10. B

23. C

36. E

49. A

11. C

24. C

37. E

50. E

12. A

25. D

38. B

51. B

13. A

26. C

39. A

52. C
77

FR. #1: ( 15 pts. for each section…total of 45 pts.)
A. In the US the move of the wealthy and middle class to the suburbs has left the older houses and apartments near the CBD empty.
This has lowered their value to the point where the poor can afford these dwellings and have made these neighborhoods their
homes. The poor can not pay for upkeep of these dwellings, or to pay high taxes. The lack of upkeep and tax money to repair the
roads and schools, adds to the downward spiral of the neighborhood. With little spending money for shopping, the poor do not
spend much in the stores. This causes many stores to close and move to the suburbs where the spending customers and money
went. The closing of the stores adds to the poverty of the area by taking away some of the jobs that were in the neighborhood. This
becomes a vicious cycle of poverty and deterioration. (15 points)

B. There are few retail stores and groceries is the area because the poor do not have money to shop. The lack of spending forces
many stores out of business or forces them to move to better locations. There also can be higher crime in these areas and the
crime often takes place at the stores. This is another reason for the stores to move out of the neighborhood. (15 points)
C. Neighborhoods in European and Latin American cities are different from those of US cities. In Europe and Latin America, the
wealthy and middle class still live near or in the CBD. The higher tax base and more spending ability of the upper and middle
classes, keeps the CBD area flourishing with jobs and in constant repair and upkeep of the cities’ physical condition. (15 points)

FR #2: (10 total points.)
You will need to judge how effectively you displayed you school
in the Multiple Nuclei Model. Refer to the model itself to help you
determine your success and grade.
School’s main office
78

Calculating your grade on test 13.
Add how many you got correct on the multiple choice part (55 possible) to how many
points you scored on the FR portion (55 possible)…110 total.
The following scale will show the approximate score if this test were the real AP exam. Remember that this
is an approximation. While 65-74% is normally the range for a 3 on the test, it is not definite. Over the
years I have seen scores as low as 60% be the low portion of a 3 score.

Out of 110 possible points:
72-83 is most likely a 3
84-94 is most likely a 4

95-110 is most likely a 5

Now lets start our review for the national exam by
reviewing the 33 key models and theories of the
course…the next PowerPoint.


Slide 3

Key topic/chapter 13…Urban Patterns
Key terms:
Annexation
Concentric zone model
Density gradient
Edge cities
Filtering
Galactic city
Gentrification
Greenbelts
Megalopolis
MSA
Multiple nuclei model
Peripheral model

Public housing
Redlining
Renovated housing
Scattered site
Squatter settlement
Sector model
Smart growth
Sprawl
Underclass
Urban renewal
Zone in transition
Zoning
1

Chapter 13…Urban Areas.
How are Cities planned?
Why

are cities where they are?
How are they organized?
Why are some areas of a city
different from
other areas of the same city?
What is the future of cities?
2

Settlement


Settlement - permanent collections of buildings,
where people live, work, and obtain services

3

ORIGINS OF SETTLEMENTS


Religious - graves, churches, temples



Cultural - schools, libraries



Political/Military - leader’s house, walls



Economic - stores, food
4

TYPES OF SETTLEMENTS


Rural Settlements - agriculture as the
predominant occupation.



Urban settlements - principal industries are
secondary and tertiary.

5

RURAL SETTLEMENTS
Clustered rural settlements –grouped
settlements in rural areas to minimize travel

Dispersed rural Settlements - isolated farms
with enclosed continuous fields (Found only in
N. America and Britain).

6

Urban Geographers want to know the global distribution of urban
settlements. MDC’s have a high percentage of people living in urban
areas because of the shift from agriculture-manufacturing-services.
Geographers are also interested in where people and activities are
distributed within urban spaces. What are the differences between the
inner-city and suburban areas and why?
As we saw in the last chapter, many downtowns are unique and can
often be recognized in photos where the suburbs often look very
much alike (Placelessness). Why? Suburbs offer the chance to avoid
some of the city problems (crime, tight living area, expensive
land/rent, noise, age of buildings) while still keeping a connection with
the goods and services of the city: jobs, sports teams, culture, shops,
recreation, etc.
7

Where is this place?

8

Today’s cities are evolving and changing. Although different internal
situations characterize urban areas in the US and elsewhere, the
problems arising from current spatial trends are quite similar in all cities.
Where have urban areas grown: in the early 1800’s only 3% of the earth’s
people lived in cities and only Beijing China had more than 1 million
people. Today over ½ of the world’s people live in cities and we have over
400 cities of at least 1 million people.

Urbanization: is the process by which city population grows.
Cities population growth is measured in 2 dimensions;
1. An increase in the number of people living in the cities.
2. An increase in the percentage of people living in the cities.
This distinction is important because they happen for different reason and
have different global distributions.
9

Increasing Percentage of People in Cities: a large percentage of people living in urban
areas is a measure of a country’s level of development. In MDC’s about ¾ of the people
live in urban areas compared to about 2/5 of people in LDC’s. (Except in Latin America
where the level is closer to MDC’s.)
The higher percentage of people in urban areas comes from the changes that have
occurred in the last 200 years as we went from agriculture (primary jobs) to industrial
(secondary jobs) and now service jobs, all created by the Industrial Revolution of the
1800’s.
People moved to the cities for industrial jobs, but in MDC’s this process has largely
ended because nearly everyone interested in moving to the cities from farms has already
done so.
In LDC’s the percentage of people living in urban areas is growing as people are pushed
off of their farms and replaced by machines and as people move to cities looking/hoping
for industrial jobs.
10

Increasing Number of People in Cities: MDC’s have a higher percentage of
people living in urban settlements but LDC’s have more of the very large urban
settlements (Primate cities). (Rank-size rule, primate cities, chapter 12.)

This is interesting because typically the large cities are created from the
improvements brought by the Industrial Revolution. This is not the case with the
large LDC cities. Migration to the primate city in LDC’s is happening even though
job opportunities may not be available. Increasing the population growth in LDC
cities is the fact that medical services are better in these cities, thus the child
mortality rate is lower.
Defining Urban Settlements: defining where urban areas end and rural areas
begin is not easy. Geographers have formulated definitions that distinguish
between urban and rural areas in two ways: Social differences and Physical
differences.
11

Percent Urban Population

Percent of the population living in urban areas is usually higher in MDCs
than in LDCs.

12

The most populated cities in the world

Of the top
20, only
Moscow,
Tokyo and
New York
are in MDC’s

Shanghai China has 14,608,512 people
13

14

15

Social Differences Between Urban and Rural Settlements: it is fair to say that rural
people and urban people follow different ways of life. A city can be defined as having 3
characteristics:
1. Large size. People in rural settlements know most of the other people in the
settlement. Not true in big cities. Social relationships are often described as “colder” in
urban areas because you only see some people at work instead of growing up with
them in the settlement.
2. High Density. Having lots of people in a tiny area creates social consequences. A
high density of people living in a small area can only be supported if the people
specialize (they can’t all be farmers). People are encouraged to compete for jobs, room,
and survival in a tightly limited space. Social groups compete to occupy the same space
(ethnic/ race problems). Rural settlements have very little of this problem.
3. Social Heterogeneity. The larger the settlement, the greater the variety of people.
Being “unusual” in a large settlement is more likely to be accepted than in a small rural
one. But despite the freedom to be different that large urban settlements give you,
people living there often feel alone because so many people are different from them.
There is a stronger feeling of belonging together in small rural settlements.
16

These 3 differences do not fully answer the question of where urban settlements
begin and rural ones end because in today’s MDC’s most everyone has access to
cars, telephones, televisions, and “urban type” jobs which reduce the differences
between urban and rural lifestyles. “City folk” and “Country folk” are more alike
today than they are different. To help distinguish between urban and rural areas we
need to add the physical definition of rural and urban to the equation.
Physical Definitions of Urban Settlements: In ancient time, cities had defensive
walls for protection which clearly defined the physical boundaries of the city. Today
the walls are gone but we can still define the physical boundaries in 3 ways:
1. Legal boundary. These are the official boundaries of a city as recognized by
the government of the country or state. These “city limits” have been officially given
to the city and are physically marked on official maps. The local government of the
city has authority to make laws and protect the people inside the city boundaries.
17

2. Urbanized area. This is the city plus its suburbs or urbanized area that
surrounds the city. About 70 percent of US residents live in urbanized areas with
40% being in the suburbs and 30% inside the city limits. The suburbs may have
their own city governments but the huge central city dominates what happens in
the entire area.
3. Metropolitan Statistical Area. Cities have an even bigger influence on people
than just those living in their city limits and surrounding urbanized areas. People
from far away come to shop, use the services, support the sports teams, read
the newspapers and watch the television broadcasts of the city. Thus the city
has a “functional area” which is its total zone of influence. The US Bureau of
Census has created a method of measuring the functional area of the city.
Known as the Metropolitan statistical area (MSA) this area includes:
•An urbanized area with a population of at least 50,000
•The county within which the city is located.
•Adjacent counties with a high population density and a large percentage of
residents working in the central city’s county.
18

Metropolitan Area of Philadelphia

City of
Philadelphia

Urbanized
area
(suburbs)
Metropolitan
Statistical
Area

The metropolitan area of Philadelphia is
spread over several counties and four states.
It is also a diversified trade center, given its
position on the Delaware river.

19

20

21

Micropolitan Statistical Areas: Smaller areas with between
10,000 and 50,000 people, the county where it is found, and
adjacent counties tied to the city. This would be a small town and
the area dominated by it.
Overlapping Metropolitan Areas: Some adjacent MSA’s overlap.
A county between two central cities may send a large number of
commuters to jobs in both cities. In some areas the cities are so
close that they form one continuous urban complex. This is
known as a Megalopolis (great city).
In a megalopolis, the downtown CBD often has its own
distinctive look and the urban areas are visually separated by
parks, open spaces, and dairy/truck farms. But at the periphery
of the urban areas, the boundaries overlap.
22

Colorado Springs, population 431,000

Ocala, Florida, population 56,000

Florala, Alabama, population 1,900

23

Megalopolis, from northern Va. To Maine.
This Illustrates the
difference between
strict city proper
definitions and broader
urban agglomerations.
To define urbanized
areas, the U.S. Census
Bureau uses the term
Metropolitan Statistical
Area (MSA) or
Consolidated MSA
(CMSA) if two or more of
them overlap.
24

Where are People Distributed within Urban Areas? People are not
just distributed at random in urban areas. For the most part they
concentrate in particular neighborhoods depending on their social
characteristics. Geographers want to see where people with
particular characteristics are likely to live and why.

Three models which try to explain the growth of a city:

The Burgess Model

The Hoyt Sector Model

The Harris and Ullman
multiple Nuclei Model
25

Burgess Concentric Zone Model

In the concentric zone model, a city grows in a series of rings surrounding the CBD.

Burgess Concentric Zone Model: This is the first used to explain the
distributions of different social groups within urban areas. It says that a
city grows outward from a central place in a series of concentric rings.
The precise size and width of the rings vary from one city to another, but
some basic types of rings appear in all cities in the same order (see chart
above).
26

•Hoyt Sector Model: In this model the city develops in a
series of sectors not rings. Certain areas of the city are
more attractive for various activities, originally because
of an environmental factor (or even pure chance). As the
city grows, activities extend outward in a wedge shape.
For example, once a wealthy neighborhood is built the
next wealthy neighborhood will extend from the first
neighborhood further outward from the center. In this
way, the best housing is found in a corridor extending
outward from the center to the outer edge (see chart on
the next page).
27

The Hoyt Sector Model

In the sector model, a city grows in a series of
wedges or corridors extending out from the
CBD.
28

•Harris and Ullman’s Multiple Nuclei Model: According
to this model, a city is a complex structure that includes
more than one center around which activities revolve.
Examples of these nodes include a port, parks,
stadium, neighborhood business center, university, and
airport (see chart). This theory states that some
activities are attracted to particular nodes, whereas
others try to avoid them. A university node may attract
well educated people and bookstores while the port will
attract hotels and warehouses. Heavy industry and
expensive houses rarely are found together. This
model shows the effect of the automobile more than
any other model.
29

The Harris and Ullman Multiple Nuclei model

The multiple nuclei model views a city as a
collection of individual centers, around which
different people and activities cluster.

30

Applications of the Models: The three models help explain where and in some
cases, why people live where they do. None of the models by themselves fully
explains why and where different types of people live, but combined they give
you as good a look as possible at the “Why” of “Where.” Effective use of the
models depends on getting good data on the areas. Most countries take a
census every 10 years to help determine useful data about the people and
places of the country. In our country we divide the census data into areas
known as census tracts of about 5,000 people. Each census tract has the data
that summarizes the characteristics of the people living within that tract. This
information includes things like the race, income, age, and education of the
people living in that tract.
Social Area Analysis: The data from the census tracts can all be plotted onto
maps to show the characteristics of the people living in that tract. This map is
known as a social area analysis.
31

Using Census tract information…Seattle, Washington
Each lined area is a
census tract of about 5000
people in Seattle
Washington. These maps
show average household
income for 1990 and
2000…note the changes in
income in some areas
between 1990 and 2000.
Using this information, a
business can make
decisions about where
they want to locate a new
store or the future of
existing stores.
You can find census tract
information on many topics
such as; age, education
level, race, ethnicity, crime
rate, and land ownership.
Note the areas with
incomes over
$63,000.

All can be very valuable
information to people
looking to open
businesses.

32

Examine the changes
between 1990 and
2000.

Oakland, California’s Ethnic neighborhoods
The small bordered areas are census tracks of 5000 people.

33

Use of the Models Outside of North America: The 3 models will also work in other
places in the world; however social groups in other countries may not have the
same reasons for selecting particular neighborhoods as Americans do.
European Cities: As in the US, wealthier people in European cities cluster along a
sector extending outward from the CBD, however unlike the US, wealthy and
middle class Europeans still live in the inner rings of the neighborhoods near the
CBD not out in the suburbs. In the past, poorer people lived in the center of the
city. Before electricity, social segregation was vertical: richer people lived on the
first or second floor of a building while the poorer people lived in the basement or
upper floors. In the Industrial Revolution, housing for the poor was constructed
near the factories and away from the rich.
Today poorer Europeans are less likely to live in the inner-city. Poor quality
housing has been renovated for the rich or turned into office buildings. Poorer
Europeans tend to live in the outskirts of the city. Vast suburbs with dozens of high
rise apartments house the poor. They face long commutes to reach their jobs in
the city.
34

European cities generally do not have the “suburban
sprawl” that US cities have. European cities tend to be
more pedestrian friendly with more parks downtown as
Europeans tend to still live downtown.
US cities have taller buildings as European cities tend to
be older and more historic.

American cities have more ethnic neighborhoods than
European cities. Ethnic neighborhoods that do exist in
European cities tend to be in the suburbs. WHY?
Because the established richer neighborhoods tend to be
downtown in European cities.
35

Less Developed Countries: Like Europe, most LDC’s accommodate their poor in the
suburbs with their middle class and rich living near the center of the city. LDC’s have
passed through 3 periods of city building: before the Europeans arrived, during the
period of European colonialism, and since independence from European control.

Pre-colonial Cities: Before the Europeans arrived few cities existed in Africa, Asia, and
Latin America and most people lived in small rural settlements. Those cities that existed
were mostly laid out surrounding a religious center; with the rest of the city laid out in a
hieratical concentric pattern (like the Burgess model) from government buildings,
homes of the wealthy, and businesses related to the religion out to other businesses
and shops.
Colonial cities: When the Europeans took over these lands, they changed the cities by
adding services to help the Europeans control the conquered people. Often a new
European style city would be build next to the existing native one. The new European
cities contained wider streets, a public square, larger houses and a much lower density.
The Spanish used the “Law of the Indies” which was a city plan designed specifically to
build cities in a “Spanish” style. (Gridiron pattern for streets centered on a church and
central plaza, walls around individual houses and neighborhoods centered around
smaller plazas and more churches.)
36

Early Mexico city was laid out in a grid pattern of streets. This followed
the Spanish “Law of the Indies.”

37

Central Plaza in Mexico City 1920 photo. Typical Colonial City plan.

Part of downtown Mexico city today still shows the
building plan of the “Law of the Indies.”

38

Cities since Independence: Following independence, cities have become
the focal point of the development of most LDC’s. Millions of people have
migrated to the cities (Primate cities) looking for jobs and services. Some
capitals have been moved to isolated areas in an attempt to help develop
that area of the country (Brasília) This is know as a forward capital. Latin
American cities have developed their own unique style.
Squatter settlements: The LDC’s are unable to house the rapidly growing
number of poor who are flowing into the cities. Because of the housing
shortages, the poor have constructed their own settlements around the city.
These settlements have few services because neither the city nor the
residents can afford them. Squatters have two basic choices for housing.
1. Illegally move into empty real houses located in the city or,
2. Rent slum housing.
(85% of the population of Addis Ababa in Ethiopia lives in squatter
settlements, slums or other illegal housing.)
39

Squatter shacks in Manila, the Philippines

40

Squatter settlement in Ethiopia

41

Zimbabwe, Africa

42

Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

43

Latin American City Model:
In many Latin
American cities,
the wealthy live in
the inner city and
in a sector
extending along a
commercial spine.
In situ accretion- businesses
and homes constantly under
construction/repair.
Zone of maturity-2nd best
housing in the city.
The poor live in squatter settlements on the
periphery of the city.

Disamenity- unpleasant area
used by the poor to get to the
market.

44

The City Outline of Rio de Janeiro
The rich tourist areas and expensive condo apartments are along the coast
and beach while the poor live in squatter shacks in the hills.

45

City problems:
Inner-City Physical Problems: Most US inner cities were constructed before the 1950’s
(people began to move to the suburbs in the 1950’s so new construction moved out of
the city).
Process of Deterioration (how a city deteriorates): A city doesn’t suddenly become old
and full of slummy areas. It happens over time. When a group of low-income people
inhabit an area of a city, nearby neighborhoods will often look to move out. They sell or
rent to more low-income occupants thus expanding the low-income area. Two processes
cause/speed up the devaluation of areas:
1. Filtering, 2. Redlining.
Filtering: Large houses and buildings that once housed rich downtown workers (who
moved to the suburbs) are taken over by landlords who don’t live in that area (they
moved to the suburbs too). Rents are low so the landlord doesn’t take as good care of
the property as they should and the property becomes run down or abandoned. Stores
close, or move, due to lack of sales. 100 years ago these neighborhoods would be used
by immigrants and ethnic businesses would succeed in those areas. Now, with a decline
in immigration, these neighborhoods have shrunk and so have schools, businesses and
other services. Thousands of vacant houses and buildings stand empty in inner cities
across America.

46

Redlining: Some banks refuse to give loans in what they consider
risky neighborhoods. They draw a red line on a map around areas
where they will not give loans. Without loans, these neighborhoods
have a hard time rebuilding/remodeling. Though illegal, this still
happens. Bankers just don’t put these “no-loan” areas on a map.

Urban Renewal: This is the series of projects to improve European
and N. American cities by buying up the blighted neighborhoods,
moving the people to new government built housing projects, and
building new roads, and other projects to make the inner city
attractive for business again. National and State government grants
help pay for these projects.
47

Public housing: Housing for the poor, built with government funding as part of
urban renewal. In the US this is only about 2% of the housing while in some
countries it may be more (Britain is 30%). Public housing built in the 50’s & 60’s
were largely high rise apartments, but those are seen as being unsatisfactory.
Problems arise from cramming large numbers of poor people into one area.
Today most public housing projects are one to three story buildings with many of
them being scattered around different parts of the city rather than clustered into
one area.
Because urban renewal has been criticized for destroying the social cohesion of
older neighborhoods, many governments (like the US) have stopped funding
most projects since the 1970’s. What do we do instead?
Renovated Housing: An alternative often used since the 70’s is to renovate a
building instead of urban renewal. The process where middle-class people
move into inner-city neighborhoods and renovate them is called gentrification.
Gentrified inner-city neighborhoods also attract middle-class people who work
downtown. Living close to work saves the hassle of commuting and rejuvenates
run down inner-city neighborhoods
48

Gentrified building downtown Harlem, NY. Note the supermarket.

49

Inner-City Social Problems: Inner-city residents are often referred to as the
permanent underclass because they are trapped in an unending cycle of
economic and social problems. High unemployment, alcoholism, drug
addiction, literacy, juvenile delinquency, and crime all exist at a higher rate
among those who live in the inner-city. Lack of jobs means lack of tax dollars
to pay for police and fire protection as well as good schools. Lack of job skills
and homelessness are also tremendous problems.
Culture of Poverty: Inner-city residents are trapped in a permanent underclass
culture that reproduces itself. In the US, unwed mothers give birth to 2/3 of the
babies in the inner-city. 90% of these children live with only one parent and it
is real hard for one parent to keep a job and take care of children. Both suffer
and a shortage of care and daily attention by the parent contributes to the kids
not learning the skills necessary to do well in school which leads to poor jobs
for their futures. Poverty leads to more poverty. Many families on welfare have
only one parent because it is financially better if one parent is gone, that way
the single parent gets food stamps and other services from the government
that they would not get if it was a 2 family household.
50

Crime: Trapped in a hopeless environment, some inner-city
residents turn to drugs. Drug use is a problem in inner-city
areas and the suburbs, but rates of drug use in inner-cities
are the highest.
Ethnic and Racial Segregation: As seen in chapter 7, many
neighborhoods in the US are segregated by ethnicity with
African Americans and Hispanics concentrated in one or two
continuous areas and whites living in the suburbs. Even small
cities display a strong distinction among neighborhoods. A
frequent division is between the east and west or north and
south side of town, or the railroad tracks. A family seeking a
new residence will seek the areas where the characteristics
of the people meet their own.

51

The exodus
from the
American city.
This has
happened in
many American
cities since the
1960’s.

52

Changes in Cities in the U.S.
U.S. population has been moving out of the city centers to the suburbs:
suburbanization and counter urbanization

Developed Countries: suburbanization

 wealthy move to suburbs
 automobiles and roads; ‘American
Dream’ of the home in the suburbs.
 better services
 wealthy move to suburbs
Counter urbanization

idyllic settings
cost of land for retirement
slow pace, yet high tech
connections to services and markets
53

U.S. intraregional migration during 1990s.

Inner city economic problems: the concentration of low income
residents in inner cities has caused economic problems. These
people require public services but can pay very little in taxes to
support the services. They need stores and jobs but have little
money to spend in the store and few skills for jobs (so the stores
close). To try to fight these problems many local and state
governments use tax monies to try to renovate these areas, but this
shifts tax money needed for other areas to the inner city (votes on
election day).
Annexation: Many cities could help their tax problem by adding the
new suburbs to be part of their city (annexation). After all, many of
these suburban people use the city for its’ jobs etc., so why not add
them into the city? Today, most people in the suburbs do not want
to be annexed into the city and so they do not vote to be annexed.
54

The Peripheral Model: According to this model, an urban area
consists of an inner city surrounded by large suburban residential
and business areas (MSA) tied together by a beltway or highway
that circles the city. Around the beltway are nodes of consumer
and business services called edge cities (see diagram of multiple
nuclei model). These edge cities sprang up to provide services
and jobs to the people in the suburbs.
Density Gradient: As you travel outward from the center of the
city, the density of people declines. Inner city has big apartments
of 250 of more people per acre. Suburbs have fewer people per
acre (but lots of acres) and finally you leave the cities periphery
you find few people. The number of houses per unit of land
diminishes as distance from the center of the city increases.
55

The Edge cities (bedroom communities) of Houston

The central city is surrounded by a ring road, around which are
suburban areas and edge cities, shopping malls, office parks,
industrial areas, and service complexes.

Known as
bedroom
communities
because
people live
there but
mostly don’t
work there.
They drive
into the city
for work.
56

As you move from the center of the city outward, the density of the population
changes. This is know as the density gradient. Two big changes have occurred in
the density gradient of today’s cities:
1. The number of people living in the center has decreased.
2. The density difference between the inner city and the suburbs is declining
because the inner city density is dropping and the suburban density is growing
due to more large apartments being built in the suburbs.
Cost of Suburban or Urban Sprawl: Urban Sprawl is the progressive spread of
development over the landscape. As long as we Americans want single-family
detached houses, land on the fringe of urban areas will be converted from open
space to residential use. The cost of this growth is more than the loss of land, it is
also the cost of new roads, utilities, building stores and offices and the cost of
automobiles to move these people over even longer distances. Lots of these new
developments are built on what was once farmland. Wonderful productive soil now
under concrete.

Greenbelts: are areas where, by law, the open space can not be used for any
construction. This is mostly found in Europe.

57

Once farmland that is being converted to suburbs and cities.

58

Tyson’s Corner Virginia in 1940

59

Washington, DC. MSA.

Tyson’s Corner Virginia
today.
Washington D.C. is off
In the distance.

60

Suburban Segregation: The “new” segregation.
Suburban segregation takes two forms:
1. Residents are separated from commercial and manufacturing activities
which are confined someplace else. (The whole neighborhood is
nothing but houses because they drive for services.)
2. The price of the house eliminates some from being able to live there. This
creates a homogeneous suburb of the same economic class of people.
This never existed before in history. Where we once had vertical
segregation of the classes we now we have horizontal segregation.
3. But this may be reversing as new statistics show that people are beginning
to move back to the city. Why? Cost of transportation.
Zoning Ordinances: This idea developed in Europe and later America in the
early decades of the 20th century. This means that businesses are allowed only
in certain areas of the settlement. (No all night taco stands inside your single
family neighborhood.)
Motor vehicles: The wide use of the automobile is largely responsible for the
American movement to the suburbs. Not only did people move out but 1/4 of
the land inside all American cities are now roads, streets, and parking lots.

61

Public Transportation: Because few US workers live within walking distance
of their jobs, urban areas are characterized by extensive commuting and the
problems that come with it. As much as 40% of all trips made into or out from
a city during the day takes place within just 4 hours. (2 in the morning and 2 in
the late afternoon). RUSH HOUR!!! In large cities, public transportation, like
subways and busses, are better suited to move people but Americans still
prefer their own cars. Public transportation is cheaper, cleaner, and more
energy efficient than personal cars, yet in the US only 5% of city travel is
done using public transit systems. American’s love their personal car too
much.
Local Government Fragmentation: Because of the large number of local
governments in the US (look at the settlements in Pinellas County) it is
difficult to solve some of the regional problems like garbage disposal, water
management, traffic and public housing.
62

Metropolitan government: This idea tries to put many local governments into a
larger unit that can better handle the urban problems. The 2 ways to do this
are:
1. Federations in which the individual settlements have their own police,
firemen, and tax collection but they all agree to be part of a second
government which handles transportation, water, sewage, parks and
welfare for all the communities.
2. Consolidations: In this method, several cities and the county may form one
government. Jacksonville’s government runs not only the town but the
county too, this makes Jacksonville the largest city, in land size, in the US.
Smart growth: A new movement by many states to curb suburban sprawl by
limiting where new construction can take place. Smart growth laws require that
land near cities be used up before any land further out can be developed. So
far, this is only being done an a few parts of our country.
63

The new
US as
some
people
see it.

64

Quiz Yourself:
1. The process where middle-class people move into inner city neighborhoods and
renovate them is called ____________
2. ____________ happens when banks refuse to give loans in what they consider
risky neighborhoods.
3. Because of the housing shortages, the poor have constructed their own settlements
around the city known as __________ _________

4. Businesses are allowed only in certain areas of the settlement because of
____________ ____________
5. Areas known as _____ _______ are areas of about 5,000 people. The data from
that area is used to help define needed services for that area.
6. When cities are so close that they form one continuous band of development this is
known as a ____________
65

7. Social relationships are often described as “colder” in urban areas because…
8. In this model the city develops in a series of sectors not rings. _______

9. ______ (LDC’s or MDC’s) have a higher percentage of people living in urban
settlements but ________ (LDC’s or MDC’s) have more of the very large urban
settlements.
10. _____________ was the first model developed to explain the distributions
of different social groups within urban areas.
11. New cities which develop around the beltway are nodes of consumer and
business services known as ________ _________.

12. When the Europeans took over lands around the world, they changed the
cities by adding services to help the Europeans control the conquered people.
These European planned cities are known as __________ cities.
66

Answer Key:
1.

Gentrification

2.

Redlining

3.

Squatter Settlements

4.

Zoning ordinances

5.

Census tracks

6.

Megalopolis

7. There is a stronger feeling of belonging together in small rural settlements.
8. Hoyt sector model
9. MDC, LDC
10. Burgess Concentric Zone model
11. Edge cities
12. Colonial cities
67

Test Key topic/chapter 13:
These questions come from a combination of our slides, your text book, and common knowledge you should
have discussed in your AP classroom. They are very typical of what you will see on the National Exam.
1) The multiple nuclei theory best explains why different neighborhoods of a city attract people of different… A) ages.
B) ethnic origin C) income D) marital status.
2) Sprawl is the… A) change in density within an urban area from the center to the periphery B) development of new
housing sites not contiguous to the existing built-up area. C) land maintained as open space surrounding an urban area.
D) period in the morning and evening with the heaviest volumes of traffic.
3) People are attracted to suburbs in part because suburbs are characterized by…A) heavy traffic. B) lower opportunity
for home ownership. C) private land surrounding the house. D) row houses and apartments.
4) Megalopolis refers to… A) adjacent, overlapping Metropolitan Statistical Areas. B) central cities. C) consolidated
Metropolitan Statistical Areas. D) central cities plus urbanized areas.
5) Which statement best describes the relationship between urbanization and the Industrial Revolution? A) Urbanization
promoted the Industrial Revolution. B) The Industrial Revolution promoted urbanization. C) Urbanization preceded the
Industrial Revolution by thousands of years. D) Urbanization and the Industrial Revolution are no longer related.
6) The process of legally adding land area to a city in the United States is… A) annexation. B) accreditation. C) an
application of eminent domain. D) defined by urbanized area.

68

7) The process of change in the use of a house, from single-family owner occupancy to abandonment, is… A) blockbusting.
B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining.
8) A process by which banks designate an area within which they refuse to lend money for improvements is… A) blockbusting.
B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining.
9) A recent change in the density gradient has been… A) the elimination of the gap traditionally found in the center. B) an
increase in the extremes between the inner and outer areas. C) an increase in the number of people living in the center.
D) a reduction in the differences in densities found within an urban area.
10) U.S. central cities face fiscal problems because… A) federal and state funds are available. B) low-income people are
concentrated there. C) middle-class families are attracted there. D) redlining is no longer legal.
11) A legal form of segregation in U.S. cities is achieved through...A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) zoning. D) greenbelts.
12) Factories have moved to suburban locations in part because of… A) access to main highways. B) adequate space to build
vertical structures. C) availability of large tracts of high-priced land. D) good rail connections.
13) According to the sector model, the best housing is located in…A) a corridor from downtown to the edge of the city.
B) an outer ring surrounding the city. C) nodes near universities and parks. D) renovated inner-city neighborhoods.
14) Ramshackle houses on the periphery of cities in less developed countries are known as… A) squatter settlements. B) council
estates. C) public housing. D) zone in transition.
15) Higher income people tend to live near the center of the city in all but which of the following regions? A) Latin America
B) North America C) South Asia D) Western Europe

16) The wide boulevards built in cities in less developed countries were most likely built during what era? A) pre-colonial
B) colonial C) independence D) all of the above equally

69

17) According to the multiple nuclei model, an airport is likely to attract nearby… A) industries. B) residences. C) shops.
D) universities.
18) The largest percentage of the U.S. population lives in…A) central cities. B) suburbs. C) non-metropolitan areas. D) all of the
above
19) In U.S. cities, the underclass is… A) clustered in inner-city neighborhoods. B) dispersed throughout the city. C) clustered in
suburbs. D) distributed uniformly in the city.

20) A process of converting a neighborhood from low-income to middle-class is…A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) gentrification.
D) redlining.
21) Higher social heterogeneity in urban settlements means that… A) the people with whom you relax are probably the same ones you
see at work. B) you play a specialized role in the urban economy. C) you compete for limited space. D) you may feel lonely and
isolated in a crowd.
22) The city plus its contiguous built-up suburbs is the… A) central city. B) urbanized area.
D) consolidated metropolitan statistical area

C) metropolitan statistical area.

23) The process whereby an increasing percentage of people live in an urban area is known as… A) demographic transition.
B) rank-size rule. C) urbanization. D) central place theory.
24) Of the ten largest urban areas in the world, how many are in More Developed Countries today? A) 1 B) 4 C) 7 D) 10 E) 2
25) Public housing is…A) conversion of low-income housing to middle-class housing. B) illegally established low-income housing.
C) housing that has changed from single-family owner occupancy to abandonment. D) low-income government-owned housing.
26) According to the concentric zone model, a city develops in a series of… A) corridors. B) nodes. C) rings. D) all of the above

70

27) Chicago is a good location in which to develop urban models because it is located… A) at the hub of the nation's transportation
system. B) in the center of the country. C) on a flat prairie. D) on the shore of Lake Michigan.
28) According to the sector model, the best housing is located in… A) a corridor from downtown to the edge of the city. B) an outer
ring surrounding the city. C) nodes near universities and parks. D) renovated inner-city neighborhoods.
29) The zone of transition in US cities generally contain…A) warehouses B) wealthy neighborhoods C) transportation hubs
D) universities and hospitals E) suburban homes
30) The attractions of shopping malls include all but which of the following? A) frequent concerts and exhibitions B) generous
parking lots C) place to meet friends D) walking distance from homes
The following questions are written at the high school level. You will find some questions from part one often rewritten
here. This is all designed to help you transition to the college/AP style of written questions. Any question preceded with ***
are questions that have been on the national exam before.
31. Most Latin American cities are focused on a…A) central plaza B) government housing project C) zone of heavy industry
D) skyscraper office building E) squatter settlement
32. The multiple-nuclei model of a city structure tends to be most applicable to…A) small cities B) traditional C) Latin American
cities D) newer, fast growing cities E) cities with homogeneous land use
33. ***Locational advantages important to the development of the earliest cities include…A) availability of good harbors for large
ships B) productive agricultural land and defensible sites C) temperate climate and proximity to coal mines D) good
connections by road and canal E) proximity to manufacturing areas

34. In cities, the CBD’s often show uniqueness while the suburbs usually show…A) a large hinterland. B) placelessness C) more
than one node. D) newer zones of transition.

71

35. Many LDC’s have tried to help a previously under-developed part of their country develop by moving their capital
city to that area. This new capital is known as a…A) forward capital B) new development zone C) enterprise zone
D) neocolonial city
36. Today the greatest number of urban dwellers is found in…A) North America
D) Europe E) Asia

B) South America C) Africa

37. ***All of the following have helped create ghettos in North American cities except…A)blockbusting and racial
steering B) redlining by financial institutions C) concentration of public housing and social services D) fixed school
districts E) Economic Enterprise Zones

38. Which of the following is NOT as reason for rapid suburbanization in the US after WW2? A) Mass production of
the automobile B) Reduction of long distance commuting C) Expansion of home construction D) Expansion of the
interstate highway system E) Availability of low down payment terms and long-term mortgages.
39. New cities which developed in the hinterland of large urban areas because of the automobile, are known as…
A) edge cities B) census tracts C) suburban sprawl D) squatter settlements. E) none of these
40. Gentrification refers to… A) moving the homeless into inner city shelters B) The “White Flight” from the urban city
C) losing tax revenue because of stores closing in downtown areas D) middle-class people moving into and renovating
inner city neighborhoods E) the creation of “beltway cities” around the city.

72

4
7
3

5

1
6

2

41-48 all use the sketch above.
41. The sketch in box A above represents which model of the inner structure of urban areas?
C) multiple nuclei model D) Burgess concentric zone model E) peripheral model
42. The models in boxes B and C represent A) Concentric zone and multiple nuclei
concentric zone D) peripheral and concentric zone E) Von Thunen and peripheral

A) Hoyt sector model B) VonThunen’s model

B) Multiple nuclei and Hoyt sector C) Hoyt sector and

43. In which ring (1, 2, etc.) of sketch A above would high-status households in North American cities likely live? A) 1 B) 2 C) 3 D) 4&5
44. In which ring (1, 2, etc.) of sketch A above would high status households in a European city likely live? A) 1

B) 2

C) 3

D) 4&5

45. In model B, zone # 2 is where it is likely because of: A) greenbelting B) squatter settling C) the culture of poverty D) transportation
E) no one knows
46. The model in sketch B is the; A) Hoyt sector model B) Burgess model C) multiple nuclei model D) peripheral model
47. The model in sketch C is the; A) Hoyt sector model B) Burgess model C) multiple nuclei model D) peripheral model
48. Which of these models best describes what has happened in US cities in the last 40 years? A)

B)

C)

73

49.*** In the U.S. a city plus its contiguous built-up suburbs is known as an…A) urbanized area B) zoned area
C) census tract D) Squatter settlement E) none of these
50. Done mostly in Europe, these are areas where land is kept as parks, farms or other kinds of open space and urban
sprawl is not allowed. A) Smart growth
B) zoning
C) filtering
D) census tracts E) greenbelts
51. Which statement best describes the relationship between urbanization and the Industrial Revolution?
A) Urbanization promoted the Industrial Revolution. B) The Industrial Revolution promoted urbanization.
C) Urbanization preceded the Industrial Revolution by thousands of years. D) Urbanization and the Industrial
Revolution are no longer related.
52. The process whereby an increasing percentage of people live in an urban area is known as…
A) Demographic transition. B) rank-size rule. C) Urbanization. D) Central place theory.
53. The city (if it has 50,000 or more people) plus its contiguous built-up suburbs AND the county it is in as well as any
other counties it influences, is known as the ...A) central city B) urbanized area
C) metropolitan statistical area
D) consolidated metropolitan area E) micropolitan statistical area
54. ***Higher social heterogeneity in urban settlements means that …A) the people with whom you relax are probably
the same ones you see at work. B) you play a specialized role in the urban economy. C) you compete for limited
space. D) you may feel lonely and isolated in a crowd.

55. The process of change in the use of a house, from single-family owner occupancy to smaller dwellings for the poor
and then sometimes to abandonment, is…A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining. E) none of
these

74

Free Response #1:
The Bid Rent theory says that the closer you get to the
CBD the higher the cost for land, yet in most American
cities you find the poorest people living near the
expensive CBD and the richest living further away.
Explain:
A. Why neighborhoods near the CBD are often poor and
run down?
B. Why are there few grocery and other retail stores in
these neighborhoods?
C. Why is this not really true in European and Latin
American countries?

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75

FR #2:
Think of the map of your school, explain the
layout of your school using the Multiple Nuclei
Model
The main office is the CBD.
Completely explain your answer using specific
buildings and/or land areas in your explanation
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76

Answer Key:
1. B

14. A

27. C

40. D

53. C

2. B

15. B

28. A

41. D

54. D

3. C

16. B

29. A

42. B

55. B

4. A

17. A

30. D

43. D

5. B

18. B

31. A

44. A

6. A

19. A

32. D

45. D

7. B

20. C

33. B

46. A

8. D

21. D

34. B

47. C

9. D

22. B

35. A

48. C

10. B

23. C

36. E

49. A

11. C

24. C

37. E

50. E

12. A

25. D

38. B

51. B

13. A

26. C

39. A

52. C
77

FR. #1: ( 15 pts. for each section…total of 45 pts.)
A. In the US the move of the wealthy and middle class to the suburbs has left the older houses and apartments near the CBD empty.
This has lowered their value to the point where the poor can afford these dwellings and have made these neighborhoods their
homes. The poor can not pay for upkeep of these dwellings, or to pay high taxes. The lack of upkeep and tax money to repair the
roads and schools, adds to the downward spiral of the neighborhood. With little spending money for shopping, the poor do not
spend much in the stores. This causes many stores to close and move to the suburbs where the spending customers and money
went. The closing of the stores adds to the poverty of the area by taking away some of the jobs that were in the neighborhood. This
becomes a vicious cycle of poverty and deterioration. (15 points)

B. There are few retail stores and groceries is the area because the poor do not have money to shop. The lack of spending forces
many stores out of business or forces them to move to better locations. There also can be higher crime in these areas and the
crime often takes place at the stores. This is another reason for the stores to move out of the neighborhood. (15 points)
C. Neighborhoods in European and Latin American cities are different from those of US cities. In Europe and Latin America, the
wealthy and middle class still live near or in the CBD. The higher tax base and more spending ability of the upper and middle
classes, keeps the CBD area flourishing with jobs and in constant repair and upkeep of the cities’ physical condition. (15 points)

FR #2: (10 total points.)
You will need to judge how effectively you displayed you school
in the Multiple Nuclei Model. Refer to the model itself to help you
determine your success and grade.
School’s main office
78

Calculating your grade on test 13.
Add how many you got correct on the multiple choice part (55 possible) to how many
points you scored on the FR portion (55 possible)…110 total.
The following scale will show the approximate score if this test were the real AP exam. Remember that this
is an approximation. While 65-74% is normally the range for a 3 on the test, it is not definite. Over the
years I have seen scores as low as 60% be the low portion of a 3 score.

Out of 110 possible points:
72-83 is most likely a 3
84-94 is most likely a 4

95-110 is most likely a 5

Now lets start our review for the national exam by
reviewing the 33 key models and theories of the
course…the next PowerPoint.


Slide 4

Key topic/chapter 13…Urban Patterns
Key terms:
Annexation
Concentric zone model
Density gradient
Edge cities
Filtering
Galactic city
Gentrification
Greenbelts
Megalopolis
MSA
Multiple nuclei model
Peripheral model

Public housing
Redlining
Renovated housing
Scattered site
Squatter settlement
Sector model
Smart growth
Sprawl
Underclass
Urban renewal
Zone in transition
Zoning
1

Chapter 13…Urban Areas.
How are Cities planned?
Why

are cities where they are?
How are they organized?
Why are some areas of a city
different from
other areas of the same city?
What is the future of cities?
2

Settlement


Settlement - permanent collections of buildings,
where people live, work, and obtain services

3

ORIGINS OF SETTLEMENTS


Religious - graves, churches, temples



Cultural - schools, libraries



Political/Military - leader’s house, walls



Economic - stores, food
4

TYPES OF SETTLEMENTS


Rural Settlements - agriculture as the
predominant occupation.



Urban settlements - principal industries are
secondary and tertiary.

5

RURAL SETTLEMENTS
Clustered rural settlements –grouped
settlements in rural areas to minimize travel

Dispersed rural Settlements - isolated farms
with enclosed continuous fields (Found only in
N. America and Britain).

6

Urban Geographers want to know the global distribution of urban
settlements. MDC’s have a high percentage of people living in urban
areas because of the shift from agriculture-manufacturing-services.
Geographers are also interested in where people and activities are
distributed within urban spaces. What are the differences between the
inner-city and suburban areas and why?
As we saw in the last chapter, many downtowns are unique and can
often be recognized in photos where the suburbs often look very
much alike (Placelessness). Why? Suburbs offer the chance to avoid
some of the city problems (crime, tight living area, expensive
land/rent, noise, age of buildings) while still keeping a connection with
the goods and services of the city: jobs, sports teams, culture, shops,
recreation, etc.
7

Where is this place?

8

Today’s cities are evolving and changing. Although different internal
situations characterize urban areas in the US and elsewhere, the
problems arising from current spatial trends are quite similar in all cities.
Where have urban areas grown: in the early 1800’s only 3% of the earth’s
people lived in cities and only Beijing China had more than 1 million
people. Today over ½ of the world’s people live in cities and we have over
400 cities of at least 1 million people.

Urbanization: is the process by which city population grows.
Cities population growth is measured in 2 dimensions;
1. An increase in the number of people living in the cities.
2. An increase in the percentage of people living in the cities.
This distinction is important because they happen for different reason and
have different global distributions.
9

Increasing Percentage of People in Cities: a large percentage of people living in urban
areas is a measure of a country’s level of development. In MDC’s about ¾ of the people
live in urban areas compared to about 2/5 of people in LDC’s. (Except in Latin America
where the level is closer to MDC’s.)
The higher percentage of people in urban areas comes from the changes that have
occurred in the last 200 years as we went from agriculture (primary jobs) to industrial
(secondary jobs) and now service jobs, all created by the Industrial Revolution of the
1800’s.
People moved to the cities for industrial jobs, but in MDC’s this process has largely
ended because nearly everyone interested in moving to the cities from farms has already
done so.
In LDC’s the percentage of people living in urban areas is growing as people are pushed
off of their farms and replaced by machines and as people move to cities looking/hoping
for industrial jobs.
10

Increasing Number of People in Cities: MDC’s have a higher percentage of
people living in urban settlements but LDC’s have more of the very large urban
settlements (Primate cities). (Rank-size rule, primate cities, chapter 12.)

This is interesting because typically the large cities are created from the
improvements brought by the Industrial Revolution. This is not the case with the
large LDC cities. Migration to the primate city in LDC’s is happening even though
job opportunities may not be available. Increasing the population growth in LDC
cities is the fact that medical services are better in these cities, thus the child
mortality rate is lower.
Defining Urban Settlements: defining where urban areas end and rural areas
begin is not easy. Geographers have formulated definitions that distinguish
between urban and rural areas in two ways: Social differences and Physical
differences.
11

Percent Urban Population

Percent of the population living in urban areas is usually higher in MDCs
than in LDCs.

12

The most populated cities in the world

Of the top
20, only
Moscow,
Tokyo and
New York
are in MDC’s

Shanghai China has 14,608,512 people
13

14

15

Social Differences Between Urban and Rural Settlements: it is fair to say that rural
people and urban people follow different ways of life. A city can be defined as having 3
characteristics:
1. Large size. People in rural settlements know most of the other people in the
settlement. Not true in big cities. Social relationships are often described as “colder” in
urban areas because you only see some people at work instead of growing up with
them in the settlement.
2. High Density. Having lots of people in a tiny area creates social consequences. A
high density of people living in a small area can only be supported if the people
specialize (they can’t all be farmers). People are encouraged to compete for jobs, room,
and survival in a tightly limited space. Social groups compete to occupy the same space
(ethnic/ race problems). Rural settlements have very little of this problem.
3. Social Heterogeneity. The larger the settlement, the greater the variety of people.
Being “unusual” in a large settlement is more likely to be accepted than in a small rural
one. But despite the freedom to be different that large urban settlements give you,
people living there often feel alone because so many people are different from them.
There is a stronger feeling of belonging together in small rural settlements.
16

These 3 differences do not fully answer the question of where urban settlements
begin and rural ones end because in today’s MDC’s most everyone has access to
cars, telephones, televisions, and “urban type” jobs which reduce the differences
between urban and rural lifestyles. “City folk” and “Country folk” are more alike
today than they are different. To help distinguish between urban and rural areas we
need to add the physical definition of rural and urban to the equation.
Physical Definitions of Urban Settlements: In ancient time, cities had defensive
walls for protection which clearly defined the physical boundaries of the city. Today
the walls are gone but we can still define the physical boundaries in 3 ways:
1. Legal boundary. These are the official boundaries of a city as recognized by
the government of the country or state. These “city limits” have been officially given
to the city and are physically marked on official maps. The local government of the
city has authority to make laws and protect the people inside the city boundaries.
17

2. Urbanized area. This is the city plus its suburbs or urbanized area that
surrounds the city. About 70 percent of US residents live in urbanized areas with
40% being in the suburbs and 30% inside the city limits. The suburbs may have
their own city governments but the huge central city dominates what happens in
the entire area.
3. Metropolitan Statistical Area. Cities have an even bigger influence on people
than just those living in their city limits and surrounding urbanized areas. People
from far away come to shop, use the services, support the sports teams, read
the newspapers and watch the television broadcasts of the city. Thus the city
has a “functional area” which is its total zone of influence. The US Bureau of
Census has created a method of measuring the functional area of the city.
Known as the Metropolitan statistical area (MSA) this area includes:
•An urbanized area with a population of at least 50,000
•The county within which the city is located.
•Adjacent counties with a high population density and a large percentage of
residents working in the central city’s county.
18

Metropolitan Area of Philadelphia

City of
Philadelphia

Urbanized
area
(suburbs)
Metropolitan
Statistical
Area

The metropolitan area of Philadelphia is
spread over several counties and four states.
It is also a diversified trade center, given its
position on the Delaware river.

19

20

21

Micropolitan Statistical Areas: Smaller areas with between
10,000 and 50,000 people, the county where it is found, and
adjacent counties tied to the city. This would be a small town and
the area dominated by it.
Overlapping Metropolitan Areas: Some adjacent MSA’s overlap.
A county between two central cities may send a large number of
commuters to jobs in both cities. In some areas the cities are so
close that they form one continuous urban complex. This is
known as a Megalopolis (great city).
In a megalopolis, the downtown CBD often has its own
distinctive look and the urban areas are visually separated by
parks, open spaces, and dairy/truck farms. But at the periphery
of the urban areas, the boundaries overlap.
22

Colorado Springs, population 431,000

Ocala, Florida, population 56,000

Florala, Alabama, population 1,900

23

Megalopolis, from northern Va. To Maine.
This Illustrates the
difference between
strict city proper
definitions and broader
urban agglomerations.
To define urbanized
areas, the U.S. Census
Bureau uses the term
Metropolitan Statistical
Area (MSA) or
Consolidated MSA
(CMSA) if two or more of
them overlap.
24

Where are People Distributed within Urban Areas? People are not
just distributed at random in urban areas. For the most part they
concentrate in particular neighborhoods depending on their social
characteristics. Geographers want to see where people with
particular characteristics are likely to live and why.

Three models which try to explain the growth of a city:

The Burgess Model

The Hoyt Sector Model

The Harris and Ullman
multiple Nuclei Model
25

Burgess Concentric Zone Model

In the concentric zone model, a city grows in a series of rings surrounding the CBD.

Burgess Concentric Zone Model: This is the first used to explain the
distributions of different social groups within urban areas. It says that a
city grows outward from a central place in a series of concentric rings.
The precise size and width of the rings vary from one city to another, but
some basic types of rings appear in all cities in the same order (see chart
above).
26

•Hoyt Sector Model: In this model the city develops in a
series of sectors not rings. Certain areas of the city are
more attractive for various activities, originally because
of an environmental factor (or even pure chance). As the
city grows, activities extend outward in a wedge shape.
For example, once a wealthy neighborhood is built the
next wealthy neighborhood will extend from the first
neighborhood further outward from the center. In this
way, the best housing is found in a corridor extending
outward from the center to the outer edge (see chart on
the next page).
27

The Hoyt Sector Model

In the sector model, a city grows in a series of
wedges or corridors extending out from the
CBD.
28

•Harris and Ullman’s Multiple Nuclei Model: According
to this model, a city is a complex structure that includes
more than one center around which activities revolve.
Examples of these nodes include a port, parks,
stadium, neighborhood business center, university, and
airport (see chart). This theory states that some
activities are attracted to particular nodes, whereas
others try to avoid them. A university node may attract
well educated people and bookstores while the port will
attract hotels and warehouses. Heavy industry and
expensive houses rarely are found together. This
model shows the effect of the automobile more than
any other model.
29

The Harris and Ullman Multiple Nuclei model

The multiple nuclei model views a city as a
collection of individual centers, around which
different people and activities cluster.

30

Applications of the Models: The three models help explain where and in some
cases, why people live where they do. None of the models by themselves fully
explains why and where different types of people live, but combined they give
you as good a look as possible at the “Why” of “Where.” Effective use of the
models depends on getting good data on the areas. Most countries take a
census every 10 years to help determine useful data about the people and
places of the country. In our country we divide the census data into areas
known as census tracts of about 5,000 people. Each census tract has the data
that summarizes the characteristics of the people living within that tract. This
information includes things like the race, income, age, and education of the
people living in that tract.
Social Area Analysis: The data from the census tracts can all be plotted onto
maps to show the characteristics of the people living in that tract. This map is
known as a social area analysis.
31

Using Census tract information…Seattle, Washington
Each lined area is a
census tract of about 5000
people in Seattle
Washington. These maps
show average household
income for 1990 and
2000…note the changes in
income in some areas
between 1990 and 2000.
Using this information, a
business can make
decisions about where
they want to locate a new
store or the future of
existing stores.
You can find census tract
information on many topics
such as; age, education
level, race, ethnicity, crime
rate, and land ownership.
Note the areas with
incomes over
$63,000.

All can be very valuable
information to people
looking to open
businesses.

32

Examine the changes
between 1990 and
2000.

Oakland, California’s Ethnic neighborhoods
The small bordered areas are census tracks of 5000 people.

33

Use of the Models Outside of North America: The 3 models will also work in other
places in the world; however social groups in other countries may not have the
same reasons for selecting particular neighborhoods as Americans do.
European Cities: As in the US, wealthier people in European cities cluster along a
sector extending outward from the CBD, however unlike the US, wealthy and
middle class Europeans still live in the inner rings of the neighborhoods near the
CBD not out in the suburbs. In the past, poorer people lived in the center of the
city. Before electricity, social segregation was vertical: richer people lived on the
first or second floor of a building while the poorer people lived in the basement or
upper floors. In the Industrial Revolution, housing for the poor was constructed
near the factories and away from the rich.
Today poorer Europeans are less likely to live in the inner-city. Poor quality
housing has been renovated for the rich or turned into office buildings. Poorer
Europeans tend to live in the outskirts of the city. Vast suburbs with dozens of high
rise apartments house the poor. They face long commutes to reach their jobs in
the city.
34

European cities generally do not have the “suburban
sprawl” that US cities have. European cities tend to be
more pedestrian friendly with more parks downtown as
Europeans tend to still live downtown.
US cities have taller buildings as European cities tend to
be older and more historic.

American cities have more ethnic neighborhoods than
European cities. Ethnic neighborhoods that do exist in
European cities tend to be in the suburbs. WHY?
Because the established richer neighborhoods tend to be
downtown in European cities.
35

Less Developed Countries: Like Europe, most LDC’s accommodate their poor in the
suburbs with their middle class and rich living near the center of the city. LDC’s have
passed through 3 periods of city building: before the Europeans arrived, during the
period of European colonialism, and since independence from European control.

Pre-colonial Cities: Before the Europeans arrived few cities existed in Africa, Asia, and
Latin America and most people lived in small rural settlements. Those cities that existed
were mostly laid out surrounding a religious center; with the rest of the city laid out in a
hieratical concentric pattern (like the Burgess model) from government buildings,
homes of the wealthy, and businesses related to the religion out to other businesses
and shops.
Colonial cities: When the Europeans took over these lands, they changed the cities by
adding services to help the Europeans control the conquered people. Often a new
European style city would be build next to the existing native one. The new European
cities contained wider streets, a public square, larger houses and a much lower density.
The Spanish used the “Law of the Indies” which was a city plan designed specifically to
build cities in a “Spanish” style. (Gridiron pattern for streets centered on a church and
central plaza, walls around individual houses and neighborhoods centered around
smaller plazas and more churches.)
36

Early Mexico city was laid out in a grid pattern of streets. This followed
the Spanish “Law of the Indies.”

37

Central Plaza in Mexico City 1920 photo. Typical Colonial City plan.

Part of downtown Mexico city today still shows the
building plan of the “Law of the Indies.”

38

Cities since Independence: Following independence, cities have become
the focal point of the development of most LDC’s. Millions of people have
migrated to the cities (Primate cities) looking for jobs and services. Some
capitals have been moved to isolated areas in an attempt to help develop
that area of the country (Brasília) This is know as a forward capital. Latin
American cities have developed their own unique style.
Squatter settlements: The LDC’s are unable to house the rapidly growing
number of poor who are flowing into the cities. Because of the housing
shortages, the poor have constructed their own settlements around the city.
These settlements have few services because neither the city nor the
residents can afford them. Squatters have two basic choices for housing.
1. Illegally move into empty real houses located in the city or,
2. Rent slum housing.
(85% of the population of Addis Ababa in Ethiopia lives in squatter
settlements, slums or other illegal housing.)
39

Squatter shacks in Manila, the Philippines

40

Squatter settlement in Ethiopia

41

Zimbabwe, Africa

42

Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

43

Latin American City Model:
In many Latin
American cities,
the wealthy live in
the inner city and
in a sector
extending along a
commercial spine.
In situ accretion- businesses
and homes constantly under
construction/repair.
Zone of maturity-2nd best
housing in the city.
The poor live in squatter settlements on the
periphery of the city.

Disamenity- unpleasant area
used by the poor to get to the
market.

44

The City Outline of Rio de Janeiro
The rich tourist areas and expensive condo apartments are along the coast
and beach while the poor live in squatter shacks in the hills.

45

City problems:
Inner-City Physical Problems: Most US inner cities were constructed before the 1950’s
(people began to move to the suburbs in the 1950’s so new construction moved out of
the city).
Process of Deterioration (how a city deteriorates): A city doesn’t suddenly become old
and full of slummy areas. It happens over time. When a group of low-income people
inhabit an area of a city, nearby neighborhoods will often look to move out. They sell or
rent to more low-income occupants thus expanding the low-income area. Two processes
cause/speed up the devaluation of areas:
1. Filtering, 2. Redlining.
Filtering: Large houses and buildings that once housed rich downtown workers (who
moved to the suburbs) are taken over by landlords who don’t live in that area (they
moved to the suburbs too). Rents are low so the landlord doesn’t take as good care of
the property as they should and the property becomes run down or abandoned. Stores
close, or move, due to lack of sales. 100 years ago these neighborhoods would be used
by immigrants and ethnic businesses would succeed in those areas. Now, with a decline
in immigration, these neighborhoods have shrunk and so have schools, businesses and
other services. Thousands of vacant houses and buildings stand empty in inner cities
across America.

46

Redlining: Some banks refuse to give loans in what they consider
risky neighborhoods. They draw a red line on a map around areas
where they will not give loans. Without loans, these neighborhoods
have a hard time rebuilding/remodeling. Though illegal, this still
happens. Bankers just don’t put these “no-loan” areas on a map.

Urban Renewal: This is the series of projects to improve European
and N. American cities by buying up the blighted neighborhoods,
moving the people to new government built housing projects, and
building new roads, and other projects to make the inner city
attractive for business again. National and State government grants
help pay for these projects.
47

Public housing: Housing for the poor, built with government funding as part of
urban renewal. In the US this is only about 2% of the housing while in some
countries it may be more (Britain is 30%). Public housing built in the 50’s & 60’s
were largely high rise apartments, but those are seen as being unsatisfactory.
Problems arise from cramming large numbers of poor people into one area.
Today most public housing projects are one to three story buildings with many of
them being scattered around different parts of the city rather than clustered into
one area.
Because urban renewal has been criticized for destroying the social cohesion of
older neighborhoods, many governments (like the US) have stopped funding
most projects since the 1970’s. What do we do instead?
Renovated Housing: An alternative often used since the 70’s is to renovate a
building instead of urban renewal. The process where middle-class people
move into inner-city neighborhoods and renovate them is called gentrification.
Gentrified inner-city neighborhoods also attract middle-class people who work
downtown. Living close to work saves the hassle of commuting and rejuvenates
run down inner-city neighborhoods
48

Gentrified building downtown Harlem, NY. Note the supermarket.

49

Inner-City Social Problems: Inner-city residents are often referred to as the
permanent underclass because they are trapped in an unending cycle of
economic and social problems. High unemployment, alcoholism, drug
addiction, literacy, juvenile delinquency, and crime all exist at a higher rate
among those who live in the inner-city. Lack of jobs means lack of tax dollars
to pay for police and fire protection as well as good schools. Lack of job skills
and homelessness are also tremendous problems.
Culture of Poverty: Inner-city residents are trapped in a permanent underclass
culture that reproduces itself. In the US, unwed mothers give birth to 2/3 of the
babies in the inner-city. 90% of these children live with only one parent and it
is real hard for one parent to keep a job and take care of children. Both suffer
and a shortage of care and daily attention by the parent contributes to the kids
not learning the skills necessary to do well in school which leads to poor jobs
for their futures. Poverty leads to more poverty. Many families on welfare have
only one parent because it is financially better if one parent is gone, that way
the single parent gets food stamps and other services from the government
that they would not get if it was a 2 family household.
50

Crime: Trapped in a hopeless environment, some inner-city
residents turn to drugs. Drug use is a problem in inner-city
areas and the suburbs, but rates of drug use in inner-cities
are the highest.
Ethnic and Racial Segregation: As seen in chapter 7, many
neighborhoods in the US are segregated by ethnicity with
African Americans and Hispanics concentrated in one or two
continuous areas and whites living in the suburbs. Even small
cities display a strong distinction among neighborhoods. A
frequent division is between the east and west or north and
south side of town, or the railroad tracks. A family seeking a
new residence will seek the areas where the characteristics
of the people meet their own.

51

The exodus
from the
American city.
This has
happened in
many American
cities since the
1960’s.

52

Changes in Cities in the U.S.
U.S. population has been moving out of the city centers to the suburbs:
suburbanization and counter urbanization

Developed Countries: suburbanization

 wealthy move to suburbs
 automobiles and roads; ‘American
Dream’ of the home in the suburbs.
 better services
 wealthy move to suburbs
Counter urbanization

idyllic settings
cost of land for retirement
slow pace, yet high tech
connections to services and markets
53

U.S. intraregional migration during 1990s.

Inner city economic problems: the concentration of low income
residents in inner cities has caused economic problems. These
people require public services but can pay very little in taxes to
support the services. They need stores and jobs but have little
money to spend in the store and few skills for jobs (so the stores
close). To try to fight these problems many local and state
governments use tax monies to try to renovate these areas, but this
shifts tax money needed for other areas to the inner city (votes on
election day).
Annexation: Many cities could help their tax problem by adding the
new suburbs to be part of their city (annexation). After all, many of
these suburban people use the city for its’ jobs etc., so why not add
them into the city? Today, most people in the suburbs do not want
to be annexed into the city and so they do not vote to be annexed.
54

The Peripheral Model: According to this model, an urban area
consists of an inner city surrounded by large suburban residential
and business areas (MSA) tied together by a beltway or highway
that circles the city. Around the beltway are nodes of consumer
and business services called edge cities (see diagram of multiple
nuclei model). These edge cities sprang up to provide services
and jobs to the people in the suburbs.
Density Gradient: As you travel outward from the center of the
city, the density of people declines. Inner city has big apartments
of 250 of more people per acre. Suburbs have fewer people per
acre (but lots of acres) and finally you leave the cities periphery
you find few people. The number of houses per unit of land
diminishes as distance from the center of the city increases.
55

The Edge cities (bedroom communities) of Houston

The central city is surrounded by a ring road, around which are
suburban areas and edge cities, shopping malls, office parks,
industrial areas, and service complexes.

Known as
bedroom
communities
because
people live
there but
mostly don’t
work there.
They drive
into the city
for work.
56

As you move from the center of the city outward, the density of the population
changes. This is know as the density gradient. Two big changes have occurred in
the density gradient of today’s cities:
1. The number of people living in the center has decreased.
2. The density difference between the inner city and the suburbs is declining
because the inner city density is dropping and the suburban density is growing
due to more large apartments being built in the suburbs.
Cost of Suburban or Urban Sprawl: Urban Sprawl is the progressive spread of
development over the landscape. As long as we Americans want single-family
detached houses, land on the fringe of urban areas will be converted from open
space to residential use. The cost of this growth is more than the loss of land, it is
also the cost of new roads, utilities, building stores and offices and the cost of
automobiles to move these people over even longer distances. Lots of these new
developments are built on what was once farmland. Wonderful productive soil now
under concrete.

Greenbelts: are areas where, by law, the open space can not be used for any
construction. This is mostly found in Europe.

57

Once farmland that is being converted to suburbs and cities.

58

Tyson’s Corner Virginia in 1940

59

Washington, DC. MSA.

Tyson’s Corner Virginia
today.
Washington D.C. is off
In the distance.

60

Suburban Segregation: The “new” segregation.
Suburban segregation takes two forms:
1. Residents are separated from commercial and manufacturing activities
which are confined someplace else. (The whole neighborhood is
nothing but houses because they drive for services.)
2. The price of the house eliminates some from being able to live there. This
creates a homogeneous suburb of the same economic class of people.
This never existed before in history. Where we once had vertical
segregation of the classes we now we have horizontal segregation.
3. But this may be reversing as new statistics show that people are beginning
to move back to the city. Why? Cost of transportation.
Zoning Ordinances: This idea developed in Europe and later America in the
early decades of the 20th century. This means that businesses are allowed only
in certain areas of the settlement. (No all night taco stands inside your single
family neighborhood.)
Motor vehicles: The wide use of the automobile is largely responsible for the
American movement to the suburbs. Not only did people move out but 1/4 of
the land inside all American cities are now roads, streets, and parking lots.

61

Public Transportation: Because few US workers live within walking distance
of their jobs, urban areas are characterized by extensive commuting and the
problems that come with it. As much as 40% of all trips made into or out from
a city during the day takes place within just 4 hours. (2 in the morning and 2 in
the late afternoon). RUSH HOUR!!! In large cities, public transportation, like
subways and busses, are better suited to move people but Americans still
prefer their own cars. Public transportation is cheaper, cleaner, and more
energy efficient than personal cars, yet in the US only 5% of city travel is
done using public transit systems. American’s love their personal car too
much.
Local Government Fragmentation: Because of the large number of local
governments in the US (look at the settlements in Pinellas County) it is
difficult to solve some of the regional problems like garbage disposal, water
management, traffic and public housing.
62

Metropolitan government: This idea tries to put many local governments into a
larger unit that can better handle the urban problems. The 2 ways to do this
are:
1. Federations in which the individual settlements have their own police,
firemen, and tax collection but they all agree to be part of a second
government which handles transportation, water, sewage, parks and
welfare for all the communities.
2. Consolidations: In this method, several cities and the county may form one
government. Jacksonville’s government runs not only the town but the
county too, this makes Jacksonville the largest city, in land size, in the US.
Smart growth: A new movement by many states to curb suburban sprawl by
limiting where new construction can take place. Smart growth laws require that
land near cities be used up before any land further out can be developed. So
far, this is only being done an a few parts of our country.
63

The new
US as
some
people
see it.

64

Quiz Yourself:
1. The process where middle-class people move into inner city neighborhoods and
renovate them is called ____________
2. ____________ happens when banks refuse to give loans in what they consider
risky neighborhoods.
3. Because of the housing shortages, the poor have constructed their own settlements
around the city known as __________ _________

4. Businesses are allowed only in certain areas of the settlement because of
____________ ____________
5. Areas known as _____ _______ are areas of about 5,000 people. The data from
that area is used to help define needed services for that area.
6. When cities are so close that they form one continuous band of development this is
known as a ____________
65

7. Social relationships are often described as “colder” in urban areas because…
8. In this model the city develops in a series of sectors not rings. _______

9. ______ (LDC’s or MDC’s) have a higher percentage of people living in urban
settlements but ________ (LDC’s or MDC’s) have more of the very large urban
settlements.
10. _____________ was the first model developed to explain the distributions
of different social groups within urban areas.
11. New cities which develop around the beltway are nodes of consumer and
business services known as ________ _________.

12. When the Europeans took over lands around the world, they changed the
cities by adding services to help the Europeans control the conquered people.
These European planned cities are known as __________ cities.
66

Answer Key:
1.

Gentrification

2.

Redlining

3.

Squatter Settlements

4.

Zoning ordinances

5.

Census tracks

6.

Megalopolis

7. There is a stronger feeling of belonging together in small rural settlements.
8. Hoyt sector model
9. MDC, LDC
10. Burgess Concentric Zone model
11. Edge cities
12. Colonial cities
67

Test Key topic/chapter 13:
These questions come from a combination of our slides, your text book, and common knowledge you should
have discussed in your AP classroom. They are very typical of what you will see on the National Exam.
1) The multiple nuclei theory best explains why different neighborhoods of a city attract people of different… A) ages.
B) ethnic origin C) income D) marital status.
2) Sprawl is the… A) change in density within an urban area from the center to the periphery B) development of new
housing sites not contiguous to the existing built-up area. C) land maintained as open space surrounding an urban area.
D) period in the morning and evening with the heaviest volumes of traffic.
3) People are attracted to suburbs in part because suburbs are characterized by…A) heavy traffic. B) lower opportunity
for home ownership. C) private land surrounding the house. D) row houses and apartments.
4) Megalopolis refers to… A) adjacent, overlapping Metropolitan Statistical Areas. B) central cities. C) consolidated
Metropolitan Statistical Areas. D) central cities plus urbanized areas.
5) Which statement best describes the relationship between urbanization and the Industrial Revolution? A) Urbanization
promoted the Industrial Revolution. B) The Industrial Revolution promoted urbanization. C) Urbanization preceded the
Industrial Revolution by thousands of years. D) Urbanization and the Industrial Revolution are no longer related.
6) The process of legally adding land area to a city in the United States is… A) annexation. B) accreditation. C) an
application of eminent domain. D) defined by urbanized area.

68

7) The process of change in the use of a house, from single-family owner occupancy to abandonment, is… A) blockbusting.
B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining.
8) A process by which banks designate an area within which they refuse to lend money for improvements is… A) blockbusting.
B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining.
9) A recent change in the density gradient has been… A) the elimination of the gap traditionally found in the center. B) an
increase in the extremes between the inner and outer areas. C) an increase in the number of people living in the center.
D) a reduction in the differences in densities found within an urban area.
10) U.S. central cities face fiscal problems because… A) federal and state funds are available. B) low-income people are
concentrated there. C) middle-class families are attracted there. D) redlining is no longer legal.
11) A legal form of segregation in U.S. cities is achieved through...A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) zoning. D) greenbelts.
12) Factories have moved to suburban locations in part because of… A) access to main highways. B) adequate space to build
vertical structures. C) availability of large tracts of high-priced land. D) good rail connections.
13) According to the sector model, the best housing is located in…A) a corridor from downtown to the edge of the city.
B) an outer ring surrounding the city. C) nodes near universities and parks. D) renovated inner-city neighborhoods.
14) Ramshackle houses on the periphery of cities in less developed countries are known as… A) squatter settlements. B) council
estates. C) public housing. D) zone in transition.
15) Higher income people tend to live near the center of the city in all but which of the following regions? A) Latin America
B) North America C) South Asia D) Western Europe

16) The wide boulevards built in cities in less developed countries were most likely built during what era? A) pre-colonial
B) colonial C) independence D) all of the above equally

69

17) According to the multiple nuclei model, an airport is likely to attract nearby… A) industries. B) residences. C) shops.
D) universities.
18) The largest percentage of the U.S. population lives in…A) central cities. B) suburbs. C) non-metropolitan areas. D) all of the
above
19) In U.S. cities, the underclass is… A) clustered in inner-city neighborhoods. B) dispersed throughout the city. C) clustered in
suburbs. D) distributed uniformly in the city.

20) A process of converting a neighborhood from low-income to middle-class is…A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) gentrification.
D) redlining.
21) Higher social heterogeneity in urban settlements means that… A) the people with whom you relax are probably the same ones you
see at work. B) you play a specialized role in the urban economy. C) you compete for limited space. D) you may feel lonely and
isolated in a crowd.
22) The city plus its contiguous built-up suburbs is the… A) central city. B) urbanized area.
D) consolidated metropolitan statistical area

C) metropolitan statistical area.

23) The process whereby an increasing percentage of people live in an urban area is known as… A) demographic transition.
B) rank-size rule. C) urbanization. D) central place theory.
24) Of the ten largest urban areas in the world, how many are in More Developed Countries today? A) 1 B) 4 C) 7 D) 10 E) 2
25) Public housing is…A) conversion of low-income housing to middle-class housing. B) illegally established low-income housing.
C) housing that has changed from single-family owner occupancy to abandonment. D) low-income government-owned housing.
26) According to the concentric zone model, a city develops in a series of… A) corridors. B) nodes. C) rings. D) all of the above

70

27) Chicago is a good location in which to develop urban models because it is located… A) at the hub of the nation's transportation
system. B) in the center of the country. C) on a flat prairie. D) on the shore of Lake Michigan.
28) According to the sector model, the best housing is located in… A) a corridor from downtown to the edge of the city. B) an outer
ring surrounding the city. C) nodes near universities and parks. D) renovated inner-city neighborhoods.
29) The zone of transition in US cities generally contain…A) warehouses B) wealthy neighborhoods C) transportation hubs
D) universities and hospitals E) suburban homes
30) The attractions of shopping malls include all but which of the following? A) frequent concerts and exhibitions B) generous
parking lots C) place to meet friends D) walking distance from homes
The following questions are written at the high school level. You will find some questions from part one often rewritten
here. This is all designed to help you transition to the college/AP style of written questions. Any question preceded with ***
are questions that have been on the national exam before.
31. Most Latin American cities are focused on a…A) central plaza B) government housing project C) zone of heavy industry
D) skyscraper office building E) squatter settlement
32. The multiple-nuclei model of a city structure tends to be most applicable to…A) small cities B) traditional C) Latin American
cities D) newer, fast growing cities E) cities with homogeneous land use
33. ***Locational advantages important to the development of the earliest cities include…A) availability of good harbors for large
ships B) productive agricultural land and defensible sites C) temperate climate and proximity to coal mines D) good
connections by road and canal E) proximity to manufacturing areas

34. In cities, the CBD’s often show uniqueness while the suburbs usually show…A) a large hinterland. B) placelessness C) more
than one node. D) newer zones of transition.

71

35. Many LDC’s have tried to help a previously under-developed part of their country develop by moving their capital
city to that area. This new capital is known as a…A) forward capital B) new development zone C) enterprise zone
D) neocolonial city
36. Today the greatest number of urban dwellers is found in…A) North America
D) Europe E) Asia

B) South America C) Africa

37. ***All of the following have helped create ghettos in North American cities except…A)blockbusting and racial
steering B) redlining by financial institutions C) concentration of public housing and social services D) fixed school
districts E) Economic Enterprise Zones

38. Which of the following is NOT as reason for rapid suburbanization in the US after WW2? A) Mass production of
the automobile B) Reduction of long distance commuting C) Expansion of home construction D) Expansion of the
interstate highway system E) Availability of low down payment terms and long-term mortgages.
39. New cities which developed in the hinterland of large urban areas because of the automobile, are known as…
A) edge cities B) census tracts C) suburban sprawl D) squatter settlements. E) none of these
40. Gentrification refers to… A) moving the homeless into inner city shelters B) The “White Flight” from the urban city
C) losing tax revenue because of stores closing in downtown areas D) middle-class people moving into and renovating
inner city neighborhoods E) the creation of “beltway cities” around the city.

72

4
7
3

5

1
6

2

41-48 all use the sketch above.
41. The sketch in box A above represents which model of the inner structure of urban areas?
C) multiple nuclei model D) Burgess concentric zone model E) peripheral model
42. The models in boxes B and C represent A) Concentric zone and multiple nuclei
concentric zone D) peripheral and concentric zone E) Von Thunen and peripheral

A) Hoyt sector model B) VonThunen’s model

B) Multiple nuclei and Hoyt sector C) Hoyt sector and

43. In which ring (1, 2, etc.) of sketch A above would high-status households in North American cities likely live? A) 1 B) 2 C) 3 D) 4&5
44. In which ring (1, 2, etc.) of sketch A above would high status households in a European city likely live? A) 1

B) 2

C) 3

D) 4&5

45. In model B, zone # 2 is where it is likely because of: A) greenbelting B) squatter settling C) the culture of poverty D) transportation
E) no one knows
46. The model in sketch B is the; A) Hoyt sector model B) Burgess model C) multiple nuclei model D) peripheral model
47. The model in sketch C is the; A) Hoyt sector model B) Burgess model C) multiple nuclei model D) peripheral model
48. Which of these models best describes what has happened in US cities in the last 40 years? A)

B)

C)

73

49.*** In the U.S. a city plus its contiguous built-up suburbs is known as an…A) urbanized area B) zoned area
C) census tract D) Squatter settlement E) none of these
50. Done mostly in Europe, these are areas where land is kept as parks, farms or other kinds of open space and urban
sprawl is not allowed. A) Smart growth
B) zoning
C) filtering
D) census tracts E) greenbelts
51. Which statement best describes the relationship between urbanization and the Industrial Revolution?
A) Urbanization promoted the Industrial Revolution. B) The Industrial Revolution promoted urbanization.
C) Urbanization preceded the Industrial Revolution by thousands of years. D) Urbanization and the Industrial
Revolution are no longer related.
52. The process whereby an increasing percentage of people live in an urban area is known as…
A) Demographic transition. B) rank-size rule. C) Urbanization. D) Central place theory.
53. The city (if it has 50,000 or more people) plus its contiguous built-up suburbs AND the county it is in as well as any
other counties it influences, is known as the ...A) central city B) urbanized area
C) metropolitan statistical area
D) consolidated metropolitan area E) micropolitan statistical area
54. ***Higher social heterogeneity in urban settlements means that …A) the people with whom you relax are probably
the same ones you see at work. B) you play a specialized role in the urban economy. C) you compete for limited
space. D) you may feel lonely and isolated in a crowd.

55. The process of change in the use of a house, from single-family owner occupancy to smaller dwellings for the poor
and then sometimes to abandonment, is…A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining. E) none of
these

74

Free Response #1:
The Bid Rent theory says that the closer you get to the
CBD the higher the cost for land, yet in most American
cities you find the poorest people living near the
expensive CBD and the richest living further away.
Explain:
A. Why neighborhoods near the CBD are often poor and
run down?
B. Why are there few grocery and other retail stores in
these neighborhoods?
C. Why is this not really true in European and Latin
American countries?

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75

FR #2:
Think of the map of your school, explain the
layout of your school using the Multiple Nuclei
Model
The main office is the CBD.
Completely explain your answer using specific
buildings and/or land areas in your explanation
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76

Answer Key:
1. B

14. A

27. C

40. D

53. C

2. B

15. B

28. A

41. D

54. D

3. C

16. B

29. A

42. B

55. B

4. A

17. A

30. D

43. D

5. B

18. B

31. A

44. A

6. A

19. A

32. D

45. D

7. B

20. C

33. B

46. A

8. D

21. D

34. B

47. C

9. D

22. B

35. A

48. C

10. B

23. C

36. E

49. A

11. C

24. C

37. E

50. E

12. A

25. D

38. B

51. B

13. A

26. C

39. A

52. C
77

FR. #1: ( 15 pts. for each section…total of 45 pts.)
A. In the US the move of the wealthy and middle class to the suburbs has left the older houses and apartments near the CBD empty.
This has lowered their value to the point where the poor can afford these dwellings and have made these neighborhoods their
homes. The poor can not pay for upkeep of these dwellings, or to pay high taxes. The lack of upkeep and tax money to repair the
roads and schools, adds to the downward spiral of the neighborhood. With little spending money for shopping, the poor do not
spend much in the stores. This causes many stores to close and move to the suburbs where the spending customers and money
went. The closing of the stores adds to the poverty of the area by taking away some of the jobs that were in the neighborhood. This
becomes a vicious cycle of poverty and deterioration. (15 points)

B. There are few retail stores and groceries is the area because the poor do not have money to shop. The lack of spending forces
many stores out of business or forces them to move to better locations. There also can be higher crime in these areas and the
crime often takes place at the stores. This is another reason for the stores to move out of the neighborhood. (15 points)
C. Neighborhoods in European and Latin American cities are different from those of US cities. In Europe and Latin America, the
wealthy and middle class still live near or in the CBD. The higher tax base and more spending ability of the upper and middle
classes, keeps the CBD area flourishing with jobs and in constant repair and upkeep of the cities’ physical condition. (15 points)

FR #2: (10 total points.)
You will need to judge how effectively you displayed you school
in the Multiple Nuclei Model. Refer to the model itself to help you
determine your success and grade.
School’s main office
78

Calculating your grade on test 13.
Add how many you got correct on the multiple choice part (55 possible) to how many
points you scored on the FR portion (55 possible)…110 total.
The following scale will show the approximate score if this test were the real AP exam. Remember that this
is an approximation. While 65-74% is normally the range for a 3 on the test, it is not definite. Over the
years I have seen scores as low as 60% be the low portion of a 3 score.

Out of 110 possible points:
72-83 is most likely a 3
84-94 is most likely a 4

95-110 is most likely a 5

Now lets start our review for the national exam by
reviewing the 33 key models and theories of the
course…the next PowerPoint.


Slide 5

Key topic/chapter 13…Urban Patterns
Key terms:
Annexation
Concentric zone model
Density gradient
Edge cities
Filtering
Galactic city
Gentrification
Greenbelts
Megalopolis
MSA
Multiple nuclei model
Peripheral model

Public housing
Redlining
Renovated housing
Scattered site
Squatter settlement
Sector model
Smart growth
Sprawl
Underclass
Urban renewal
Zone in transition
Zoning
1

Chapter 13…Urban Areas.
How are Cities planned?
Why

are cities where they are?
How are they organized?
Why are some areas of a city
different from
other areas of the same city?
What is the future of cities?
2

Settlement


Settlement - permanent collections of buildings,
where people live, work, and obtain services

3

ORIGINS OF SETTLEMENTS


Religious - graves, churches, temples



Cultural - schools, libraries



Political/Military - leader’s house, walls



Economic - stores, food
4

TYPES OF SETTLEMENTS


Rural Settlements - agriculture as the
predominant occupation.



Urban settlements - principal industries are
secondary and tertiary.

5

RURAL SETTLEMENTS
Clustered rural settlements –grouped
settlements in rural areas to minimize travel

Dispersed rural Settlements - isolated farms
with enclosed continuous fields (Found only in
N. America and Britain).

6

Urban Geographers want to know the global distribution of urban
settlements. MDC’s have a high percentage of people living in urban
areas because of the shift from agriculture-manufacturing-services.
Geographers are also interested in where people and activities are
distributed within urban spaces. What are the differences between the
inner-city and suburban areas and why?
As we saw in the last chapter, many downtowns are unique and can
often be recognized in photos where the suburbs often look very
much alike (Placelessness). Why? Suburbs offer the chance to avoid
some of the city problems (crime, tight living area, expensive
land/rent, noise, age of buildings) while still keeping a connection with
the goods and services of the city: jobs, sports teams, culture, shops,
recreation, etc.
7

Where is this place?

8

Today’s cities are evolving and changing. Although different internal
situations characterize urban areas in the US and elsewhere, the
problems arising from current spatial trends are quite similar in all cities.
Where have urban areas grown: in the early 1800’s only 3% of the earth’s
people lived in cities and only Beijing China had more than 1 million
people. Today over ½ of the world’s people live in cities and we have over
400 cities of at least 1 million people.

Urbanization: is the process by which city population grows.
Cities population growth is measured in 2 dimensions;
1. An increase in the number of people living in the cities.
2. An increase in the percentage of people living in the cities.
This distinction is important because they happen for different reason and
have different global distributions.
9

Increasing Percentage of People in Cities: a large percentage of people living in urban
areas is a measure of a country’s level of development. In MDC’s about ¾ of the people
live in urban areas compared to about 2/5 of people in LDC’s. (Except in Latin America
where the level is closer to MDC’s.)
The higher percentage of people in urban areas comes from the changes that have
occurred in the last 200 years as we went from agriculture (primary jobs) to industrial
(secondary jobs) and now service jobs, all created by the Industrial Revolution of the
1800’s.
People moved to the cities for industrial jobs, but in MDC’s this process has largely
ended because nearly everyone interested in moving to the cities from farms has already
done so.
In LDC’s the percentage of people living in urban areas is growing as people are pushed
off of their farms and replaced by machines and as people move to cities looking/hoping
for industrial jobs.
10

Increasing Number of People in Cities: MDC’s have a higher percentage of
people living in urban settlements but LDC’s have more of the very large urban
settlements (Primate cities). (Rank-size rule, primate cities, chapter 12.)

This is interesting because typically the large cities are created from the
improvements brought by the Industrial Revolution. This is not the case with the
large LDC cities. Migration to the primate city in LDC’s is happening even though
job opportunities may not be available. Increasing the population growth in LDC
cities is the fact that medical services are better in these cities, thus the child
mortality rate is lower.
Defining Urban Settlements: defining where urban areas end and rural areas
begin is not easy. Geographers have formulated definitions that distinguish
between urban and rural areas in two ways: Social differences and Physical
differences.
11

Percent Urban Population

Percent of the population living in urban areas is usually higher in MDCs
than in LDCs.

12

The most populated cities in the world

Of the top
20, only
Moscow,
Tokyo and
New York
are in MDC’s

Shanghai China has 14,608,512 people
13

14

15

Social Differences Between Urban and Rural Settlements: it is fair to say that rural
people and urban people follow different ways of life. A city can be defined as having 3
characteristics:
1. Large size. People in rural settlements know most of the other people in the
settlement. Not true in big cities. Social relationships are often described as “colder” in
urban areas because you only see some people at work instead of growing up with
them in the settlement.
2. High Density. Having lots of people in a tiny area creates social consequences. A
high density of people living in a small area can only be supported if the people
specialize (they can’t all be farmers). People are encouraged to compete for jobs, room,
and survival in a tightly limited space. Social groups compete to occupy the same space
(ethnic/ race problems). Rural settlements have very little of this problem.
3. Social Heterogeneity. The larger the settlement, the greater the variety of people.
Being “unusual” in a large settlement is more likely to be accepted than in a small rural
one. But despite the freedom to be different that large urban settlements give you,
people living there often feel alone because so many people are different from them.
There is a stronger feeling of belonging together in small rural settlements.
16

These 3 differences do not fully answer the question of where urban settlements
begin and rural ones end because in today’s MDC’s most everyone has access to
cars, telephones, televisions, and “urban type” jobs which reduce the differences
between urban and rural lifestyles. “City folk” and “Country folk” are more alike
today than they are different. To help distinguish between urban and rural areas we
need to add the physical definition of rural and urban to the equation.
Physical Definitions of Urban Settlements: In ancient time, cities had defensive
walls for protection which clearly defined the physical boundaries of the city. Today
the walls are gone but we can still define the physical boundaries in 3 ways:
1. Legal boundary. These are the official boundaries of a city as recognized by
the government of the country or state. These “city limits” have been officially given
to the city and are physically marked on official maps. The local government of the
city has authority to make laws and protect the people inside the city boundaries.
17

2. Urbanized area. This is the city plus its suburbs or urbanized area that
surrounds the city. About 70 percent of US residents live in urbanized areas with
40% being in the suburbs and 30% inside the city limits. The suburbs may have
their own city governments but the huge central city dominates what happens in
the entire area.
3. Metropolitan Statistical Area. Cities have an even bigger influence on people
than just those living in their city limits and surrounding urbanized areas. People
from far away come to shop, use the services, support the sports teams, read
the newspapers and watch the television broadcasts of the city. Thus the city
has a “functional area” which is its total zone of influence. The US Bureau of
Census has created a method of measuring the functional area of the city.
Known as the Metropolitan statistical area (MSA) this area includes:
•An urbanized area with a population of at least 50,000
•The county within which the city is located.
•Adjacent counties with a high population density and a large percentage of
residents working in the central city’s county.
18

Metropolitan Area of Philadelphia

City of
Philadelphia

Urbanized
area
(suburbs)
Metropolitan
Statistical
Area

The metropolitan area of Philadelphia is
spread over several counties and four states.
It is also a diversified trade center, given its
position on the Delaware river.

19

20

21

Micropolitan Statistical Areas: Smaller areas with between
10,000 and 50,000 people, the county where it is found, and
adjacent counties tied to the city. This would be a small town and
the area dominated by it.
Overlapping Metropolitan Areas: Some adjacent MSA’s overlap.
A county between two central cities may send a large number of
commuters to jobs in both cities. In some areas the cities are so
close that they form one continuous urban complex. This is
known as a Megalopolis (great city).
In a megalopolis, the downtown CBD often has its own
distinctive look and the urban areas are visually separated by
parks, open spaces, and dairy/truck farms. But at the periphery
of the urban areas, the boundaries overlap.
22

Colorado Springs, population 431,000

Ocala, Florida, population 56,000

Florala, Alabama, population 1,900

23

Megalopolis, from northern Va. To Maine.
This Illustrates the
difference between
strict city proper
definitions and broader
urban agglomerations.
To define urbanized
areas, the U.S. Census
Bureau uses the term
Metropolitan Statistical
Area (MSA) or
Consolidated MSA
(CMSA) if two or more of
them overlap.
24

Where are People Distributed within Urban Areas? People are not
just distributed at random in urban areas. For the most part they
concentrate in particular neighborhoods depending on their social
characteristics. Geographers want to see where people with
particular characteristics are likely to live and why.

Three models which try to explain the growth of a city:

The Burgess Model

The Hoyt Sector Model

The Harris and Ullman
multiple Nuclei Model
25

Burgess Concentric Zone Model

In the concentric zone model, a city grows in a series of rings surrounding the CBD.

Burgess Concentric Zone Model: This is the first used to explain the
distributions of different social groups within urban areas. It says that a
city grows outward from a central place in a series of concentric rings.
The precise size and width of the rings vary from one city to another, but
some basic types of rings appear in all cities in the same order (see chart
above).
26

•Hoyt Sector Model: In this model the city develops in a
series of sectors not rings. Certain areas of the city are
more attractive for various activities, originally because
of an environmental factor (or even pure chance). As the
city grows, activities extend outward in a wedge shape.
For example, once a wealthy neighborhood is built the
next wealthy neighborhood will extend from the first
neighborhood further outward from the center. In this
way, the best housing is found in a corridor extending
outward from the center to the outer edge (see chart on
the next page).
27

The Hoyt Sector Model

In the sector model, a city grows in a series of
wedges or corridors extending out from the
CBD.
28

•Harris and Ullman’s Multiple Nuclei Model: According
to this model, a city is a complex structure that includes
more than one center around which activities revolve.
Examples of these nodes include a port, parks,
stadium, neighborhood business center, university, and
airport (see chart). This theory states that some
activities are attracted to particular nodes, whereas
others try to avoid them. A university node may attract
well educated people and bookstores while the port will
attract hotels and warehouses. Heavy industry and
expensive houses rarely are found together. This
model shows the effect of the automobile more than
any other model.
29

The Harris and Ullman Multiple Nuclei model

The multiple nuclei model views a city as a
collection of individual centers, around which
different people and activities cluster.

30

Applications of the Models: The three models help explain where and in some
cases, why people live where they do. None of the models by themselves fully
explains why and where different types of people live, but combined they give
you as good a look as possible at the “Why” of “Where.” Effective use of the
models depends on getting good data on the areas. Most countries take a
census every 10 years to help determine useful data about the people and
places of the country. In our country we divide the census data into areas
known as census tracts of about 5,000 people. Each census tract has the data
that summarizes the characteristics of the people living within that tract. This
information includes things like the race, income, age, and education of the
people living in that tract.
Social Area Analysis: The data from the census tracts can all be plotted onto
maps to show the characteristics of the people living in that tract. This map is
known as a social area analysis.
31

Using Census tract information…Seattle, Washington
Each lined area is a
census tract of about 5000
people in Seattle
Washington. These maps
show average household
income for 1990 and
2000…note the changes in
income in some areas
between 1990 and 2000.
Using this information, a
business can make
decisions about where
they want to locate a new
store or the future of
existing stores.
You can find census tract
information on many topics
such as; age, education
level, race, ethnicity, crime
rate, and land ownership.
Note the areas with
incomes over
$63,000.

All can be very valuable
information to people
looking to open
businesses.

32

Examine the changes
between 1990 and
2000.

Oakland, California’s Ethnic neighborhoods
The small bordered areas are census tracks of 5000 people.

33

Use of the Models Outside of North America: The 3 models will also work in other
places in the world; however social groups in other countries may not have the
same reasons for selecting particular neighborhoods as Americans do.
European Cities: As in the US, wealthier people in European cities cluster along a
sector extending outward from the CBD, however unlike the US, wealthy and
middle class Europeans still live in the inner rings of the neighborhoods near the
CBD not out in the suburbs. In the past, poorer people lived in the center of the
city. Before electricity, social segregation was vertical: richer people lived on the
first or second floor of a building while the poorer people lived in the basement or
upper floors. In the Industrial Revolution, housing for the poor was constructed
near the factories and away from the rich.
Today poorer Europeans are less likely to live in the inner-city. Poor quality
housing has been renovated for the rich or turned into office buildings. Poorer
Europeans tend to live in the outskirts of the city. Vast suburbs with dozens of high
rise apartments house the poor. They face long commutes to reach their jobs in
the city.
34

European cities generally do not have the “suburban
sprawl” that US cities have. European cities tend to be
more pedestrian friendly with more parks downtown as
Europeans tend to still live downtown.
US cities have taller buildings as European cities tend to
be older and more historic.

American cities have more ethnic neighborhoods than
European cities. Ethnic neighborhoods that do exist in
European cities tend to be in the suburbs. WHY?
Because the established richer neighborhoods tend to be
downtown in European cities.
35

Less Developed Countries: Like Europe, most LDC’s accommodate their poor in the
suburbs with their middle class and rich living near the center of the city. LDC’s have
passed through 3 periods of city building: before the Europeans arrived, during the
period of European colonialism, and since independence from European control.

Pre-colonial Cities: Before the Europeans arrived few cities existed in Africa, Asia, and
Latin America and most people lived in small rural settlements. Those cities that existed
were mostly laid out surrounding a religious center; with the rest of the city laid out in a
hieratical concentric pattern (like the Burgess model) from government buildings,
homes of the wealthy, and businesses related to the religion out to other businesses
and shops.
Colonial cities: When the Europeans took over these lands, they changed the cities by
adding services to help the Europeans control the conquered people. Often a new
European style city would be build next to the existing native one. The new European
cities contained wider streets, a public square, larger houses and a much lower density.
The Spanish used the “Law of the Indies” which was a city plan designed specifically to
build cities in a “Spanish” style. (Gridiron pattern for streets centered on a church and
central plaza, walls around individual houses and neighborhoods centered around
smaller plazas and more churches.)
36

Early Mexico city was laid out in a grid pattern of streets. This followed
the Spanish “Law of the Indies.”

37

Central Plaza in Mexico City 1920 photo. Typical Colonial City plan.

Part of downtown Mexico city today still shows the
building plan of the “Law of the Indies.”

38

Cities since Independence: Following independence, cities have become
the focal point of the development of most LDC’s. Millions of people have
migrated to the cities (Primate cities) looking for jobs and services. Some
capitals have been moved to isolated areas in an attempt to help develop
that area of the country (Brasília) This is know as a forward capital. Latin
American cities have developed their own unique style.
Squatter settlements: The LDC’s are unable to house the rapidly growing
number of poor who are flowing into the cities. Because of the housing
shortages, the poor have constructed their own settlements around the city.
These settlements have few services because neither the city nor the
residents can afford them. Squatters have two basic choices for housing.
1. Illegally move into empty real houses located in the city or,
2. Rent slum housing.
(85% of the population of Addis Ababa in Ethiopia lives in squatter
settlements, slums or other illegal housing.)
39

Squatter shacks in Manila, the Philippines

40

Squatter settlement in Ethiopia

41

Zimbabwe, Africa

42

Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

43

Latin American City Model:
In many Latin
American cities,
the wealthy live in
the inner city and
in a sector
extending along a
commercial spine.
In situ accretion- businesses
and homes constantly under
construction/repair.
Zone of maturity-2nd best
housing in the city.
The poor live in squatter settlements on the
periphery of the city.

Disamenity- unpleasant area
used by the poor to get to the
market.

44

The City Outline of Rio de Janeiro
The rich tourist areas and expensive condo apartments are along the coast
and beach while the poor live in squatter shacks in the hills.

45

City problems:
Inner-City Physical Problems: Most US inner cities were constructed before the 1950’s
(people began to move to the suburbs in the 1950’s so new construction moved out of
the city).
Process of Deterioration (how a city deteriorates): A city doesn’t suddenly become old
and full of slummy areas. It happens over time. When a group of low-income people
inhabit an area of a city, nearby neighborhoods will often look to move out. They sell or
rent to more low-income occupants thus expanding the low-income area. Two processes
cause/speed up the devaluation of areas:
1. Filtering, 2. Redlining.
Filtering: Large houses and buildings that once housed rich downtown workers (who
moved to the suburbs) are taken over by landlords who don’t live in that area (they
moved to the suburbs too). Rents are low so the landlord doesn’t take as good care of
the property as they should and the property becomes run down or abandoned. Stores
close, or move, due to lack of sales. 100 years ago these neighborhoods would be used
by immigrants and ethnic businesses would succeed in those areas. Now, with a decline
in immigration, these neighborhoods have shrunk and so have schools, businesses and
other services. Thousands of vacant houses and buildings stand empty in inner cities
across America.

46

Redlining: Some banks refuse to give loans in what they consider
risky neighborhoods. They draw a red line on a map around areas
where they will not give loans. Without loans, these neighborhoods
have a hard time rebuilding/remodeling. Though illegal, this still
happens. Bankers just don’t put these “no-loan” areas on a map.

Urban Renewal: This is the series of projects to improve European
and N. American cities by buying up the blighted neighborhoods,
moving the people to new government built housing projects, and
building new roads, and other projects to make the inner city
attractive for business again. National and State government grants
help pay for these projects.
47

Public housing: Housing for the poor, built with government funding as part of
urban renewal. In the US this is only about 2% of the housing while in some
countries it may be more (Britain is 30%). Public housing built in the 50’s & 60’s
were largely high rise apartments, but those are seen as being unsatisfactory.
Problems arise from cramming large numbers of poor people into one area.
Today most public housing projects are one to three story buildings with many of
them being scattered around different parts of the city rather than clustered into
one area.
Because urban renewal has been criticized for destroying the social cohesion of
older neighborhoods, many governments (like the US) have stopped funding
most projects since the 1970’s. What do we do instead?
Renovated Housing: An alternative often used since the 70’s is to renovate a
building instead of urban renewal. The process where middle-class people
move into inner-city neighborhoods and renovate them is called gentrification.
Gentrified inner-city neighborhoods also attract middle-class people who work
downtown. Living close to work saves the hassle of commuting and rejuvenates
run down inner-city neighborhoods
48

Gentrified building downtown Harlem, NY. Note the supermarket.

49

Inner-City Social Problems: Inner-city residents are often referred to as the
permanent underclass because they are trapped in an unending cycle of
economic and social problems. High unemployment, alcoholism, drug
addiction, literacy, juvenile delinquency, and crime all exist at a higher rate
among those who live in the inner-city. Lack of jobs means lack of tax dollars
to pay for police and fire protection as well as good schools. Lack of job skills
and homelessness are also tremendous problems.
Culture of Poverty: Inner-city residents are trapped in a permanent underclass
culture that reproduces itself. In the US, unwed mothers give birth to 2/3 of the
babies in the inner-city. 90% of these children live with only one parent and it
is real hard for one parent to keep a job and take care of children. Both suffer
and a shortage of care and daily attention by the parent contributes to the kids
not learning the skills necessary to do well in school which leads to poor jobs
for their futures. Poverty leads to more poverty. Many families on welfare have
only one parent because it is financially better if one parent is gone, that way
the single parent gets food stamps and other services from the government
that they would not get if it was a 2 family household.
50

Crime: Trapped in a hopeless environment, some inner-city
residents turn to drugs. Drug use is a problem in inner-city
areas and the suburbs, but rates of drug use in inner-cities
are the highest.
Ethnic and Racial Segregation: As seen in chapter 7, many
neighborhoods in the US are segregated by ethnicity with
African Americans and Hispanics concentrated in one or two
continuous areas and whites living in the suburbs. Even small
cities display a strong distinction among neighborhoods. A
frequent division is between the east and west or north and
south side of town, or the railroad tracks. A family seeking a
new residence will seek the areas where the characteristics
of the people meet their own.

51

The exodus
from the
American city.
This has
happened in
many American
cities since the
1960’s.

52

Changes in Cities in the U.S.
U.S. population has been moving out of the city centers to the suburbs:
suburbanization and counter urbanization

Developed Countries: suburbanization

 wealthy move to suburbs
 automobiles and roads; ‘American
Dream’ of the home in the suburbs.
 better services
 wealthy move to suburbs
Counter urbanization

idyllic settings
cost of land for retirement
slow pace, yet high tech
connections to services and markets
53

U.S. intraregional migration during 1990s.

Inner city economic problems: the concentration of low income
residents in inner cities has caused economic problems. These
people require public services but can pay very little in taxes to
support the services. They need stores and jobs but have little
money to spend in the store and few skills for jobs (so the stores
close). To try to fight these problems many local and state
governments use tax monies to try to renovate these areas, but this
shifts tax money needed for other areas to the inner city (votes on
election day).
Annexation: Many cities could help their tax problem by adding the
new suburbs to be part of their city (annexation). After all, many of
these suburban people use the city for its’ jobs etc., so why not add
them into the city? Today, most people in the suburbs do not want
to be annexed into the city and so they do not vote to be annexed.
54

The Peripheral Model: According to this model, an urban area
consists of an inner city surrounded by large suburban residential
and business areas (MSA) tied together by a beltway or highway
that circles the city. Around the beltway are nodes of consumer
and business services called edge cities (see diagram of multiple
nuclei model). These edge cities sprang up to provide services
and jobs to the people in the suburbs.
Density Gradient: As you travel outward from the center of the
city, the density of people declines. Inner city has big apartments
of 250 of more people per acre. Suburbs have fewer people per
acre (but lots of acres) and finally you leave the cities periphery
you find few people. The number of houses per unit of land
diminishes as distance from the center of the city increases.
55

The Edge cities (bedroom communities) of Houston

The central city is surrounded by a ring road, around which are
suburban areas and edge cities, shopping malls, office parks,
industrial areas, and service complexes.

Known as
bedroom
communities
because
people live
there but
mostly don’t
work there.
They drive
into the city
for work.
56

As you move from the center of the city outward, the density of the population
changes. This is know as the density gradient. Two big changes have occurred in
the density gradient of today’s cities:
1. The number of people living in the center has decreased.
2. The density difference between the inner city and the suburbs is declining
because the inner city density is dropping and the suburban density is growing
due to more large apartments being built in the suburbs.
Cost of Suburban or Urban Sprawl: Urban Sprawl is the progressive spread of
development over the landscape. As long as we Americans want single-family
detached houses, land on the fringe of urban areas will be converted from open
space to residential use. The cost of this growth is more than the loss of land, it is
also the cost of new roads, utilities, building stores and offices and the cost of
automobiles to move these people over even longer distances. Lots of these new
developments are built on what was once farmland. Wonderful productive soil now
under concrete.

Greenbelts: are areas where, by law, the open space can not be used for any
construction. This is mostly found in Europe.

57

Once farmland that is being converted to suburbs and cities.

58

Tyson’s Corner Virginia in 1940

59

Washington, DC. MSA.

Tyson’s Corner Virginia
today.
Washington D.C. is off
In the distance.

60

Suburban Segregation: The “new” segregation.
Suburban segregation takes two forms:
1. Residents are separated from commercial and manufacturing activities
which are confined someplace else. (The whole neighborhood is
nothing but houses because they drive for services.)
2. The price of the house eliminates some from being able to live there. This
creates a homogeneous suburb of the same economic class of people.
This never existed before in history. Where we once had vertical
segregation of the classes we now we have horizontal segregation.
3. But this may be reversing as new statistics show that people are beginning
to move back to the city. Why? Cost of transportation.
Zoning Ordinances: This idea developed in Europe and later America in the
early decades of the 20th century. This means that businesses are allowed only
in certain areas of the settlement. (No all night taco stands inside your single
family neighborhood.)
Motor vehicles: The wide use of the automobile is largely responsible for the
American movement to the suburbs. Not only did people move out but 1/4 of
the land inside all American cities are now roads, streets, and parking lots.

61

Public Transportation: Because few US workers live within walking distance
of their jobs, urban areas are characterized by extensive commuting and the
problems that come with it. As much as 40% of all trips made into or out from
a city during the day takes place within just 4 hours. (2 in the morning and 2 in
the late afternoon). RUSH HOUR!!! In large cities, public transportation, like
subways and busses, are better suited to move people but Americans still
prefer their own cars. Public transportation is cheaper, cleaner, and more
energy efficient than personal cars, yet in the US only 5% of city travel is
done using public transit systems. American’s love their personal car too
much.
Local Government Fragmentation: Because of the large number of local
governments in the US (look at the settlements in Pinellas County) it is
difficult to solve some of the regional problems like garbage disposal, water
management, traffic and public housing.
62

Metropolitan government: This idea tries to put many local governments into a
larger unit that can better handle the urban problems. The 2 ways to do this
are:
1. Federations in which the individual settlements have their own police,
firemen, and tax collection but they all agree to be part of a second
government which handles transportation, water, sewage, parks and
welfare for all the communities.
2. Consolidations: In this method, several cities and the county may form one
government. Jacksonville’s government runs not only the town but the
county too, this makes Jacksonville the largest city, in land size, in the US.
Smart growth: A new movement by many states to curb suburban sprawl by
limiting where new construction can take place. Smart growth laws require that
land near cities be used up before any land further out can be developed. So
far, this is only being done an a few parts of our country.
63

The new
US as
some
people
see it.

64

Quiz Yourself:
1. The process where middle-class people move into inner city neighborhoods and
renovate them is called ____________
2. ____________ happens when banks refuse to give loans in what they consider
risky neighborhoods.
3. Because of the housing shortages, the poor have constructed their own settlements
around the city known as __________ _________

4. Businesses are allowed only in certain areas of the settlement because of
____________ ____________
5. Areas known as _____ _______ are areas of about 5,000 people. The data from
that area is used to help define needed services for that area.
6. When cities are so close that they form one continuous band of development this is
known as a ____________
65

7. Social relationships are often described as “colder” in urban areas because…
8. In this model the city develops in a series of sectors not rings. _______

9. ______ (LDC’s or MDC’s) have a higher percentage of people living in urban
settlements but ________ (LDC’s or MDC’s) have more of the very large urban
settlements.
10. _____________ was the first model developed to explain the distributions
of different social groups within urban areas.
11. New cities which develop around the beltway are nodes of consumer and
business services known as ________ _________.

12. When the Europeans took over lands around the world, they changed the
cities by adding services to help the Europeans control the conquered people.
These European planned cities are known as __________ cities.
66

Answer Key:
1.

Gentrification

2.

Redlining

3.

Squatter Settlements

4.

Zoning ordinances

5.

Census tracks

6.

Megalopolis

7. There is a stronger feeling of belonging together in small rural settlements.
8. Hoyt sector model
9. MDC, LDC
10. Burgess Concentric Zone model
11. Edge cities
12. Colonial cities
67

Test Key topic/chapter 13:
These questions come from a combination of our slides, your text book, and common knowledge you should
have discussed in your AP classroom. They are very typical of what you will see on the National Exam.
1) The multiple nuclei theory best explains why different neighborhoods of a city attract people of different… A) ages.
B) ethnic origin C) income D) marital status.
2) Sprawl is the… A) change in density within an urban area from the center to the periphery B) development of new
housing sites not contiguous to the existing built-up area. C) land maintained as open space surrounding an urban area.
D) period in the morning and evening with the heaviest volumes of traffic.
3) People are attracted to suburbs in part because suburbs are characterized by…A) heavy traffic. B) lower opportunity
for home ownership. C) private land surrounding the house. D) row houses and apartments.
4) Megalopolis refers to… A) adjacent, overlapping Metropolitan Statistical Areas. B) central cities. C) consolidated
Metropolitan Statistical Areas. D) central cities plus urbanized areas.
5) Which statement best describes the relationship between urbanization and the Industrial Revolution? A) Urbanization
promoted the Industrial Revolution. B) The Industrial Revolution promoted urbanization. C) Urbanization preceded the
Industrial Revolution by thousands of years. D) Urbanization and the Industrial Revolution are no longer related.
6) The process of legally adding land area to a city in the United States is… A) annexation. B) accreditation. C) an
application of eminent domain. D) defined by urbanized area.

68

7) The process of change in the use of a house, from single-family owner occupancy to abandonment, is… A) blockbusting.
B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining.
8) A process by which banks designate an area within which they refuse to lend money for improvements is… A) blockbusting.
B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining.
9) A recent change in the density gradient has been… A) the elimination of the gap traditionally found in the center. B) an
increase in the extremes between the inner and outer areas. C) an increase in the number of people living in the center.
D) a reduction in the differences in densities found within an urban area.
10) U.S. central cities face fiscal problems because… A) federal and state funds are available. B) low-income people are
concentrated there. C) middle-class families are attracted there. D) redlining is no longer legal.
11) A legal form of segregation in U.S. cities is achieved through...A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) zoning. D) greenbelts.
12) Factories have moved to suburban locations in part because of… A) access to main highways. B) adequate space to build
vertical structures. C) availability of large tracts of high-priced land. D) good rail connections.
13) According to the sector model, the best housing is located in…A) a corridor from downtown to the edge of the city.
B) an outer ring surrounding the city. C) nodes near universities and parks. D) renovated inner-city neighborhoods.
14) Ramshackle houses on the periphery of cities in less developed countries are known as… A) squatter settlements. B) council
estates. C) public housing. D) zone in transition.
15) Higher income people tend to live near the center of the city in all but which of the following regions? A) Latin America
B) North America C) South Asia D) Western Europe

16) The wide boulevards built in cities in less developed countries were most likely built during what era? A) pre-colonial
B) colonial C) independence D) all of the above equally

69

17) According to the multiple nuclei model, an airport is likely to attract nearby… A) industries. B) residences. C) shops.
D) universities.
18) The largest percentage of the U.S. population lives in…A) central cities. B) suburbs. C) non-metropolitan areas. D) all of the
above
19) In U.S. cities, the underclass is… A) clustered in inner-city neighborhoods. B) dispersed throughout the city. C) clustered in
suburbs. D) distributed uniformly in the city.

20) A process of converting a neighborhood from low-income to middle-class is…A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) gentrification.
D) redlining.
21) Higher social heterogeneity in urban settlements means that… A) the people with whom you relax are probably the same ones you
see at work. B) you play a specialized role in the urban economy. C) you compete for limited space. D) you may feel lonely and
isolated in a crowd.
22) The city plus its contiguous built-up suburbs is the… A) central city. B) urbanized area.
D) consolidated metropolitan statistical area

C) metropolitan statistical area.

23) The process whereby an increasing percentage of people live in an urban area is known as… A) demographic transition.
B) rank-size rule. C) urbanization. D) central place theory.
24) Of the ten largest urban areas in the world, how many are in More Developed Countries today? A) 1 B) 4 C) 7 D) 10 E) 2
25) Public housing is…A) conversion of low-income housing to middle-class housing. B) illegally established low-income housing.
C) housing that has changed from single-family owner occupancy to abandonment. D) low-income government-owned housing.
26) According to the concentric zone model, a city develops in a series of… A) corridors. B) nodes. C) rings. D) all of the above

70

27) Chicago is a good location in which to develop urban models because it is located… A) at the hub of the nation's transportation
system. B) in the center of the country. C) on a flat prairie. D) on the shore of Lake Michigan.
28) According to the sector model, the best housing is located in… A) a corridor from downtown to the edge of the city. B) an outer
ring surrounding the city. C) nodes near universities and parks. D) renovated inner-city neighborhoods.
29) The zone of transition in US cities generally contain…A) warehouses B) wealthy neighborhoods C) transportation hubs
D) universities and hospitals E) suburban homes
30) The attractions of shopping malls include all but which of the following? A) frequent concerts and exhibitions B) generous
parking lots C) place to meet friends D) walking distance from homes
The following questions are written at the high school level. You will find some questions from part one often rewritten
here. This is all designed to help you transition to the college/AP style of written questions. Any question preceded with ***
are questions that have been on the national exam before.
31. Most Latin American cities are focused on a…A) central plaza B) government housing project C) zone of heavy industry
D) skyscraper office building E) squatter settlement
32. The multiple-nuclei model of a city structure tends to be most applicable to…A) small cities B) traditional C) Latin American
cities D) newer, fast growing cities E) cities with homogeneous land use
33. ***Locational advantages important to the development of the earliest cities include…A) availability of good harbors for large
ships B) productive agricultural land and defensible sites C) temperate climate and proximity to coal mines D) good
connections by road and canal E) proximity to manufacturing areas

34. In cities, the CBD’s often show uniqueness while the suburbs usually show…A) a large hinterland. B) placelessness C) more
than one node. D) newer zones of transition.

71

35. Many LDC’s have tried to help a previously under-developed part of their country develop by moving their capital
city to that area. This new capital is known as a…A) forward capital B) new development zone C) enterprise zone
D) neocolonial city
36. Today the greatest number of urban dwellers is found in…A) North America
D) Europe E) Asia

B) South America C) Africa

37. ***All of the following have helped create ghettos in North American cities except…A)blockbusting and racial
steering B) redlining by financial institutions C) concentration of public housing and social services D) fixed school
districts E) Economic Enterprise Zones

38. Which of the following is NOT as reason for rapid suburbanization in the US after WW2? A) Mass production of
the automobile B) Reduction of long distance commuting C) Expansion of home construction D) Expansion of the
interstate highway system E) Availability of low down payment terms and long-term mortgages.
39. New cities which developed in the hinterland of large urban areas because of the automobile, are known as…
A) edge cities B) census tracts C) suburban sprawl D) squatter settlements. E) none of these
40. Gentrification refers to… A) moving the homeless into inner city shelters B) The “White Flight” from the urban city
C) losing tax revenue because of stores closing in downtown areas D) middle-class people moving into and renovating
inner city neighborhoods E) the creation of “beltway cities” around the city.

72

4
7
3

5

1
6

2

41-48 all use the sketch above.
41. The sketch in box A above represents which model of the inner structure of urban areas?
C) multiple nuclei model D) Burgess concentric zone model E) peripheral model
42. The models in boxes B and C represent A) Concentric zone and multiple nuclei
concentric zone D) peripheral and concentric zone E) Von Thunen and peripheral

A) Hoyt sector model B) VonThunen’s model

B) Multiple nuclei and Hoyt sector C) Hoyt sector and

43. In which ring (1, 2, etc.) of sketch A above would high-status households in North American cities likely live? A) 1 B) 2 C) 3 D) 4&5
44. In which ring (1, 2, etc.) of sketch A above would high status households in a European city likely live? A) 1

B) 2

C) 3

D) 4&5

45. In model B, zone # 2 is where it is likely because of: A) greenbelting B) squatter settling C) the culture of poverty D) transportation
E) no one knows
46. The model in sketch B is the; A) Hoyt sector model B) Burgess model C) multiple nuclei model D) peripheral model
47. The model in sketch C is the; A) Hoyt sector model B) Burgess model C) multiple nuclei model D) peripheral model
48. Which of these models best describes what has happened in US cities in the last 40 years? A)

B)

C)

73

49.*** In the U.S. a city plus its contiguous built-up suburbs is known as an…A) urbanized area B) zoned area
C) census tract D) Squatter settlement E) none of these
50. Done mostly in Europe, these are areas where land is kept as parks, farms or other kinds of open space and urban
sprawl is not allowed. A) Smart growth
B) zoning
C) filtering
D) census tracts E) greenbelts
51. Which statement best describes the relationship between urbanization and the Industrial Revolution?
A) Urbanization promoted the Industrial Revolution. B) The Industrial Revolution promoted urbanization.
C) Urbanization preceded the Industrial Revolution by thousands of years. D) Urbanization and the Industrial
Revolution are no longer related.
52. The process whereby an increasing percentage of people live in an urban area is known as…
A) Demographic transition. B) rank-size rule. C) Urbanization. D) Central place theory.
53. The city (if it has 50,000 or more people) plus its contiguous built-up suburbs AND the county it is in as well as any
other counties it influences, is known as the ...A) central city B) urbanized area
C) metropolitan statistical area
D) consolidated metropolitan area E) micropolitan statistical area
54. ***Higher social heterogeneity in urban settlements means that …A) the people with whom you relax are probably
the same ones you see at work. B) you play a specialized role in the urban economy. C) you compete for limited
space. D) you may feel lonely and isolated in a crowd.

55. The process of change in the use of a house, from single-family owner occupancy to smaller dwellings for the poor
and then sometimes to abandonment, is…A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining. E) none of
these

74

Free Response #1:
The Bid Rent theory says that the closer you get to the
CBD the higher the cost for land, yet in most American
cities you find the poorest people living near the
expensive CBD and the richest living further away.
Explain:
A. Why neighborhoods near the CBD are often poor and
run down?
B. Why are there few grocery and other retail stores in
these neighborhoods?
C. Why is this not really true in European and Latin
American countries?

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FR #2:
Think of the map of your school, explain the
layout of your school using the Multiple Nuclei
Model
The main office is the CBD.
Completely explain your answer using specific
buildings and/or land areas in your explanation
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76

Answer Key:
1. B

14. A

27. C

40. D

53. C

2. B

15. B

28. A

41. D

54. D

3. C

16. B

29. A

42. B

55. B

4. A

17. A

30. D

43. D

5. B

18. B

31. A

44. A

6. A

19. A

32. D

45. D

7. B

20. C

33. B

46. A

8. D

21. D

34. B

47. C

9. D

22. B

35. A

48. C

10. B

23. C

36. E

49. A

11. C

24. C

37. E

50. E

12. A

25. D

38. B

51. B

13. A

26. C

39. A

52. C
77

FR. #1: ( 15 pts. for each section…total of 45 pts.)
A. In the US the move of the wealthy and middle class to the suburbs has left the older houses and apartments near the CBD empty.
This has lowered their value to the point where the poor can afford these dwellings and have made these neighborhoods their
homes. The poor can not pay for upkeep of these dwellings, or to pay high taxes. The lack of upkeep and tax money to repair the
roads and schools, adds to the downward spiral of the neighborhood. With little spending money for shopping, the poor do not
spend much in the stores. This causes many stores to close and move to the suburbs where the spending customers and money
went. The closing of the stores adds to the poverty of the area by taking away some of the jobs that were in the neighborhood. This
becomes a vicious cycle of poverty and deterioration. (15 points)

B. There are few retail stores and groceries is the area because the poor do not have money to shop. The lack of spending forces
many stores out of business or forces them to move to better locations. There also can be higher crime in these areas and the
crime often takes place at the stores. This is another reason for the stores to move out of the neighborhood. (15 points)
C. Neighborhoods in European and Latin American cities are different from those of US cities. In Europe and Latin America, the
wealthy and middle class still live near or in the CBD. The higher tax base and more spending ability of the upper and middle
classes, keeps the CBD area flourishing with jobs and in constant repair and upkeep of the cities’ physical condition. (15 points)

FR #2: (10 total points.)
You will need to judge how effectively you displayed you school
in the Multiple Nuclei Model. Refer to the model itself to help you
determine your success and grade.
School’s main office
78

Calculating your grade on test 13.
Add how many you got correct on the multiple choice part (55 possible) to how many
points you scored on the FR portion (55 possible)…110 total.
The following scale will show the approximate score if this test were the real AP exam. Remember that this
is an approximation. While 65-74% is normally the range for a 3 on the test, it is not definite. Over the
years I have seen scores as low as 60% be the low portion of a 3 score.

Out of 110 possible points:
72-83 is most likely a 3
84-94 is most likely a 4

95-110 is most likely a 5

Now lets start our review for the national exam by
reviewing the 33 key models and theories of the
course…the next PowerPoint.


Slide 6

Key topic/chapter 13…Urban Patterns
Key terms:
Annexation
Concentric zone model
Density gradient
Edge cities
Filtering
Galactic city
Gentrification
Greenbelts
Megalopolis
MSA
Multiple nuclei model
Peripheral model

Public housing
Redlining
Renovated housing
Scattered site
Squatter settlement
Sector model
Smart growth
Sprawl
Underclass
Urban renewal
Zone in transition
Zoning
1

Chapter 13…Urban Areas.
How are Cities planned?
Why

are cities where they are?
How are they organized?
Why are some areas of a city
different from
other areas of the same city?
What is the future of cities?
2

Settlement


Settlement - permanent collections of buildings,
where people live, work, and obtain services

3

ORIGINS OF SETTLEMENTS


Religious - graves, churches, temples



Cultural - schools, libraries



Political/Military - leader’s house, walls



Economic - stores, food
4

TYPES OF SETTLEMENTS


Rural Settlements - agriculture as the
predominant occupation.



Urban settlements - principal industries are
secondary and tertiary.

5

RURAL SETTLEMENTS
Clustered rural settlements –grouped
settlements in rural areas to minimize travel

Dispersed rural Settlements - isolated farms
with enclosed continuous fields (Found only in
N. America and Britain).

6

Urban Geographers want to know the global distribution of urban
settlements. MDC’s have a high percentage of people living in urban
areas because of the shift from agriculture-manufacturing-services.
Geographers are also interested in where people and activities are
distributed within urban spaces. What are the differences between the
inner-city and suburban areas and why?
As we saw in the last chapter, many downtowns are unique and can
often be recognized in photos where the suburbs often look very
much alike (Placelessness). Why? Suburbs offer the chance to avoid
some of the city problems (crime, tight living area, expensive
land/rent, noise, age of buildings) while still keeping a connection with
the goods and services of the city: jobs, sports teams, culture, shops,
recreation, etc.
7

Where is this place?

8

Today’s cities are evolving and changing. Although different internal
situations characterize urban areas in the US and elsewhere, the
problems arising from current spatial trends are quite similar in all cities.
Where have urban areas grown: in the early 1800’s only 3% of the earth’s
people lived in cities and only Beijing China had more than 1 million
people. Today over ½ of the world’s people live in cities and we have over
400 cities of at least 1 million people.

Urbanization: is the process by which city population grows.
Cities population growth is measured in 2 dimensions;
1. An increase in the number of people living in the cities.
2. An increase in the percentage of people living in the cities.
This distinction is important because they happen for different reason and
have different global distributions.
9

Increasing Percentage of People in Cities: a large percentage of people living in urban
areas is a measure of a country’s level of development. In MDC’s about ¾ of the people
live in urban areas compared to about 2/5 of people in LDC’s. (Except in Latin America
where the level is closer to MDC’s.)
The higher percentage of people in urban areas comes from the changes that have
occurred in the last 200 years as we went from agriculture (primary jobs) to industrial
(secondary jobs) and now service jobs, all created by the Industrial Revolution of the
1800’s.
People moved to the cities for industrial jobs, but in MDC’s this process has largely
ended because nearly everyone interested in moving to the cities from farms has already
done so.
In LDC’s the percentage of people living in urban areas is growing as people are pushed
off of their farms and replaced by machines and as people move to cities looking/hoping
for industrial jobs.
10

Increasing Number of People in Cities: MDC’s have a higher percentage of
people living in urban settlements but LDC’s have more of the very large urban
settlements (Primate cities). (Rank-size rule, primate cities, chapter 12.)

This is interesting because typically the large cities are created from the
improvements brought by the Industrial Revolution. This is not the case with the
large LDC cities. Migration to the primate city in LDC’s is happening even though
job opportunities may not be available. Increasing the population growth in LDC
cities is the fact that medical services are better in these cities, thus the child
mortality rate is lower.
Defining Urban Settlements: defining where urban areas end and rural areas
begin is not easy. Geographers have formulated definitions that distinguish
between urban and rural areas in two ways: Social differences and Physical
differences.
11

Percent Urban Population

Percent of the population living in urban areas is usually higher in MDCs
than in LDCs.

12

The most populated cities in the world

Of the top
20, only
Moscow,
Tokyo and
New York
are in MDC’s

Shanghai China has 14,608,512 people
13

14

15

Social Differences Between Urban and Rural Settlements: it is fair to say that rural
people and urban people follow different ways of life. A city can be defined as having 3
characteristics:
1. Large size. People in rural settlements know most of the other people in the
settlement. Not true in big cities. Social relationships are often described as “colder” in
urban areas because you only see some people at work instead of growing up with
them in the settlement.
2. High Density. Having lots of people in a tiny area creates social consequences. A
high density of people living in a small area can only be supported if the people
specialize (they can’t all be farmers). People are encouraged to compete for jobs, room,
and survival in a tightly limited space. Social groups compete to occupy the same space
(ethnic/ race problems). Rural settlements have very little of this problem.
3. Social Heterogeneity. The larger the settlement, the greater the variety of people.
Being “unusual” in a large settlement is more likely to be accepted than in a small rural
one. But despite the freedom to be different that large urban settlements give you,
people living there often feel alone because so many people are different from them.
There is a stronger feeling of belonging together in small rural settlements.
16

These 3 differences do not fully answer the question of where urban settlements
begin and rural ones end because in today’s MDC’s most everyone has access to
cars, telephones, televisions, and “urban type” jobs which reduce the differences
between urban and rural lifestyles. “City folk” and “Country folk” are more alike
today than they are different. To help distinguish between urban and rural areas we
need to add the physical definition of rural and urban to the equation.
Physical Definitions of Urban Settlements: In ancient time, cities had defensive
walls for protection which clearly defined the physical boundaries of the city. Today
the walls are gone but we can still define the physical boundaries in 3 ways:
1. Legal boundary. These are the official boundaries of a city as recognized by
the government of the country or state. These “city limits” have been officially given
to the city and are physically marked on official maps. The local government of the
city has authority to make laws and protect the people inside the city boundaries.
17

2. Urbanized area. This is the city plus its suburbs or urbanized area that
surrounds the city. About 70 percent of US residents live in urbanized areas with
40% being in the suburbs and 30% inside the city limits. The suburbs may have
their own city governments but the huge central city dominates what happens in
the entire area.
3. Metropolitan Statistical Area. Cities have an even bigger influence on people
than just those living in their city limits and surrounding urbanized areas. People
from far away come to shop, use the services, support the sports teams, read
the newspapers and watch the television broadcasts of the city. Thus the city
has a “functional area” which is its total zone of influence. The US Bureau of
Census has created a method of measuring the functional area of the city.
Known as the Metropolitan statistical area (MSA) this area includes:
•An urbanized area with a population of at least 50,000
•The county within which the city is located.
•Adjacent counties with a high population density and a large percentage of
residents working in the central city’s county.
18

Metropolitan Area of Philadelphia

City of
Philadelphia

Urbanized
area
(suburbs)
Metropolitan
Statistical
Area

The metropolitan area of Philadelphia is
spread over several counties and four states.
It is also a diversified trade center, given its
position on the Delaware river.

19

20

21

Micropolitan Statistical Areas: Smaller areas with between
10,000 and 50,000 people, the county where it is found, and
adjacent counties tied to the city. This would be a small town and
the area dominated by it.
Overlapping Metropolitan Areas: Some adjacent MSA’s overlap.
A county between two central cities may send a large number of
commuters to jobs in both cities. In some areas the cities are so
close that they form one continuous urban complex. This is
known as a Megalopolis (great city).
In a megalopolis, the downtown CBD often has its own
distinctive look and the urban areas are visually separated by
parks, open spaces, and dairy/truck farms. But at the periphery
of the urban areas, the boundaries overlap.
22

Colorado Springs, population 431,000

Ocala, Florida, population 56,000

Florala, Alabama, population 1,900

23

Megalopolis, from northern Va. To Maine.
This Illustrates the
difference between
strict city proper
definitions and broader
urban agglomerations.
To define urbanized
areas, the U.S. Census
Bureau uses the term
Metropolitan Statistical
Area (MSA) or
Consolidated MSA
(CMSA) if two or more of
them overlap.
24

Where are People Distributed within Urban Areas? People are not
just distributed at random in urban areas. For the most part they
concentrate in particular neighborhoods depending on their social
characteristics. Geographers want to see where people with
particular characteristics are likely to live and why.

Three models which try to explain the growth of a city:

The Burgess Model

The Hoyt Sector Model

The Harris and Ullman
multiple Nuclei Model
25

Burgess Concentric Zone Model

In the concentric zone model, a city grows in a series of rings surrounding the CBD.

Burgess Concentric Zone Model: This is the first used to explain the
distributions of different social groups within urban areas. It says that a
city grows outward from a central place in a series of concentric rings.
The precise size and width of the rings vary from one city to another, but
some basic types of rings appear in all cities in the same order (see chart
above).
26

•Hoyt Sector Model: In this model the city develops in a
series of sectors not rings. Certain areas of the city are
more attractive for various activities, originally because
of an environmental factor (or even pure chance). As the
city grows, activities extend outward in a wedge shape.
For example, once a wealthy neighborhood is built the
next wealthy neighborhood will extend from the first
neighborhood further outward from the center. In this
way, the best housing is found in a corridor extending
outward from the center to the outer edge (see chart on
the next page).
27

The Hoyt Sector Model

In the sector model, a city grows in a series of
wedges or corridors extending out from the
CBD.
28

•Harris and Ullman’s Multiple Nuclei Model: According
to this model, a city is a complex structure that includes
more than one center around which activities revolve.
Examples of these nodes include a port, parks,
stadium, neighborhood business center, university, and
airport (see chart). This theory states that some
activities are attracted to particular nodes, whereas
others try to avoid them. A university node may attract
well educated people and bookstores while the port will
attract hotels and warehouses. Heavy industry and
expensive houses rarely are found together. This
model shows the effect of the automobile more than
any other model.
29

The Harris and Ullman Multiple Nuclei model

The multiple nuclei model views a city as a
collection of individual centers, around which
different people and activities cluster.

30

Applications of the Models: The three models help explain where and in some
cases, why people live where they do. None of the models by themselves fully
explains why and where different types of people live, but combined they give
you as good a look as possible at the “Why” of “Where.” Effective use of the
models depends on getting good data on the areas. Most countries take a
census every 10 years to help determine useful data about the people and
places of the country. In our country we divide the census data into areas
known as census tracts of about 5,000 people. Each census tract has the data
that summarizes the characteristics of the people living within that tract. This
information includes things like the race, income, age, and education of the
people living in that tract.
Social Area Analysis: The data from the census tracts can all be plotted onto
maps to show the characteristics of the people living in that tract. This map is
known as a social area analysis.
31

Using Census tract information…Seattle, Washington
Each lined area is a
census tract of about 5000
people in Seattle
Washington. These maps
show average household
income for 1990 and
2000…note the changes in
income in some areas
between 1990 and 2000.
Using this information, a
business can make
decisions about where
they want to locate a new
store or the future of
existing stores.
You can find census tract
information on many topics
such as; age, education
level, race, ethnicity, crime
rate, and land ownership.
Note the areas with
incomes over
$63,000.

All can be very valuable
information to people
looking to open
businesses.

32

Examine the changes
between 1990 and
2000.

Oakland, California’s Ethnic neighborhoods
The small bordered areas are census tracks of 5000 people.

33

Use of the Models Outside of North America: The 3 models will also work in other
places in the world; however social groups in other countries may not have the
same reasons for selecting particular neighborhoods as Americans do.
European Cities: As in the US, wealthier people in European cities cluster along a
sector extending outward from the CBD, however unlike the US, wealthy and
middle class Europeans still live in the inner rings of the neighborhoods near the
CBD not out in the suburbs. In the past, poorer people lived in the center of the
city. Before electricity, social segregation was vertical: richer people lived on the
first or second floor of a building while the poorer people lived in the basement or
upper floors. In the Industrial Revolution, housing for the poor was constructed
near the factories and away from the rich.
Today poorer Europeans are less likely to live in the inner-city. Poor quality
housing has been renovated for the rich or turned into office buildings. Poorer
Europeans tend to live in the outskirts of the city. Vast suburbs with dozens of high
rise apartments house the poor. They face long commutes to reach their jobs in
the city.
34

European cities generally do not have the “suburban
sprawl” that US cities have. European cities tend to be
more pedestrian friendly with more parks downtown as
Europeans tend to still live downtown.
US cities have taller buildings as European cities tend to
be older and more historic.

American cities have more ethnic neighborhoods than
European cities. Ethnic neighborhoods that do exist in
European cities tend to be in the suburbs. WHY?
Because the established richer neighborhoods tend to be
downtown in European cities.
35

Less Developed Countries: Like Europe, most LDC’s accommodate their poor in the
suburbs with their middle class and rich living near the center of the city. LDC’s have
passed through 3 periods of city building: before the Europeans arrived, during the
period of European colonialism, and since independence from European control.

Pre-colonial Cities: Before the Europeans arrived few cities existed in Africa, Asia, and
Latin America and most people lived in small rural settlements. Those cities that existed
were mostly laid out surrounding a religious center; with the rest of the city laid out in a
hieratical concentric pattern (like the Burgess model) from government buildings,
homes of the wealthy, and businesses related to the religion out to other businesses
and shops.
Colonial cities: When the Europeans took over these lands, they changed the cities by
adding services to help the Europeans control the conquered people. Often a new
European style city would be build next to the existing native one. The new European
cities contained wider streets, a public square, larger houses and a much lower density.
The Spanish used the “Law of the Indies” which was a city plan designed specifically to
build cities in a “Spanish” style. (Gridiron pattern for streets centered on a church and
central plaza, walls around individual houses and neighborhoods centered around
smaller plazas and more churches.)
36

Early Mexico city was laid out in a grid pattern of streets. This followed
the Spanish “Law of the Indies.”

37

Central Plaza in Mexico City 1920 photo. Typical Colonial City plan.

Part of downtown Mexico city today still shows the
building plan of the “Law of the Indies.”

38

Cities since Independence: Following independence, cities have become
the focal point of the development of most LDC’s. Millions of people have
migrated to the cities (Primate cities) looking for jobs and services. Some
capitals have been moved to isolated areas in an attempt to help develop
that area of the country (Brasília) This is know as a forward capital. Latin
American cities have developed their own unique style.
Squatter settlements: The LDC’s are unable to house the rapidly growing
number of poor who are flowing into the cities. Because of the housing
shortages, the poor have constructed their own settlements around the city.
These settlements have few services because neither the city nor the
residents can afford them. Squatters have two basic choices for housing.
1. Illegally move into empty real houses located in the city or,
2. Rent slum housing.
(85% of the population of Addis Ababa in Ethiopia lives in squatter
settlements, slums or other illegal housing.)
39

Squatter shacks in Manila, the Philippines

40

Squatter settlement in Ethiopia

41

Zimbabwe, Africa

42

Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

43

Latin American City Model:
In many Latin
American cities,
the wealthy live in
the inner city and
in a sector
extending along a
commercial spine.
In situ accretion- businesses
and homes constantly under
construction/repair.
Zone of maturity-2nd best
housing in the city.
The poor live in squatter settlements on the
periphery of the city.

Disamenity- unpleasant area
used by the poor to get to the
market.

44

The City Outline of Rio de Janeiro
The rich tourist areas and expensive condo apartments are along the coast
and beach while the poor live in squatter shacks in the hills.

45

City problems:
Inner-City Physical Problems: Most US inner cities were constructed before the 1950’s
(people began to move to the suburbs in the 1950’s so new construction moved out of
the city).
Process of Deterioration (how a city deteriorates): A city doesn’t suddenly become old
and full of slummy areas. It happens over time. When a group of low-income people
inhabit an area of a city, nearby neighborhoods will often look to move out. They sell or
rent to more low-income occupants thus expanding the low-income area. Two processes
cause/speed up the devaluation of areas:
1. Filtering, 2. Redlining.
Filtering: Large houses and buildings that once housed rich downtown workers (who
moved to the suburbs) are taken over by landlords who don’t live in that area (they
moved to the suburbs too). Rents are low so the landlord doesn’t take as good care of
the property as they should and the property becomes run down or abandoned. Stores
close, or move, due to lack of sales. 100 years ago these neighborhoods would be used
by immigrants and ethnic businesses would succeed in those areas. Now, with a decline
in immigration, these neighborhoods have shrunk and so have schools, businesses and
other services. Thousands of vacant houses and buildings stand empty in inner cities
across America.

46

Redlining: Some banks refuse to give loans in what they consider
risky neighborhoods. They draw a red line on a map around areas
where they will not give loans. Without loans, these neighborhoods
have a hard time rebuilding/remodeling. Though illegal, this still
happens. Bankers just don’t put these “no-loan” areas on a map.

Urban Renewal: This is the series of projects to improve European
and N. American cities by buying up the blighted neighborhoods,
moving the people to new government built housing projects, and
building new roads, and other projects to make the inner city
attractive for business again. National and State government grants
help pay for these projects.
47

Public housing: Housing for the poor, built with government funding as part of
urban renewal. In the US this is only about 2% of the housing while in some
countries it may be more (Britain is 30%). Public housing built in the 50’s & 60’s
were largely high rise apartments, but those are seen as being unsatisfactory.
Problems arise from cramming large numbers of poor people into one area.
Today most public housing projects are one to three story buildings with many of
them being scattered around different parts of the city rather than clustered into
one area.
Because urban renewal has been criticized for destroying the social cohesion of
older neighborhoods, many governments (like the US) have stopped funding
most projects since the 1970’s. What do we do instead?
Renovated Housing: An alternative often used since the 70’s is to renovate a
building instead of urban renewal. The process where middle-class people
move into inner-city neighborhoods and renovate them is called gentrification.
Gentrified inner-city neighborhoods also attract middle-class people who work
downtown. Living close to work saves the hassle of commuting and rejuvenates
run down inner-city neighborhoods
48

Gentrified building downtown Harlem, NY. Note the supermarket.

49

Inner-City Social Problems: Inner-city residents are often referred to as the
permanent underclass because they are trapped in an unending cycle of
economic and social problems. High unemployment, alcoholism, drug
addiction, literacy, juvenile delinquency, and crime all exist at a higher rate
among those who live in the inner-city. Lack of jobs means lack of tax dollars
to pay for police and fire protection as well as good schools. Lack of job skills
and homelessness are also tremendous problems.
Culture of Poverty: Inner-city residents are trapped in a permanent underclass
culture that reproduces itself. In the US, unwed mothers give birth to 2/3 of the
babies in the inner-city. 90% of these children live with only one parent and it
is real hard for one parent to keep a job and take care of children. Both suffer
and a shortage of care and daily attention by the parent contributes to the kids
not learning the skills necessary to do well in school which leads to poor jobs
for their futures. Poverty leads to more poverty. Many families on welfare have
only one parent because it is financially better if one parent is gone, that way
the single parent gets food stamps and other services from the government
that they would not get if it was a 2 family household.
50

Crime: Trapped in a hopeless environment, some inner-city
residents turn to drugs. Drug use is a problem in inner-city
areas and the suburbs, but rates of drug use in inner-cities
are the highest.
Ethnic and Racial Segregation: As seen in chapter 7, many
neighborhoods in the US are segregated by ethnicity with
African Americans and Hispanics concentrated in one or two
continuous areas and whites living in the suburbs. Even small
cities display a strong distinction among neighborhoods. A
frequent division is between the east and west or north and
south side of town, or the railroad tracks. A family seeking a
new residence will seek the areas where the characteristics
of the people meet their own.

51

The exodus
from the
American city.
This has
happened in
many American
cities since the
1960’s.

52

Changes in Cities in the U.S.
U.S. population has been moving out of the city centers to the suburbs:
suburbanization and counter urbanization

Developed Countries: suburbanization

 wealthy move to suburbs
 automobiles and roads; ‘American
Dream’ of the home in the suburbs.
 better services
 wealthy move to suburbs
Counter urbanization

idyllic settings
cost of land for retirement
slow pace, yet high tech
connections to services and markets
53

U.S. intraregional migration during 1990s.

Inner city economic problems: the concentration of low income
residents in inner cities has caused economic problems. These
people require public services but can pay very little in taxes to
support the services. They need stores and jobs but have little
money to spend in the store and few skills for jobs (so the stores
close). To try to fight these problems many local and state
governments use tax monies to try to renovate these areas, but this
shifts tax money needed for other areas to the inner city (votes on
election day).
Annexation: Many cities could help their tax problem by adding the
new suburbs to be part of their city (annexation). After all, many of
these suburban people use the city for its’ jobs etc., so why not add
them into the city? Today, most people in the suburbs do not want
to be annexed into the city and so they do not vote to be annexed.
54

The Peripheral Model: According to this model, an urban area
consists of an inner city surrounded by large suburban residential
and business areas (MSA) tied together by a beltway or highway
that circles the city. Around the beltway are nodes of consumer
and business services called edge cities (see diagram of multiple
nuclei model). These edge cities sprang up to provide services
and jobs to the people in the suburbs.
Density Gradient: As you travel outward from the center of the
city, the density of people declines. Inner city has big apartments
of 250 of more people per acre. Suburbs have fewer people per
acre (but lots of acres) and finally you leave the cities periphery
you find few people. The number of houses per unit of land
diminishes as distance from the center of the city increases.
55

The Edge cities (bedroom communities) of Houston

The central city is surrounded by a ring road, around which are
suburban areas and edge cities, shopping malls, office parks,
industrial areas, and service complexes.

Known as
bedroom
communities
because
people live
there but
mostly don’t
work there.
They drive
into the city
for work.
56

As you move from the center of the city outward, the density of the population
changes. This is know as the density gradient. Two big changes have occurred in
the density gradient of today’s cities:
1. The number of people living in the center has decreased.
2. The density difference between the inner city and the suburbs is declining
because the inner city density is dropping and the suburban density is growing
due to more large apartments being built in the suburbs.
Cost of Suburban or Urban Sprawl: Urban Sprawl is the progressive spread of
development over the landscape. As long as we Americans want single-family
detached houses, land on the fringe of urban areas will be converted from open
space to residential use. The cost of this growth is more than the loss of land, it is
also the cost of new roads, utilities, building stores and offices and the cost of
automobiles to move these people over even longer distances. Lots of these new
developments are built on what was once farmland. Wonderful productive soil now
under concrete.

Greenbelts: are areas where, by law, the open space can not be used for any
construction. This is mostly found in Europe.

57

Once farmland that is being converted to suburbs and cities.

58

Tyson’s Corner Virginia in 1940

59

Washington, DC. MSA.

Tyson’s Corner Virginia
today.
Washington D.C. is off
In the distance.

60

Suburban Segregation: The “new” segregation.
Suburban segregation takes two forms:
1. Residents are separated from commercial and manufacturing activities
which are confined someplace else. (The whole neighborhood is
nothing but houses because they drive for services.)
2. The price of the house eliminates some from being able to live there. This
creates a homogeneous suburb of the same economic class of people.
This never existed before in history. Where we once had vertical
segregation of the classes we now we have horizontal segregation.
3. But this may be reversing as new statistics show that people are beginning
to move back to the city. Why? Cost of transportation.
Zoning Ordinances: This idea developed in Europe and later America in the
early decades of the 20th century. This means that businesses are allowed only
in certain areas of the settlement. (No all night taco stands inside your single
family neighborhood.)
Motor vehicles: The wide use of the automobile is largely responsible for the
American movement to the suburbs. Not only did people move out but 1/4 of
the land inside all American cities are now roads, streets, and parking lots.

61

Public Transportation: Because few US workers live within walking distance
of their jobs, urban areas are characterized by extensive commuting and the
problems that come with it. As much as 40% of all trips made into or out from
a city during the day takes place within just 4 hours. (2 in the morning and 2 in
the late afternoon). RUSH HOUR!!! In large cities, public transportation, like
subways and busses, are better suited to move people but Americans still
prefer their own cars. Public transportation is cheaper, cleaner, and more
energy efficient than personal cars, yet in the US only 5% of city travel is
done using public transit systems. American’s love their personal car too
much.
Local Government Fragmentation: Because of the large number of local
governments in the US (look at the settlements in Pinellas County) it is
difficult to solve some of the regional problems like garbage disposal, water
management, traffic and public housing.
62

Metropolitan government: This idea tries to put many local governments into a
larger unit that can better handle the urban problems. The 2 ways to do this
are:
1. Federations in which the individual settlements have their own police,
firemen, and tax collection but they all agree to be part of a second
government which handles transportation, water, sewage, parks and
welfare for all the communities.
2. Consolidations: In this method, several cities and the county may form one
government. Jacksonville’s government runs not only the town but the
county too, this makes Jacksonville the largest city, in land size, in the US.
Smart growth: A new movement by many states to curb suburban sprawl by
limiting where new construction can take place. Smart growth laws require that
land near cities be used up before any land further out can be developed. So
far, this is only being done an a few parts of our country.
63

The new
US as
some
people
see it.

64

Quiz Yourself:
1. The process where middle-class people move into inner city neighborhoods and
renovate them is called ____________
2. ____________ happens when banks refuse to give loans in what they consider
risky neighborhoods.
3. Because of the housing shortages, the poor have constructed their own settlements
around the city known as __________ _________

4. Businesses are allowed only in certain areas of the settlement because of
____________ ____________
5. Areas known as _____ _______ are areas of about 5,000 people. The data from
that area is used to help define needed services for that area.
6. When cities are so close that they form one continuous band of development this is
known as a ____________
65

7. Social relationships are often described as “colder” in urban areas because…
8. In this model the city develops in a series of sectors not rings. _______

9. ______ (LDC’s or MDC’s) have a higher percentage of people living in urban
settlements but ________ (LDC’s or MDC’s) have more of the very large urban
settlements.
10. _____________ was the first model developed to explain the distributions
of different social groups within urban areas.
11. New cities which develop around the beltway are nodes of consumer and
business services known as ________ _________.

12. When the Europeans took over lands around the world, they changed the
cities by adding services to help the Europeans control the conquered people.
These European planned cities are known as __________ cities.
66

Answer Key:
1.

Gentrification

2.

Redlining

3.

Squatter Settlements

4.

Zoning ordinances

5.

Census tracks

6.

Megalopolis

7. There is a stronger feeling of belonging together in small rural settlements.
8. Hoyt sector model
9. MDC, LDC
10. Burgess Concentric Zone model
11. Edge cities
12. Colonial cities
67

Test Key topic/chapter 13:
These questions come from a combination of our slides, your text book, and common knowledge you should
have discussed in your AP classroom. They are very typical of what you will see on the National Exam.
1) The multiple nuclei theory best explains why different neighborhoods of a city attract people of different… A) ages.
B) ethnic origin C) income D) marital status.
2) Sprawl is the… A) change in density within an urban area from the center to the periphery B) development of new
housing sites not contiguous to the existing built-up area. C) land maintained as open space surrounding an urban area.
D) period in the morning and evening with the heaviest volumes of traffic.
3) People are attracted to suburbs in part because suburbs are characterized by…A) heavy traffic. B) lower opportunity
for home ownership. C) private land surrounding the house. D) row houses and apartments.
4) Megalopolis refers to… A) adjacent, overlapping Metropolitan Statistical Areas. B) central cities. C) consolidated
Metropolitan Statistical Areas. D) central cities plus urbanized areas.
5) Which statement best describes the relationship between urbanization and the Industrial Revolution? A) Urbanization
promoted the Industrial Revolution. B) The Industrial Revolution promoted urbanization. C) Urbanization preceded the
Industrial Revolution by thousands of years. D) Urbanization and the Industrial Revolution are no longer related.
6) The process of legally adding land area to a city in the United States is… A) annexation. B) accreditation. C) an
application of eminent domain. D) defined by urbanized area.

68

7) The process of change in the use of a house, from single-family owner occupancy to abandonment, is… A) blockbusting.
B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining.
8) A process by which banks designate an area within which they refuse to lend money for improvements is… A) blockbusting.
B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining.
9) A recent change in the density gradient has been… A) the elimination of the gap traditionally found in the center. B) an
increase in the extremes between the inner and outer areas. C) an increase in the number of people living in the center.
D) a reduction in the differences in densities found within an urban area.
10) U.S. central cities face fiscal problems because… A) federal and state funds are available. B) low-income people are
concentrated there. C) middle-class families are attracted there. D) redlining is no longer legal.
11) A legal form of segregation in U.S. cities is achieved through...A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) zoning. D) greenbelts.
12) Factories have moved to suburban locations in part because of… A) access to main highways. B) adequate space to build
vertical structures. C) availability of large tracts of high-priced land. D) good rail connections.
13) According to the sector model, the best housing is located in…A) a corridor from downtown to the edge of the city.
B) an outer ring surrounding the city. C) nodes near universities and parks. D) renovated inner-city neighborhoods.
14) Ramshackle houses on the periphery of cities in less developed countries are known as… A) squatter settlements. B) council
estates. C) public housing. D) zone in transition.
15) Higher income people tend to live near the center of the city in all but which of the following regions? A) Latin America
B) North America C) South Asia D) Western Europe

16) The wide boulevards built in cities in less developed countries were most likely built during what era? A) pre-colonial
B) colonial C) independence D) all of the above equally

69

17) According to the multiple nuclei model, an airport is likely to attract nearby… A) industries. B) residences. C) shops.
D) universities.
18) The largest percentage of the U.S. population lives in…A) central cities. B) suburbs. C) non-metropolitan areas. D) all of the
above
19) In U.S. cities, the underclass is… A) clustered in inner-city neighborhoods. B) dispersed throughout the city. C) clustered in
suburbs. D) distributed uniformly in the city.

20) A process of converting a neighborhood from low-income to middle-class is…A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) gentrification.
D) redlining.
21) Higher social heterogeneity in urban settlements means that… A) the people with whom you relax are probably the same ones you
see at work. B) you play a specialized role in the urban economy. C) you compete for limited space. D) you may feel lonely and
isolated in a crowd.
22) The city plus its contiguous built-up suburbs is the… A) central city. B) urbanized area.
D) consolidated metropolitan statistical area

C) metropolitan statistical area.

23) The process whereby an increasing percentage of people live in an urban area is known as… A) demographic transition.
B) rank-size rule. C) urbanization. D) central place theory.
24) Of the ten largest urban areas in the world, how many are in More Developed Countries today? A) 1 B) 4 C) 7 D) 10 E) 2
25) Public housing is…A) conversion of low-income housing to middle-class housing. B) illegally established low-income housing.
C) housing that has changed from single-family owner occupancy to abandonment. D) low-income government-owned housing.
26) According to the concentric zone model, a city develops in a series of… A) corridors. B) nodes. C) rings. D) all of the above

70

27) Chicago is a good location in which to develop urban models because it is located… A) at the hub of the nation's transportation
system. B) in the center of the country. C) on a flat prairie. D) on the shore of Lake Michigan.
28) According to the sector model, the best housing is located in… A) a corridor from downtown to the edge of the city. B) an outer
ring surrounding the city. C) nodes near universities and parks. D) renovated inner-city neighborhoods.
29) The zone of transition in US cities generally contain…A) warehouses B) wealthy neighborhoods C) transportation hubs
D) universities and hospitals E) suburban homes
30) The attractions of shopping malls include all but which of the following? A) frequent concerts and exhibitions B) generous
parking lots C) place to meet friends D) walking distance from homes
The following questions are written at the high school level. You will find some questions from part one often rewritten
here. This is all designed to help you transition to the college/AP style of written questions. Any question preceded with ***
are questions that have been on the national exam before.
31. Most Latin American cities are focused on a…A) central plaza B) government housing project C) zone of heavy industry
D) skyscraper office building E) squatter settlement
32. The multiple-nuclei model of a city structure tends to be most applicable to…A) small cities B) traditional C) Latin American
cities D) newer, fast growing cities E) cities with homogeneous land use
33. ***Locational advantages important to the development of the earliest cities include…A) availability of good harbors for large
ships B) productive agricultural land and defensible sites C) temperate climate and proximity to coal mines D) good
connections by road and canal E) proximity to manufacturing areas

34. In cities, the CBD’s often show uniqueness while the suburbs usually show…A) a large hinterland. B) placelessness C) more
than one node. D) newer zones of transition.

71

35. Many LDC’s have tried to help a previously under-developed part of their country develop by moving their capital
city to that area. This new capital is known as a…A) forward capital B) new development zone C) enterprise zone
D) neocolonial city
36. Today the greatest number of urban dwellers is found in…A) North America
D) Europe E) Asia

B) South America C) Africa

37. ***All of the following have helped create ghettos in North American cities except…A)blockbusting and racial
steering B) redlining by financial institutions C) concentration of public housing and social services D) fixed school
districts E) Economic Enterprise Zones

38. Which of the following is NOT as reason for rapid suburbanization in the US after WW2? A) Mass production of
the automobile B) Reduction of long distance commuting C) Expansion of home construction D) Expansion of the
interstate highway system E) Availability of low down payment terms and long-term mortgages.
39. New cities which developed in the hinterland of large urban areas because of the automobile, are known as…
A) edge cities B) census tracts C) suburban sprawl D) squatter settlements. E) none of these
40. Gentrification refers to… A) moving the homeless into inner city shelters B) The “White Flight” from the urban city
C) losing tax revenue because of stores closing in downtown areas D) middle-class people moving into and renovating
inner city neighborhoods E) the creation of “beltway cities” around the city.

72

4
7
3

5

1
6

2

41-48 all use the sketch above.
41. The sketch in box A above represents which model of the inner structure of urban areas?
C) multiple nuclei model D) Burgess concentric zone model E) peripheral model
42. The models in boxes B and C represent A) Concentric zone and multiple nuclei
concentric zone D) peripheral and concentric zone E) Von Thunen and peripheral

A) Hoyt sector model B) VonThunen’s model

B) Multiple nuclei and Hoyt sector C) Hoyt sector and

43. In which ring (1, 2, etc.) of sketch A above would high-status households in North American cities likely live? A) 1 B) 2 C) 3 D) 4&5
44. In which ring (1, 2, etc.) of sketch A above would high status households in a European city likely live? A) 1

B) 2

C) 3

D) 4&5

45. In model B, zone # 2 is where it is likely because of: A) greenbelting B) squatter settling C) the culture of poverty D) transportation
E) no one knows
46. The model in sketch B is the; A) Hoyt sector model B) Burgess model C) multiple nuclei model D) peripheral model
47. The model in sketch C is the; A) Hoyt sector model B) Burgess model C) multiple nuclei model D) peripheral model
48. Which of these models best describes what has happened in US cities in the last 40 years? A)

B)

C)

73

49.*** In the U.S. a city plus its contiguous built-up suburbs is known as an…A) urbanized area B) zoned area
C) census tract D) Squatter settlement E) none of these
50. Done mostly in Europe, these are areas where land is kept as parks, farms or other kinds of open space and urban
sprawl is not allowed. A) Smart growth
B) zoning
C) filtering
D) census tracts E) greenbelts
51. Which statement best describes the relationship between urbanization and the Industrial Revolution?
A) Urbanization promoted the Industrial Revolution. B) The Industrial Revolution promoted urbanization.
C) Urbanization preceded the Industrial Revolution by thousands of years. D) Urbanization and the Industrial
Revolution are no longer related.
52. The process whereby an increasing percentage of people live in an urban area is known as…
A) Demographic transition. B) rank-size rule. C) Urbanization. D) Central place theory.
53. The city (if it has 50,000 or more people) plus its contiguous built-up suburbs AND the county it is in as well as any
other counties it influences, is known as the ...A) central city B) urbanized area
C) metropolitan statistical area
D) consolidated metropolitan area E) micropolitan statistical area
54. ***Higher social heterogeneity in urban settlements means that …A) the people with whom you relax are probably
the same ones you see at work. B) you play a specialized role in the urban economy. C) you compete for limited
space. D) you may feel lonely and isolated in a crowd.

55. The process of change in the use of a house, from single-family owner occupancy to smaller dwellings for the poor
and then sometimes to abandonment, is…A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining. E) none of
these

74

Free Response #1:
The Bid Rent theory says that the closer you get to the
CBD the higher the cost for land, yet in most American
cities you find the poorest people living near the
expensive CBD and the richest living further away.
Explain:
A. Why neighborhoods near the CBD are often poor and
run down?
B. Why are there few grocery and other retail stores in
these neighborhoods?
C. Why is this not really true in European and Latin
American countries?

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75

FR #2:
Think of the map of your school, explain the
layout of your school using the Multiple Nuclei
Model
The main office is the CBD.
Completely explain your answer using specific
buildings and/or land areas in your explanation
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76

Answer Key:
1. B

14. A

27. C

40. D

53. C

2. B

15. B

28. A

41. D

54. D

3. C

16. B

29. A

42. B

55. B

4. A

17. A

30. D

43. D

5. B

18. B

31. A

44. A

6. A

19. A

32. D

45. D

7. B

20. C

33. B

46. A

8. D

21. D

34. B

47. C

9. D

22. B

35. A

48. C

10. B

23. C

36. E

49. A

11. C

24. C

37. E

50. E

12. A

25. D

38. B

51. B

13. A

26. C

39. A

52. C
77

FR. #1: ( 15 pts. for each section…total of 45 pts.)
A. In the US the move of the wealthy and middle class to the suburbs has left the older houses and apartments near the CBD empty.
This has lowered their value to the point where the poor can afford these dwellings and have made these neighborhoods their
homes. The poor can not pay for upkeep of these dwellings, or to pay high taxes. The lack of upkeep and tax money to repair the
roads and schools, adds to the downward spiral of the neighborhood. With little spending money for shopping, the poor do not
spend much in the stores. This causes many stores to close and move to the suburbs where the spending customers and money
went. The closing of the stores adds to the poverty of the area by taking away some of the jobs that were in the neighborhood. This
becomes a vicious cycle of poverty and deterioration. (15 points)

B. There are few retail stores and groceries is the area because the poor do not have money to shop. The lack of spending forces
many stores out of business or forces them to move to better locations. There also can be higher crime in these areas and the
crime often takes place at the stores. This is another reason for the stores to move out of the neighborhood. (15 points)
C. Neighborhoods in European and Latin American cities are different from those of US cities. In Europe and Latin America, the
wealthy and middle class still live near or in the CBD. The higher tax base and more spending ability of the upper and middle
classes, keeps the CBD area flourishing with jobs and in constant repair and upkeep of the cities’ physical condition. (15 points)

FR #2: (10 total points.)
You will need to judge how effectively you displayed you school
in the Multiple Nuclei Model. Refer to the model itself to help you
determine your success and grade.
School’s main office
78

Calculating your grade on test 13.
Add how many you got correct on the multiple choice part (55 possible) to how many
points you scored on the FR portion (55 possible)…110 total.
The following scale will show the approximate score if this test were the real AP exam. Remember that this
is an approximation. While 65-74% is normally the range for a 3 on the test, it is not definite. Over the
years I have seen scores as low as 60% be the low portion of a 3 score.

Out of 110 possible points:
72-83 is most likely a 3
84-94 is most likely a 4

95-110 is most likely a 5

Now lets start our review for the national exam by
reviewing the 33 key models and theories of the
course…the next PowerPoint.


Slide 7

Key topic/chapter 13…Urban Patterns
Key terms:
Annexation
Concentric zone model
Density gradient
Edge cities
Filtering
Galactic city
Gentrification
Greenbelts
Megalopolis
MSA
Multiple nuclei model
Peripheral model

Public housing
Redlining
Renovated housing
Scattered site
Squatter settlement
Sector model
Smart growth
Sprawl
Underclass
Urban renewal
Zone in transition
Zoning
1

Chapter 13…Urban Areas.
How are Cities planned?
Why

are cities where they are?
How are they organized?
Why are some areas of a city
different from
other areas of the same city?
What is the future of cities?
2

Settlement


Settlement - permanent collections of buildings,
where people live, work, and obtain services

3

ORIGINS OF SETTLEMENTS


Religious - graves, churches, temples



Cultural - schools, libraries



Political/Military - leader’s house, walls



Economic - stores, food
4

TYPES OF SETTLEMENTS


Rural Settlements - agriculture as the
predominant occupation.



Urban settlements - principal industries are
secondary and tertiary.

5

RURAL SETTLEMENTS
Clustered rural settlements –grouped
settlements in rural areas to minimize travel

Dispersed rural Settlements - isolated farms
with enclosed continuous fields (Found only in
N. America and Britain).

6

Urban Geographers want to know the global distribution of urban
settlements. MDC’s have a high percentage of people living in urban
areas because of the shift from agriculture-manufacturing-services.
Geographers are also interested in where people and activities are
distributed within urban spaces. What are the differences between the
inner-city and suburban areas and why?
As we saw in the last chapter, many downtowns are unique and can
often be recognized in photos where the suburbs often look very
much alike (Placelessness). Why? Suburbs offer the chance to avoid
some of the city problems (crime, tight living area, expensive
land/rent, noise, age of buildings) while still keeping a connection with
the goods and services of the city: jobs, sports teams, culture, shops,
recreation, etc.
7

Where is this place?

8

Today’s cities are evolving and changing. Although different internal
situations characterize urban areas in the US and elsewhere, the
problems arising from current spatial trends are quite similar in all cities.
Where have urban areas grown: in the early 1800’s only 3% of the earth’s
people lived in cities and only Beijing China had more than 1 million
people. Today over ½ of the world’s people live in cities and we have over
400 cities of at least 1 million people.

Urbanization: is the process by which city population grows.
Cities population growth is measured in 2 dimensions;
1. An increase in the number of people living in the cities.
2. An increase in the percentage of people living in the cities.
This distinction is important because they happen for different reason and
have different global distributions.
9

Increasing Percentage of People in Cities: a large percentage of people living in urban
areas is a measure of a country’s level of development. In MDC’s about ¾ of the people
live in urban areas compared to about 2/5 of people in LDC’s. (Except in Latin America
where the level is closer to MDC’s.)
The higher percentage of people in urban areas comes from the changes that have
occurred in the last 200 years as we went from agriculture (primary jobs) to industrial
(secondary jobs) and now service jobs, all created by the Industrial Revolution of the
1800’s.
People moved to the cities for industrial jobs, but in MDC’s this process has largely
ended because nearly everyone interested in moving to the cities from farms has already
done so.
In LDC’s the percentage of people living in urban areas is growing as people are pushed
off of their farms and replaced by machines and as people move to cities looking/hoping
for industrial jobs.
10

Increasing Number of People in Cities: MDC’s have a higher percentage of
people living in urban settlements but LDC’s have more of the very large urban
settlements (Primate cities). (Rank-size rule, primate cities, chapter 12.)

This is interesting because typically the large cities are created from the
improvements brought by the Industrial Revolution. This is not the case with the
large LDC cities. Migration to the primate city in LDC’s is happening even though
job opportunities may not be available. Increasing the population growth in LDC
cities is the fact that medical services are better in these cities, thus the child
mortality rate is lower.
Defining Urban Settlements: defining where urban areas end and rural areas
begin is not easy. Geographers have formulated definitions that distinguish
between urban and rural areas in two ways: Social differences and Physical
differences.
11

Percent Urban Population

Percent of the population living in urban areas is usually higher in MDCs
than in LDCs.

12

The most populated cities in the world

Of the top
20, only
Moscow,
Tokyo and
New York
are in MDC’s

Shanghai China has 14,608,512 people
13

14

15

Social Differences Between Urban and Rural Settlements: it is fair to say that rural
people and urban people follow different ways of life. A city can be defined as having 3
characteristics:
1. Large size. People in rural settlements know most of the other people in the
settlement. Not true in big cities. Social relationships are often described as “colder” in
urban areas because you only see some people at work instead of growing up with
them in the settlement.
2. High Density. Having lots of people in a tiny area creates social consequences. A
high density of people living in a small area can only be supported if the people
specialize (they can’t all be farmers). People are encouraged to compete for jobs, room,
and survival in a tightly limited space. Social groups compete to occupy the same space
(ethnic/ race problems). Rural settlements have very little of this problem.
3. Social Heterogeneity. The larger the settlement, the greater the variety of people.
Being “unusual” in a large settlement is more likely to be accepted than in a small rural
one. But despite the freedom to be different that large urban settlements give you,
people living there often feel alone because so many people are different from them.
There is a stronger feeling of belonging together in small rural settlements.
16

These 3 differences do not fully answer the question of where urban settlements
begin and rural ones end because in today’s MDC’s most everyone has access to
cars, telephones, televisions, and “urban type” jobs which reduce the differences
between urban and rural lifestyles. “City folk” and “Country folk” are more alike
today than they are different. To help distinguish between urban and rural areas we
need to add the physical definition of rural and urban to the equation.
Physical Definitions of Urban Settlements: In ancient time, cities had defensive
walls for protection which clearly defined the physical boundaries of the city. Today
the walls are gone but we can still define the physical boundaries in 3 ways:
1. Legal boundary. These are the official boundaries of a city as recognized by
the government of the country or state. These “city limits” have been officially given
to the city and are physically marked on official maps. The local government of the
city has authority to make laws and protect the people inside the city boundaries.
17

2. Urbanized area. This is the city plus its suburbs or urbanized area that
surrounds the city. About 70 percent of US residents live in urbanized areas with
40% being in the suburbs and 30% inside the city limits. The suburbs may have
their own city governments but the huge central city dominates what happens in
the entire area.
3. Metropolitan Statistical Area. Cities have an even bigger influence on people
than just those living in their city limits and surrounding urbanized areas. People
from far away come to shop, use the services, support the sports teams, read
the newspapers and watch the television broadcasts of the city. Thus the city
has a “functional area” which is its total zone of influence. The US Bureau of
Census has created a method of measuring the functional area of the city.
Known as the Metropolitan statistical area (MSA) this area includes:
•An urbanized area with a population of at least 50,000
•The county within which the city is located.
•Adjacent counties with a high population density and a large percentage of
residents working in the central city’s county.
18

Metropolitan Area of Philadelphia

City of
Philadelphia

Urbanized
area
(suburbs)
Metropolitan
Statistical
Area

The metropolitan area of Philadelphia is
spread over several counties and four states.
It is also a diversified trade center, given its
position on the Delaware river.

19

20

21

Micropolitan Statistical Areas: Smaller areas with between
10,000 and 50,000 people, the county where it is found, and
adjacent counties tied to the city. This would be a small town and
the area dominated by it.
Overlapping Metropolitan Areas: Some adjacent MSA’s overlap.
A county between two central cities may send a large number of
commuters to jobs in both cities. In some areas the cities are so
close that they form one continuous urban complex. This is
known as a Megalopolis (great city).
In a megalopolis, the downtown CBD often has its own
distinctive look and the urban areas are visually separated by
parks, open spaces, and dairy/truck farms. But at the periphery
of the urban areas, the boundaries overlap.
22

Colorado Springs, population 431,000

Ocala, Florida, population 56,000

Florala, Alabama, population 1,900

23

Megalopolis, from northern Va. To Maine.
This Illustrates the
difference between
strict city proper
definitions and broader
urban agglomerations.
To define urbanized
areas, the U.S. Census
Bureau uses the term
Metropolitan Statistical
Area (MSA) or
Consolidated MSA
(CMSA) if two or more of
them overlap.
24

Where are People Distributed within Urban Areas? People are not
just distributed at random in urban areas. For the most part they
concentrate in particular neighborhoods depending on their social
characteristics. Geographers want to see where people with
particular characteristics are likely to live and why.

Three models which try to explain the growth of a city:

The Burgess Model

The Hoyt Sector Model

The Harris and Ullman
multiple Nuclei Model
25

Burgess Concentric Zone Model

In the concentric zone model, a city grows in a series of rings surrounding the CBD.

Burgess Concentric Zone Model: This is the first used to explain the
distributions of different social groups within urban areas. It says that a
city grows outward from a central place in a series of concentric rings.
The precise size and width of the rings vary from one city to another, but
some basic types of rings appear in all cities in the same order (see chart
above).
26

•Hoyt Sector Model: In this model the city develops in a
series of sectors not rings. Certain areas of the city are
more attractive for various activities, originally because
of an environmental factor (or even pure chance). As the
city grows, activities extend outward in a wedge shape.
For example, once a wealthy neighborhood is built the
next wealthy neighborhood will extend from the first
neighborhood further outward from the center. In this
way, the best housing is found in a corridor extending
outward from the center to the outer edge (see chart on
the next page).
27

The Hoyt Sector Model

In the sector model, a city grows in a series of
wedges or corridors extending out from the
CBD.
28

•Harris and Ullman’s Multiple Nuclei Model: According
to this model, a city is a complex structure that includes
more than one center around which activities revolve.
Examples of these nodes include a port, parks,
stadium, neighborhood business center, university, and
airport (see chart). This theory states that some
activities are attracted to particular nodes, whereas
others try to avoid them. A university node may attract
well educated people and bookstores while the port will
attract hotels and warehouses. Heavy industry and
expensive houses rarely are found together. This
model shows the effect of the automobile more than
any other model.
29

The Harris and Ullman Multiple Nuclei model

The multiple nuclei model views a city as a
collection of individual centers, around which
different people and activities cluster.

30

Applications of the Models: The three models help explain where and in some
cases, why people live where they do. None of the models by themselves fully
explains why and where different types of people live, but combined they give
you as good a look as possible at the “Why” of “Where.” Effective use of the
models depends on getting good data on the areas. Most countries take a
census every 10 years to help determine useful data about the people and
places of the country. In our country we divide the census data into areas
known as census tracts of about 5,000 people. Each census tract has the data
that summarizes the characteristics of the people living within that tract. This
information includes things like the race, income, age, and education of the
people living in that tract.
Social Area Analysis: The data from the census tracts can all be plotted onto
maps to show the characteristics of the people living in that tract. This map is
known as a social area analysis.
31

Using Census tract information…Seattle, Washington
Each lined area is a
census tract of about 5000
people in Seattle
Washington. These maps
show average household
income for 1990 and
2000…note the changes in
income in some areas
between 1990 and 2000.
Using this information, a
business can make
decisions about where
they want to locate a new
store or the future of
existing stores.
You can find census tract
information on many topics
such as; age, education
level, race, ethnicity, crime
rate, and land ownership.
Note the areas with
incomes over
$63,000.

All can be very valuable
information to people
looking to open
businesses.

32

Examine the changes
between 1990 and
2000.

Oakland, California’s Ethnic neighborhoods
The small bordered areas are census tracks of 5000 people.

33

Use of the Models Outside of North America: The 3 models will also work in other
places in the world; however social groups in other countries may not have the
same reasons for selecting particular neighborhoods as Americans do.
European Cities: As in the US, wealthier people in European cities cluster along a
sector extending outward from the CBD, however unlike the US, wealthy and
middle class Europeans still live in the inner rings of the neighborhoods near the
CBD not out in the suburbs. In the past, poorer people lived in the center of the
city. Before electricity, social segregation was vertical: richer people lived on the
first or second floor of a building while the poorer people lived in the basement or
upper floors. In the Industrial Revolution, housing for the poor was constructed
near the factories and away from the rich.
Today poorer Europeans are less likely to live in the inner-city. Poor quality
housing has been renovated for the rich or turned into office buildings. Poorer
Europeans tend to live in the outskirts of the city. Vast suburbs with dozens of high
rise apartments house the poor. They face long commutes to reach their jobs in
the city.
34

European cities generally do not have the “suburban
sprawl” that US cities have. European cities tend to be
more pedestrian friendly with more parks downtown as
Europeans tend to still live downtown.
US cities have taller buildings as European cities tend to
be older and more historic.

American cities have more ethnic neighborhoods than
European cities. Ethnic neighborhoods that do exist in
European cities tend to be in the suburbs. WHY?
Because the established richer neighborhoods tend to be
downtown in European cities.
35

Less Developed Countries: Like Europe, most LDC’s accommodate their poor in the
suburbs with their middle class and rich living near the center of the city. LDC’s have
passed through 3 periods of city building: before the Europeans arrived, during the
period of European colonialism, and since independence from European control.

Pre-colonial Cities: Before the Europeans arrived few cities existed in Africa, Asia, and
Latin America and most people lived in small rural settlements. Those cities that existed
were mostly laid out surrounding a religious center; with the rest of the city laid out in a
hieratical concentric pattern (like the Burgess model) from government buildings,
homes of the wealthy, and businesses related to the religion out to other businesses
and shops.
Colonial cities: When the Europeans took over these lands, they changed the cities by
adding services to help the Europeans control the conquered people. Often a new
European style city would be build next to the existing native one. The new European
cities contained wider streets, a public square, larger houses and a much lower density.
The Spanish used the “Law of the Indies” which was a city plan designed specifically to
build cities in a “Spanish” style. (Gridiron pattern for streets centered on a church and
central plaza, walls around individual houses and neighborhoods centered around
smaller plazas and more churches.)
36

Early Mexico city was laid out in a grid pattern of streets. This followed
the Spanish “Law of the Indies.”

37

Central Plaza in Mexico City 1920 photo. Typical Colonial City plan.

Part of downtown Mexico city today still shows the
building plan of the “Law of the Indies.”

38

Cities since Independence: Following independence, cities have become
the focal point of the development of most LDC’s. Millions of people have
migrated to the cities (Primate cities) looking for jobs and services. Some
capitals have been moved to isolated areas in an attempt to help develop
that area of the country (Brasília) This is know as a forward capital. Latin
American cities have developed their own unique style.
Squatter settlements: The LDC’s are unable to house the rapidly growing
number of poor who are flowing into the cities. Because of the housing
shortages, the poor have constructed their own settlements around the city.
These settlements have few services because neither the city nor the
residents can afford them. Squatters have two basic choices for housing.
1. Illegally move into empty real houses located in the city or,
2. Rent slum housing.
(85% of the population of Addis Ababa in Ethiopia lives in squatter
settlements, slums or other illegal housing.)
39

Squatter shacks in Manila, the Philippines

40

Squatter settlement in Ethiopia

41

Zimbabwe, Africa

42

Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

43

Latin American City Model:
In many Latin
American cities,
the wealthy live in
the inner city and
in a sector
extending along a
commercial spine.
In situ accretion- businesses
and homes constantly under
construction/repair.
Zone of maturity-2nd best
housing in the city.
The poor live in squatter settlements on the
periphery of the city.

Disamenity- unpleasant area
used by the poor to get to the
market.

44

The City Outline of Rio de Janeiro
The rich tourist areas and expensive condo apartments are along the coast
and beach while the poor live in squatter shacks in the hills.

45

City problems:
Inner-City Physical Problems: Most US inner cities were constructed before the 1950’s
(people began to move to the suburbs in the 1950’s so new construction moved out of
the city).
Process of Deterioration (how a city deteriorates): A city doesn’t suddenly become old
and full of slummy areas. It happens over time. When a group of low-income people
inhabit an area of a city, nearby neighborhoods will often look to move out. They sell or
rent to more low-income occupants thus expanding the low-income area. Two processes
cause/speed up the devaluation of areas:
1. Filtering, 2. Redlining.
Filtering: Large houses and buildings that once housed rich downtown workers (who
moved to the suburbs) are taken over by landlords who don’t live in that area (they
moved to the suburbs too). Rents are low so the landlord doesn’t take as good care of
the property as they should and the property becomes run down or abandoned. Stores
close, or move, due to lack of sales. 100 years ago these neighborhoods would be used
by immigrants and ethnic businesses would succeed in those areas. Now, with a decline
in immigration, these neighborhoods have shrunk and so have schools, businesses and
other services. Thousands of vacant houses and buildings stand empty in inner cities
across America.

46

Redlining: Some banks refuse to give loans in what they consider
risky neighborhoods. They draw a red line on a map around areas
where they will not give loans. Without loans, these neighborhoods
have a hard time rebuilding/remodeling. Though illegal, this still
happens. Bankers just don’t put these “no-loan” areas on a map.

Urban Renewal: This is the series of projects to improve European
and N. American cities by buying up the blighted neighborhoods,
moving the people to new government built housing projects, and
building new roads, and other projects to make the inner city
attractive for business again. National and State government grants
help pay for these projects.
47

Public housing: Housing for the poor, built with government funding as part of
urban renewal. In the US this is only about 2% of the housing while in some
countries it may be more (Britain is 30%). Public housing built in the 50’s & 60’s
were largely high rise apartments, but those are seen as being unsatisfactory.
Problems arise from cramming large numbers of poor people into one area.
Today most public housing projects are one to three story buildings with many of
them being scattered around different parts of the city rather than clustered into
one area.
Because urban renewal has been criticized for destroying the social cohesion of
older neighborhoods, many governments (like the US) have stopped funding
most projects since the 1970’s. What do we do instead?
Renovated Housing: An alternative often used since the 70’s is to renovate a
building instead of urban renewal. The process where middle-class people
move into inner-city neighborhoods and renovate them is called gentrification.
Gentrified inner-city neighborhoods also attract middle-class people who work
downtown. Living close to work saves the hassle of commuting and rejuvenates
run down inner-city neighborhoods
48

Gentrified building downtown Harlem, NY. Note the supermarket.

49

Inner-City Social Problems: Inner-city residents are often referred to as the
permanent underclass because they are trapped in an unending cycle of
economic and social problems. High unemployment, alcoholism, drug
addiction, literacy, juvenile delinquency, and crime all exist at a higher rate
among those who live in the inner-city. Lack of jobs means lack of tax dollars
to pay for police and fire protection as well as good schools. Lack of job skills
and homelessness are also tremendous problems.
Culture of Poverty: Inner-city residents are trapped in a permanent underclass
culture that reproduces itself. In the US, unwed mothers give birth to 2/3 of the
babies in the inner-city. 90% of these children live with only one parent and it
is real hard for one parent to keep a job and take care of children. Both suffer
and a shortage of care and daily attention by the parent contributes to the kids
not learning the skills necessary to do well in school which leads to poor jobs
for their futures. Poverty leads to more poverty. Many families on welfare have
only one parent because it is financially better if one parent is gone, that way
the single parent gets food stamps and other services from the government
that they would not get if it was a 2 family household.
50

Crime: Trapped in a hopeless environment, some inner-city
residents turn to drugs. Drug use is a problem in inner-city
areas and the suburbs, but rates of drug use in inner-cities
are the highest.
Ethnic and Racial Segregation: As seen in chapter 7, many
neighborhoods in the US are segregated by ethnicity with
African Americans and Hispanics concentrated in one or two
continuous areas and whites living in the suburbs. Even small
cities display a strong distinction among neighborhoods. A
frequent division is between the east and west or north and
south side of town, or the railroad tracks. A family seeking a
new residence will seek the areas where the characteristics
of the people meet their own.

51

The exodus
from the
American city.
This has
happened in
many American
cities since the
1960’s.

52

Changes in Cities in the U.S.
U.S. population has been moving out of the city centers to the suburbs:
suburbanization and counter urbanization

Developed Countries: suburbanization

 wealthy move to suburbs
 automobiles and roads; ‘American
Dream’ of the home in the suburbs.
 better services
 wealthy move to suburbs
Counter urbanization

idyllic settings
cost of land for retirement
slow pace, yet high tech
connections to services and markets
53

U.S. intraregional migration during 1990s.

Inner city economic problems: the concentration of low income
residents in inner cities has caused economic problems. These
people require public services but can pay very little in taxes to
support the services. They need stores and jobs but have little
money to spend in the store and few skills for jobs (so the stores
close). To try to fight these problems many local and state
governments use tax monies to try to renovate these areas, but this
shifts tax money needed for other areas to the inner city (votes on
election day).
Annexation: Many cities could help their tax problem by adding the
new suburbs to be part of their city (annexation). After all, many of
these suburban people use the city for its’ jobs etc., so why not add
them into the city? Today, most people in the suburbs do not want
to be annexed into the city and so they do not vote to be annexed.
54

The Peripheral Model: According to this model, an urban area
consists of an inner city surrounded by large suburban residential
and business areas (MSA) tied together by a beltway or highway
that circles the city. Around the beltway are nodes of consumer
and business services called edge cities (see diagram of multiple
nuclei model). These edge cities sprang up to provide services
and jobs to the people in the suburbs.
Density Gradient: As you travel outward from the center of the
city, the density of people declines. Inner city has big apartments
of 250 of more people per acre. Suburbs have fewer people per
acre (but lots of acres) and finally you leave the cities periphery
you find few people. The number of houses per unit of land
diminishes as distance from the center of the city increases.
55

The Edge cities (bedroom communities) of Houston

The central city is surrounded by a ring road, around which are
suburban areas and edge cities, shopping malls, office parks,
industrial areas, and service complexes.

Known as
bedroom
communities
because
people live
there but
mostly don’t
work there.
They drive
into the city
for work.
56

As you move from the center of the city outward, the density of the population
changes. This is know as the density gradient. Two big changes have occurred in
the density gradient of today’s cities:
1. The number of people living in the center has decreased.
2. The density difference between the inner city and the suburbs is declining
because the inner city density is dropping and the suburban density is growing
due to more large apartments being built in the suburbs.
Cost of Suburban or Urban Sprawl: Urban Sprawl is the progressive spread of
development over the landscape. As long as we Americans want single-family
detached houses, land on the fringe of urban areas will be converted from open
space to residential use. The cost of this growth is more than the loss of land, it is
also the cost of new roads, utilities, building stores and offices and the cost of
automobiles to move these people over even longer distances. Lots of these new
developments are built on what was once farmland. Wonderful productive soil now
under concrete.

Greenbelts: are areas where, by law, the open space can not be used for any
construction. This is mostly found in Europe.

57

Once farmland that is being converted to suburbs and cities.

58

Tyson’s Corner Virginia in 1940

59

Washington, DC. MSA.

Tyson’s Corner Virginia
today.
Washington D.C. is off
In the distance.

60

Suburban Segregation: The “new” segregation.
Suburban segregation takes two forms:
1. Residents are separated from commercial and manufacturing activities
which are confined someplace else. (The whole neighborhood is
nothing but houses because they drive for services.)
2. The price of the house eliminates some from being able to live there. This
creates a homogeneous suburb of the same economic class of people.
This never existed before in history. Where we once had vertical
segregation of the classes we now we have horizontal segregation.
3. But this may be reversing as new statistics show that people are beginning
to move back to the city. Why? Cost of transportation.
Zoning Ordinances: This idea developed in Europe and later America in the
early decades of the 20th century. This means that businesses are allowed only
in certain areas of the settlement. (No all night taco stands inside your single
family neighborhood.)
Motor vehicles: The wide use of the automobile is largely responsible for the
American movement to the suburbs. Not only did people move out but 1/4 of
the land inside all American cities are now roads, streets, and parking lots.

61

Public Transportation: Because few US workers live within walking distance
of their jobs, urban areas are characterized by extensive commuting and the
problems that come with it. As much as 40% of all trips made into or out from
a city during the day takes place within just 4 hours. (2 in the morning and 2 in
the late afternoon). RUSH HOUR!!! In large cities, public transportation, like
subways and busses, are better suited to move people but Americans still
prefer their own cars. Public transportation is cheaper, cleaner, and more
energy efficient than personal cars, yet in the US only 5% of city travel is
done using public transit systems. American’s love their personal car too
much.
Local Government Fragmentation: Because of the large number of local
governments in the US (look at the settlements in Pinellas County) it is
difficult to solve some of the regional problems like garbage disposal, water
management, traffic and public housing.
62

Metropolitan government: This idea tries to put many local governments into a
larger unit that can better handle the urban problems. The 2 ways to do this
are:
1. Federations in which the individual settlements have their own police,
firemen, and tax collection but they all agree to be part of a second
government which handles transportation, water, sewage, parks and
welfare for all the communities.
2. Consolidations: In this method, several cities and the county may form one
government. Jacksonville’s government runs not only the town but the
county too, this makes Jacksonville the largest city, in land size, in the US.
Smart growth: A new movement by many states to curb suburban sprawl by
limiting where new construction can take place. Smart growth laws require that
land near cities be used up before any land further out can be developed. So
far, this is only being done an a few parts of our country.
63

The new
US as
some
people
see it.

64

Quiz Yourself:
1. The process where middle-class people move into inner city neighborhoods and
renovate them is called ____________
2. ____________ happens when banks refuse to give loans in what they consider
risky neighborhoods.
3. Because of the housing shortages, the poor have constructed their own settlements
around the city known as __________ _________

4. Businesses are allowed only in certain areas of the settlement because of
____________ ____________
5. Areas known as _____ _______ are areas of about 5,000 people. The data from
that area is used to help define needed services for that area.
6. When cities are so close that they form one continuous band of development this is
known as a ____________
65

7. Social relationships are often described as “colder” in urban areas because…
8. In this model the city develops in a series of sectors not rings. _______

9. ______ (LDC’s or MDC’s) have a higher percentage of people living in urban
settlements but ________ (LDC’s or MDC’s) have more of the very large urban
settlements.
10. _____________ was the first model developed to explain the distributions
of different social groups within urban areas.
11. New cities which develop around the beltway are nodes of consumer and
business services known as ________ _________.

12. When the Europeans took over lands around the world, they changed the
cities by adding services to help the Europeans control the conquered people.
These European planned cities are known as __________ cities.
66

Answer Key:
1.

Gentrification

2.

Redlining

3.

Squatter Settlements

4.

Zoning ordinances

5.

Census tracks

6.

Megalopolis

7. There is a stronger feeling of belonging together in small rural settlements.
8. Hoyt sector model
9. MDC, LDC
10. Burgess Concentric Zone model
11. Edge cities
12. Colonial cities
67

Test Key topic/chapter 13:
These questions come from a combination of our slides, your text book, and common knowledge you should
have discussed in your AP classroom. They are very typical of what you will see on the National Exam.
1) The multiple nuclei theory best explains why different neighborhoods of a city attract people of different… A) ages.
B) ethnic origin C) income D) marital status.
2) Sprawl is the… A) change in density within an urban area from the center to the periphery B) development of new
housing sites not contiguous to the existing built-up area. C) land maintained as open space surrounding an urban area.
D) period in the morning and evening with the heaviest volumes of traffic.
3) People are attracted to suburbs in part because suburbs are characterized by…A) heavy traffic. B) lower opportunity
for home ownership. C) private land surrounding the house. D) row houses and apartments.
4) Megalopolis refers to… A) adjacent, overlapping Metropolitan Statistical Areas. B) central cities. C) consolidated
Metropolitan Statistical Areas. D) central cities plus urbanized areas.
5) Which statement best describes the relationship between urbanization and the Industrial Revolution? A) Urbanization
promoted the Industrial Revolution. B) The Industrial Revolution promoted urbanization. C) Urbanization preceded the
Industrial Revolution by thousands of years. D) Urbanization and the Industrial Revolution are no longer related.
6) The process of legally adding land area to a city in the United States is… A) annexation. B) accreditation. C) an
application of eminent domain. D) defined by urbanized area.

68

7) The process of change in the use of a house, from single-family owner occupancy to abandonment, is… A) blockbusting.
B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining.
8) A process by which banks designate an area within which they refuse to lend money for improvements is… A) blockbusting.
B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining.
9) A recent change in the density gradient has been… A) the elimination of the gap traditionally found in the center. B) an
increase in the extremes between the inner and outer areas. C) an increase in the number of people living in the center.
D) a reduction in the differences in densities found within an urban area.
10) U.S. central cities face fiscal problems because… A) federal and state funds are available. B) low-income people are
concentrated there. C) middle-class families are attracted there. D) redlining is no longer legal.
11) A legal form of segregation in U.S. cities is achieved through...A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) zoning. D) greenbelts.
12) Factories have moved to suburban locations in part because of… A) access to main highways. B) adequate space to build
vertical structures. C) availability of large tracts of high-priced land. D) good rail connections.
13) According to the sector model, the best housing is located in…A) a corridor from downtown to the edge of the city.
B) an outer ring surrounding the city. C) nodes near universities and parks. D) renovated inner-city neighborhoods.
14) Ramshackle houses on the periphery of cities in less developed countries are known as… A) squatter settlements. B) council
estates. C) public housing. D) zone in transition.
15) Higher income people tend to live near the center of the city in all but which of the following regions? A) Latin America
B) North America C) South Asia D) Western Europe

16) The wide boulevards built in cities in less developed countries were most likely built during what era? A) pre-colonial
B) colonial C) independence D) all of the above equally

69

17) According to the multiple nuclei model, an airport is likely to attract nearby… A) industries. B) residences. C) shops.
D) universities.
18) The largest percentage of the U.S. population lives in…A) central cities. B) suburbs. C) non-metropolitan areas. D) all of the
above
19) In U.S. cities, the underclass is… A) clustered in inner-city neighborhoods. B) dispersed throughout the city. C) clustered in
suburbs. D) distributed uniformly in the city.

20) A process of converting a neighborhood from low-income to middle-class is…A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) gentrification.
D) redlining.
21) Higher social heterogeneity in urban settlements means that… A) the people with whom you relax are probably the same ones you
see at work. B) you play a specialized role in the urban economy. C) you compete for limited space. D) you may feel lonely and
isolated in a crowd.
22) The city plus its contiguous built-up suburbs is the… A) central city. B) urbanized area.
D) consolidated metropolitan statistical area

C) metropolitan statistical area.

23) The process whereby an increasing percentage of people live in an urban area is known as… A) demographic transition.
B) rank-size rule. C) urbanization. D) central place theory.
24) Of the ten largest urban areas in the world, how many are in More Developed Countries today? A) 1 B) 4 C) 7 D) 10 E) 2
25) Public housing is…A) conversion of low-income housing to middle-class housing. B) illegally established low-income housing.
C) housing that has changed from single-family owner occupancy to abandonment. D) low-income government-owned housing.
26) According to the concentric zone model, a city develops in a series of… A) corridors. B) nodes. C) rings. D) all of the above

70

27) Chicago is a good location in which to develop urban models because it is located… A) at the hub of the nation's transportation
system. B) in the center of the country. C) on a flat prairie. D) on the shore of Lake Michigan.
28) According to the sector model, the best housing is located in… A) a corridor from downtown to the edge of the city. B) an outer
ring surrounding the city. C) nodes near universities and parks. D) renovated inner-city neighborhoods.
29) The zone of transition in US cities generally contain…A) warehouses B) wealthy neighborhoods C) transportation hubs
D) universities and hospitals E) suburban homes
30) The attractions of shopping malls include all but which of the following? A) frequent concerts and exhibitions B) generous
parking lots C) place to meet friends D) walking distance from homes
The following questions are written at the high school level. You will find some questions from part one often rewritten
here. This is all designed to help you transition to the college/AP style of written questions. Any question preceded with ***
are questions that have been on the national exam before.
31. Most Latin American cities are focused on a…A) central plaza B) government housing project C) zone of heavy industry
D) skyscraper office building E) squatter settlement
32. The multiple-nuclei model of a city structure tends to be most applicable to…A) small cities B) traditional C) Latin American
cities D) newer, fast growing cities E) cities with homogeneous land use
33. ***Locational advantages important to the development of the earliest cities include…A) availability of good harbors for large
ships B) productive agricultural land and defensible sites C) temperate climate and proximity to coal mines D) good
connections by road and canal E) proximity to manufacturing areas

34. In cities, the CBD’s often show uniqueness while the suburbs usually show…A) a large hinterland. B) placelessness C) more
than one node. D) newer zones of transition.

71

35. Many LDC’s have tried to help a previously under-developed part of their country develop by moving their capital
city to that area. This new capital is known as a…A) forward capital B) new development zone C) enterprise zone
D) neocolonial city
36. Today the greatest number of urban dwellers is found in…A) North America
D) Europe E) Asia

B) South America C) Africa

37. ***All of the following have helped create ghettos in North American cities except…A)blockbusting and racial
steering B) redlining by financial institutions C) concentration of public housing and social services D) fixed school
districts E) Economic Enterprise Zones

38. Which of the following is NOT as reason for rapid suburbanization in the US after WW2? A) Mass production of
the automobile B) Reduction of long distance commuting C) Expansion of home construction D) Expansion of the
interstate highway system E) Availability of low down payment terms and long-term mortgages.
39. New cities which developed in the hinterland of large urban areas because of the automobile, are known as…
A) edge cities B) census tracts C) suburban sprawl D) squatter settlements. E) none of these
40. Gentrification refers to… A) moving the homeless into inner city shelters B) The “White Flight” from the urban city
C) losing tax revenue because of stores closing in downtown areas D) middle-class people moving into and renovating
inner city neighborhoods E) the creation of “beltway cities” around the city.

72

4
7
3

5

1
6

2

41-48 all use the sketch above.
41. The sketch in box A above represents which model of the inner structure of urban areas?
C) multiple nuclei model D) Burgess concentric zone model E) peripheral model
42. The models in boxes B and C represent A) Concentric zone and multiple nuclei
concentric zone D) peripheral and concentric zone E) Von Thunen and peripheral

A) Hoyt sector model B) VonThunen’s model

B) Multiple nuclei and Hoyt sector C) Hoyt sector and

43. In which ring (1, 2, etc.) of sketch A above would high-status households in North American cities likely live? A) 1 B) 2 C) 3 D) 4&5
44. In which ring (1, 2, etc.) of sketch A above would high status households in a European city likely live? A) 1

B) 2

C) 3

D) 4&5

45. In model B, zone # 2 is where it is likely because of: A) greenbelting B) squatter settling C) the culture of poverty D) transportation
E) no one knows
46. The model in sketch B is the; A) Hoyt sector model B) Burgess model C) multiple nuclei model D) peripheral model
47. The model in sketch C is the; A) Hoyt sector model B) Burgess model C) multiple nuclei model D) peripheral model
48. Which of these models best describes what has happened in US cities in the last 40 years? A)

B)

C)

73

49.*** In the U.S. a city plus its contiguous built-up suburbs is known as an…A) urbanized area B) zoned area
C) census tract D) Squatter settlement E) none of these
50. Done mostly in Europe, these are areas where land is kept as parks, farms or other kinds of open space and urban
sprawl is not allowed. A) Smart growth
B) zoning
C) filtering
D) census tracts E) greenbelts
51. Which statement best describes the relationship between urbanization and the Industrial Revolution?
A) Urbanization promoted the Industrial Revolution. B) The Industrial Revolution promoted urbanization.
C) Urbanization preceded the Industrial Revolution by thousands of years. D) Urbanization and the Industrial
Revolution are no longer related.
52. The process whereby an increasing percentage of people live in an urban area is known as…
A) Demographic transition. B) rank-size rule. C) Urbanization. D) Central place theory.
53. The city (if it has 50,000 or more people) plus its contiguous built-up suburbs AND the county it is in as well as any
other counties it influences, is known as the ...A) central city B) urbanized area
C) metropolitan statistical area
D) consolidated metropolitan area E) micropolitan statistical area
54. ***Higher social heterogeneity in urban settlements means that …A) the people with whom you relax are probably
the same ones you see at work. B) you play a specialized role in the urban economy. C) you compete for limited
space. D) you may feel lonely and isolated in a crowd.

55. The process of change in the use of a house, from single-family owner occupancy to smaller dwellings for the poor
and then sometimes to abandonment, is…A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining. E) none of
these

74

Free Response #1:
The Bid Rent theory says that the closer you get to the
CBD the higher the cost for land, yet in most American
cities you find the poorest people living near the
expensive CBD and the richest living further away.
Explain:
A. Why neighborhoods near the CBD are often poor and
run down?
B. Why are there few grocery and other retail stores in
these neighborhoods?
C. Why is this not really true in European and Latin
American countries?

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75

FR #2:
Think of the map of your school, explain the
layout of your school using the Multiple Nuclei
Model
The main office is the CBD.
Completely explain your answer using specific
buildings and/or land areas in your explanation
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76

Answer Key:
1. B

14. A

27. C

40. D

53. C

2. B

15. B

28. A

41. D

54. D

3. C

16. B

29. A

42. B

55. B

4. A

17. A

30. D

43. D

5. B

18. B

31. A

44. A

6. A

19. A

32. D

45. D

7. B

20. C

33. B

46. A

8. D

21. D

34. B

47. C

9. D

22. B

35. A

48. C

10. B

23. C

36. E

49. A

11. C

24. C

37. E

50. E

12. A

25. D

38. B

51. B

13. A

26. C

39. A

52. C
77

FR. #1: ( 15 pts. for each section…total of 45 pts.)
A. In the US the move of the wealthy and middle class to the suburbs has left the older houses and apartments near the CBD empty.
This has lowered their value to the point where the poor can afford these dwellings and have made these neighborhoods their
homes. The poor can not pay for upkeep of these dwellings, or to pay high taxes. The lack of upkeep and tax money to repair the
roads and schools, adds to the downward spiral of the neighborhood. With little spending money for shopping, the poor do not
spend much in the stores. This causes many stores to close and move to the suburbs where the spending customers and money
went. The closing of the stores adds to the poverty of the area by taking away some of the jobs that were in the neighborhood. This
becomes a vicious cycle of poverty and deterioration. (15 points)

B. There are few retail stores and groceries is the area because the poor do not have money to shop. The lack of spending forces
many stores out of business or forces them to move to better locations. There also can be higher crime in these areas and the
crime often takes place at the stores. This is another reason for the stores to move out of the neighborhood. (15 points)
C. Neighborhoods in European and Latin American cities are different from those of US cities. In Europe and Latin America, the
wealthy and middle class still live near or in the CBD. The higher tax base and more spending ability of the upper and middle
classes, keeps the CBD area flourishing with jobs and in constant repair and upkeep of the cities’ physical condition. (15 points)

FR #2: (10 total points.)
You will need to judge how effectively you displayed you school
in the Multiple Nuclei Model. Refer to the model itself to help you
determine your success and grade.
School’s main office
78

Calculating your grade on test 13.
Add how many you got correct on the multiple choice part (55 possible) to how many
points you scored on the FR portion (55 possible)…110 total.
The following scale will show the approximate score if this test were the real AP exam. Remember that this
is an approximation. While 65-74% is normally the range for a 3 on the test, it is not definite. Over the
years I have seen scores as low as 60% be the low portion of a 3 score.

Out of 110 possible points:
72-83 is most likely a 3
84-94 is most likely a 4

95-110 is most likely a 5

Now lets start our review for the national exam by
reviewing the 33 key models and theories of the
course…the next PowerPoint.


Slide 8

Key topic/chapter 13…Urban Patterns
Key terms:
Annexation
Concentric zone model
Density gradient
Edge cities
Filtering
Galactic city
Gentrification
Greenbelts
Megalopolis
MSA
Multiple nuclei model
Peripheral model

Public housing
Redlining
Renovated housing
Scattered site
Squatter settlement
Sector model
Smart growth
Sprawl
Underclass
Urban renewal
Zone in transition
Zoning
1

Chapter 13…Urban Areas.
How are Cities planned?
Why

are cities where they are?
How are they organized?
Why are some areas of a city
different from
other areas of the same city?
What is the future of cities?
2

Settlement


Settlement - permanent collections of buildings,
where people live, work, and obtain services

3

ORIGINS OF SETTLEMENTS


Religious - graves, churches, temples



Cultural - schools, libraries



Political/Military - leader’s house, walls



Economic - stores, food
4

TYPES OF SETTLEMENTS


Rural Settlements - agriculture as the
predominant occupation.



Urban settlements - principal industries are
secondary and tertiary.

5

RURAL SETTLEMENTS
Clustered rural settlements –grouped
settlements in rural areas to minimize travel

Dispersed rural Settlements - isolated farms
with enclosed continuous fields (Found only in
N. America and Britain).

6

Urban Geographers want to know the global distribution of urban
settlements. MDC’s have a high percentage of people living in urban
areas because of the shift from agriculture-manufacturing-services.
Geographers are also interested in where people and activities are
distributed within urban spaces. What are the differences between the
inner-city and suburban areas and why?
As we saw in the last chapter, many downtowns are unique and can
often be recognized in photos where the suburbs often look very
much alike (Placelessness). Why? Suburbs offer the chance to avoid
some of the city problems (crime, tight living area, expensive
land/rent, noise, age of buildings) while still keeping a connection with
the goods and services of the city: jobs, sports teams, culture, shops,
recreation, etc.
7

Where is this place?

8

Today’s cities are evolving and changing. Although different internal
situations characterize urban areas in the US and elsewhere, the
problems arising from current spatial trends are quite similar in all cities.
Where have urban areas grown: in the early 1800’s only 3% of the earth’s
people lived in cities and only Beijing China had more than 1 million
people. Today over ½ of the world’s people live in cities and we have over
400 cities of at least 1 million people.

Urbanization: is the process by which city population grows.
Cities population growth is measured in 2 dimensions;
1. An increase in the number of people living in the cities.
2. An increase in the percentage of people living in the cities.
This distinction is important because they happen for different reason and
have different global distributions.
9

Increasing Percentage of People in Cities: a large percentage of people living in urban
areas is a measure of a country’s level of development. In MDC’s about ¾ of the people
live in urban areas compared to about 2/5 of people in LDC’s. (Except in Latin America
where the level is closer to MDC’s.)
The higher percentage of people in urban areas comes from the changes that have
occurred in the last 200 years as we went from agriculture (primary jobs) to industrial
(secondary jobs) and now service jobs, all created by the Industrial Revolution of the
1800’s.
People moved to the cities for industrial jobs, but in MDC’s this process has largely
ended because nearly everyone interested in moving to the cities from farms has already
done so.
In LDC’s the percentage of people living in urban areas is growing as people are pushed
off of their farms and replaced by machines and as people move to cities looking/hoping
for industrial jobs.
10

Increasing Number of People in Cities: MDC’s have a higher percentage of
people living in urban settlements but LDC’s have more of the very large urban
settlements (Primate cities). (Rank-size rule, primate cities, chapter 12.)

This is interesting because typically the large cities are created from the
improvements brought by the Industrial Revolution. This is not the case with the
large LDC cities. Migration to the primate city in LDC’s is happening even though
job opportunities may not be available. Increasing the population growth in LDC
cities is the fact that medical services are better in these cities, thus the child
mortality rate is lower.
Defining Urban Settlements: defining where urban areas end and rural areas
begin is not easy. Geographers have formulated definitions that distinguish
between urban and rural areas in two ways: Social differences and Physical
differences.
11

Percent Urban Population

Percent of the population living in urban areas is usually higher in MDCs
than in LDCs.

12

The most populated cities in the world

Of the top
20, only
Moscow,
Tokyo and
New York
are in MDC’s

Shanghai China has 14,608,512 people
13

14

15

Social Differences Between Urban and Rural Settlements: it is fair to say that rural
people and urban people follow different ways of life. A city can be defined as having 3
characteristics:
1. Large size. People in rural settlements know most of the other people in the
settlement. Not true in big cities. Social relationships are often described as “colder” in
urban areas because you only see some people at work instead of growing up with
them in the settlement.
2. High Density. Having lots of people in a tiny area creates social consequences. A
high density of people living in a small area can only be supported if the people
specialize (they can’t all be farmers). People are encouraged to compete for jobs, room,
and survival in a tightly limited space. Social groups compete to occupy the same space
(ethnic/ race problems). Rural settlements have very little of this problem.
3. Social Heterogeneity. The larger the settlement, the greater the variety of people.
Being “unusual” in a large settlement is more likely to be accepted than in a small rural
one. But despite the freedom to be different that large urban settlements give you,
people living there often feel alone because so many people are different from them.
There is a stronger feeling of belonging together in small rural settlements.
16

These 3 differences do not fully answer the question of where urban settlements
begin and rural ones end because in today’s MDC’s most everyone has access to
cars, telephones, televisions, and “urban type” jobs which reduce the differences
between urban and rural lifestyles. “City folk” and “Country folk” are more alike
today than they are different. To help distinguish between urban and rural areas we
need to add the physical definition of rural and urban to the equation.
Physical Definitions of Urban Settlements: In ancient time, cities had defensive
walls for protection which clearly defined the physical boundaries of the city. Today
the walls are gone but we can still define the physical boundaries in 3 ways:
1. Legal boundary. These are the official boundaries of a city as recognized by
the government of the country or state. These “city limits” have been officially given
to the city and are physically marked on official maps. The local government of the
city has authority to make laws and protect the people inside the city boundaries.
17

2. Urbanized area. This is the city plus its suburbs or urbanized area that
surrounds the city. About 70 percent of US residents live in urbanized areas with
40% being in the suburbs and 30% inside the city limits. The suburbs may have
their own city governments but the huge central city dominates what happens in
the entire area.
3. Metropolitan Statistical Area. Cities have an even bigger influence on people
than just those living in their city limits and surrounding urbanized areas. People
from far away come to shop, use the services, support the sports teams, read
the newspapers and watch the television broadcasts of the city. Thus the city
has a “functional area” which is its total zone of influence. The US Bureau of
Census has created a method of measuring the functional area of the city.
Known as the Metropolitan statistical area (MSA) this area includes:
•An urbanized area with a population of at least 50,000
•The county within which the city is located.
•Adjacent counties with a high population density and a large percentage of
residents working in the central city’s county.
18

Metropolitan Area of Philadelphia

City of
Philadelphia

Urbanized
area
(suburbs)
Metropolitan
Statistical
Area

The metropolitan area of Philadelphia is
spread over several counties and four states.
It is also a diversified trade center, given its
position on the Delaware river.

19

20

21

Micropolitan Statistical Areas: Smaller areas with between
10,000 and 50,000 people, the county where it is found, and
adjacent counties tied to the city. This would be a small town and
the area dominated by it.
Overlapping Metropolitan Areas: Some adjacent MSA’s overlap.
A county between two central cities may send a large number of
commuters to jobs in both cities. In some areas the cities are so
close that they form one continuous urban complex. This is
known as a Megalopolis (great city).
In a megalopolis, the downtown CBD often has its own
distinctive look and the urban areas are visually separated by
parks, open spaces, and dairy/truck farms. But at the periphery
of the urban areas, the boundaries overlap.
22

Colorado Springs, population 431,000

Ocala, Florida, population 56,000

Florala, Alabama, population 1,900

23

Megalopolis, from northern Va. To Maine.
This Illustrates the
difference between
strict city proper
definitions and broader
urban agglomerations.
To define urbanized
areas, the U.S. Census
Bureau uses the term
Metropolitan Statistical
Area (MSA) or
Consolidated MSA
(CMSA) if two or more of
them overlap.
24

Where are People Distributed within Urban Areas? People are not
just distributed at random in urban areas. For the most part they
concentrate in particular neighborhoods depending on their social
characteristics. Geographers want to see where people with
particular characteristics are likely to live and why.

Three models which try to explain the growth of a city:

The Burgess Model

The Hoyt Sector Model

The Harris and Ullman
multiple Nuclei Model
25

Burgess Concentric Zone Model

In the concentric zone model, a city grows in a series of rings surrounding the CBD.

Burgess Concentric Zone Model: This is the first used to explain the
distributions of different social groups within urban areas. It says that a
city grows outward from a central place in a series of concentric rings.
The precise size and width of the rings vary from one city to another, but
some basic types of rings appear in all cities in the same order (see chart
above).
26

•Hoyt Sector Model: In this model the city develops in a
series of sectors not rings. Certain areas of the city are
more attractive for various activities, originally because
of an environmental factor (or even pure chance). As the
city grows, activities extend outward in a wedge shape.
For example, once a wealthy neighborhood is built the
next wealthy neighborhood will extend from the first
neighborhood further outward from the center. In this
way, the best housing is found in a corridor extending
outward from the center to the outer edge (see chart on
the next page).
27

The Hoyt Sector Model

In the sector model, a city grows in a series of
wedges or corridors extending out from the
CBD.
28

•Harris and Ullman’s Multiple Nuclei Model: According
to this model, a city is a complex structure that includes
more than one center around which activities revolve.
Examples of these nodes include a port, parks,
stadium, neighborhood business center, university, and
airport (see chart). This theory states that some
activities are attracted to particular nodes, whereas
others try to avoid them. A university node may attract
well educated people and bookstores while the port will
attract hotels and warehouses. Heavy industry and
expensive houses rarely are found together. This
model shows the effect of the automobile more than
any other model.
29

The Harris and Ullman Multiple Nuclei model

The multiple nuclei model views a city as a
collection of individual centers, around which
different people and activities cluster.

30

Applications of the Models: The three models help explain where and in some
cases, why people live where they do. None of the models by themselves fully
explains why and where different types of people live, but combined they give
you as good a look as possible at the “Why” of “Where.” Effective use of the
models depends on getting good data on the areas. Most countries take a
census every 10 years to help determine useful data about the people and
places of the country. In our country we divide the census data into areas
known as census tracts of about 5,000 people. Each census tract has the data
that summarizes the characteristics of the people living within that tract. This
information includes things like the race, income, age, and education of the
people living in that tract.
Social Area Analysis: The data from the census tracts can all be plotted onto
maps to show the characteristics of the people living in that tract. This map is
known as a social area analysis.
31

Using Census tract information…Seattle, Washington
Each lined area is a
census tract of about 5000
people in Seattle
Washington. These maps
show average household
income for 1990 and
2000…note the changes in
income in some areas
between 1990 and 2000.
Using this information, a
business can make
decisions about where
they want to locate a new
store or the future of
existing stores.
You can find census tract
information on many topics
such as; age, education
level, race, ethnicity, crime
rate, and land ownership.
Note the areas with
incomes over
$63,000.

All can be very valuable
information to people
looking to open
businesses.

32

Examine the changes
between 1990 and
2000.

Oakland, California’s Ethnic neighborhoods
The small bordered areas are census tracks of 5000 people.

33

Use of the Models Outside of North America: The 3 models will also work in other
places in the world; however social groups in other countries may not have the
same reasons for selecting particular neighborhoods as Americans do.
European Cities: As in the US, wealthier people in European cities cluster along a
sector extending outward from the CBD, however unlike the US, wealthy and
middle class Europeans still live in the inner rings of the neighborhoods near the
CBD not out in the suburbs. In the past, poorer people lived in the center of the
city. Before electricity, social segregation was vertical: richer people lived on the
first or second floor of a building while the poorer people lived in the basement or
upper floors. In the Industrial Revolution, housing for the poor was constructed
near the factories and away from the rich.
Today poorer Europeans are less likely to live in the inner-city. Poor quality
housing has been renovated for the rich or turned into office buildings. Poorer
Europeans tend to live in the outskirts of the city. Vast suburbs with dozens of high
rise apartments house the poor. They face long commutes to reach their jobs in
the city.
34

European cities generally do not have the “suburban
sprawl” that US cities have. European cities tend to be
more pedestrian friendly with more parks downtown as
Europeans tend to still live downtown.
US cities have taller buildings as European cities tend to
be older and more historic.

American cities have more ethnic neighborhoods than
European cities. Ethnic neighborhoods that do exist in
European cities tend to be in the suburbs. WHY?
Because the established richer neighborhoods tend to be
downtown in European cities.
35

Less Developed Countries: Like Europe, most LDC’s accommodate their poor in the
suburbs with their middle class and rich living near the center of the city. LDC’s have
passed through 3 periods of city building: before the Europeans arrived, during the
period of European colonialism, and since independence from European control.

Pre-colonial Cities: Before the Europeans arrived few cities existed in Africa, Asia, and
Latin America and most people lived in small rural settlements. Those cities that existed
were mostly laid out surrounding a religious center; with the rest of the city laid out in a
hieratical concentric pattern (like the Burgess model) from government buildings,
homes of the wealthy, and businesses related to the religion out to other businesses
and shops.
Colonial cities: When the Europeans took over these lands, they changed the cities by
adding services to help the Europeans control the conquered people. Often a new
European style city would be build next to the existing native one. The new European
cities contained wider streets, a public square, larger houses and a much lower density.
The Spanish used the “Law of the Indies” which was a city plan designed specifically to
build cities in a “Spanish” style. (Gridiron pattern for streets centered on a church and
central plaza, walls around individual houses and neighborhoods centered around
smaller plazas and more churches.)
36

Early Mexico city was laid out in a grid pattern of streets. This followed
the Spanish “Law of the Indies.”

37

Central Plaza in Mexico City 1920 photo. Typical Colonial City plan.

Part of downtown Mexico city today still shows the
building plan of the “Law of the Indies.”

38

Cities since Independence: Following independence, cities have become
the focal point of the development of most LDC’s. Millions of people have
migrated to the cities (Primate cities) looking for jobs and services. Some
capitals have been moved to isolated areas in an attempt to help develop
that area of the country (Brasília) This is know as a forward capital. Latin
American cities have developed their own unique style.
Squatter settlements: The LDC’s are unable to house the rapidly growing
number of poor who are flowing into the cities. Because of the housing
shortages, the poor have constructed their own settlements around the city.
These settlements have few services because neither the city nor the
residents can afford them. Squatters have two basic choices for housing.
1. Illegally move into empty real houses located in the city or,
2. Rent slum housing.
(85% of the population of Addis Ababa in Ethiopia lives in squatter
settlements, slums or other illegal housing.)
39

Squatter shacks in Manila, the Philippines

40

Squatter settlement in Ethiopia

41

Zimbabwe, Africa

42

Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

43

Latin American City Model:
In many Latin
American cities,
the wealthy live in
the inner city and
in a sector
extending along a
commercial spine.
In situ accretion- businesses
and homes constantly under
construction/repair.
Zone of maturity-2nd best
housing in the city.
The poor live in squatter settlements on the
periphery of the city.

Disamenity- unpleasant area
used by the poor to get to the
market.

44

The City Outline of Rio de Janeiro
The rich tourist areas and expensive condo apartments are along the coast
and beach while the poor live in squatter shacks in the hills.

45

City problems:
Inner-City Physical Problems: Most US inner cities were constructed before the 1950’s
(people began to move to the suburbs in the 1950’s so new construction moved out of
the city).
Process of Deterioration (how a city deteriorates): A city doesn’t suddenly become old
and full of slummy areas. It happens over time. When a group of low-income people
inhabit an area of a city, nearby neighborhoods will often look to move out. They sell or
rent to more low-income occupants thus expanding the low-income area. Two processes
cause/speed up the devaluation of areas:
1. Filtering, 2. Redlining.
Filtering: Large houses and buildings that once housed rich downtown workers (who
moved to the suburbs) are taken over by landlords who don’t live in that area (they
moved to the suburbs too). Rents are low so the landlord doesn’t take as good care of
the property as they should and the property becomes run down or abandoned. Stores
close, or move, due to lack of sales. 100 years ago these neighborhoods would be used
by immigrants and ethnic businesses would succeed in those areas. Now, with a decline
in immigration, these neighborhoods have shrunk and so have schools, businesses and
other services. Thousands of vacant houses and buildings stand empty in inner cities
across America.

46

Redlining: Some banks refuse to give loans in what they consider
risky neighborhoods. They draw a red line on a map around areas
where they will not give loans. Without loans, these neighborhoods
have a hard time rebuilding/remodeling. Though illegal, this still
happens. Bankers just don’t put these “no-loan” areas on a map.

Urban Renewal: This is the series of projects to improve European
and N. American cities by buying up the blighted neighborhoods,
moving the people to new government built housing projects, and
building new roads, and other projects to make the inner city
attractive for business again. National and State government grants
help pay for these projects.
47

Public housing: Housing for the poor, built with government funding as part of
urban renewal. In the US this is only about 2% of the housing while in some
countries it may be more (Britain is 30%). Public housing built in the 50’s & 60’s
were largely high rise apartments, but those are seen as being unsatisfactory.
Problems arise from cramming large numbers of poor people into one area.
Today most public housing projects are one to three story buildings with many of
them being scattered around different parts of the city rather than clustered into
one area.
Because urban renewal has been criticized for destroying the social cohesion of
older neighborhoods, many governments (like the US) have stopped funding
most projects since the 1970’s. What do we do instead?
Renovated Housing: An alternative often used since the 70’s is to renovate a
building instead of urban renewal. The process where middle-class people
move into inner-city neighborhoods and renovate them is called gentrification.
Gentrified inner-city neighborhoods also attract middle-class people who work
downtown. Living close to work saves the hassle of commuting and rejuvenates
run down inner-city neighborhoods
48

Gentrified building downtown Harlem, NY. Note the supermarket.

49

Inner-City Social Problems: Inner-city residents are often referred to as the
permanent underclass because they are trapped in an unending cycle of
economic and social problems. High unemployment, alcoholism, drug
addiction, literacy, juvenile delinquency, and crime all exist at a higher rate
among those who live in the inner-city. Lack of jobs means lack of tax dollars
to pay for police and fire protection as well as good schools. Lack of job skills
and homelessness are also tremendous problems.
Culture of Poverty: Inner-city residents are trapped in a permanent underclass
culture that reproduces itself. In the US, unwed mothers give birth to 2/3 of the
babies in the inner-city. 90% of these children live with only one parent and it
is real hard for one parent to keep a job and take care of children. Both suffer
and a shortage of care and daily attention by the parent contributes to the kids
not learning the skills necessary to do well in school which leads to poor jobs
for their futures. Poverty leads to more poverty. Many families on welfare have
only one parent because it is financially better if one parent is gone, that way
the single parent gets food stamps and other services from the government
that they would not get if it was a 2 family household.
50

Crime: Trapped in a hopeless environment, some inner-city
residents turn to drugs. Drug use is a problem in inner-city
areas and the suburbs, but rates of drug use in inner-cities
are the highest.
Ethnic and Racial Segregation: As seen in chapter 7, many
neighborhoods in the US are segregated by ethnicity with
African Americans and Hispanics concentrated in one or two
continuous areas and whites living in the suburbs. Even small
cities display a strong distinction among neighborhoods. A
frequent division is between the east and west or north and
south side of town, or the railroad tracks. A family seeking a
new residence will seek the areas where the characteristics
of the people meet their own.

51

The exodus
from the
American city.
This has
happened in
many American
cities since the
1960’s.

52

Changes in Cities in the U.S.
U.S. population has been moving out of the city centers to the suburbs:
suburbanization and counter urbanization

Developed Countries: suburbanization

 wealthy move to suburbs
 automobiles and roads; ‘American
Dream’ of the home in the suburbs.
 better services
 wealthy move to suburbs
Counter urbanization

idyllic settings
cost of land for retirement
slow pace, yet high tech
connections to services and markets
53

U.S. intraregional migration during 1990s.

Inner city economic problems: the concentration of low income
residents in inner cities has caused economic problems. These
people require public services but can pay very little in taxes to
support the services. They need stores and jobs but have little
money to spend in the store and few skills for jobs (so the stores
close). To try to fight these problems many local and state
governments use tax monies to try to renovate these areas, but this
shifts tax money needed for other areas to the inner city (votes on
election day).
Annexation: Many cities could help their tax problem by adding the
new suburbs to be part of their city (annexation). After all, many of
these suburban people use the city for its’ jobs etc., so why not add
them into the city? Today, most people in the suburbs do not want
to be annexed into the city and so they do not vote to be annexed.
54

The Peripheral Model: According to this model, an urban area
consists of an inner city surrounded by large suburban residential
and business areas (MSA) tied together by a beltway or highway
that circles the city. Around the beltway are nodes of consumer
and business services called edge cities (see diagram of multiple
nuclei model). These edge cities sprang up to provide services
and jobs to the people in the suburbs.
Density Gradient: As you travel outward from the center of the
city, the density of people declines. Inner city has big apartments
of 250 of more people per acre. Suburbs have fewer people per
acre (but lots of acres) and finally you leave the cities periphery
you find few people. The number of houses per unit of land
diminishes as distance from the center of the city increases.
55

The Edge cities (bedroom communities) of Houston

The central city is surrounded by a ring road, around which are
suburban areas and edge cities, shopping malls, office parks,
industrial areas, and service complexes.

Known as
bedroom
communities
because
people live
there but
mostly don’t
work there.
They drive
into the city
for work.
56

As you move from the center of the city outward, the density of the population
changes. This is know as the density gradient. Two big changes have occurred in
the density gradient of today’s cities:
1. The number of people living in the center has decreased.
2. The density difference between the inner city and the suburbs is declining
because the inner city density is dropping and the suburban density is growing
due to more large apartments being built in the suburbs.
Cost of Suburban or Urban Sprawl: Urban Sprawl is the progressive spread of
development over the landscape. As long as we Americans want single-family
detached houses, land on the fringe of urban areas will be converted from open
space to residential use. The cost of this growth is more than the loss of land, it is
also the cost of new roads, utilities, building stores and offices and the cost of
automobiles to move these people over even longer distances. Lots of these new
developments are built on what was once farmland. Wonderful productive soil now
under concrete.

Greenbelts: are areas where, by law, the open space can not be used for any
construction. This is mostly found in Europe.

57

Once farmland that is being converted to suburbs and cities.

58

Tyson’s Corner Virginia in 1940

59

Washington, DC. MSA.

Tyson’s Corner Virginia
today.
Washington D.C. is off
In the distance.

60

Suburban Segregation: The “new” segregation.
Suburban segregation takes two forms:
1. Residents are separated from commercial and manufacturing activities
which are confined someplace else. (The whole neighborhood is
nothing but houses because they drive for services.)
2. The price of the house eliminates some from being able to live there. This
creates a homogeneous suburb of the same economic class of people.
This never existed before in history. Where we once had vertical
segregation of the classes we now we have horizontal segregation.
3. But this may be reversing as new statistics show that people are beginning
to move back to the city. Why? Cost of transportation.
Zoning Ordinances: This idea developed in Europe and later America in the
early decades of the 20th century. This means that businesses are allowed only
in certain areas of the settlement. (No all night taco stands inside your single
family neighborhood.)
Motor vehicles: The wide use of the automobile is largely responsible for the
American movement to the suburbs. Not only did people move out but 1/4 of
the land inside all American cities are now roads, streets, and parking lots.

61

Public Transportation: Because few US workers live within walking distance
of their jobs, urban areas are characterized by extensive commuting and the
problems that come with it. As much as 40% of all trips made into or out from
a city during the day takes place within just 4 hours. (2 in the morning and 2 in
the late afternoon). RUSH HOUR!!! In large cities, public transportation, like
subways and busses, are better suited to move people but Americans still
prefer their own cars. Public transportation is cheaper, cleaner, and more
energy efficient than personal cars, yet in the US only 5% of city travel is
done using public transit systems. American’s love their personal car too
much.
Local Government Fragmentation: Because of the large number of local
governments in the US (look at the settlements in Pinellas County) it is
difficult to solve some of the regional problems like garbage disposal, water
management, traffic and public housing.
62

Metropolitan government: This idea tries to put many local governments into a
larger unit that can better handle the urban problems. The 2 ways to do this
are:
1. Federations in which the individual settlements have their own police,
firemen, and tax collection but they all agree to be part of a second
government which handles transportation, water, sewage, parks and
welfare for all the communities.
2. Consolidations: In this method, several cities and the county may form one
government. Jacksonville’s government runs not only the town but the
county too, this makes Jacksonville the largest city, in land size, in the US.
Smart growth: A new movement by many states to curb suburban sprawl by
limiting where new construction can take place. Smart growth laws require that
land near cities be used up before any land further out can be developed. So
far, this is only being done an a few parts of our country.
63

The new
US as
some
people
see it.

64

Quiz Yourself:
1. The process where middle-class people move into inner city neighborhoods and
renovate them is called ____________
2. ____________ happens when banks refuse to give loans in what they consider
risky neighborhoods.
3. Because of the housing shortages, the poor have constructed their own settlements
around the city known as __________ _________

4. Businesses are allowed only in certain areas of the settlement because of
____________ ____________
5. Areas known as _____ _______ are areas of about 5,000 people. The data from
that area is used to help define needed services for that area.
6. When cities are so close that they form one continuous band of development this is
known as a ____________
65

7. Social relationships are often described as “colder” in urban areas because…
8. In this model the city develops in a series of sectors not rings. _______

9. ______ (LDC’s or MDC’s) have a higher percentage of people living in urban
settlements but ________ (LDC’s or MDC’s) have more of the very large urban
settlements.
10. _____________ was the first model developed to explain the distributions
of different social groups within urban areas.
11. New cities which develop around the beltway are nodes of consumer and
business services known as ________ _________.

12. When the Europeans took over lands around the world, they changed the
cities by adding services to help the Europeans control the conquered people.
These European planned cities are known as __________ cities.
66

Answer Key:
1.

Gentrification

2.

Redlining

3.

Squatter Settlements

4.

Zoning ordinances

5.

Census tracks

6.

Megalopolis

7. There is a stronger feeling of belonging together in small rural settlements.
8. Hoyt sector model
9. MDC, LDC
10. Burgess Concentric Zone model
11. Edge cities
12. Colonial cities
67

Test Key topic/chapter 13:
These questions come from a combination of our slides, your text book, and common knowledge you should
have discussed in your AP classroom. They are very typical of what you will see on the National Exam.
1) The multiple nuclei theory best explains why different neighborhoods of a city attract people of different… A) ages.
B) ethnic origin C) income D) marital status.
2) Sprawl is the… A) change in density within an urban area from the center to the periphery B) development of new
housing sites not contiguous to the existing built-up area. C) land maintained as open space surrounding an urban area.
D) period in the morning and evening with the heaviest volumes of traffic.
3) People are attracted to suburbs in part because suburbs are characterized by…A) heavy traffic. B) lower opportunity
for home ownership. C) private land surrounding the house. D) row houses and apartments.
4) Megalopolis refers to… A) adjacent, overlapping Metropolitan Statistical Areas. B) central cities. C) consolidated
Metropolitan Statistical Areas. D) central cities plus urbanized areas.
5) Which statement best describes the relationship between urbanization and the Industrial Revolution? A) Urbanization
promoted the Industrial Revolution. B) The Industrial Revolution promoted urbanization. C) Urbanization preceded the
Industrial Revolution by thousands of years. D) Urbanization and the Industrial Revolution are no longer related.
6) The process of legally adding land area to a city in the United States is… A) annexation. B) accreditation. C) an
application of eminent domain. D) defined by urbanized area.

68

7) The process of change in the use of a house, from single-family owner occupancy to abandonment, is… A) blockbusting.
B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining.
8) A process by which banks designate an area within which they refuse to lend money for improvements is… A) blockbusting.
B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining.
9) A recent change in the density gradient has been… A) the elimination of the gap traditionally found in the center. B) an
increase in the extremes between the inner and outer areas. C) an increase in the number of people living in the center.
D) a reduction in the differences in densities found within an urban area.
10) U.S. central cities face fiscal problems because… A) federal and state funds are available. B) low-income people are
concentrated there. C) middle-class families are attracted there. D) redlining is no longer legal.
11) A legal form of segregation in U.S. cities is achieved through...A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) zoning. D) greenbelts.
12) Factories have moved to suburban locations in part because of… A) access to main highways. B) adequate space to build
vertical structures. C) availability of large tracts of high-priced land. D) good rail connections.
13) According to the sector model, the best housing is located in…A) a corridor from downtown to the edge of the city.
B) an outer ring surrounding the city. C) nodes near universities and parks. D) renovated inner-city neighborhoods.
14) Ramshackle houses on the periphery of cities in less developed countries are known as… A) squatter settlements. B) council
estates. C) public housing. D) zone in transition.
15) Higher income people tend to live near the center of the city in all but which of the following regions? A) Latin America
B) North America C) South Asia D) Western Europe

16) The wide boulevards built in cities in less developed countries were most likely built during what era? A) pre-colonial
B) colonial C) independence D) all of the above equally

69

17) According to the multiple nuclei model, an airport is likely to attract nearby… A) industries. B) residences. C) shops.
D) universities.
18) The largest percentage of the U.S. population lives in…A) central cities. B) suburbs. C) non-metropolitan areas. D) all of the
above
19) In U.S. cities, the underclass is… A) clustered in inner-city neighborhoods. B) dispersed throughout the city. C) clustered in
suburbs. D) distributed uniformly in the city.

20) A process of converting a neighborhood from low-income to middle-class is…A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) gentrification.
D) redlining.
21) Higher social heterogeneity in urban settlements means that… A) the people with whom you relax are probably the same ones you
see at work. B) you play a specialized role in the urban economy. C) you compete for limited space. D) you may feel lonely and
isolated in a crowd.
22) The city plus its contiguous built-up suburbs is the… A) central city. B) urbanized area.
D) consolidated metropolitan statistical area

C) metropolitan statistical area.

23) The process whereby an increasing percentage of people live in an urban area is known as… A) demographic transition.
B) rank-size rule. C) urbanization. D) central place theory.
24) Of the ten largest urban areas in the world, how many are in More Developed Countries today? A) 1 B) 4 C) 7 D) 10 E) 2
25) Public housing is…A) conversion of low-income housing to middle-class housing. B) illegally established low-income housing.
C) housing that has changed from single-family owner occupancy to abandonment. D) low-income government-owned housing.
26) According to the concentric zone model, a city develops in a series of… A) corridors. B) nodes. C) rings. D) all of the above

70

27) Chicago is a good location in which to develop urban models because it is located… A) at the hub of the nation's transportation
system. B) in the center of the country. C) on a flat prairie. D) on the shore of Lake Michigan.
28) According to the sector model, the best housing is located in… A) a corridor from downtown to the edge of the city. B) an outer
ring surrounding the city. C) nodes near universities and parks. D) renovated inner-city neighborhoods.
29) The zone of transition in US cities generally contain…A) warehouses B) wealthy neighborhoods C) transportation hubs
D) universities and hospitals E) suburban homes
30) The attractions of shopping malls include all but which of the following? A) frequent concerts and exhibitions B) generous
parking lots C) place to meet friends D) walking distance from homes
The following questions are written at the high school level. You will find some questions from part one often rewritten
here. This is all designed to help you transition to the college/AP style of written questions. Any question preceded with ***
are questions that have been on the national exam before.
31. Most Latin American cities are focused on a…A) central plaza B) government housing project C) zone of heavy industry
D) skyscraper office building E) squatter settlement
32. The multiple-nuclei model of a city structure tends to be most applicable to…A) small cities B) traditional C) Latin American
cities D) newer, fast growing cities E) cities with homogeneous land use
33. ***Locational advantages important to the development of the earliest cities include…A) availability of good harbors for large
ships B) productive agricultural land and defensible sites C) temperate climate and proximity to coal mines D) good
connections by road and canal E) proximity to manufacturing areas

34. In cities, the CBD’s often show uniqueness while the suburbs usually show…A) a large hinterland. B) placelessness C) more
than one node. D) newer zones of transition.

71

35. Many LDC’s have tried to help a previously under-developed part of their country develop by moving their capital
city to that area. This new capital is known as a…A) forward capital B) new development zone C) enterprise zone
D) neocolonial city
36. Today the greatest number of urban dwellers is found in…A) North America
D) Europe E) Asia

B) South America C) Africa

37. ***All of the following have helped create ghettos in North American cities except…A)blockbusting and racial
steering B) redlining by financial institutions C) concentration of public housing and social services D) fixed school
districts E) Economic Enterprise Zones

38. Which of the following is NOT as reason for rapid suburbanization in the US after WW2? A) Mass production of
the automobile B) Reduction of long distance commuting C) Expansion of home construction D) Expansion of the
interstate highway system E) Availability of low down payment terms and long-term mortgages.
39. New cities which developed in the hinterland of large urban areas because of the automobile, are known as…
A) edge cities B) census tracts C) suburban sprawl D) squatter settlements. E) none of these
40. Gentrification refers to… A) moving the homeless into inner city shelters B) The “White Flight” from the urban city
C) losing tax revenue because of stores closing in downtown areas D) middle-class people moving into and renovating
inner city neighborhoods E) the creation of “beltway cities” around the city.

72

4
7
3

5

1
6

2

41-48 all use the sketch above.
41. The sketch in box A above represents which model of the inner structure of urban areas?
C) multiple nuclei model D) Burgess concentric zone model E) peripheral model
42. The models in boxes B and C represent A) Concentric zone and multiple nuclei
concentric zone D) peripheral and concentric zone E) Von Thunen and peripheral

A) Hoyt sector model B) VonThunen’s model

B) Multiple nuclei and Hoyt sector C) Hoyt sector and

43. In which ring (1, 2, etc.) of sketch A above would high-status households in North American cities likely live? A) 1 B) 2 C) 3 D) 4&5
44. In which ring (1, 2, etc.) of sketch A above would high status households in a European city likely live? A) 1

B) 2

C) 3

D) 4&5

45. In model B, zone # 2 is where it is likely because of: A) greenbelting B) squatter settling C) the culture of poverty D) transportation
E) no one knows
46. The model in sketch B is the; A) Hoyt sector model B) Burgess model C) multiple nuclei model D) peripheral model
47. The model in sketch C is the; A) Hoyt sector model B) Burgess model C) multiple nuclei model D) peripheral model
48. Which of these models best describes what has happened in US cities in the last 40 years? A)

B)

C)

73

49.*** In the U.S. a city plus its contiguous built-up suburbs is known as an…A) urbanized area B) zoned area
C) census tract D) Squatter settlement E) none of these
50. Done mostly in Europe, these are areas where land is kept as parks, farms or other kinds of open space and urban
sprawl is not allowed. A) Smart growth
B) zoning
C) filtering
D) census tracts E) greenbelts
51. Which statement best describes the relationship between urbanization and the Industrial Revolution?
A) Urbanization promoted the Industrial Revolution. B) The Industrial Revolution promoted urbanization.
C) Urbanization preceded the Industrial Revolution by thousands of years. D) Urbanization and the Industrial
Revolution are no longer related.
52. The process whereby an increasing percentage of people live in an urban area is known as…
A) Demographic transition. B) rank-size rule. C) Urbanization. D) Central place theory.
53. The city (if it has 50,000 or more people) plus its contiguous built-up suburbs AND the county it is in as well as any
other counties it influences, is known as the ...A) central city B) urbanized area
C) metropolitan statistical area
D) consolidated metropolitan area E) micropolitan statistical area
54. ***Higher social heterogeneity in urban settlements means that …A) the people with whom you relax are probably
the same ones you see at work. B) you play a specialized role in the urban economy. C) you compete for limited
space. D) you may feel lonely and isolated in a crowd.

55. The process of change in the use of a house, from single-family owner occupancy to smaller dwellings for the poor
and then sometimes to abandonment, is…A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining. E) none of
these

74

Free Response #1:
The Bid Rent theory says that the closer you get to the
CBD the higher the cost for land, yet in most American
cities you find the poorest people living near the
expensive CBD and the richest living further away.
Explain:
A. Why neighborhoods near the CBD are often poor and
run down?
B. Why are there few grocery and other retail stores in
these neighborhoods?
C. Why is this not really true in European and Latin
American countries?

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75

FR #2:
Think of the map of your school, explain the
layout of your school using the Multiple Nuclei
Model
The main office is the CBD.
Completely explain your answer using specific
buildings and/or land areas in your explanation
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76

Answer Key:
1. B

14. A

27. C

40. D

53. C

2. B

15. B

28. A

41. D

54. D

3. C

16. B

29. A

42. B

55. B

4. A

17. A

30. D

43. D

5. B

18. B

31. A

44. A

6. A

19. A

32. D

45. D

7. B

20. C

33. B

46. A

8. D

21. D

34. B

47. C

9. D

22. B

35. A

48. C

10. B

23. C

36. E

49. A

11. C

24. C

37. E

50. E

12. A

25. D

38. B

51. B

13. A

26. C

39. A

52. C
77

FR. #1: ( 15 pts. for each section…total of 45 pts.)
A. In the US the move of the wealthy and middle class to the suburbs has left the older houses and apartments near the CBD empty.
This has lowered their value to the point where the poor can afford these dwellings and have made these neighborhoods their
homes. The poor can not pay for upkeep of these dwellings, or to pay high taxes. The lack of upkeep and tax money to repair the
roads and schools, adds to the downward spiral of the neighborhood. With little spending money for shopping, the poor do not
spend much in the stores. This causes many stores to close and move to the suburbs where the spending customers and money
went. The closing of the stores adds to the poverty of the area by taking away some of the jobs that were in the neighborhood. This
becomes a vicious cycle of poverty and deterioration. (15 points)

B. There are few retail stores and groceries is the area because the poor do not have money to shop. The lack of spending forces
many stores out of business or forces them to move to better locations. There also can be higher crime in these areas and the
crime often takes place at the stores. This is another reason for the stores to move out of the neighborhood. (15 points)
C. Neighborhoods in European and Latin American cities are different from those of US cities. In Europe and Latin America, the
wealthy and middle class still live near or in the CBD. The higher tax base and more spending ability of the upper and middle
classes, keeps the CBD area flourishing with jobs and in constant repair and upkeep of the cities’ physical condition. (15 points)

FR #2: (10 total points.)
You will need to judge how effectively you displayed you school
in the Multiple Nuclei Model. Refer to the model itself to help you
determine your success and grade.
School’s main office
78

Calculating your grade on test 13.
Add how many you got correct on the multiple choice part (55 possible) to how many
points you scored on the FR portion (55 possible)…110 total.
The following scale will show the approximate score if this test were the real AP exam. Remember that this
is an approximation. While 65-74% is normally the range for a 3 on the test, it is not definite. Over the
years I have seen scores as low as 60% be the low portion of a 3 score.

Out of 110 possible points:
72-83 is most likely a 3
84-94 is most likely a 4

95-110 is most likely a 5

Now lets start our review for the national exam by
reviewing the 33 key models and theories of the
course…the next PowerPoint.


Slide 9

Key topic/chapter 13…Urban Patterns
Key terms:
Annexation
Concentric zone model
Density gradient
Edge cities
Filtering
Galactic city
Gentrification
Greenbelts
Megalopolis
MSA
Multiple nuclei model
Peripheral model

Public housing
Redlining
Renovated housing
Scattered site
Squatter settlement
Sector model
Smart growth
Sprawl
Underclass
Urban renewal
Zone in transition
Zoning
1

Chapter 13…Urban Areas.
How are Cities planned?
Why

are cities where they are?
How are they organized?
Why are some areas of a city
different from
other areas of the same city?
What is the future of cities?
2

Settlement


Settlement - permanent collections of buildings,
where people live, work, and obtain services

3

ORIGINS OF SETTLEMENTS


Religious - graves, churches, temples



Cultural - schools, libraries



Political/Military - leader’s house, walls



Economic - stores, food
4

TYPES OF SETTLEMENTS


Rural Settlements - agriculture as the
predominant occupation.



Urban settlements - principal industries are
secondary and tertiary.

5

RURAL SETTLEMENTS
Clustered rural settlements –grouped
settlements in rural areas to minimize travel

Dispersed rural Settlements - isolated farms
with enclosed continuous fields (Found only in
N. America and Britain).

6

Urban Geographers want to know the global distribution of urban
settlements. MDC’s have a high percentage of people living in urban
areas because of the shift from agriculture-manufacturing-services.
Geographers are also interested in where people and activities are
distributed within urban spaces. What are the differences between the
inner-city and suburban areas and why?
As we saw in the last chapter, many downtowns are unique and can
often be recognized in photos where the suburbs often look very
much alike (Placelessness). Why? Suburbs offer the chance to avoid
some of the city problems (crime, tight living area, expensive
land/rent, noise, age of buildings) while still keeping a connection with
the goods and services of the city: jobs, sports teams, culture, shops,
recreation, etc.
7

Where is this place?

8

Today’s cities are evolving and changing. Although different internal
situations characterize urban areas in the US and elsewhere, the
problems arising from current spatial trends are quite similar in all cities.
Where have urban areas grown: in the early 1800’s only 3% of the earth’s
people lived in cities and only Beijing China had more than 1 million
people. Today over ½ of the world’s people live in cities and we have over
400 cities of at least 1 million people.

Urbanization: is the process by which city population grows.
Cities population growth is measured in 2 dimensions;
1. An increase in the number of people living in the cities.
2. An increase in the percentage of people living in the cities.
This distinction is important because they happen for different reason and
have different global distributions.
9

Increasing Percentage of People in Cities: a large percentage of people living in urban
areas is a measure of a country’s level of development. In MDC’s about ¾ of the people
live in urban areas compared to about 2/5 of people in LDC’s. (Except in Latin America
where the level is closer to MDC’s.)
The higher percentage of people in urban areas comes from the changes that have
occurred in the last 200 years as we went from agriculture (primary jobs) to industrial
(secondary jobs) and now service jobs, all created by the Industrial Revolution of the
1800’s.
People moved to the cities for industrial jobs, but in MDC’s this process has largely
ended because nearly everyone interested in moving to the cities from farms has already
done so.
In LDC’s the percentage of people living in urban areas is growing as people are pushed
off of their farms and replaced by machines and as people move to cities looking/hoping
for industrial jobs.
10

Increasing Number of People in Cities: MDC’s have a higher percentage of
people living in urban settlements but LDC’s have more of the very large urban
settlements (Primate cities). (Rank-size rule, primate cities, chapter 12.)

This is interesting because typically the large cities are created from the
improvements brought by the Industrial Revolution. This is not the case with the
large LDC cities. Migration to the primate city in LDC’s is happening even though
job opportunities may not be available. Increasing the population growth in LDC
cities is the fact that medical services are better in these cities, thus the child
mortality rate is lower.
Defining Urban Settlements: defining where urban areas end and rural areas
begin is not easy. Geographers have formulated definitions that distinguish
between urban and rural areas in two ways: Social differences and Physical
differences.
11

Percent Urban Population

Percent of the population living in urban areas is usually higher in MDCs
than in LDCs.

12

The most populated cities in the world

Of the top
20, only
Moscow,
Tokyo and
New York
are in MDC’s

Shanghai China has 14,608,512 people
13

14

15

Social Differences Between Urban and Rural Settlements: it is fair to say that rural
people and urban people follow different ways of life. A city can be defined as having 3
characteristics:
1. Large size. People in rural settlements know most of the other people in the
settlement. Not true in big cities. Social relationships are often described as “colder” in
urban areas because you only see some people at work instead of growing up with
them in the settlement.
2. High Density. Having lots of people in a tiny area creates social consequences. A
high density of people living in a small area can only be supported if the people
specialize (they can’t all be farmers). People are encouraged to compete for jobs, room,
and survival in a tightly limited space. Social groups compete to occupy the same space
(ethnic/ race problems). Rural settlements have very little of this problem.
3. Social Heterogeneity. The larger the settlement, the greater the variety of people.
Being “unusual” in a large settlement is more likely to be accepted than in a small rural
one. But despite the freedom to be different that large urban settlements give you,
people living there often feel alone because so many people are different from them.
There is a stronger feeling of belonging together in small rural settlements.
16

These 3 differences do not fully answer the question of where urban settlements
begin and rural ones end because in today’s MDC’s most everyone has access to
cars, telephones, televisions, and “urban type” jobs which reduce the differences
between urban and rural lifestyles. “City folk” and “Country folk” are more alike
today than they are different. To help distinguish between urban and rural areas we
need to add the physical definition of rural and urban to the equation.
Physical Definitions of Urban Settlements: In ancient time, cities had defensive
walls for protection which clearly defined the physical boundaries of the city. Today
the walls are gone but we can still define the physical boundaries in 3 ways:
1. Legal boundary. These are the official boundaries of a city as recognized by
the government of the country or state. These “city limits” have been officially given
to the city and are physically marked on official maps. The local government of the
city has authority to make laws and protect the people inside the city boundaries.
17

2. Urbanized area. This is the city plus its suburbs or urbanized area that
surrounds the city. About 70 percent of US residents live in urbanized areas with
40% being in the suburbs and 30% inside the city limits. The suburbs may have
their own city governments but the huge central city dominates what happens in
the entire area.
3. Metropolitan Statistical Area. Cities have an even bigger influence on people
than just those living in their city limits and surrounding urbanized areas. People
from far away come to shop, use the services, support the sports teams, read
the newspapers and watch the television broadcasts of the city. Thus the city
has a “functional area” which is its total zone of influence. The US Bureau of
Census has created a method of measuring the functional area of the city.
Known as the Metropolitan statistical area (MSA) this area includes:
•An urbanized area with a population of at least 50,000
•The county within which the city is located.
•Adjacent counties with a high population density and a large percentage of
residents working in the central city’s county.
18

Metropolitan Area of Philadelphia

City of
Philadelphia

Urbanized
area
(suburbs)
Metropolitan
Statistical
Area

The metropolitan area of Philadelphia is
spread over several counties and four states.
It is also a diversified trade center, given its
position on the Delaware river.

19

20

21

Micropolitan Statistical Areas: Smaller areas with between
10,000 and 50,000 people, the county where it is found, and
adjacent counties tied to the city. This would be a small town and
the area dominated by it.
Overlapping Metropolitan Areas: Some adjacent MSA’s overlap.
A county between two central cities may send a large number of
commuters to jobs in both cities. In some areas the cities are so
close that they form one continuous urban complex. This is
known as a Megalopolis (great city).
In a megalopolis, the downtown CBD often has its own
distinctive look and the urban areas are visually separated by
parks, open spaces, and dairy/truck farms. But at the periphery
of the urban areas, the boundaries overlap.
22

Colorado Springs, population 431,000

Ocala, Florida, population 56,000

Florala, Alabama, population 1,900

23

Megalopolis, from northern Va. To Maine.
This Illustrates the
difference between
strict city proper
definitions and broader
urban agglomerations.
To define urbanized
areas, the U.S. Census
Bureau uses the term
Metropolitan Statistical
Area (MSA) or
Consolidated MSA
(CMSA) if two or more of
them overlap.
24

Where are People Distributed within Urban Areas? People are not
just distributed at random in urban areas. For the most part they
concentrate in particular neighborhoods depending on their social
characteristics. Geographers want to see where people with
particular characteristics are likely to live and why.

Three models which try to explain the growth of a city:

The Burgess Model

The Hoyt Sector Model

The Harris and Ullman
multiple Nuclei Model
25

Burgess Concentric Zone Model

In the concentric zone model, a city grows in a series of rings surrounding the CBD.

Burgess Concentric Zone Model: This is the first used to explain the
distributions of different social groups within urban areas. It says that a
city grows outward from a central place in a series of concentric rings.
The precise size and width of the rings vary from one city to another, but
some basic types of rings appear in all cities in the same order (see chart
above).
26

•Hoyt Sector Model: In this model the city develops in a
series of sectors not rings. Certain areas of the city are
more attractive for various activities, originally because
of an environmental factor (or even pure chance). As the
city grows, activities extend outward in a wedge shape.
For example, once a wealthy neighborhood is built the
next wealthy neighborhood will extend from the first
neighborhood further outward from the center. In this
way, the best housing is found in a corridor extending
outward from the center to the outer edge (see chart on
the next page).
27

The Hoyt Sector Model

In the sector model, a city grows in a series of
wedges or corridors extending out from the
CBD.
28

•Harris and Ullman’s Multiple Nuclei Model: According
to this model, a city is a complex structure that includes
more than one center around which activities revolve.
Examples of these nodes include a port, parks,
stadium, neighborhood business center, university, and
airport (see chart). This theory states that some
activities are attracted to particular nodes, whereas
others try to avoid them. A university node may attract
well educated people and bookstores while the port will
attract hotels and warehouses. Heavy industry and
expensive houses rarely are found together. This
model shows the effect of the automobile more than
any other model.
29

The Harris and Ullman Multiple Nuclei model

The multiple nuclei model views a city as a
collection of individual centers, around which
different people and activities cluster.

30

Applications of the Models: The three models help explain where and in some
cases, why people live where they do. None of the models by themselves fully
explains why and where different types of people live, but combined they give
you as good a look as possible at the “Why” of “Where.” Effective use of the
models depends on getting good data on the areas. Most countries take a
census every 10 years to help determine useful data about the people and
places of the country. In our country we divide the census data into areas
known as census tracts of about 5,000 people. Each census tract has the data
that summarizes the characteristics of the people living within that tract. This
information includes things like the race, income, age, and education of the
people living in that tract.
Social Area Analysis: The data from the census tracts can all be plotted onto
maps to show the characteristics of the people living in that tract. This map is
known as a social area analysis.
31

Using Census tract information…Seattle, Washington
Each lined area is a
census tract of about 5000
people in Seattle
Washington. These maps
show average household
income for 1990 and
2000…note the changes in
income in some areas
between 1990 and 2000.
Using this information, a
business can make
decisions about where
they want to locate a new
store or the future of
existing stores.
You can find census tract
information on many topics
such as; age, education
level, race, ethnicity, crime
rate, and land ownership.
Note the areas with
incomes over
$63,000.

All can be very valuable
information to people
looking to open
businesses.

32

Examine the changes
between 1990 and
2000.

Oakland, California’s Ethnic neighborhoods
The small bordered areas are census tracks of 5000 people.

33

Use of the Models Outside of North America: The 3 models will also work in other
places in the world; however social groups in other countries may not have the
same reasons for selecting particular neighborhoods as Americans do.
European Cities: As in the US, wealthier people in European cities cluster along a
sector extending outward from the CBD, however unlike the US, wealthy and
middle class Europeans still live in the inner rings of the neighborhoods near the
CBD not out in the suburbs. In the past, poorer people lived in the center of the
city. Before electricity, social segregation was vertical: richer people lived on the
first or second floor of a building while the poorer people lived in the basement or
upper floors. In the Industrial Revolution, housing for the poor was constructed
near the factories and away from the rich.
Today poorer Europeans are less likely to live in the inner-city. Poor quality
housing has been renovated for the rich or turned into office buildings. Poorer
Europeans tend to live in the outskirts of the city. Vast suburbs with dozens of high
rise apartments house the poor. They face long commutes to reach their jobs in
the city.
34

European cities generally do not have the “suburban
sprawl” that US cities have. European cities tend to be
more pedestrian friendly with more parks downtown as
Europeans tend to still live downtown.
US cities have taller buildings as European cities tend to
be older and more historic.

American cities have more ethnic neighborhoods than
European cities. Ethnic neighborhoods that do exist in
European cities tend to be in the suburbs. WHY?
Because the established richer neighborhoods tend to be
downtown in European cities.
35

Less Developed Countries: Like Europe, most LDC’s accommodate their poor in the
suburbs with their middle class and rich living near the center of the city. LDC’s have
passed through 3 periods of city building: before the Europeans arrived, during the
period of European colonialism, and since independence from European control.

Pre-colonial Cities: Before the Europeans arrived few cities existed in Africa, Asia, and
Latin America and most people lived in small rural settlements. Those cities that existed
were mostly laid out surrounding a religious center; with the rest of the city laid out in a
hieratical concentric pattern (like the Burgess model) from government buildings,
homes of the wealthy, and businesses related to the religion out to other businesses
and shops.
Colonial cities: When the Europeans took over these lands, they changed the cities by
adding services to help the Europeans control the conquered people. Often a new
European style city would be build next to the existing native one. The new European
cities contained wider streets, a public square, larger houses and a much lower density.
The Spanish used the “Law of the Indies” which was a city plan designed specifically to
build cities in a “Spanish” style. (Gridiron pattern for streets centered on a church and
central plaza, walls around individual houses and neighborhoods centered around
smaller plazas and more churches.)
36

Early Mexico city was laid out in a grid pattern of streets. This followed
the Spanish “Law of the Indies.”

37

Central Plaza in Mexico City 1920 photo. Typical Colonial City plan.

Part of downtown Mexico city today still shows the
building plan of the “Law of the Indies.”

38

Cities since Independence: Following independence, cities have become
the focal point of the development of most LDC’s. Millions of people have
migrated to the cities (Primate cities) looking for jobs and services. Some
capitals have been moved to isolated areas in an attempt to help develop
that area of the country (Brasília) This is know as a forward capital. Latin
American cities have developed their own unique style.
Squatter settlements: The LDC’s are unable to house the rapidly growing
number of poor who are flowing into the cities. Because of the housing
shortages, the poor have constructed their own settlements around the city.
These settlements have few services because neither the city nor the
residents can afford them. Squatters have two basic choices for housing.
1. Illegally move into empty real houses located in the city or,
2. Rent slum housing.
(85% of the population of Addis Ababa in Ethiopia lives in squatter
settlements, slums or other illegal housing.)
39

Squatter shacks in Manila, the Philippines

40

Squatter settlement in Ethiopia

41

Zimbabwe, Africa

42

Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

43

Latin American City Model:
In many Latin
American cities,
the wealthy live in
the inner city and
in a sector
extending along a
commercial spine.
In situ accretion- businesses
and homes constantly under
construction/repair.
Zone of maturity-2nd best
housing in the city.
The poor live in squatter settlements on the
periphery of the city.

Disamenity- unpleasant area
used by the poor to get to the
market.

44

The City Outline of Rio de Janeiro
The rich tourist areas and expensive condo apartments are along the coast
and beach while the poor live in squatter shacks in the hills.

45

City problems:
Inner-City Physical Problems: Most US inner cities were constructed before the 1950’s
(people began to move to the suburbs in the 1950’s so new construction moved out of
the city).
Process of Deterioration (how a city deteriorates): A city doesn’t suddenly become old
and full of slummy areas. It happens over time. When a group of low-income people
inhabit an area of a city, nearby neighborhoods will often look to move out. They sell or
rent to more low-income occupants thus expanding the low-income area. Two processes
cause/speed up the devaluation of areas:
1. Filtering, 2. Redlining.
Filtering: Large houses and buildings that once housed rich downtown workers (who
moved to the suburbs) are taken over by landlords who don’t live in that area (they
moved to the suburbs too). Rents are low so the landlord doesn’t take as good care of
the property as they should and the property becomes run down or abandoned. Stores
close, or move, due to lack of sales. 100 years ago these neighborhoods would be used
by immigrants and ethnic businesses would succeed in those areas. Now, with a decline
in immigration, these neighborhoods have shrunk and so have schools, businesses and
other services. Thousands of vacant houses and buildings stand empty in inner cities
across America.

46

Redlining: Some banks refuse to give loans in what they consider
risky neighborhoods. They draw a red line on a map around areas
where they will not give loans. Without loans, these neighborhoods
have a hard time rebuilding/remodeling. Though illegal, this still
happens. Bankers just don’t put these “no-loan” areas on a map.

Urban Renewal: This is the series of projects to improve European
and N. American cities by buying up the blighted neighborhoods,
moving the people to new government built housing projects, and
building new roads, and other projects to make the inner city
attractive for business again. National and State government grants
help pay for these projects.
47

Public housing: Housing for the poor, built with government funding as part of
urban renewal. In the US this is only about 2% of the housing while in some
countries it may be more (Britain is 30%). Public housing built in the 50’s & 60’s
were largely high rise apartments, but those are seen as being unsatisfactory.
Problems arise from cramming large numbers of poor people into one area.
Today most public housing projects are one to three story buildings with many of
them being scattered around different parts of the city rather than clustered into
one area.
Because urban renewal has been criticized for destroying the social cohesion of
older neighborhoods, many governments (like the US) have stopped funding
most projects since the 1970’s. What do we do instead?
Renovated Housing: An alternative often used since the 70’s is to renovate a
building instead of urban renewal. The process where middle-class people
move into inner-city neighborhoods and renovate them is called gentrification.
Gentrified inner-city neighborhoods also attract middle-class people who work
downtown. Living close to work saves the hassle of commuting and rejuvenates
run down inner-city neighborhoods
48

Gentrified building downtown Harlem, NY. Note the supermarket.

49

Inner-City Social Problems: Inner-city residents are often referred to as the
permanent underclass because they are trapped in an unending cycle of
economic and social problems. High unemployment, alcoholism, drug
addiction, literacy, juvenile delinquency, and crime all exist at a higher rate
among those who live in the inner-city. Lack of jobs means lack of tax dollars
to pay for police and fire protection as well as good schools. Lack of job skills
and homelessness are also tremendous problems.
Culture of Poverty: Inner-city residents are trapped in a permanent underclass
culture that reproduces itself. In the US, unwed mothers give birth to 2/3 of the
babies in the inner-city. 90% of these children live with only one parent and it
is real hard for one parent to keep a job and take care of children. Both suffer
and a shortage of care and daily attention by the parent contributes to the kids
not learning the skills necessary to do well in school which leads to poor jobs
for their futures. Poverty leads to more poverty. Many families on welfare have
only one parent because it is financially better if one parent is gone, that way
the single parent gets food stamps and other services from the government
that they would not get if it was a 2 family household.
50

Crime: Trapped in a hopeless environment, some inner-city
residents turn to drugs. Drug use is a problem in inner-city
areas and the suburbs, but rates of drug use in inner-cities
are the highest.
Ethnic and Racial Segregation: As seen in chapter 7, many
neighborhoods in the US are segregated by ethnicity with
African Americans and Hispanics concentrated in one or two
continuous areas and whites living in the suburbs. Even small
cities display a strong distinction among neighborhoods. A
frequent division is between the east and west or north and
south side of town, or the railroad tracks. A family seeking a
new residence will seek the areas where the characteristics
of the people meet their own.

51

The exodus
from the
American city.
This has
happened in
many American
cities since the
1960’s.

52

Changes in Cities in the U.S.
U.S. population has been moving out of the city centers to the suburbs:
suburbanization and counter urbanization

Developed Countries: suburbanization

 wealthy move to suburbs
 automobiles and roads; ‘American
Dream’ of the home in the suburbs.
 better services
 wealthy move to suburbs
Counter urbanization

idyllic settings
cost of land for retirement
slow pace, yet high tech
connections to services and markets
53

U.S. intraregional migration during 1990s.

Inner city economic problems: the concentration of low income
residents in inner cities has caused economic problems. These
people require public services but can pay very little in taxes to
support the services. They need stores and jobs but have little
money to spend in the store and few skills for jobs (so the stores
close). To try to fight these problems many local and state
governments use tax monies to try to renovate these areas, but this
shifts tax money needed for other areas to the inner city (votes on
election day).
Annexation: Many cities could help their tax problem by adding the
new suburbs to be part of their city (annexation). After all, many of
these suburban people use the city for its’ jobs etc., so why not add
them into the city? Today, most people in the suburbs do not want
to be annexed into the city and so they do not vote to be annexed.
54

The Peripheral Model: According to this model, an urban area
consists of an inner city surrounded by large suburban residential
and business areas (MSA) tied together by a beltway or highway
that circles the city. Around the beltway are nodes of consumer
and business services called edge cities (see diagram of multiple
nuclei model). These edge cities sprang up to provide services
and jobs to the people in the suburbs.
Density Gradient: As you travel outward from the center of the
city, the density of people declines. Inner city has big apartments
of 250 of more people per acre. Suburbs have fewer people per
acre (but lots of acres) and finally you leave the cities periphery
you find few people. The number of houses per unit of land
diminishes as distance from the center of the city increases.
55

The Edge cities (bedroom communities) of Houston

The central city is surrounded by a ring road, around which are
suburban areas and edge cities, shopping malls, office parks,
industrial areas, and service complexes.

Known as
bedroom
communities
because
people live
there but
mostly don’t
work there.
They drive
into the city
for work.
56

As you move from the center of the city outward, the density of the population
changes. This is know as the density gradient. Two big changes have occurred in
the density gradient of today’s cities:
1. The number of people living in the center has decreased.
2. The density difference between the inner city and the suburbs is declining
because the inner city density is dropping and the suburban density is growing
due to more large apartments being built in the suburbs.
Cost of Suburban or Urban Sprawl: Urban Sprawl is the progressive spread of
development over the landscape. As long as we Americans want single-family
detached houses, land on the fringe of urban areas will be converted from open
space to residential use. The cost of this growth is more than the loss of land, it is
also the cost of new roads, utilities, building stores and offices and the cost of
automobiles to move these people over even longer distances. Lots of these new
developments are built on what was once farmland. Wonderful productive soil now
under concrete.

Greenbelts: are areas where, by law, the open space can not be used for any
construction. This is mostly found in Europe.

57

Once farmland that is being converted to suburbs and cities.

58

Tyson’s Corner Virginia in 1940

59

Washington, DC. MSA.

Tyson’s Corner Virginia
today.
Washington D.C. is off
In the distance.

60

Suburban Segregation: The “new” segregation.
Suburban segregation takes two forms:
1. Residents are separated from commercial and manufacturing activities
which are confined someplace else. (The whole neighborhood is
nothing but houses because they drive for services.)
2. The price of the house eliminates some from being able to live there. This
creates a homogeneous suburb of the same economic class of people.
This never existed before in history. Where we once had vertical
segregation of the classes we now we have horizontal segregation.
3. But this may be reversing as new statistics show that people are beginning
to move back to the city. Why? Cost of transportation.
Zoning Ordinances: This idea developed in Europe and later America in the
early decades of the 20th century. This means that businesses are allowed only
in certain areas of the settlement. (No all night taco stands inside your single
family neighborhood.)
Motor vehicles: The wide use of the automobile is largely responsible for the
American movement to the suburbs. Not only did people move out but 1/4 of
the land inside all American cities are now roads, streets, and parking lots.

61

Public Transportation: Because few US workers live within walking distance
of their jobs, urban areas are characterized by extensive commuting and the
problems that come with it. As much as 40% of all trips made into or out from
a city during the day takes place within just 4 hours. (2 in the morning and 2 in
the late afternoon). RUSH HOUR!!! In large cities, public transportation, like
subways and busses, are better suited to move people but Americans still
prefer their own cars. Public transportation is cheaper, cleaner, and more
energy efficient than personal cars, yet in the US only 5% of city travel is
done using public transit systems. American’s love their personal car too
much.
Local Government Fragmentation: Because of the large number of local
governments in the US (look at the settlements in Pinellas County) it is
difficult to solve some of the regional problems like garbage disposal, water
management, traffic and public housing.
62

Metropolitan government: This idea tries to put many local governments into a
larger unit that can better handle the urban problems. The 2 ways to do this
are:
1. Federations in which the individual settlements have their own police,
firemen, and tax collection but they all agree to be part of a second
government which handles transportation, water, sewage, parks and
welfare for all the communities.
2. Consolidations: In this method, several cities and the county may form one
government. Jacksonville’s government runs not only the town but the
county too, this makes Jacksonville the largest city, in land size, in the US.
Smart growth: A new movement by many states to curb suburban sprawl by
limiting where new construction can take place. Smart growth laws require that
land near cities be used up before any land further out can be developed. So
far, this is only being done an a few parts of our country.
63

The new
US as
some
people
see it.

64

Quiz Yourself:
1. The process where middle-class people move into inner city neighborhoods and
renovate them is called ____________
2. ____________ happens when banks refuse to give loans in what they consider
risky neighborhoods.
3. Because of the housing shortages, the poor have constructed their own settlements
around the city known as __________ _________

4. Businesses are allowed only in certain areas of the settlement because of
____________ ____________
5. Areas known as _____ _______ are areas of about 5,000 people. The data from
that area is used to help define needed services for that area.
6. When cities are so close that they form one continuous band of development this is
known as a ____________
65

7. Social relationships are often described as “colder” in urban areas because…
8. In this model the city develops in a series of sectors not rings. _______

9. ______ (LDC’s or MDC’s) have a higher percentage of people living in urban
settlements but ________ (LDC’s or MDC’s) have more of the very large urban
settlements.
10. _____________ was the first model developed to explain the distributions
of different social groups within urban areas.
11. New cities which develop around the beltway are nodes of consumer and
business services known as ________ _________.

12. When the Europeans took over lands around the world, they changed the
cities by adding services to help the Europeans control the conquered people.
These European planned cities are known as __________ cities.
66

Answer Key:
1.

Gentrification

2.

Redlining

3.

Squatter Settlements

4.

Zoning ordinances

5.

Census tracks

6.

Megalopolis

7. There is a stronger feeling of belonging together in small rural settlements.
8. Hoyt sector model
9. MDC, LDC
10. Burgess Concentric Zone model
11. Edge cities
12. Colonial cities
67

Test Key topic/chapter 13:
These questions come from a combination of our slides, your text book, and common knowledge you should
have discussed in your AP classroom. They are very typical of what you will see on the National Exam.
1) The multiple nuclei theory best explains why different neighborhoods of a city attract people of different… A) ages.
B) ethnic origin C) income D) marital status.
2) Sprawl is the… A) change in density within an urban area from the center to the periphery B) development of new
housing sites not contiguous to the existing built-up area. C) land maintained as open space surrounding an urban area.
D) period in the morning and evening with the heaviest volumes of traffic.
3) People are attracted to suburbs in part because suburbs are characterized by…A) heavy traffic. B) lower opportunity
for home ownership. C) private land surrounding the house. D) row houses and apartments.
4) Megalopolis refers to… A) adjacent, overlapping Metropolitan Statistical Areas. B) central cities. C) consolidated
Metropolitan Statistical Areas. D) central cities plus urbanized areas.
5) Which statement best describes the relationship between urbanization and the Industrial Revolution? A) Urbanization
promoted the Industrial Revolution. B) The Industrial Revolution promoted urbanization. C) Urbanization preceded the
Industrial Revolution by thousands of years. D) Urbanization and the Industrial Revolution are no longer related.
6) The process of legally adding land area to a city in the United States is… A) annexation. B) accreditation. C) an
application of eminent domain. D) defined by urbanized area.

68

7) The process of change in the use of a house, from single-family owner occupancy to abandonment, is… A) blockbusting.
B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining.
8) A process by which banks designate an area within which they refuse to lend money for improvements is… A) blockbusting.
B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining.
9) A recent change in the density gradient has been… A) the elimination of the gap traditionally found in the center. B) an
increase in the extremes between the inner and outer areas. C) an increase in the number of people living in the center.
D) a reduction in the differences in densities found within an urban area.
10) U.S. central cities face fiscal problems because… A) federal and state funds are available. B) low-income people are
concentrated there. C) middle-class families are attracted there. D) redlining is no longer legal.
11) A legal form of segregation in U.S. cities is achieved through...A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) zoning. D) greenbelts.
12) Factories have moved to suburban locations in part because of… A) access to main highways. B) adequate space to build
vertical structures. C) availability of large tracts of high-priced land. D) good rail connections.
13) According to the sector model, the best housing is located in…A) a corridor from downtown to the edge of the city.
B) an outer ring surrounding the city. C) nodes near universities and parks. D) renovated inner-city neighborhoods.
14) Ramshackle houses on the periphery of cities in less developed countries are known as… A) squatter settlements. B) council
estates. C) public housing. D) zone in transition.
15) Higher income people tend to live near the center of the city in all but which of the following regions? A) Latin America
B) North America C) South Asia D) Western Europe

16) The wide boulevards built in cities in less developed countries were most likely built during what era? A) pre-colonial
B) colonial C) independence D) all of the above equally

69

17) According to the multiple nuclei model, an airport is likely to attract nearby… A) industries. B) residences. C) shops.
D) universities.
18) The largest percentage of the U.S. population lives in…A) central cities. B) suburbs. C) non-metropolitan areas. D) all of the
above
19) In U.S. cities, the underclass is… A) clustered in inner-city neighborhoods. B) dispersed throughout the city. C) clustered in
suburbs. D) distributed uniformly in the city.

20) A process of converting a neighborhood from low-income to middle-class is…A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) gentrification.
D) redlining.
21) Higher social heterogeneity in urban settlements means that… A) the people with whom you relax are probably the same ones you
see at work. B) you play a specialized role in the urban economy. C) you compete for limited space. D) you may feel lonely and
isolated in a crowd.
22) The city plus its contiguous built-up suburbs is the… A) central city. B) urbanized area.
D) consolidated metropolitan statistical area

C) metropolitan statistical area.

23) The process whereby an increasing percentage of people live in an urban area is known as… A) demographic transition.
B) rank-size rule. C) urbanization. D) central place theory.
24) Of the ten largest urban areas in the world, how many are in More Developed Countries today? A) 1 B) 4 C) 7 D) 10 E) 2
25) Public housing is…A) conversion of low-income housing to middle-class housing. B) illegally established low-income housing.
C) housing that has changed from single-family owner occupancy to abandonment. D) low-income government-owned housing.
26) According to the concentric zone model, a city develops in a series of… A) corridors. B) nodes. C) rings. D) all of the above

70

27) Chicago is a good location in which to develop urban models because it is located… A) at the hub of the nation's transportation
system. B) in the center of the country. C) on a flat prairie. D) on the shore of Lake Michigan.
28) According to the sector model, the best housing is located in… A) a corridor from downtown to the edge of the city. B) an outer
ring surrounding the city. C) nodes near universities and parks. D) renovated inner-city neighborhoods.
29) The zone of transition in US cities generally contain…A) warehouses B) wealthy neighborhoods C) transportation hubs
D) universities and hospitals E) suburban homes
30) The attractions of shopping malls include all but which of the following? A) frequent concerts and exhibitions B) generous
parking lots C) place to meet friends D) walking distance from homes
The following questions are written at the high school level. You will find some questions from part one often rewritten
here. This is all designed to help you transition to the college/AP style of written questions. Any question preceded with ***
are questions that have been on the national exam before.
31. Most Latin American cities are focused on a…A) central plaza B) government housing project C) zone of heavy industry
D) skyscraper office building E) squatter settlement
32. The multiple-nuclei model of a city structure tends to be most applicable to…A) small cities B) traditional C) Latin American
cities D) newer, fast growing cities E) cities with homogeneous land use
33. ***Locational advantages important to the development of the earliest cities include…A) availability of good harbors for large
ships B) productive agricultural land and defensible sites C) temperate climate and proximity to coal mines D) good
connections by road and canal E) proximity to manufacturing areas

34. In cities, the CBD’s often show uniqueness while the suburbs usually show…A) a large hinterland. B) placelessness C) more
than one node. D) newer zones of transition.

71

35. Many LDC’s have tried to help a previously under-developed part of their country develop by moving their capital
city to that area. This new capital is known as a…A) forward capital B) new development zone C) enterprise zone
D) neocolonial city
36. Today the greatest number of urban dwellers is found in…A) North America
D) Europe E) Asia

B) South America C) Africa

37. ***All of the following have helped create ghettos in North American cities except…A)blockbusting and racial
steering B) redlining by financial institutions C) concentration of public housing and social services D) fixed school
districts E) Economic Enterprise Zones

38. Which of the following is NOT as reason for rapid suburbanization in the US after WW2? A) Mass production of
the automobile B) Reduction of long distance commuting C) Expansion of home construction D) Expansion of the
interstate highway system E) Availability of low down payment terms and long-term mortgages.
39. New cities which developed in the hinterland of large urban areas because of the automobile, are known as…
A) edge cities B) census tracts C) suburban sprawl D) squatter settlements. E) none of these
40. Gentrification refers to… A) moving the homeless into inner city shelters B) The “White Flight” from the urban city
C) losing tax revenue because of stores closing in downtown areas D) middle-class people moving into and renovating
inner city neighborhoods E) the creation of “beltway cities” around the city.

72

4
7
3

5

1
6

2

41-48 all use the sketch above.
41. The sketch in box A above represents which model of the inner structure of urban areas?
C) multiple nuclei model D) Burgess concentric zone model E) peripheral model
42. The models in boxes B and C represent A) Concentric zone and multiple nuclei
concentric zone D) peripheral and concentric zone E) Von Thunen and peripheral

A) Hoyt sector model B) VonThunen’s model

B) Multiple nuclei and Hoyt sector C) Hoyt sector and

43. In which ring (1, 2, etc.) of sketch A above would high-status households in North American cities likely live? A) 1 B) 2 C) 3 D) 4&5
44. In which ring (1, 2, etc.) of sketch A above would high status households in a European city likely live? A) 1

B) 2

C) 3

D) 4&5

45. In model B, zone # 2 is where it is likely because of: A) greenbelting B) squatter settling C) the culture of poverty D) transportation
E) no one knows
46. The model in sketch B is the; A) Hoyt sector model B) Burgess model C) multiple nuclei model D) peripheral model
47. The model in sketch C is the; A) Hoyt sector model B) Burgess model C) multiple nuclei model D) peripheral model
48. Which of these models best describes what has happened in US cities in the last 40 years? A)

B)

C)

73

49.*** In the U.S. a city plus its contiguous built-up suburbs is known as an…A) urbanized area B) zoned area
C) census tract D) Squatter settlement E) none of these
50. Done mostly in Europe, these are areas where land is kept as parks, farms or other kinds of open space and urban
sprawl is not allowed. A) Smart growth
B) zoning
C) filtering
D) census tracts E) greenbelts
51. Which statement best describes the relationship between urbanization and the Industrial Revolution?
A) Urbanization promoted the Industrial Revolution. B) The Industrial Revolution promoted urbanization.
C) Urbanization preceded the Industrial Revolution by thousands of years. D) Urbanization and the Industrial
Revolution are no longer related.
52. The process whereby an increasing percentage of people live in an urban area is known as…
A) Demographic transition. B) rank-size rule. C) Urbanization. D) Central place theory.
53. The city (if it has 50,000 or more people) plus its contiguous built-up suburbs AND the county it is in as well as any
other counties it influences, is known as the ...A) central city B) urbanized area
C) metropolitan statistical area
D) consolidated metropolitan area E) micropolitan statistical area
54. ***Higher social heterogeneity in urban settlements means that …A) the people with whom you relax are probably
the same ones you see at work. B) you play a specialized role in the urban economy. C) you compete for limited
space. D) you may feel lonely and isolated in a crowd.

55. The process of change in the use of a house, from single-family owner occupancy to smaller dwellings for the poor
and then sometimes to abandonment, is…A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining. E) none of
these

74

Free Response #1:
The Bid Rent theory says that the closer you get to the
CBD the higher the cost for land, yet in most American
cities you find the poorest people living near the
expensive CBD and the richest living further away.
Explain:
A. Why neighborhoods near the CBD are often poor and
run down?
B. Why are there few grocery and other retail stores in
these neighborhoods?
C. Why is this not really true in European and Latin
American countries?

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75

FR #2:
Think of the map of your school, explain the
layout of your school using the Multiple Nuclei
Model
The main office is the CBD.
Completely explain your answer using specific
buildings and/or land areas in your explanation
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76

Answer Key:
1. B

14. A

27. C

40. D

53. C

2. B

15. B

28. A

41. D

54. D

3. C

16. B

29. A

42. B

55. B

4. A

17. A

30. D

43. D

5. B

18. B

31. A

44. A

6. A

19. A

32. D

45. D

7. B

20. C

33. B

46. A

8. D

21. D

34. B

47. C

9. D

22. B

35. A

48. C

10. B

23. C

36. E

49. A

11. C

24. C

37. E

50. E

12. A

25. D

38. B

51. B

13. A

26. C

39. A

52. C
77

FR. #1: ( 15 pts. for each section…total of 45 pts.)
A. In the US the move of the wealthy and middle class to the suburbs has left the older houses and apartments near the CBD empty.
This has lowered their value to the point where the poor can afford these dwellings and have made these neighborhoods their
homes. The poor can not pay for upkeep of these dwellings, or to pay high taxes. The lack of upkeep and tax money to repair the
roads and schools, adds to the downward spiral of the neighborhood. With little spending money for shopping, the poor do not
spend much in the stores. This causes many stores to close and move to the suburbs where the spending customers and money
went. The closing of the stores adds to the poverty of the area by taking away some of the jobs that were in the neighborhood. This
becomes a vicious cycle of poverty and deterioration. (15 points)

B. There are few retail stores and groceries is the area because the poor do not have money to shop. The lack of spending forces
many stores out of business or forces them to move to better locations. There also can be higher crime in these areas and the
crime often takes place at the stores. This is another reason for the stores to move out of the neighborhood. (15 points)
C. Neighborhoods in European and Latin American cities are different from those of US cities. In Europe and Latin America, the
wealthy and middle class still live near or in the CBD. The higher tax base and more spending ability of the upper and middle
classes, keeps the CBD area flourishing with jobs and in constant repair and upkeep of the cities’ physical condition. (15 points)

FR #2: (10 total points.)
You will need to judge how effectively you displayed you school
in the Multiple Nuclei Model. Refer to the model itself to help you
determine your success and grade.
School’s main office
78

Calculating your grade on test 13.
Add how many you got correct on the multiple choice part (55 possible) to how many
points you scored on the FR portion (55 possible)…110 total.
The following scale will show the approximate score if this test were the real AP exam. Remember that this
is an approximation. While 65-74% is normally the range for a 3 on the test, it is not definite. Over the
years I have seen scores as low as 60% be the low portion of a 3 score.

Out of 110 possible points:
72-83 is most likely a 3
84-94 is most likely a 4

95-110 is most likely a 5

Now lets start our review for the national exam by
reviewing the 33 key models and theories of the
course…the next PowerPoint.


Slide 10

Key topic/chapter 13…Urban Patterns
Key terms:
Annexation
Concentric zone model
Density gradient
Edge cities
Filtering
Galactic city
Gentrification
Greenbelts
Megalopolis
MSA
Multiple nuclei model
Peripheral model

Public housing
Redlining
Renovated housing
Scattered site
Squatter settlement
Sector model
Smart growth
Sprawl
Underclass
Urban renewal
Zone in transition
Zoning
1

Chapter 13…Urban Areas.
How are Cities planned?
Why

are cities where they are?
How are they organized?
Why are some areas of a city
different from
other areas of the same city?
What is the future of cities?
2

Settlement


Settlement - permanent collections of buildings,
where people live, work, and obtain services

3

ORIGINS OF SETTLEMENTS


Religious - graves, churches, temples



Cultural - schools, libraries



Political/Military - leader’s house, walls



Economic - stores, food
4

TYPES OF SETTLEMENTS


Rural Settlements - agriculture as the
predominant occupation.



Urban settlements - principal industries are
secondary and tertiary.

5

RURAL SETTLEMENTS
Clustered rural settlements –grouped
settlements in rural areas to minimize travel

Dispersed rural Settlements - isolated farms
with enclosed continuous fields (Found only in
N. America and Britain).

6

Urban Geographers want to know the global distribution of urban
settlements. MDC’s have a high percentage of people living in urban
areas because of the shift from agriculture-manufacturing-services.
Geographers are also interested in where people and activities are
distributed within urban spaces. What are the differences between the
inner-city and suburban areas and why?
As we saw in the last chapter, many downtowns are unique and can
often be recognized in photos where the suburbs often look very
much alike (Placelessness). Why? Suburbs offer the chance to avoid
some of the city problems (crime, tight living area, expensive
land/rent, noise, age of buildings) while still keeping a connection with
the goods and services of the city: jobs, sports teams, culture, shops,
recreation, etc.
7

Where is this place?

8

Today’s cities are evolving and changing. Although different internal
situations characterize urban areas in the US and elsewhere, the
problems arising from current spatial trends are quite similar in all cities.
Where have urban areas grown: in the early 1800’s only 3% of the earth’s
people lived in cities and only Beijing China had more than 1 million
people. Today over ½ of the world’s people live in cities and we have over
400 cities of at least 1 million people.

Urbanization: is the process by which city population grows.
Cities population growth is measured in 2 dimensions;
1. An increase in the number of people living in the cities.
2. An increase in the percentage of people living in the cities.
This distinction is important because they happen for different reason and
have different global distributions.
9

Increasing Percentage of People in Cities: a large percentage of people living in urban
areas is a measure of a country’s level of development. In MDC’s about ¾ of the people
live in urban areas compared to about 2/5 of people in LDC’s. (Except in Latin America
where the level is closer to MDC’s.)
The higher percentage of people in urban areas comes from the changes that have
occurred in the last 200 years as we went from agriculture (primary jobs) to industrial
(secondary jobs) and now service jobs, all created by the Industrial Revolution of the
1800’s.
People moved to the cities for industrial jobs, but in MDC’s this process has largely
ended because nearly everyone interested in moving to the cities from farms has already
done so.
In LDC’s the percentage of people living in urban areas is growing as people are pushed
off of their farms and replaced by machines and as people move to cities looking/hoping
for industrial jobs.
10

Increasing Number of People in Cities: MDC’s have a higher percentage of
people living in urban settlements but LDC’s have more of the very large urban
settlements (Primate cities). (Rank-size rule, primate cities, chapter 12.)

This is interesting because typically the large cities are created from the
improvements brought by the Industrial Revolution. This is not the case with the
large LDC cities. Migration to the primate city in LDC’s is happening even though
job opportunities may not be available. Increasing the population growth in LDC
cities is the fact that medical services are better in these cities, thus the child
mortality rate is lower.
Defining Urban Settlements: defining where urban areas end and rural areas
begin is not easy. Geographers have formulated definitions that distinguish
between urban and rural areas in two ways: Social differences and Physical
differences.
11

Percent Urban Population

Percent of the population living in urban areas is usually higher in MDCs
than in LDCs.

12

The most populated cities in the world

Of the top
20, only
Moscow,
Tokyo and
New York
are in MDC’s

Shanghai China has 14,608,512 people
13

14

15

Social Differences Between Urban and Rural Settlements: it is fair to say that rural
people and urban people follow different ways of life. A city can be defined as having 3
characteristics:
1. Large size. People in rural settlements know most of the other people in the
settlement. Not true in big cities. Social relationships are often described as “colder” in
urban areas because you only see some people at work instead of growing up with
them in the settlement.
2. High Density. Having lots of people in a tiny area creates social consequences. A
high density of people living in a small area can only be supported if the people
specialize (they can’t all be farmers). People are encouraged to compete for jobs, room,
and survival in a tightly limited space. Social groups compete to occupy the same space
(ethnic/ race problems). Rural settlements have very little of this problem.
3. Social Heterogeneity. The larger the settlement, the greater the variety of people.
Being “unusual” in a large settlement is more likely to be accepted than in a small rural
one. But despite the freedom to be different that large urban settlements give you,
people living there often feel alone because so many people are different from them.
There is a stronger feeling of belonging together in small rural settlements.
16

These 3 differences do not fully answer the question of where urban settlements
begin and rural ones end because in today’s MDC’s most everyone has access to
cars, telephones, televisions, and “urban type” jobs which reduce the differences
between urban and rural lifestyles. “City folk” and “Country folk” are more alike
today than they are different. To help distinguish between urban and rural areas we
need to add the physical definition of rural and urban to the equation.
Physical Definitions of Urban Settlements: In ancient time, cities had defensive
walls for protection which clearly defined the physical boundaries of the city. Today
the walls are gone but we can still define the physical boundaries in 3 ways:
1. Legal boundary. These are the official boundaries of a city as recognized by
the government of the country or state. These “city limits” have been officially given
to the city and are physically marked on official maps. The local government of the
city has authority to make laws and protect the people inside the city boundaries.
17

2. Urbanized area. This is the city plus its suburbs or urbanized area that
surrounds the city. About 70 percent of US residents live in urbanized areas with
40% being in the suburbs and 30% inside the city limits. The suburbs may have
their own city governments but the huge central city dominates what happens in
the entire area.
3. Metropolitan Statistical Area. Cities have an even bigger influence on people
than just those living in their city limits and surrounding urbanized areas. People
from far away come to shop, use the services, support the sports teams, read
the newspapers and watch the television broadcasts of the city. Thus the city
has a “functional area” which is its total zone of influence. The US Bureau of
Census has created a method of measuring the functional area of the city.
Known as the Metropolitan statistical area (MSA) this area includes:
•An urbanized area with a population of at least 50,000
•The county within which the city is located.
•Adjacent counties with a high population density and a large percentage of
residents working in the central city’s county.
18

Metropolitan Area of Philadelphia

City of
Philadelphia

Urbanized
area
(suburbs)
Metropolitan
Statistical
Area

The metropolitan area of Philadelphia is
spread over several counties and four states.
It is also a diversified trade center, given its
position on the Delaware river.

19

20

21

Micropolitan Statistical Areas: Smaller areas with between
10,000 and 50,000 people, the county where it is found, and
adjacent counties tied to the city. This would be a small town and
the area dominated by it.
Overlapping Metropolitan Areas: Some adjacent MSA’s overlap.
A county between two central cities may send a large number of
commuters to jobs in both cities. In some areas the cities are so
close that they form one continuous urban complex. This is
known as a Megalopolis (great city).
In a megalopolis, the downtown CBD often has its own
distinctive look and the urban areas are visually separated by
parks, open spaces, and dairy/truck farms. But at the periphery
of the urban areas, the boundaries overlap.
22

Colorado Springs, population 431,000

Ocala, Florida, population 56,000

Florala, Alabama, population 1,900

23

Megalopolis, from northern Va. To Maine.
This Illustrates the
difference between
strict city proper
definitions and broader
urban agglomerations.
To define urbanized
areas, the U.S. Census
Bureau uses the term
Metropolitan Statistical
Area (MSA) or
Consolidated MSA
(CMSA) if two or more of
them overlap.
24

Where are People Distributed within Urban Areas? People are not
just distributed at random in urban areas. For the most part they
concentrate in particular neighborhoods depending on their social
characteristics. Geographers want to see where people with
particular characteristics are likely to live and why.

Three models which try to explain the growth of a city:

The Burgess Model

The Hoyt Sector Model

The Harris and Ullman
multiple Nuclei Model
25

Burgess Concentric Zone Model

In the concentric zone model, a city grows in a series of rings surrounding the CBD.

Burgess Concentric Zone Model: This is the first used to explain the
distributions of different social groups within urban areas. It says that a
city grows outward from a central place in a series of concentric rings.
The precise size and width of the rings vary from one city to another, but
some basic types of rings appear in all cities in the same order (see chart
above).
26

•Hoyt Sector Model: In this model the city develops in a
series of sectors not rings. Certain areas of the city are
more attractive for various activities, originally because
of an environmental factor (or even pure chance). As the
city grows, activities extend outward in a wedge shape.
For example, once a wealthy neighborhood is built the
next wealthy neighborhood will extend from the first
neighborhood further outward from the center. In this
way, the best housing is found in a corridor extending
outward from the center to the outer edge (see chart on
the next page).
27

The Hoyt Sector Model

In the sector model, a city grows in a series of
wedges or corridors extending out from the
CBD.
28

•Harris and Ullman’s Multiple Nuclei Model: According
to this model, a city is a complex structure that includes
more than one center around which activities revolve.
Examples of these nodes include a port, parks,
stadium, neighborhood business center, university, and
airport (see chart). This theory states that some
activities are attracted to particular nodes, whereas
others try to avoid them. A university node may attract
well educated people and bookstores while the port will
attract hotels and warehouses. Heavy industry and
expensive houses rarely are found together. This
model shows the effect of the automobile more than
any other model.
29

The Harris and Ullman Multiple Nuclei model

The multiple nuclei model views a city as a
collection of individual centers, around which
different people and activities cluster.

30

Applications of the Models: The three models help explain where and in some
cases, why people live where they do. None of the models by themselves fully
explains why and where different types of people live, but combined they give
you as good a look as possible at the “Why” of “Where.” Effective use of the
models depends on getting good data on the areas. Most countries take a
census every 10 years to help determine useful data about the people and
places of the country. In our country we divide the census data into areas
known as census tracts of about 5,000 people. Each census tract has the data
that summarizes the characteristics of the people living within that tract. This
information includes things like the race, income, age, and education of the
people living in that tract.
Social Area Analysis: The data from the census tracts can all be plotted onto
maps to show the characteristics of the people living in that tract. This map is
known as a social area analysis.
31

Using Census tract information…Seattle, Washington
Each lined area is a
census tract of about 5000
people in Seattle
Washington. These maps
show average household
income for 1990 and
2000…note the changes in
income in some areas
between 1990 and 2000.
Using this information, a
business can make
decisions about where
they want to locate a new
store or the future of
existing stores.
You can find census tract
information on many topics
such as; age, education
level, race, ethnicity, crime
rate, and land ownership.
Note the areas with
incomes over
$63,000.

All can be very valuable
information to people
looking to open
businesses.

32

Examine the changes
between 1990 and
2000.

Oakland, California’s Ethnic neighborhoods
The small bordered areas are census tracks of 5000 people.

33

Use of the Models Outside of North America: The 3 models will also work in other
places in the world; however social groups in other countries may not have the
same reasons for selecting particular neighborhoods as Americans do.
European Cities: As in the US, wealthier people in European cities cluster along a
sector extending outward from the CBD, however unlike the US, wealthy and
middle class Europeans still live in the inner rings of the neighborhoods near the
CBD not out in the suburbs. In the past, poorer people lived in the center of the
city. Before electricity, social segregation was vertical: richer people lived on the
first or second floor of a building while the poorer people lived in the basement or
upper floors. In the Industrial Revolution, housing for the poor was constructed
near the factories and away from the rich.
Today poorer Europeans are less likely to live in the inner-city. Poor quality
housing has been renovated for the rich or turned into office buildings. Poorer
Europeans tend to live in the outskirts of the city. Vast suburbs with dozens of high
rise apartments house the poor. They face long commutes to reach their jobs in
the city.
34

European cities generally do not have the “suburban
sprawl” that US cities have. European cities tend to be
more pedestrian friendly with more parks downtown as
Europeans tend to still live downtown.
US cities have taller buildings as European cities tend to
be older and more historic.

American cities have more ethnic neighborhoods than
European cities. Ethnic neighborhoods that do exist in
European cities tend to be in the suburbs. WHY?
Because the established richer neighborhoods tend to be
downtown in European cities.
35

Less Developed Countries: Like Europe, most LDC’s accommodate their poor in the
suburbs with their middle class and rich living near the center of the city. LDC’s have
passed through 3 periods of city building: before the Europeans arrived, during the
period of European colonialism, and since independence from European control.

Pre-colonial Cities: Before the Europeans arrived few cities existed in Africa, Asia, and
Latin America and most people lived in small rural settlements. Those cities that existed
were mostly laid out surrounding a religious center; with the rest of the city laid out in a
hieratical concentric pattern (like the Burgess model) from government buildings,
homes of the wealthy, and businesses related to the religion out to other businesses
and shops.
Colonial cities: When the Europeans took over these lands, they changed the cities by
adding services to help the Europeans control the conquered people. Often a new
European style city would be build next to the existing native one. The new European
cities contained wider streets, a public square, larger houses and a much lower density.
The Spanish used the “Law of the Indies” which was a city plan designed specifically to
build cities in a “Spanish” style. (Gridiron pattern for streets centered on a church and
central plaza, walls around individual houses and neighborhoods centered around
smaller plazas and more churches.)
36

Early Mexico city was laid out in a grid pattern of streets. This followed
the Spanish “Law of the Indies.”

37

Central Plaza in Mexico City 1920 photo. Typical Colonial City plan.

Part of downtown Mexico city today still shows the
building plan of the “Law of the Indies.”

38

Cities since Independence: Following independence, cities have become
the focal point of the development of most LDC’s. Millions of people have
migrated to the cities (Primate cities) looking for jobs and services. Some
capitals have been moved to isolated areas in an attempt to help develop
that area of the country (Brasília) This is know as a forward capital. Latin
American cities have developed their own unique style.
Squatter settlements: The LDC’s are unable to house the rapidly growing
number of poor who are flowing into the cities. Because of the housing
shortages, the poor have constructed their own settlements around the city.
These settlements have few services because neither the city nor the
residents can afford them. Squatters have two basic choices for housing.
1. Illegally move into empty real houses located in the city or,
2. Rent slum housing.
(85% of the population of Addis Ababa in Ethiopia lives in squatter
settlements, slums or other illegal housing.)
39

Squatter shacks in Manila, the Philippines

40

Squatter settlement in Ethiopia

41

Zimbabwe, Africa

42

Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

43

Latin American City Model:
In many Latin
American cities,
the wealthy live in
the inner city and
in a sector
extending along a
commercial spine.
In situ accretion- businesses
and homes constantly under
construction/repair.
Zone of maturity-2nd best
housing in the city.
The poor live in squatter settlements on the
periphery of the city.

Disamenity- unpleasant area
used by the poor to get to the
market.

44

The City Outline of Rio de Janeiro
The rich tourist areas and expensive condo apartments are along the coast
and beach while the poor live in squatter shacks in the hills.

45

City problems:
Inner-City Physical Problems: Most US inner cities were constructed before the 1950’s
(people began to move to the suburbs in the 1950’s so new construction moved out of
the city).
Process of Deterioration (how a city deteriorates): A city doesn’t suddenly become old
and full of slummy areas. It happens over time. When a group of low-income people
inhabit an area of a city, nearby neighborhoods will often look to move out. They sell or
rent to more low-income occupants thus expanding the low-income area. Two processes
cause/speed up the devaluation of areas:
1. Filtering, 2. Redlining.
Filtering: Large houses and buildings that once housed rich downtown workers (who
moved to the suburbs) are taken over by landlords who don’t live in that area (they
moved to the suburbs too). Rents are low so the landlord doesn’t take as good care of
the property as they should and the property becomes run down or abandoned. Stores
close, or move, due to lack of sales. 100 years ago these neighborhoods would be used
by immigrants and ethnic businesses would succeed in those areas. Now, with a decline
in immigration, these neighborhoods have shrunk and so have schools, businesses and
other services. Thousands of vacant houses and buildings stand empty in inner cities
across America.

46

Redlining: Some banks refuse to give loans in what they consider
risky neighborhoods. They draw a red line on a map around areas
where they will not give loans. Without loans, these neighborhoods
have a hard time rebuilding/remodeling. Though illegal, this still
happens. Bankers just don’t put these “no-loan” areas on a map.

Urban Renewal: This is the series of projects to improve European
and N. American cities by buying up the blighted neighborhoods,
moving the people to new government built housing projects, and
building new roads, and other projects to make the inner city
attractive for business again. National and State government grants
help pay for these projects.
47

Public housing: Housing for the poor, built with government funding as part of
urban renewal. In the US this is only about 2% of the housing while in some
countries it may be more (Britain is 30%). Public housing built in the 50’s & 60’s
were largely high rise apartments, but those are seen as being unsatisfactory.
Problems arise from cramming large numbers of poor people into one area.
Today most public housing projects are one to three story buildings with many of
them being scattered around different parts of the city rather than clustered into
one area.
Because urban renewal has been criticized for destroying the social cohesion of
older neighborhoods, many governments (like the US) have stopped funding
most projects since the 1970’s. What do we do instead?
Renovated Housing: An alternative often used since the 70’s is to renovate a
building instead of urban renewal. The process where middle-class people
move into inner-city neighborhoods and renovate them is called gentrification.
Gentrified inner-city neighborhoods also attract middle-class people who work
downtown. Living close to work saves the hassle of commuting and rejuvenates
run down inner-city neighborhoods
48

Gentrified building downtown Harlem, NY. Note the supermarket.

49

Inner-City Social Problems: Inner-city residents are often referred to as the
permanent underclass because they are trapped in an unending cycle of
economic and social problems. High unemployment, alcoholism, drug
addiction, literacy, juvenile delinquency, and crime all exist at a higher rate
among those who live in the inner-city. Lack of jobs means lack of tax dollars
to pay for police and fire protection as well as good schools. Lack of job skills
and homelessness are also tremendous problems.
Culture of Poverty: Inner-city residents are trapped in a permanent underclass
culture that reproduces itself. In the US, unwed mothers give birth to 2/3 of the
babies in the inner-city. 90% of these children live with only one parent and it
is real hard for one parent to keep a job and take care of children. Both suffer
and a shortage of care and daily attention by the parent contributes to the kids
not learning the skills necessary to do well in school which leads to poor jobs
for their futures. Poverty leads to more poverty. Many families on welfare have
only one parent because it is financially better if one parent is gone, that way
the single parent gets food stamps and other services from the government
that they would not get if it was a 2 family household.
50

Crime: Trapped in a hopeless environment, some inner-city
residents turn to drugs. Drug use is a problem in inner-city
areas and the suburbs, but rates of drug use in inner-cities
are the highest.
Ethnic and Racial Segregation: As seen in chapter 7, many
neighborhoods in the US are segregated by ethnicity with
African Americans and Hispanics concentrated in one or two
continuous areas and whites living in the suburbs. Even small
cities display a strong distinction among neighborhoods. A
frequent division is between the east and west or north and
south side of town, or the railroad tracks. A family seeking a
new residence will seek the areas where the characteristics
of the people meet their own.

51

The exodus
from the
American city.
This has
happened in
many American
cities since the
1960’s.

52

Changes in Cities in the U.S.
U.S. population has been moving out of the city centers to the suburbs:
suburbanization and counter urbanization

Developed Countries: suburbanization

 wealthy move to suburbs
 automobiles and roads; ‘American
Dream’ of the home in the suburbs.
 better services
 wealthy move to suburbs
Counter urbanization

idyllic settings
cost of land for retirement
slow pace, yet high tech
connections to services and markets
53

U.S. intraregional migration during 1990s.

Inner city economic problems: the concentration of low income
residents in inner cities has caused economic problems. These
people require public services but can pay very little in taxes to
support the services. They need stores and jobs but have little
money to spend in the store and few skills for jobs (so the stores
close). To try to fight these problems many local and state
governments use tax monies to try to renovate these areas, but this
shifts tax money needed for other areas to the inner city (votes on
election day).
Annexation: Many cities could help their tax problem by adding the
new suburbs to be part of their city (annexation). After all, many of
these suburban people use the city for its’ jobs etc., so why not add
them into the city? Today, most people in the suburbs do not want
to be annexed into the city and so they do not vote to be annexed.
54

The Peripheral Model: According to this model, an urban area
consists of an inner city surrounded by large suburban residential
and business areas (MSA) tied together by a beltway or highway
that circles the city. Around the beltway are nodes of consumer
and business services called edge cities (see diagram of multiple
nuclei model). These edge cities sprang up to provide services
and jobs to the people in the suburbs.
Density Gradient: As you travel outward from the center of the
city, the density of people declines. Inner city has big apartments
of 250 of more people per acre. Suburbs have fewer people per
acre (but lots of acres) and finally you leave the cities periphery
you find few people. The number of houses per unit of land
diminishes as distance from the center of the city increases.
55

The Edge cities (bedroom communities) of Houston

The central city is surrounded by a ring road, around which are
suburban areas and edge cities, shopping malls, office parks,
industrial areas, and service complexes.

Known as
bedroom
communities
because
people live
there but
mostly don’t
work there.
They drive
into the city
for work.
56

As you move from the center of the city outward, the density of the population
changes. This is know as the density gradient. Two big changes have occurred in
the density gradient of today’s cities:
1. The number of people living in the center has decreased.
2. The density difference between the inner city and the suburbs is declining
because the inner city density is dropping and the suburban density is growing
due to more large apartments being built in the suburbs.
Cost of Suburban or Urban Sprawl: Urban Sprawl is the progressive spread of
development over the landscape. As long as we Americans want single-family
detached houses, land on the fringe of urban areas will be converted from open
space to residential use. The cost of this growth is more than the loss of land, it is
also the cost of new roads, utilities, building stores and offices and the cost of
automobiles to move these people over even longer distances. Lots of these new
developments are built on what was once farmland. Wonderful productive soil now
under concrete.

Greenbelts: are areas where, by law, the open space can not be used for any
construction. This is mostly found in Europe.

57

Once farmland that is being converted to suburbs and cities.

58

Tyson’s Corner Virginia in 1940

59

Washington, DC. MSA.

Tyson’s Corner Virginia
today.
Washington D.C. is off
In the distance.

60

Suburban Segregation: The “new” segregation.
Suburban segregation takes two forms:
1. Residents are separated from commercial and manufacturing activities
which are confined someplace else. (The whole neighborhood is
nothing but houses because they drive for services.)
2. The price of the house eliminates some from being able to live there. This
creates a homogeneous suburb of the same economic class of people.
This never existed before in history. Where we once had vertical
segregation of the classes we now we have horizontal segregation.
3. But this may be reversing as new statistics show that people are beginning
to move back to the city. Why? Cost of transportation.
Zoning Ordinances: This idea developed in Europe and later America in the
early decades of the 20th century. This means that businesses are allowed only
in certain areas of the settlement. (No all night taco stands inside your single
family neighborhood.)
Motor vehicles: The wide use of the automobile is largely responsible for the
American movement to the suburbs. Not only did people move out but 1/4 of
the land inside all American cities are now roads, streets, and parking lots.

61

Public Transportation: Because few US workers live within walking distance
of their jobs, urban areas are characterized by extensive commuting and the
problems that come with it. As much as 40% of all trips made into or out from
a city during the day takes place within just 4 hours. (2 in the morning and 2 in
the late afternoon). RUSH HOUR!!! In large cities, public transportation, like
subways and busses, are better suited to move people but Americans still
prefer their own cars. Public transportation is cheaper, cleaner, and more
energy efficient than personal cars, yet in the US only 5% of city travel is
done using public transit systems. American’s love their personal car too
much.
Local Government Fragmentation: Because of the large number of local
governments in the US (look at the settlements in Pinellas County) it is
difficult to solve some of the regional problems like garbage disposal, water
management, traffic and public housing.
62

Metropolitan government: This idea tries to put many local governments into a
larger unit that can better handle the urban problems. The 2 ways to do this
are:
1. Federations in which the individual settlements have their own police,
firemen, and tax collection but they all agree to be part of a second
government which handles transportation, water, sewage, parks and
welfare for all the communities.
2. Consolidations: In this method, several cities and the county may form one
government. Jacksonville’s government runs not only the town but the
county too, this makes Jacksonville the largest city, in land size, in the US.
Smart growth: A new movement by many states to curb suburban sprawl by
limiting where new construction can take place. Smart growth laws require that
land near cities be used up before any land further out can be developed. So
far, this is only being done an a few parts of our country.
63

The new
US as
some
people
see it.

64

Quiz Yourself:
1. The process where middle-class people move into inner city neighborhoods and
renovate them is called ____________
2. ____________ happens when banks refuse to give loans in what they consider
risky neighborhoods.
3. Because of the housing shortages, the poor have constructed their own settlements
around the city known as __________ _________

4. Businesses are allowed only in certain areas of the settlement because of
____________ ____________
5. Areas known as _____ _______ are areas of about 5,000 people. The data from
that area is used to help define needed services for that area.
6. When cities are so close that they form one continuous band of development this is
known as a ____________
65

7. Social relationships are often described as “colder” in urban areas because…
8. In this model the city develops in a series of sectors not rings. _______

9. ______ (LDC’s or MDC’s) have a higher percentage of people living in urban
settlements but ________ (LDC’s or MDC’s) have more of the very large urban
settlements.
10. _____________ was the first model developed to explain the distributions
of different social groups within urban areas.
11. New cities which develop around the beltway are nodes of consumer and
business services known as ________ _________.

12. When the Europeans took over lands around the world, they changed the
cities by adding services to help the Europeans control the conquered people.
These European planned cities are known as __________ cities.
66

Answer Key:
1.

Gentrification

2.

Redlining

3.

Squatter Settlements

4.

Zoning ordinances

5.

Census tracks

6.

Megalopolis

7. There is a stronger feeling of belonging together in small rural settlements.
8. Hoyt sector model
9. MDC, LDC
10. Burgess Concentric Zone model
11. Edge cities
12. Colonial cities
67

Test Key topic/chapter 13:
These questions come from a combination of our slides, your text book, and common knowledge you should
have discussed in your AP classroom. They are very typical of what you will see on the National Exam.
1) The multiple nuclei theory best explains why different neighborhoods of a city attract people of different… A) ages.
B) ethnic origin C) income D) marital status.
2) Sprawl is the… A) change in density within an urban area from the center to the periphery B) development of new
housing sites not contiguous to the existing built-up area. C) land maintained as open space surrounding an urban area.
D) period in the morning and evening with the heaviest volumes of traffic.
3) People are attracted to suburbs in part because suburbs are characterized by…A) heavy traffic. B) lower opportunity
for home ownership. C) private land surrounding the house. D) row houses and apartments.
4) Megalopolis refers to… A) adjacent, overlapping Metropolitan Statistical Areas. B) central cities. C) consolidated
Metropolitan Statistical Areas. D) central cities plus urbanized areas.
5) Which statement best describes the relationship between urbanization and the Industrial Revolution? A) Urbanization
promoted the Industrial Revolution. B) The Industrial Revolution promoted urbanization. C) Urbanization preceded the
Industrial Revolution by thousands of years. D) Urbanization and the Industrial Revolution are no longer related.
6) The process of legally adding land area to a city in the United States is… A) annexation. B) accreditation. C) an
application of eminent domain. D) defined by urbanized area.

68

7) The process of change in the use of a house, from single-family owner occupancy to abandonment, is… A) blockbusting.
B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining.
8) A process by which banks designate an area within which they refuse to lend money for improvements is… A) blockbusting.
B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining.
9) A recent change in the density gradient has been… A) the elimination of the gap traditionally found in the center. B) an
increase in the extremes between the inner and outer areas. C) an increase in the number of people living in the center.
D) a reduction in the differences in densities found within an urban area.
10) U.S. central cities face fiscal problems because… A) federal and state funds are available. B) low-income people are
concentrated there. C) middle-class families are attracted there. D) redlining is no longer legal.
11) A legal form of segregation in U.S. cities is achieved through...A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) zoning. D) greenbelts.
12) Factories have moved to suburban locations in part because of… A) access to main highways. B) adequate space to build
vertical structures. C) availability of large tracts of high-priced land. D) good rail connections.
13) According to the sector model, the best housing is located in…A) a corridor from downtown to the edge of the city.
B) an outer ring surrounding the city. C) nodes near universities and parks. D) renovated inner-city neighborhoods.
14) Ramshackle houses on the periphery of cities in less developed countries are known as… A) squatter settlements. B) council
estates. C) public housing. D) zone in transition.
15) Higher income people tend to live near the center of the city in all but which of the following regions? A) Latin America
B) North America C) South Asia D) Western Europe

16) The wide boulevards built in cities in less developed countries were most likely built during what era? A) pre-colonial
B) colonial C) independence D) all of the above equally

69

17) According to the multiple nuclei model, an airport is likely to attract nearby… A) industries. B) residences. C) shops.
D) universities.
18) The largest percentage of the U.S. population lives in…A) central cities. B) suburbs. C) non-metropolitan areas. D) all of the
above
19) In U.S. cities, the underclass is… A) clustered in inner-city neighborhoods. B) dispersed throughout the city. C) clustered in
suburbs. D) distributed uniformly in the city.

20) A process of converting a neighborhood from low-income to middle-class is…A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) gentrification.
D) redlining.
21) Higher social heterogeneity in urban settlements means that… A) the people with whom you relax are probably the same ones you
see at work. B) you play a specialized role in the urban economy. C) you compete for limited space. D) you may feel lonely and
isolated in a crowd.
22) The city plus its contiguous built-up suburbs is the… A) central city. B) urbanized area.
D) consolidated metropolitan statistical area

C) metropolitan statistical area.

23) The process whereby an increasing percentage of people live in an urban area is known as… A) demographic transition.
B) rank-size rule. C) urbanization. D) central place theory.
24) Of the ten largest urban areas in the world, how many are in More Developed Countries today? A) 1 B) 4 C) 7 D) 10 E) 2
25) Public housing is…A) conversion of low-income housing to middle-class housing. B) illegally established low-income housing.
C) housing that has changed from single-family owner occupancy to abandonment. D) low-income government-owned housing.
26) According to the concentric zone model, a city develops in a series of… A) corridors. B) nodes. C) rings. D) all of the above

70

27) Chicago is a good location in which to develop urban models because it is located… A) at the hub of the nation's transportation
system. B) in the center of the country. C) on a flat prairie. D) on the shore of Lake Michigan.
28) According to the sector model, the best housing is located in… A) a corridor from downtown to the edge of the city. B) an outer
ring surrounding the city. C) nodes near universities and parks. D) renovated inner-city neighborhoods.
29) The zone of transition in US cities generally contain…A) warehouses B) wealthy neighborhoods C) transportation hubs
D) universities and hospitals E) suburban homes
30) The attractions of shopping malls include all but which of the following? A) frequent concerts and exhibitions B) generous
parking lots C) place to meet friends D) walking distance from homes
The following questions are written at the high school level. You will find some questions from part one often rewritten
here. This is all designed to help you transition to the college/AP style of written questions. Any question preceded with ***
are questions that have been on the national exam before.
31. Most Latin American cities are focused on a…A) central plaza B) government housing project C) zone of heavy industry
D) skyscraper office building E) squatter settlement
32. The multiple-nuclei model of a city structure tends to be most applicable to…A) small cities B) traditional C) Latin American
cities D) newer, fast growing cities E) cities with homogeneous land use
33. ***Locational advantages important to the development of the earliest cities include…A) availability of good harbors for large
ships B) productive agricultural land and defensible sites C) temperate climate and proximity to coal mines D) good
connections by road and canal E) proximity to manufacturing areas

34. In cities, the CBD’s often show uniqueness while the suburbs usually show…A) a large hinterland. B) placelessness C) more
than one node. D) newer zones of transition.

71

35. Many LDC’s have tried to help a previously under-developed part of their country develop by moving their capital
city to that area. This new capital is known as a…A) forward capital B) new development zone C) enterprise zone
D) neocolonial city
36. Today the greatest number of urban dwellers is found in…A) North America
D) Europe E) Asia

B) South America C) Africa

37. ***All of the following have helped create ghettos in North American cities except…A)blockbusting and racial
steering B) redlining by financial institutions C) concentration of public housing and social services D) fixed school
districts E) Economic Enterprise Zones

38. Which of the following is NOT as reason for rapid suburbanization in the US after WW2? A) Mass production of
the automobile B) Reduction of long distance commuting C) Expansion of home construction D) Expansion of the
interstate highway system E) Availability of low down payment terms and long-term mortgages.
39. New cities which developed in the hinterland of large urban areas because of the automobile, are known as…
A) edge cities B) census tracts C) suburban sprawl D) squatter settlements. E) none of these
40. Gentrification refers to… A) moving the homeless into inner city shelters B) The “White Flight” from the urban city
C) losing tax revenue because of stores closing in downtown areas D) middle-class people moving into and renovating
inner city neighborhoods E) the creation of “beltway cities” around the city.

72

4
7
3

5

1
6

2

41-48 all use the sketch above.
41. The sketch in box A above represents which model of the inner structure of urban areas?
C) multiple nuclei model D) Burgess concentric zone model E) peripheral model
42. The models in boxes B and C represent A) Concentric zone and multiple nuclei
concentric zone D) peripheral and concentric zone E) Von Thunen and peripheral

A) Hoyt sector model B) VonThunen’s model

B) Multiple nuclei and Hoyt sector C) Hoyt sector and

43. In which ring (1, 2, etc.) of sketch A above would high-status households in North American cities likely live? A) 1 B) 2 C) 3 D) 4&5
44. In which ring (1, 2, etc.) of sketch A above would high status households in a European city likely live? A) 1

B) 2

C) 3

D) 4&5

45. In model B, zone # 2 is where it is likely because of: A) greenbelting B) squatter settling C) the culture of poverty D) transportation
E) no one knows
46. The model in sketch B is the; A) Hoyt sector model B) Burgess model C) multiple nuclei model D) peripheral model
47. The model in sketch C is the; A) Hoyt sector model B) Burgess model C) multiple nuclei model D) peripheral model
48. Which of these models best describes what has happened in US cities in the last 40 years? A)

B)

C)

73

49.*** In the U.S. a city plus its contiguous built-up suburbs is known as an…A) urbanized area B) zoned area
C) census tract D) Squatter settlement E) none of these
50. Done mostly in Europe, these are areas where land is kept as parks, farms or other kinds of open space and urban
sprawl is not allowed. A) Smart growth
B) zoning
C) filtering
D) census tracts E) greenbelts
51. Which statement best describes the relationship between urbanization and the Industrial Revolution?
A) Urbanization promoted the Industrial Revolution. B) The Industrial Revolution promoted urbanization.
C) Urbanization preceded the Industrial Revolution by thousands of years. D) Urbanization and the Industrial
Revolution are no longer related.
52. The process whereby an increasing percentage of people live in an urban area is known as…
A) Demographic transition. B) rank-size rule. C) Urbanization. D) Central place theory.
53. The city (if it has 50,000 or more people) plus its contiguous built-up suburbs AND the county it is in as well as any
other counties it influences, is known as the ...A) central city B) urbanized area
C) metropolitan statistical area
D) consolidated metropolitan area E) micropolitan statistical area
54. ***Higher social heterogeneity in urban settlements means that …A) the people with whom you relax are probably
the same ones you see at work. B) you play a specialized role in the urban economy. C) you compete for limited
space. D) you may feel lonely and isolated in a crowd.

55. The process of change in the use of a house, from single-family owner occupancy to smaller dwellings for the poor
and then sometimes to abandonment, is…A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining. E) none of
these

74

Free Response #1:
The Bid Rent theory says that the closer you get to the
CBD the higher the cost for land, yet in most American
cities you find the poorest people living near the
expensive CBD and the richest living further away.
Explain:
A. Why neighborhoods near the CBD are often poor and
run down?
B. Why are there few grocery and other retail stores in
these neighborhoods?
C. Why is this not really true in European and Latin
American countries?

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FR #2:
Think of the map of your school, explain the
layout of your school using the Multiple Nuclei
Model
The main office is the CBD.
Completely explain your answer using specific
buildings and/or land areas in your explanation
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Answer Key:
1. B

14. A

27. C

40. D

53. C

2. B

15. B

28. A

41. D

54. D

3. C

16. B

29. A

42. B

55. B

4. A

17. A

30. D

43. D

5. B

18. B

31. A

44. A

6. A

19. A

32. D

45. D

7. B

20. C

33. B

46. A

8. D

21. D

34. B

47. C

9. D

22. B

35. A

48. C

10. B

23. C

36. E

49. A

11. C

24. C

37. E

50. E

12. A

25. D

38. B

51. B

13. A

26. C

39. A

52. C
77

FR. #1: ( 15 pts. for each section…total of 45 pts.)
A. In the US the move of the wealthy and middle class to the suburbs has left the older houses and apartments near the CBD empty.
This has lowered their value to the point where the poor can afford these dwellings and have made these neighborhoods their
homes. The poor can not pay for upkeep of these dwellings, or to pay high taxes. The lack of upkeep and tax money to repair the
roads and schools, adds to the downward spiral of the neighborhood. With little spending money for shopping, the poor do not
spend much in the stores. This causes many stores to close and move to the suburbs where the spending customers and money
went. The closing of the stores adds to the poverty of the area by taking away some of the jobs that were in the neighborhood. This
becomes a vicious cycle of poverty and deterioration. (15 points)

B. There are few retail stores and groceries is the area because the poor do not have money to shop. The lack of spending forces
many stores out of business or forces them to move to better locations. There also can be higher crime in these areas and the
crime often takes place at the stores. This is another reason for the stores to move out of the neighborhood. (15 points)
C. Neighborhoods in European and Latin American cities are different from those of US cities. In Europe and Latin America, the
wealthy and middle class still live near or in the CBD. The higher tax base and more spending ability of the upper and middle
classes, keeps the CBD area flourishing with jobs and in constant repair and upkeep of the cities’ physical condition. (15 points)

FR #2: (10 total points.)
You will need to judge how effectively you displayed you school
in the Multiple Nuclei Model. Refer to the model itself to help you
determine your success and grade.
School’s main office
78

Calculating your grade on test 13.
Add how many you got correct on the multiple choice part (55 possible) to how many
points you scored on the FR portion (55 possible)…110 total.
The following scale will show the approximate score if this test were the real AP exam. Remember that this
is an approximation. While 65-74% is normally the range for a 3 on the test, it is not definite. Over the
years I have seen scores as low as 60% be the low portion of a 3 score.

Out of 110 possible points:
72-83 is most likely a 3
84-94 is most likely a 4

95-110 is most likely a 5

Now lets start our review for the national exam by
reviewing the 33 key models and theories of the
course…the next PowerPoint.


Slide 11

Key topic/chapter 13…Urban Patterns
Key terms:
Annexation
Concentric zone model
Density gradient
Edge cities
Filtering
Galactic city
Gentrification
Greenbelts
Megalopolis
MSA
Multiple nuclei model
Peripheral model

Public housing
Redlining
Renovated housing
Scattered site
Squatter settlement
Sector model
Smart growth
Sprawl
Underclass
Urban renewal
Zone in transition
Zoning
1

Chapter 13…Urban Areas.
How are Cities planned?
Why

are cities where they are?
How are they organized?
Why are some areas of a city
different from
other areas of the same city?
What is the future of cities?
2

Settlement


Settlement - permanent collections of buildings,
where people live, work, and obtain services

3

ORIGINS OF SETTLEMENTS


Religious - graves, churches, temples



Cultural - schools, libraries



Political/Military - leader’s house, walls



Economic - stores, food
4

TYPES OF SETTLEMENTS


Rural Settlements - agriculture as the
predominant occupation.



Urban settlements - principal industries are
secondary and tertiary.

5

RURAL SETTLEMENTS
Clustered rural settlements –grouped
settlements in rural areas to minimize travel

Dispersed rural Settlements - isolated farms
with enclosed continuous fields (Found only in
N. America and Britain).

6

Urban Geographers want to know the global distribution of urban
settlements. MDC’s have a high percentage of people living in urban
areas because of the shift from agriculture-manufacturing-services.
Geographers are also interested in where people and activities are
distributed within urban spaces. What are the differences between the
inner-city and suburban areas and why?
As we saw in the last chapter, many downtowns are unique and can
often be recognized in photos where the suburbs often look very
much alike (Placelessness). Why? Suburbs offer the chance to avoid
some of the city problems (crime, tight living area, expensive
land/rent, noise, age of buildings) while still keeping a connection with
the goods and services of the city: jobs, sports teams, culture, shops,
recreation, etc.
7

Where is this place?

8

Today’s cities are evolving and changing. Although different internal
situations characterize urban areas in the US and elsewhere, the
problems arising from current spatial trends are quite similar in all cities.
Where have urban areas grown: in the early 1800’s only 3% of the earth’s
people lived in cities and only Beijing China had more than 1 million
people. Today over ½ of the world’s people live in cities and we have over
400 cities of at least 1 million people.

Urbanization: is the process by which city population grows.
Cities population growth is measured in 2 dimensions;
1. An increase in the number of people living in the cities.
2. An increase in the percentage of people living in the cities.
This distinction is important because they happen for different reason and
have different global distributions.
9

Increasing Percentage of People in Cities: a large percentage of people living in urban
areas is a measure of a country’s level of development. In MDC’s about ¾ of the people
live in urban areas compared to about 2/5 of people in LDC’s. (Except in Latin America
where the level is closer to MDC’s.)
The higher percentage of people in urban areas comes from the changes that have
occurred in the last 200 years as we went from agriculture (primary jobs) to industrial
(secondary jobs) and now service jobs, all created by the Industrial Revolution of the
1800’s.
People moved to the cities for industrial jobs, but in MDC’s this process has largely
ended because nearly everyone interested in moving to the cities from farms has already
done so.
In LDC’s the percentage of people living in urban areas is growing as people are pushed
off of their farms and replaced by machines and as people move to cities looking/hoping
for industrial jobs.
10

Increasing Number of People in Cities: MDC’s have a higher percentage of
people living in urban settlements but LDC’s have more of the very large urban
settlements (Primate cities). (Rank-size rule, primate cities, chapter 12.)

This is interesting because typically the large cities are created from the
improvements brought by the Industrial Revolution. This is not the case with the
large LDC cities. Migration to the primate city in LDC’s is happening even though
job opportunities may not be available. Increasing the population growth in LDC
cities is the fact that medical services are better in these cities, thus the child
mortality rate is lower.
Defining Urban Settlements: defining where urban areas end and rural areas
begin is not easy. Geographers have formulated definitions that distinguish
between urban and rural areas in two ways: Social differences and Physical
differences.
11

Percent Urban Population

Percent of the population living in urban areas is usually higher in MDCs
than in LDCs.

12

The most populated cities in the world

Of the top
20, only
Moscow,
Tokyo and
New York
are in MDC’s

Shanghai China has 14,608,512 people
13

14

15

Social Differences Between Urban and Rural Settlements: it is fair to say that rural
people and urban people follow different ways of life. A city can be defined as having 3
characteristics:
1. Large size. People in rural settlements know most of the other people in the
settlement. Not true in big cities. Social relationships are often described as “colder” in
urban areas because you only see some people at work instead of growing up with
them in the settlement.
2. High Density. Having lots of people in a tiny area creates social consequences. A
high density of people living in a small area can only be supported if the people
specialize (they can’t all be farmers). People are encouraged to compete for jobs, room,
and survival in a tightly limited space. Social groups compete to occupy the same space
(ethnic/ race problems). Rural settlements have very little of this problem.
3. Social Heterogeneity. The larger the settlement, the greater the variety of people.
Being “unusual” in a large settlement is more likely to be accepted than in a small rural
one. But despite the freedom to be different that large urban settlements give you,
people living there often feel alone because so many people are different from them.
There is a stronger feeling of belonging together in small rural settlements.
16

These 3 differences do not fully answer the question of where urban settlements
begin and rural ones end because in today’s MDC’s most everyone has access to
cars, telephones, televisions, and “urban type” jobs which reduce the differences
between urban and rural lifestyles. “City folk” and “Country folk” are more alike
today than they are different. To help distinguish between urban and rural areas we
need to add the physical definition of rural and urban to the equation.
Physical Definitions of Urban Settlements: In ancient time, cities had defensive
walls for protection which clearly defined the physical boundaries of the city. Today
the walls are gone but we can still define the physical boundaries in 3 ways:
1. Legal boundary. These are the official boundaries of a city as recognized by
the government of the country or state. These “city limits” have been officially given
to the city and are physically marked on official maps. The local government of the
city has authority to make laws and protect the people inside the city boundaries.
17

2. Urbanized area. This is the city plus its suburbs or urbanized area that
surrounds the city. About 70 percent of US residents live in urbanized areas with
40% being in the suburbs and 30% inside the city limits. The suburbs may have
their own city governments but the huge central city dominates what happens in
the entire area.
3. Metropolitan Statistical Area. Cities have an even bigger influence on people
than just those living in their city limits and surrounding urbanized areas. People
from far away come to shop, use the services, support the sports teams, read
the newspapers and watch the television broadcasts of the city. Thus the city
has a “functional area” which is its total zone of influence. The US Bureau of
Census has created a method of measuring the functional area of the city.
Known as the Metropolitan statistical area (MSA) this area includes:
•An urbanized area with a population of at least 50,000
•The county within which the city is located.
•Adjacent counties with a high population density and a large percentage of
residents working in the central city’s county.
18

Metropolitan Area of Philadelphia

City of
Philadelphia

Urbanized
area
(suburbs)
Metropolitan
Statistical
Area

The metropolitan area of Philadelphia is
spread over several counties and four states.
It is also a diversified trade center, given its
position on the Delaware river.

19

20

21

Micropolitan Statistical Areas: Smaller areas with between
10,000 and 50,000 people, the county where it is found, and
adjacent counties tied to the city. This would be a small town and
the area dominated by it.
Overlapping Metropolitan Areas: Some adjacent MSA’s overlap.
A county between two central cities may send a large number of
commuters to jobs in both cities. In some areas the cities are so
close that they form one continuous urban complex. This is
known as a Megalopolis (great city).
In a megalopolis, the downtown CBD often has its own
distinctive look and the urban areas are visually separated by
parks, open spaces, and dairy/truck farms. But at the periphery
of the urban areas, the boundaries overlap.
22

Colorado Springs, population 431,000

Ocala, Florida, population 56,000

Florala, Alabama, population 1,900

23

Megalopolis, from northern Va. To Maine.
This Illustrates the
difference between
strict city proper
definitions and broader
urban agglomerations.
To define urbanized
areas, the U.S. Census
Bureau uses the term
Metropolitan Statistical
Area (MSA) or
Consolidated MSA
(CMSA) if two or more of
them overlap.
24

Where are People Distributed within Urban Areas? People are not
just distributed at random in urban areas. For the most part they
concentrate in particular neighborhoods depending on their social
characteristics. Geographers want to see where people with
particular characteristics are likely to live and why.

Three models which try to explain the growth of a city:

The Burgess Model

The Hoyt Sector Model

The Harris and Ullman
multiple Nuclei Model
25

Burgess Concentric Zone Model

In the concentric zone model, a city grows in a series of rings surrounding the CBD.

Burgess Concentric Zone Model: This is the first used to explain the
distributions of different social groups within urban areas. It says that a
city grows outward from a central place in a series of concentric rings.
The precise size and width of the rings vary from one city to another, but
some basic types of rings appear in all cities in the same order (see chart
above).
26

•Hoyt Sector Model: In this model the city develops in a
series of sectors not rings. Certain areas of the city are
more attractive for various activities, originally because
of an environmental factor (or even pure chance). As the
city grows, activities extend outward in a wedge shape.
For example, once a wealthy neighborhood is built the
next wealthy neighborhood will extend from the first
neighborhood further outward from the center. In this
way, the best housing is found in a corridor extending
outward from the center to the outer edge (see chart on
the next page).
27

The Hoyt Sector Model

In the sector model, a city grows in a series of
wedges or corridors extending out from the
CBD.
28

•Harris and Ullman’s Multiple Nuclei Model: According
to this model, a city is a complex structure that includes
more than one center around which activities revolve.
Examples of these nodes include a port, parks,
stadium, neighborhood business center, university, and
airport (see chart). This theory states that some
activities are attracted to particular nodes, whereas
others try to avoid them. A university node may attract
well educated people and bookstores while the port will
attract hotels and warehouses. Heavy industry and
expensive houses rarely are found together. This
model shows the effect of the automobile more than
any other model.
29

The Harris and Ullman Multiple Nuclei model

The multiple nuclei model views a city as a
collection of individual centers, around which
different people and activities cluster.

30

Applications of the Models: The three models help explain where and in some
cases, why people live where they do. None of the models by themselves fully
explains why and where different types of people live, but combined they give
you as good a look as possible at the “Why” of “Where.” Effective use of the
models depends on getting good data on the areas. Most countries take a
census every 10 years to help determine useful data about the people and
places of the country. In our country we divide the census data into areas
known as census tracts of about 5,000 people. Each census tract has the data
that summarizes the characteristics of the people living within that tract. This
information includes things like the race, income, age, and education of the
people living in that tract.
Social Area Analysis: The data from the census tracts can all be plotted onto
maps to show the characteristics of the people living in that tract. This map is
known as a social area analysis.
31

Using Census tract information…Seattle, Washington
Each lined area is a
census tract of about 5000
people in Seattle
Washington. These maps
show average household
income for 1990 and
2000…note the changes in
income in some areas
between 1990 and 2000.
Using this information, a
business can make
decisions about where
they want to locate a new
store or the future of
existing stores.
You can find census tract
information on many topics
such as; age, education
level, race, ethnicity, crime
rate, and land ownership.
Note the areas with
incomes over
$63,000.

All can be very valuable
information to people
looking to open
businesses.

32

Examine the changes
between 1990 and
2000.

Oakland, California’s Ethnic neighborhoods
The small bordered areas are census tracks of 5000 people.

33

Use of the Models Outside of North America: The 3 models will also work in other
places in the world; however social groups in other countries may not have the
same reasons for selecting particular neighborhoods as Americans do.
European Cities: As in the US, wealthier people in European cities cluster along a
sector extending outward from the CBD, however unlike the US, wealthy and
middle class Europeans still live in the inner rings of the neighborhoods near the
CBD not out in the suburbs. In the past, poorer people lived in the center of the
city. Before electricity, social segregation was vertical: richer people lived on the
first or second floor of a building while the poorer people lived in the basement or
upper floors. In the Industrial Revolution, housing for the poor was constructed
near the factories and away from the rich.
Today poorer Europeans are less likely to live in the inner-city. Poor quality
housing has been renovated for the rich or turned into office buildings. Poorer
Europeans tend to live in the outskirts of the city. Vast suburbs with dozens of high
rise apartments house the poor. They face long commutes to reach their jobs in
the city.
34

European cities generally do not have the “suburban
sprawl” that US cities have. European cities tend to be
more pedestrian friendly with more parks downtown as
Europeans tend to still live downtown.
US cities have taller buildings as European cities tend to
be older and more historic.

American cities have more ethnic neighborhoods than
European cities. Ethnic neighborhoods that do exist in
European cities tend to be in the suburbs. WHY?
Because the established richer neighborhoods tend to be
downtown in European cities.
35

Less Developed Countries: Like Europe, most LDC’s accommodate their poor in the
suburbs with their middle class and rich living near the center of the city. LDC’s have
passed through 3 periods of city building: before the Europeans arrived, during the
period of European colonialism, and since independence from European control.

Pre-colonial Cities: Before the Europeans arrived few cities existed in Africa, Asia, and
Latin America and most people lived in small rural settlements. Those cities that existed
were mostly laid out surrounding a religious center; with the rest of the city laid out in a
hieratical concentric pattern (like the Burgess model) from government buildings,
homes of the wealthy, and businesses related to the religion out to other businesses
and shops.
Colonial cities: When the Europeans took over these lands, they changed the cities by
adding services to help the Europeans control the conquered people. Often a new
European style city would be build next to the existing native one. The new European
cities contained wider streets, a public square, larger houses and a much lower density.
The Spanish used the “Law of the Indies” which was a city plan designed specifically to
build cities in a “Spanish” style. (Gridiron pattern for streets centered on a church and
central plaza, walls around individual houses and neighborhoods centered around
smaller plazas and more churches.)
36

Early Mexico city was laid out in a grid pattern of streets. This followed
the Spanish “Law of the Indies.”

37

Central Plaza in Mexico City 1920 photo. Typical Colonial City plan.

Part of downtown Mexico city today still shows the
building plan of the “Law of the Indies.”

38

Cities since Independence: Following independence, cities have become
the focal point of the development of most LDC’s. Millions of people have
migrated to the cities (Primate cities) looking for jobs and services. Some
capitals have been moved to isolated areas in an attempt to help develop
that area of the country (Brasília) This is know as a forward capital. Latin
American cities have developed their own unique style.
Squatter settlements: The LDC’s are unable to house the rapidly growing
number of poor who are flowing into the cities. Because of the housing
shortages, the poor have constructed their own settlements around the city.
These settlements have few services because neither the city nor the
residents can afford them. Squatters have two basic choices for housing.
1. Illegally move into empty real houses located in the city or,
2. Rent slum housing.
(85% of the population of Addis Ababa in Ethiopia lives in squatter
settlements, slums or other illegal housing.)
39

Squatter shacks in Manila, the Philippines

40

Squatter settlement in Ethiopia

41

Zimbabwe, Africa

42

Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

43

Latin American City Model:
In many Latin
American cities,
the wealthy live in
the inner city and
in a sector
extending along a
commercial spine.
In situ accretion- businesses
and homes constantly under
construction/repair.
Zone of maturity-2nd best
housing in the city.
The poor live in squatter settlements on the
periphery of the city.

Disamenity- unpleasant area
used by the poor to get to the
market.

44

The City Outline of Rio de Janeiro
The rich tourist areas and expensive condo apartments are along the coast
and beach while the poor live in squatter shacks in the hills.

45

City problems:
Inner-City Physical Problems: Most US inner cities were constructed before the 1950’s
(people began to move to the suburbs in the 1950’s so new construction moved out of
the city).
Process of Deterioration (how a city deteriorates): A city doesn’t suddenly become old
and full of slummy areas. It happens over time. When a group of low-income people
inhabit an area of a city, nearby neighborhoods will often look to move out. They sell or
rent to more low-income occupants thus expanding the low-income area. Two processes
cause/speed up the devaluation of areas:
1. Filtering, 2. Redlining.
Filtering: Large houses and buildings that once housed rich downtown workers (who
moved to the suburbs) are taken over by landlords who don’t live in that area (they
moved to the suburbs too). Rents are low so the landlord doesn’t take as good care of
the property as they should and the property becomes run down or abandoned. Stores
close, or move, due to lack of sales. 100 years ago these neighborhoods would be used
by immigrants and ethnic businesses would succeed in those areas. Now, with a decline
in immigration, these neighborhoods have shrunk and so have schools, businesses and
other services. Thousands of vacant houses and buildings stand empty in inner cities
across America.

46

Redlining: Some banks refuse to give loans in what they consider
risky neighborhoods. They draw a red line on a map around areas
where they will not give loans. Without loans, these neighborhoods
have a hard time rebuilding/remodeling. Though illegal, this still
happens. Bankers just don’t put these “no-loan” areas on a map.

Urban Renewal: This is the series of projects to improve European
and N. American cities by buying up the blighted neighborhoods,
moving the people to new government built housing projects, and
building new roads, and other projects to make the inner city
attractive for business again. National and State government grants
help pay for these projects.
47

Public housing: Housing for the poor, built with government funding as part of
urban renewal. In the US this is only about 2% of the housing while in some
countries it may be more (Britain is 30%). Public housing built in the 50’s & 60’s
were largely high rise apartments, but those are seen as being unsatisfactory.
Problems arise from cramming large numbers of poor people into one area.
Today most public housing projects are one to three story buildings with many of
them being scattered around different parts of the city rather than clustered into
one area.
Because urban renewal has been criticized for destroying the social cohesion of
older neighborhoods, many governments (like the US) have stopped funding
most projects since the 1970’s. What do we do instead?
Renovated Housing: An alternative often used since the 70’s is to renovate a
building instead of urban renewal. The process where middle-class people
move into inner-city neighborhoods and renovate them is called gentrification.
Gentrified inner-city neighborhoods also attract middle-class people who work
downtown. Living close to work saves the hassle of commuting and rejuvenates
run down inner-city neighborhoods
48

Gentrified building downtown Harlem, NY. Note the supermarket.

49

Inner-City Social Problems: Inner-city residents are often referred to as the
permanent underclass because they are trapped in an unending cycle of
economic and social problems. High unemployment, alcoholism, drug
addiction, literacy, juvenile delinquency, and crime all exist at a higher rate
among those who live in the inner-city. Lack of jobs means lack of tax dollars
to pay for police and fire protection as well as good schools. Lack of job skills
and homelessness are also tremendous problems.
Culture of Poverty: Inner-city residents are trapped in a permanent underclass
culture that reproduces itself. In the US, unwed mothers give birth to 2/3 of the
babies in the inner-city. 90% of these children live with only one parent and it
is real hard for one parent to keep a job and take care of children. Both suffer
and a shortage of care and daily attention by the parent contributes to the kids
not learning the skills necessary to do well in school which leads to poor jobs
for their futures. Poverty leads to more poverty. Many families on welfare have
only one parent because it is financially better if one parent is gone, that way
the single parent gets food stamps and other services from the government
that they would not get if it was a 2 family household.
50

Crime: Trapped in a hopeless environment, some inner-city
residents turn to drugs. Drug use is a problem in inner-city
areas and the suburbs, but rates of drug use in inner-cities
are the highest.
Ethnic and Racial Segregation: As seen in chapter 7, many
neighborhoods in the US are segregated by ethnicity with
African Americans and Hispanics concentrated in one or two
continuous areas and whites living in the suburbs. Even small
cities display a strong distinction among neighborhoods. A
frequent division is between the east and west or north and
south side of town, or the railroad tracks. A family seeking a
new residence will seek the areas where the characteristics
of the people meet their own.

51

The exodus
from the
American city.
This has
happened in
many American
cities since the
1960’s.

52

Changes in Cities in the U.S.
U.S. population has been moving out of the city centers to the suburbs:
suburbanization and counter urbanization

Developed Countries: suburbanization

 wealthy move to suburbs
 automobiles and roads; ‘American
Dream’ of the home in the suburbs.
 better services
 wealthy move to suburbs
Counter urbanization

idyllic settings
cost of land for retirement
slow pace, yet high tech
connections to services and markets
53

U.S. intraregional migration during 1990s.

Inner city economic problems: the concentration of low income
residents in inner cities has caused economic problems. These
people require public services but can pay very little in taxes to
support the services. They need stores and jobs but have little
money to spend in the store and few skills for jobs (so the stores
close). To try to fight these problems many local and state
governments use tax monies to try to renovate these areas, but this
shifts tax money needed for other areas to the inner city (votes on
election day).
Annexation: Many cities could help their tax problem by adding the
new suburbs to be part of their city (annexation). After all, many of
these suburban people use the city for its’ jobs etc., so why not add
them into the city? Today, most people in the suburbs do not want
to be annexed into the city and so they do not vote to be annexed.
54

The Peripheral Model: According to this model, an urban area
consists of an inner city surrounded by large suburban residential
and business areas (MSA) tied together by a beltway or highway
that circles the city. Around the beltway are nodes of consumer
and business services called edge cities (see diagram of multiple
nuclei model). These edge cities sprang up to provide services
and jobs to the people in the suburbs.
Density Gradient: As you travel outward from the center of the
city, the density of people declines. Inner city has big apartments
of 250 of more people per acre. Suburbs have fewer people per
acre (but lots of acres) and finally you leave the cities periphery
you find few people. The number of houses per unit of land
diminishes as distance from the center of the city increases.
55

The Edge cities (bedroom communities) of Houston

The central city is surrounded by a ring road, around which are
suburban areas and edge cities, shopping malls, office parks,
industrial areas, and service complexes.

Known as
bedroom
communities
because
people live
there but
mostly don’t
work there.
They drive
into the city
for work.
56

As you move from the center of the city outward, the density of the population
changes. This is know as the density gradient. Two big changes have occurred in
the density gradient of today’s cities:
1. The number of people living in the center has decreased.
2. The density difference between the inner city and the suburbs is declining
because the inner city density is dropping and the suburban density is growing
due to more large apartments being built in the suburbs.
Cost of Suburban or Urban Sprawl: Urban Sprawl is the progressive spread of
development over the landscape. As long as we Americans want single-family
detached houses, land on the fringe of urban areas will be converted from open
space to residential use. The cost of this growth is more than the loss of land, it is
also the cost of new roads, utilities, building stores and offices and the cost of
automobiles to move these people over even longer distances. Lots of these new
developments are built on what was once farmland. Wonderful productive soil now
under concrete.

Greenbelts: are areas where, by law, the open space can not be used for any
construction. This is mostly found in Europe.

57

Once farmland that is being converted to suburbs and cities.

58

Tyson’s Corner Virginia in 1940

59

Washington, DC. MSA.

Tyson’s Corner Virginia
today.
Washington D.C. is off
In the distance.

60

Suburban Segregation: The “new” segregation.
Suburban segregation takes two forms:
1. Residents are separated from commercial and manufacturing activities
which are confined someplace else. (The whole neighborhood is
nothing but houses because they drive for services.)
2. The price of the house eliminates some from being able to live there. This
creates a homogeneous suburb of the same economic class of people.
This never existed before in history. Where we once had vertical
segregation of the classes we now we have horizontal segregation.
3. But this may be reversing as new statistics show that people are beginning
to move back to the city. Why? Cost of transportation.
Zoning Ordinances: This idea developed in Europe and later America in the
early decades of the 20th century. This means that businesses are allowed only
in certain areas of the settlement. (No all night taco stands inside your single
family neighborhood.)
Motor vehicles: The wide use of the automobile is largely responsible for the
American movement to the suburbs. Not only did people move out but 1/4 of
the land inside all American cities are now roads, streets, and parking lots.

61

Public Transportation: Because few US workers live within walking distance
of their jobs, urban areas are characterized by extensive commuting and the
problems that come with it. As much as 40% of all trips made into or out from
a city during the day takes place within just 4 hours. (2 in the morning and 2 in
the late afternoon). RUSH HOUR!!! In large cities, public transportation, like
subways and busses, are better suited to move people but Americans still
prefer their own cars. Public transportation is cheaper, cleaner, and more
energy efficient than personal cars, yet in the US only 5% of city travel is
done using public transit systems. American’s love their personal car too
much.
Local Government Fragmentation: Because of the large number of local
governments in the US (look at the settlements in Pinellas County) it is
difficult to solve some of the regional problems like garbage disposal, water
management, traffic and public housing.
62

Metropolitan government: This idea tries to put many local governments into a
larger unit that can better handle the urban problems. The 2 ways to do this
are:
1. Federations in which the individual settlements have their own police,
firemen, and tax collection but they all agree to be part of a second
government which handles transportation, water, sewage, parks and
welfare for all the communities.
2. Consolidations: In this method, several cities and the county may form one
government. Jacksonville’s government runs not only the town but the
county too, this makes Jacksonville the largest city, in land size, in the US.
Smart growth: A new movement by many states to curb suburban sprawl by
limiting where new construction can take place. Smart growth laws require that
land near cities be used up before any land further out can be developed. So
far, this is only being done an a few parts of our country.
63

The new
US as
some
people
see it.

64

Quiz Yourself:
1. The process where middle-class people move into inner city neighborhoods and
renovate them is called ____________
2. ____________ happens when banks refuse to give loans in what they consider
risky neighborhoods.
3. Because of the housing shortages, the poor have constructed their own settlements
around the city known as __________ _________

4. Businesses are allowed only in certain areas of the settlement because of
____________ ____________
5. Areas known as _____ _______ are areas of about 5,000 people. The data from
that area is used to help define needed services for that area.
6. When cities are so close that they form one continuous band of development this is
known as a ____________
65

7. Social relationships are often described as “colder” in urban areas because…
8. In this model the city develops in a series of sectors not rings. _______

9. ______ (LDC’s or MDC’s) have a higher percentage of people living in urban
settlements but ________ (LDC’s or MDC’s) have more of the very large urban
settlements.
10. _____________ was the first model developed to explain the distributions
of different social groups within urban areas.
11. New cities which develop around the beltway are nodes of consumer and
business services known as ________ _________.

12. When the Europeans took over lands around the world, they changed the
cities by adding services to help the Europeans control the conquered people.
These European planned cities are known as __________ cities.
66

Answer Key:
1.

Gentrification

2.

Redlining

3.

Squatter Settlements

4.

Zoning ordinances

5.

Census tracks

6.

Megalopolis

7. There is a stronger feeling of belonging together in small rural settlements.
8. Hoyt sector model
9. MDC, LDC
10. Burgess Concentric Zone model
11. Edge cities
12. Colonial cities
67

Test Key topic/chapter 13:
These questions come from a combination of our slides, your text book, and common knowledge you should
have discussed in your AP classroom. They are very typical of what you will see on the National Exam.
1) The multiple nuclei theory best explains why different neighborhoods of a city attract people of different… A) ages.
B) ethnic origin C) income D) marital status.
2) Sprawl is the… A) change in density within an urban area from the center to the periphery B) development of new
housing sites not contiguous to the existing built-up area. C) land maintained as open space surrounding an urban area.
D) period in the morning and evening with the heaviest volumes of traffic.
3) People are attracted to suburbs in part because suburbs are characterized by…A) heavy traffic. B) lower opportunity
for home ownership. C) private land surrounding the house. D) row houses and apartments.
4) Megalopolis refers to… A) adjacent, overlapping Metropolitan Statistical Areas. B) central cities. C) consolidated
Metropolitan Statistical Areas. D) central cities plus urbanized areas.
5) Which statement best describes the relationship between urbanization and the Industrial Revolution? A) Urbanization
promoted the Industrial Revolution. B) The Industrial Revolution promoted urbanization. C) Urbanization preceded the
Industrial Revolution by thousands of years. D) Urbanization and the Industrial Revolution are no longer related.
6) The process of legally adding land area to a city in the United States is… A) annexation. B) accreditation. C) an
application of eminent domain. D) defined by urbanized area.

68

7) The process of change in the use of a house, from single-family owner occupancy to abandonment, is… A) blockbusting.
B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining.
8) A process by which banks designate an area within which they refuse to lend money for improvements is… A) blockbusting.
B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining.
9) A recent change in the density gradient has been… A) the elimination of the gap traditionally found in the center. B) an
increase in the extremes between the inner and outer areas. C) an increase in the number of people living in the center.
D) a reduction in the differences in densities found within an urban area.
10) U.S. central cities face fiscal problems because… A) federal and state funds are available. B) low-income people are
concentrated there. C) middle-class families are attracted there. D) redlining is no longer legal.
11) A legal form of segregation in U.S. cities is achieved through...A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) zoning. D) greenbelts.
12) Factories have moved to suburban locations in part because of… A) access to main highways. B) adequate space to build
vertical structures. C) availability of large tracts of high-priced land. D) good rail connections.
13) According to the sector model, the best housing is located in…A) a corridor from downtown to the edge of the city.
B) an outer ring surrounding the city. C) nodes near universities and parks. D) renovated inner-city neighborhoods.
14) Ramshackle houses on the periphery of cities in less developed countries are known as… A) squatter settlements. B) council
estates. C) public housing. D) zone in transition.
15) Higher income people tend to live near the center of the city in all but which of the following regions? A) Latin America
B) North America C) South Asia D) Western Europe

16) The wide boulevards built in cities in less developed countries were most likely built during what era? A) pre-colonial
B) colonial C) independence D) all of the above equally

69

17) According to the multiple nuclei model, an airport is likely to attract nearby… A) industries. B) residences. C) shops.
D) universities.
18) The largest percentage of the U.S. population lives in…A) central cities. B) suburbs. C) non-metropolitan areas. D) all of the
above
19) In U.S. cities, the underclass is… A) clustered in inner-city neighborhoods. B) dispersed throughout the city. C) clustered in
suburbs. D) distributed uniformly in the city.

20) A process of converting a neighborhood from low-income to middle-class is…A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) gentrification.
D) redlining.
21) Higher social heterogeneity in urban settlements means that… A) the people with whom you relax are probably the same ones you
see at work. B) you play a specialized role in the urban economy. C) you compete for limited space. D) you may feel lonely and
isolated in a crowd.
22) The city plus its contiguous built-up suburbs is the… A) central city. B) urbanized area.
D) consolidated metropolitan statistical area

C) metropolitan statistical area.

23) The process whereby an increasing percentage of people live in an urban area is known as… A) demographic transition.
B) rank-size rule. C) urbanization. D) central place theory.
24) Of the ten largest urban areas in the world, how many are in More Developed Countries today? A) 1 B) 4 C) 7 D) 10 E) 2
25) Public housing is…A) conversion of low-income housing to middle-class housing. B) illegally established low-income housing.
C) housing that has changed from single-family owner occupancy to abandonment. D) low-income government-owned housing.
26) According to the concentric zone model, a city develops in a series of… A) corridors. B) nodes. C) rings. D) all of the above

70

27) Chicago is a good location in which to develop urban models because it is located… A) at the hub of the nation's transportation
system. B) in the center of the country. C) on a flat prairie. D) on the shore of Lake Michigan.
28) According to the sector model, the best housing is located in… A) a corridor from downtown to the edge of the city. B) an outer
ring surrounding the city. C) nodes near universities and parks. D) renovated inner-city neighborhoods.
29) The zone of transition in US cities generally contain…A) warehouses B) wealthy neighborhoods C) transportation hubs
D) universities and hospitals E) suburban homes
30) The attractions of shopping malls include all but which of the following? A) frequent concerts and exhibitions B) generous
parking lots C) place to meet friends D) walking distance from homes
The following questions are written at the high school level. You will find some questions from part one often rewritten
here. This is all designed to help you transition to the college/AP style of written questions. Any question preceded with ***
are questions that have been on the national exam before.
31. Most Latin American cities are focused on a…A) central plaza B) government housing project C) zone of heavy industry
D) skyscraper office building E) squatter settlement
32. The multiple-nuclei model of a city structure tends to be most applicable to…A) small cities B) traditional C) Latin American
cities D) newer, fast growing cities E) cities with homogeneous land use
33. ***Locational advantages important to the development of the earliest cities include…A) availability of good harbors for large
ships B) productive agricultural land and defensible sites C) temperate climate and proximity to coal mines D) good
connections by road and canal E) proximity to manufacturing areas

34. In cities, the CBD’s often show uniqueness while the suburbs usually show…A) a large hinterland. B) placelessness C) more
than one node. D) newer zones of transition.

71

35. Many LDC’s have tried to help a previously under-developed part of their country develop by moving their capital
city to that area. This new capital is known as a…A) forward capital B) new development zone C) enterprise zone
D) neocolonial city
36. Today the greatest number of urban dwellers is found in…A) North America
D) Europe E) Asia

B) South America C) Africa

37. ***All of the following have helped create ghettos in North American cities except…A)blockbusting and racial
steering B) redlining by financial institutions C) concentration of public housing and social services D) fixed school
districts E) Economic Enterprise Zones

38. Which of the following is NOT as reason for rapid suburbanization in the US after WW2? A) Mass production of
the automobile B) Reduction of long distance commuting C) Expansion of home construction D) Expansion of the
interstate highway system E) Availability of low down payment terms and long-term mortgages.
39. New cities which developed in the hinterland of large urban areas because of the automobile, are known as…
A) edge cities B) census tracts C) suburban sprawl D) squatter settlements. E) none of these
40. Gentrification refers to… A) moving the homeless into inner city shelters B) The “White Flight” from the urban city
C) losing tax revenue because of stores closing in downtown areas D) middle-class people moving into and renovating
inner city neighborhoods E) the creation of “beltway cities” around the city.

72

4
7
3

5

1
6

2

41-48 all use the sketch above.
41. The sketch in box A above represents which model of the inner structure of urban areas?
C) multiple nuclei model D) Burgess concentric zone model E) peripheral model
42. The models in boxes B and C represent A) Concentric zone and multiple nuclei
concentric zone D) peripheral and concentric zone E) Von Thunen and peripheral

A) Hoyt sector model B) VonThunen’s model

B) Multiple nuclei and Hoyt sector C) Hoyt sector and

43. In which ring (1, 2, etc.) of sketch A above would high-status households in North American cities likely live? A) 1 B) 2 C) 3 D) 4&5
44. In which ring (1, 2, etc.) of sketch A above would high status households in a European city likely live? A) 1

B) 2

C) 3

D) 4&5

45. In model B, zone # 2 is where it is likely because of: A) greenbelting B) squatter settling C) the culture of poverty D) transportation
E) no one knows
46. The model in sketch B is the; A) Hoyt sector model B) Burgess model C) multiple nuclei model D) peripheral model
47. The model in sketch C is the; A) Hoyt sector model B) Burgess model C) multiple nuclei model D) peripheral model
48. Which of these models best describes what has happened in US cities in the last 40 years? A)

B)

C)

73

49.*** In the U.S. a city plus its contiguous built-up suburbs is known as an…A) urbanized area B) zoned area
C) census tract D) Squatter settlement E) none of these
50. Done mostly in Europe, these are areas where land is kept as parks, farms or other kinds of open space and urban
sprawl is not allowed. A) Smart growth
B) zoning
C) filtering
D) census tracts E) greenbelts
51. Which statement best describes the relationship between urbanization and the Industrial Revolution?
A) Urbanization promoted the Industrial Revolution. B) The Industrial Revolution promoted urbanization.
C) Urbanization preceded the Industrial Revolution by thousands of years. D) Urbanization and the Industrial
Revolution are no longer related.
52. The process whereby an increasing percentage of people live in an urban area is known as…
A) Demographic transition. B) rank-size rule. C) Urbanization. D) Central place theory.
53. The city (if it has 50,000 or more people) plus its contiguous built-up suburbs AND the county it is in as well as any
other counties it influences, is known as the ...A) central city B) urbanized area
C) metropolitan statistical area
D) consolidated metropolitan area E) micropolitan statistical area
54. ***Higher social heterogeneity in urban settlements means that …A) the people with whom you relax are probably
the same ones you see at work. B) you play a specialized role in the urban economy. C) you compete for limited
space. D) you may feel lonely and isolated in a crowd.

55. The process of change in the use of a house, from single-family owner occupancy to smaller dwellings for the poor
and then sometimes to abandonment, is…A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining. E) none of
these

74

Free Response #1:
The Bid Rent theory says that the closer you get to the
CBD the higher the cost for land, yet in most American
cities you find the poorest people living near the
expensive CBD and the richest living further away.
Explain:
A. Why neighborhoods near the CBD are often poor and
run down?
B. Why are there few grocery and other retail stores in
these neighborhoods?
C. Why is this not really true in European and Latin
American countries?

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75

FR #2:
Think of the map of your school, explain the
layout of your school using the Multiple Nuclei
Model
The main office is the CBD.
Completely explain your answer using specific
buildings and/or land areas in your explanation
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76

Answer Key:
1. B

14. A

27. C

40. D

53. C

2. B

15. B

28. A

41. D

54. D

3. C

16. B

29. A

42. B

55. B

4. A

17. A

30. D

43. D

5. B

18. B

31. A

44. A

6. A

19. A

32. D

45. D

7. B

20. C

33. B

46. A

8. D

21. D

34. B

47. C

9. D

22. B

35. A

48. C

10. B

23. C

36. E

49. A

11. C

24. C

37. E

50. E

12. A

25. D

38. B

51. B

13. A

26. C

39. A

52. C
77

FR. #1: ( 15 pts. for each section…total of 45 pts.)
A. In the US the move of the wealthy and middle class to the suburbs has left the older houses and apartments near the CBD empty.
This has lowered their value to the point where the poor can afford these dwellings and have made these neighborhoods their
homes. The poor can not pay for upkeep of these dwellings, or to pay high taxes. The lack of upkeep and tax money to repair the
roads and schools, adds to the downward spiral of the neighborhood. With little spending money for shopping, the poor do not
spend much in the stores. This causes many stores to close and move to the suburbs where the spending customers and money
went. The closing of the stores adds to the poverty of the area by taking away some of the jobs that were in the neighborhood. This
becomes a vicious cycle of poverty and deterioration. (15 points)

B. There are few retail stores and groceries is the area because the poor do not have money to shop. The lack of spending forces
many stores out of business or forces them to move to better locations. There also can be higher crime in these areas and the
crime often takes place at the stores. This is another reason for the stores to move out of the neighborhood. (15 points)
C. Neighborhoods in European and Latin American cities are different from those of US cities. In Europe and Latin America, the
wealthy and middle class still live near or in the CBD. The higher tax base and more spending ability of the upper and middle
classes, keeps the CBD area flourishing with jobs and in constant repair and upkeep of the cities’ physical condition. (15 points)

FR #2: (10 total points.)
You will need to judge how effectively you displayed you school
in the Multiple Nuclei Model. Refer to the model itself to help you
determine your success and grade.
School’s main office
78

Calculating your grade on test 13.
Add how many you got correct on the multiple choice part (55 possible) to how many
points you scored on the FR portion (55 possible)…110 total.
The following scale will show the approximate score if this test were the real AP exam. Remember that this
is an approximation. While 65-74% is normally the range for a 3 on the test, it is not definite. Over the
years I have seen scores as low as 60% be the low portion of a 3 score.

Out of 110 possible points:
72-83 is most likely a 3
84-94 is most likely a 4

95-110 is most likely a 5

Now lets start our review for the national exam by
reviewing the 33 key models and theories of the
course…the next PowerPoint.


Slide 12

Key topic/chapter 13…Urban Patterns
Key terms:
Annexation
Concentric zone model
Density gradient
Edge cities
Filtering
Galactic city
Gentrification
Greenbelts
Megalopolis
MSA
Multiple nuclei model
Peripheral model

Public housing
Redlining
Renovated housing
Scattered site
Squatter settlement
Sector model
Smart growth
Sprawl
Underclass
Urban renewal
Zone in transition
Zoning
1

Chapter 13…Urban Areas.
How are Cities planned?
Why

are cities where they are?
How are they organized?
Why are some areas of a city
different from
other areas of the same city?
What is the future of cities?
2

Settlement


Settlement - permanent collections of buildings,
where people live, work, and obtain services

3

ORIGINS OF SETTLEMENTS


Religious - graves, churches, temples



Cultural - schools, libraries



Political/Military - leader’s house, walls



Economic - stores, food
4

TYPES OF SETTLEMENTS


Rural Settlements - agriculture as the
predominant occupation.



Urban settlements - principal industries are
secondary and tertiary.

5

RURAL SETTLEMENTS
Clustered rural settlements –grouped
settlements in rural areas to minimize travel

Dispersed rural Settlements - isolated farms
with enclosed continuous fields (Found only in
N. America and Britain).

6

Urban Geographers want to know the global distribution of urban
settlements. MDC’s have a high percentage of people living in urban
areas because of the shift from agriculture-manufacturing-services.
Geographers are also interested in where people and activities are
distributed within urban spaces. What are the differences between the
inner-city and suburban areas and why?
As we saw in the last chapter, many downtowns are unique and can
often be recognized in photos where the suburbs often look very
much alike (Placelessness). Why? Suburbs offer the chance to avoid
some of the city problems (crime, tight living area, expensive
land/rent, noise, age of buildings) while still keeping a connection with
the goods and services of the city: jobs, sports teams, culture, shops,
recreation, etc.
7

Where is this place?

8

Today’s cities are evolving and changing. Although different internal
situations characterize urban areas in the US and elsewhere, the
problems arising from current spatial trends are quite similar in all cities.
Where have urban areas grown: in the early 1800’s only 3% of the earth’s
people lived in cities and only Beijing China had more than 1 million
people. Today over ½ of the world’s people live in cities and we have over
400 cities of at least 1 million people.

Urbanization: is the process by which city population grows.
Cities population growth is measured in 2 dimensions;
1. An increase in the number of people living in the cities.
2. An increase in the percentage of people living in the cities.
This distinction is important because they happen for different reason and
have different global distributions.
9

Increasing Percentage of People in Cities: a large percentage of people living in urban
areas is a measure of a country’s level of development. In MDC’s about ¾ of the people
live in urban areas compared to about 2/5 of people in LDC’s. (Except in Latin America
where the level is closer to MDC’s.)
The higher percentage of people in urban areas comes from the changes that have
occurred in the last 200 years as we went from agriculture (primary jobs) to industrial
(secondary jobs) and now service jobs, all created by the Industrial Revolution of the
1800’s.
People moved to the cities for industrial jobs, but in MDC’s this process has largely
ended because nearly everyone interested in moving to the cities from farms has already
done so.
In LDC’s the percentage of people living in urban areas is growing as people are pushed
off of their farms and replaced by machines and as people move to cities looking/hoping
for industrial jobs.
10

Increasing Number of People in Cities: MDC’s have a higher percentage of
people living in urban settlements but LDC’s have more of the very large urban
settlements (Primate cities). (Rank-size rule, primate cities, chapter 12.)

This is interesting because typically the large cities are created from the
improvements brought by the Industrial Revolution. This is not the case with the
large LDC cities. Migration to the primate city in LDC’s is happening even though
job opportunities may not be available. Increasing the population growth in LDC
cities is the fact that medical services are better in these cities, thus the child
mortality rate is lower.
Defining Urban Settlements: defining where urban areas end and rural areas
begin is not easy. Geographers have formulated definitions that distinguish
between urban and rural areas in two ways: Social differences and Physical
differences.
11

Percent Urban Population

Percent of the population living in urban areas is usually higher in MDCs
than in LDCs.

12

The most populated cities in the world

Of the top
20, only
Moscow,
Tokyo and
New York
are in MDC’s

Shanghai China has 14,608,512 people
13

14

15

Social Differences Between Urban and Rural Settlements: it is fair to say that rural
people and urban people follow different ways of life. A city can be defined as having 3
characteristics:
1. Large size. People in rural settlements know most of the other people in the
settlement. Not true in big cities. Social relationships are often described as “colder” in
urban areas because you only see some people at work instead of growing up with
them in the settlement.
2. High Density. Having lots of people in a tiny area creates social consequences. A
high density of people living in a small area can only be supported if the people
specialize (they can’t all be farmers). People are encouraged to compete for jobs, room,
and survival in a tightly limited space. Social groups compete to occupy the same space
(ethnic/ race problems). Rural settlements have very little of this problem.
3. Social Heterogeneity. The larger the settlement, the greater the variety of people.
Being “unusual” in a large settlement is more likely to be accepted than in a small rural
one. But despite the freedom to be different that large urban settlements give you,
people living there often feel alone because so many people are different from them.
There is a stronger feeling of belonging together in small rural settlements.
16

These 3 differences do not fully answer the question of where urban settlements
begin and rural ones end because in today’s MDC’s most everyone has access to
cars, telephones, televisions, and “urban type” jobs which reduce the differences
between urban and rural lifestyles. “City folk” and “Country folk” are more alike
today than they are different. To help distinguish between urban and rural areas we
need to add the physical definition of rural and urban to the equation.
Physical Definitions of Urban Settlements: In ancient time, cities had defensive
walls for protection which clearly defined the physical boundaries of the city. Today
the walls are gone but we can still define the physical boundaries in 3 ways:
1. Legal boundary. These are the official boundaries of a city as recognized by
the government of the country or state. These “city limits” have been officially given
to the city and are physically marked on official maps. The local government of the
city has authority to make laws and protect the people inside the city boundaries.
17

2. Urbanized area. This is the city plus its suburbs or urbanized area that
surrounds the city. About 70 percent of US residents live in urbanized areas with
40% being in the suburbs and 30% inside the city limits. The suburbs may have
their own city governments but the huge central city dominates what happens in
the entire area.
3. Metropolitan Statistical Area. Cities have an even bigger influence on people
than just those living in their city limits and surrounding urbanized areas. People
from far away come to shop, use the services, support the sports teams, read
the newspapers and watch the television broadcasts of the city. Thus the city
has a “functional area” which is its total zone of influence. The US Bureau of
Census has created a method of measuring the functional area of the city.
Known as the Metropolitan statistical area (MSA) this area includes:
•An urbanized area with a population of at least 50,000
•The county within which the city is located.
•Adjacent counties with a high population density and a large percentage of
residents working in the central city’s county.
18

Metropolitan Area of Philadelphia

City of
Philadelphia

Urbanized
area
(suburbs)
Metropolitan
Statistical
Area

The metropolitan area of Philadelphia is
spread over several counties and four states.
It is also a diversified trade center, given its
position on the Delaware river.

19

20

21

Micropolitan Statistical Areas: Smaller areas with between
10,000 and 50,000 people, the county where it is found, and
adjacent counties tied to the city. This would be a small town and
the area dominated by it.
Overlapping Metropolitan Areas: Some adjacent MSA’s overlap.
A county between two central cities may send a large number of
commuters to jobs in both cities. In some areas the cities are so
close that they form one continuous urban complex. This is
known as a Megalopolis (great city).
In a megalopolis, the downtown CBD often has its own
distinctive look and the urban areas are visually separated by
parks, open spaces, and dairy/truck farms. But at the periphery
of the urban areas, the boundaries overlap.
22

Colorado Springs, population 431,000

Ocala, Florida, population 56,000

Florala, Alabama, population 1,900

23

Megalopolis, from northern Va. To Maine.
This Illustrates the
difference between
strict city proper
definitions and broader
urban agglomerations.
To define urbanized
areas, the U.S. Census
Bureau uses the term
Metropolitan Statistical
Area (MSA) or
Consolidated MSA
(CMSA) if two or more of
them overlap.
24

Where are People Distributed within Urban Areas? People are not
just distributed at random in urban areas. For the most part they
concentrate in particular neighborhoods depending on their social
characteristics. Geographers want to see where people with
particular characteristics are likely to live and why.

Three models which try to explain the growth of a city:

The Burgess Model

The Hoyt Sector Model

The Harris and Ullman
multiple Nuclei Model
25

Burgess Concentric Zone Model

In the concentric zone model, a city grows in a series of rings surrounding the CBD.

Burgess Concentric Zone Model: This is the first used to explain the
distributions of different social groups within urban areas. It says that a
city grows outward from a central place in a series of concentric rings.
The precise size and width of the rings vary from one city to another, but
some basic types of rings appear in all cities in the same order (see chart
above).
26

•Hoyt Sector Model: In this model the city develops in a
series of sectors not rings. Certain areas of the city are
more attractive for various activities, originally because
of an environmental factor (or even pure chance). As the
city grows, activities extend outward in a wedge shape.
For example, once a wealthy neighborhood is built the
next wealthy neighborhood will extend from the first
neighborhood further outward from the center. In this
way, the best housing is found in a corridor extending
outward from the center to the outer edge (see chart on
the next page).
27

The Hoyt Sector Model

In the sector model, a city grows in a series of
wedges or corridors extending out from the
CBD.
28

•Harris and Ullman’s Multiple Nuclei Model: According
to this model, a city is a complex structure that includes
more than one center around which activities revolve.
Examples of these nodes include a port, parks,
stadium, neighborhood business center, university, and
airport (see chart). This theory states that some
activities are attracted to particular nodes, whereas
others try to avoid them. A university node may attract
well educated people and bookstores while the port will
attract hotels and warehouses. Heavy industry and
expensive houses rarely are found together. This
model shows the effect of the automobile more than
any other model.
29

The Harris and Ullman Multiple Nuclei model

The multiple nuclei model views a city as a
collection of individual centers, around which
different people and activities cluster.

30

Applications of the Models: The three models help explain where and in some
cases, why people live where they do. None of the models by themselves fully
explains why and where different types of people live, but combined they give
you as good a look as possible at the “Why” of “Where.” Effective use of the
models depends on getting good data on the areas. Most countries take a
census every 10 years to help determine useful data about the people and
places of the country. In our country we divide the census data into areas
known as census tracts of about 5,000 people. Each census tract has the data
that summarizes the characteristics of the people living within that tract. This
information includes things like the race, income, age, and education of the
people living in that tract.
Social Area Analysis: The data from the census tracts can all be plotted onto
maps to show the characteristics of the people living in that tract. This map is
known as a social area analysis.
31

Using Census tract information…Seattle, Washington
Each lined area is a
census tract of about 5000
people in Seattle
Washington. These maps
show average household
income for 1990 and
2000…note the changes in
income in some areas
between 1990 and 2000.
Using this information, a
business can make
decisions about where
they want to locate a new
store or the future of
existing stores.
You can find census tract
information on many topics
such as; age, education
level, race, ethnicity, crime
rate, and land ownership.
Note the areas with
incomes over
$63,000.

All can be very valuable
information to people
looking to open
businesses.

32

Examine the changes
between 1990 and
2000.

Oakland, California’s Ethnic neighborhoods
The small bordered areas are census tracks of 5000 people.

33

Use of the Models Outside of North America: The 3 models will also work in other
places in the world; however social groups in other countries may not have the
same reasons for selecting particular neighborhoods as Americans do.
European Cities: As in the US, wealthier people in European cities cluster along a
sector extending outward from the CBD, however unlike the US, wealthy and
middle class Europeans still live in the inner rings of the neighborhoods near the
CBD not out in the suburbs. In the past, poorer people lived in the center of the
city. Before electricity, social segregation was vertical: richer people lived on the
first or second floor of a building while the poorer people lived in the basement or
upper floors. In the Industrial Revolution, housing for the poor was constructed
near the factories and away from the rich.
Today poorer Europeans are less likely to live in the inner-city. Poor quality
housing has been renovated for the rich or turned into office buildings. Poorer
Europeans tend to live in the outskirts of the city. Vast suburbs with dozens of high
rise apartments house the poor. They face long commutes to reach their jobs in
the city.
34

European cities generally do not have the “suburban
sprawl” that US cities have. European cities tend to be
more pedestrian friendly with more parks downtown as
Europeans tend to still live downtown.
US cities have taller buildings as European cities tend to
be older and more historic.

American cities have more ethnic neighborhoods than
European cities. Ethnic neighborhoods that do exist in
European cities tend to be in the suburbs. WHY?
Because the established richer neighborhoods tend to be
downtown in European cities.
35

Less Developed Countries: Like Europe, most LDC’s accommodate their poor in the
suburbs with their middle class and rich living near the center of the city. LDC’s have
passed through 3 periods of city building: before the Europeans arrived, during the
period of European colonialism, and since independence from European control.

Pre-colonial Cities: Before the Europeans arrived few cities existed in Africa, Asia, and
Latin America and most people lived in small rural settlements. Those cities that existed
were mostly laid out surrounding a religious center; with the rest of the city laid out in a
hieratical concentric pattern (like the Burgess model) from government buildings,
homes of the wealthy, and businesses related to the religion out to other businesses
and shops.
Colonial cities: When the Europeans took over these lands, they changed the cities by
adding services to help the Europeans control the conquered people. Often a new
European style city would be build next to the existing native one. The new European
cities contained wider streets, a public square, larger houses and a much lower density.
The Spanish used the “Law of the Indies” which was a city plan designed specifically to
build cities in a “Spanish” style. (Gridiron pattern for streets centered on a church and
central plaza, walls around individual houses and neighborhoods centered around
smaller plazas and more churches.)
36

Early Mexico city was laid out in a grid pattern of streets. This followed
the Spanish “Law of the Indies.”

37

Central Plaza in Mexico City 1920 photo. Typical Colonial City plan.

Part of downtown Mexico city today still shows the
building plan of the “Law of the Indies.”

38

Cities since Independence: Following independence, cities have become
the focal point of the development of most LDC’s. Millions of people have
migrated to the cities (Primate cities) looking for jobs and services. Some
capitals have been moved to isolated areas in an attempt to help develop
that area of the country (Brasília) This is know as a forward capital. Latin
American cities have developed their own unique style.
Squatter settlements: The LDC’s are unable to house the rapidly growing
number of poor who are flowing into the cities. Because of the housing
shortages, the poor have constructed their own settlements around the city.
These settlements have few services because neither the city nor the
residents can afford them. Squatters have two basic choices for housing.
1. Illegally move into empty real houses located in the city or,
2. Rent slum housing.
(85% of the population of Addis Ababa in Ethiopia lives in squatter
settlements, slums or other illegal housing.)
39

Squatter shacks in Manila, the Philippines

40

Squatter settlement in Ethiopia

41

Zimbabwe, Africa

42

Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

43

Latin American City Model:
In many Latin
American cities,
the wealthy live in
the inner city and
in a sector
extending along a
commercial spine.
In situ accretion- businesses
and homes constantly under
construction/repair.
Zone of maturity-2nd best
housing in the city.
The poor live in squatter settlements on the
periphery of the city.

Disamenity- unpleasant area
used by the poor to get to the
market.

44

The City Outline of Rio de Janeiro
The rich tourist areas and expensive condo apartments are along the coast
and beach while the poor live in squatter shacks in the hills.

45

City problems:
Inner-City Physical Problems: Most US inner cities were constructed before the 1950’s
(people began to move to the suburbs in the 1950’s so new construction moved out of
the city).
Process of Deterioration (how a city deteriorates): A city doesn’t suddenly become old
and full of slummy areas. It happens over time. When a group of low-income people
inhabit an area of a city, nearby neighborhoods will often look to move out. They sell or
rent to more low-income occupants thus expanding the low-income area. Two processes
cause/speed up the devaluation of areas:
1. Filtering, 2. Redlining.
Filtering: Large houses and buildings that once housed rich downtown workers (who
moved to the suburbs) are taken over by landlords who don’t live in that area (they
moved to the suburbs too). Rents are low so the landlord doesn’t take as good care of
the property as they should and the property becomes run down or abandoned. Stores
close, or move, due to lack of sales. 100 years ago these neighborhoods would be used
by immigrants and ethnic businesses would succeed in those areas. Now, with a decline
in immigration, these neighborhoods have shrunk and so have schools, businesses and
other services. Thousands of vacant houses and buildings stand empty in inner cities
across America.

46

Redlining: Some banks refuse to give loans in what they consider
risky neighborhoods. They draw a red line on a map around areas
where they will not give loans. Without loans, these neighborhoods
have a hard time rebuilding/remodeling. Though illegal, this still
happens. Bankers just don’t put these “no-loan” areas on a map.

Urban Renewal: This is the series of projects to improve European
and N. American cities by buying up the blighted neighborhoods,
moving the people to new government built housing projects, and
building new roads, and other projects to make the inner city
attractive for business again. National and State government grants
help pay for these projects.
47

Public housing: Housing for the poor, built with government funding as part of
urban renewal. In the US this is only about 2% of the housing while in some
countries it may be more (Britain is 30%). Public housing built in the 50’s & 60’s
were largely high rise apartments, but those are seen as being unsatisfactory.
Problems arise from cramming large numbers of poor people into one area.
Today most public housing projects are one to three story buildings with many of
them being scattered around different parts of the city rather than clustered into
one area.
Because urban renewal has been criticized for destroying the social cohesion of
older neighborhoods, many governments (like the US) have stopped funding
most projects since the 1970’s. What do we do instead?
Renovated Housing: An alternative often used since the 70’s is to renovate a
building instead of urban renewal. The process where middle-class people
move into inner-city neighborhoods and renovate them is called gentrification.
Gentrified inner-city neighborhoods also attract middle-class people who work
downtown. Living close to work saves the hassle of commuting and rejuvenates
run down inner-city neighborhoods
48

Gentrified building downtown Harlem, NY. Note the supermarket.

49

Inner-City Social Problems: Inner-city residents are often referred to as the
permanent underclass because they are trapped in an unending cycle of
economic and social problems. High unemployment, alcoholism, drug
addiction, literacy, juvenile delinquency, and crime all exist at a higher rate
among those who live in the inner-city. Lack of jobs means lack of tax dollars
to pay for police and fire protection as well as good schools. Lack of job skills
and homelessness are also tremendous problems.
Culture of Poverty: Inner-city residents are trapped in a permanent underclass
culture that reproduces itself. In the US, unwed mothers give birth to 2/3 of the
babies in the inner-city. 90% of these children live with only one parent and it
is real hard for one parent to keep a job and take care of children. Both suffer
and a shortage of care and daily attention by the parent contributes to the kids
not learning the skills necessary to do well in school which leads to poor jobs
for their futures. Poverty leads to more poverty. Many families on welfare have
only one parent because it is financially better if one parent is gone, that way
the single parent gets food stamps and other services from the government
that they would not get if it was a 2 family household.
50

Crime: Trapped in a hopeless environment, some inner-city
residents turn to drugs. Drug use is a problem in inner-city
areas and the suburbs, but rates of drug use in inner-cities
are the highest.
Ethnic and Racial Segregation: As seen in chapter 7, many
neighborhoods in the US are segregated by ethnicity with
African Americans and Hispanics concentrated in one or two
continuous areas and whites living in the suburbs. Even small
cities display a strong distinction among neighborhoods. A
frequent division is between the east and west or north and
south side of town, or the railroad tracks. A family seeking a
new residence will seek the areas where the characteristics
of the people meet their own.

51

The exodus
from the
American city.
This has
happened in
many American
cities since the
1960’s.

52

Changes in Cities in the U.S.
U.S. population has been moving out of the city centers to the suburbs:
suburbanization and counter urbanization

Developed Countries: suburbanization

 wealthy move to suburbs
 automobiles and roads; ‘American
Dream’ of the home in the suburbs.
 better services
 wealthy move to suburbs
Counter urbanization

idyllic settings
cost of land for retirement
slow pace, yet high tech
connections to services and markets
53

U.S. intraregional migration during 1990s.

Inner city economic problems: the concentration of low income
residents in inner cities has caused economic problems. These
people require public services but can pay very little in taxes to
support the services. They need stores and jobs but have little
money to spend in the store and few skills for jobs (so the stores
close). To try to fight these problems many local and state
governments use tax monies to try to renovate these areas, but this
shifts tax money needed for other areas to the inner city (votes on
election day).
Annexation: Many cities could help their tax problem by adding the
new suburbs to be part of their city (annexation). After all, many of
these suburban people use the city for its’ jobs etc., so why not add
them into the city? Today, most people in the suburbs do not want
to be annexed into the city and so they do not vote to be annexed.
54

The Peripheral Model: According to this model, an urban area
consists of an inner city surrounded by large suburban residential
and business areas (MSA) tied together by a beltway or highway
that circles the city. Around the beltway are nodes of consumer
and business services called edge cities (see diagram of multiple
nuclei model). These edge cities sprang up to provide services
and jobs to the people in the suburbs.
Density Gradient: As you travel outward from the center of the
city, the density of people declines. Inner city has big apartments
of 250 of more people per acre. Suburbs have fewer people per
acre (but lots of acres) and finally you leave the cities periphery
you find few people. The number of houses per unit of land
diminishes as distance from the center of the city increases.
55

The Edge cities (bedroom communities) of Houston

The central city is surrounded by a ring road, around which are
suburban areas and edge cities, shopping malls, office parks,
industrial areas, and service complexes.

Known as
bedroom
communities
because
people live
there but
mostly don’t
work there.
They drive
into the city
for work.
56

As you move from the center of the city outward, the density of the population
changes. This is know as the density gradient. Two big changes have occurred in
the density gradient of today’s cities:
1. The number of people living in the center has decreased.
2. The density difference between the inner city and the suburbs is declining
because the inner city density is dropping and the suburban density is growing
due to more large apartments being built in the suburbs.
Cost of Suburban or Urban Sprawl: Urban Sprawl is the progressive spread of
development over the landscape. As long as we Americans want single-family
detached houses, land on the fringe of urban areas will be converted from open
space to residential use. The cost of this growth is more than the loss of land, it is
also the cost of new roads, utilities, building stores and offices and the cost of
automobiles to move these people over even longer distances. Lots of these new
developments are built on what was once farmland. Wonderful productive soil now
under concrete.

Greenbelts: are areas where, by law, the open space can not be used for any
construction. This is mostly found in Europe.

57

Once farmland that is being converted to suburbs and cities.

58

Tyson’s Corner Virginia in 1940

59

Washington, DC. MSA.

Tyson’s Corner Virginia
today.
Washington D.C. is off
In the distance.

60

Suburban Segregation: The “new” segregation.
Suburban segregation takes two forms:
1. Residents are separated from commercial and manufacturing activities
which are confined someplace else. (The whole neighborhood is
nothing but houses because they drive for services.)
2. The price of the house eliminates some from being able to live there. This
creates a homogeneous suburb of the same economic class of people.
This never existed before in history. Where we once had vertical
segregation of the classes we now we have horizontal segregation.
3. But this may be reversing as new statistics show that people are beginning
to move back to the city. Why? Cost of transportation.
Zoning Ordinances: This idea developed in Europe and later America in the
early decades of the 20th century. This means that businesses are allowed only
in certain areas of the settlement. (No all night taco stands inside your single
family neighborhood.)
Motor vehicles: The wide use of the automobile is largely responsible for the
American movement to the suburbs. Not only did people move out but 1/4 of
the land inside all American cities are now roads, streets, and parking lots.

61

Public Transportation: Because few US workers live within walking distance
of their jobs, urban areas are characterized by extensive commuting and the
problems that come with it. As much as 40% of all trips made into or out from
a city during the day takes place within just 4 hours. (2 in the morning and 2 in
the late afternoon). RUSH HOUR!!! In large cities, public transportation, like
subways and busses, are better suited to move people but Americans still
prefer their own cars. Public transportation is cheaper, cleaner, and more
energy efficient than personal cars, yet in the US only 5% of city travel is
done using public transit systems. American’s love their personal car too
much.
Local Government Fragmentation: Because of the large number of local
governments in the US (look at the settlements in Pinellas County) it is
difficult to solve some of the regional problems like garbage disposal, water
management, traffic and public housing.
62

Metropolitan government: This idea tries to put many local governments into a
larger unit that can better handle the urban problems. The 2 ways to do this
are:
1. Federations in which the individual settlements have their own police,
firemen, and tax collection but they all agree to be part of a second
government which handles transportation, water, sewage, parks and
welfare for all the communities.
2. Consolidations: In this method, several cities and the county may form one
government. Jacksonville’s government runs not only the town but the
county too, this makes Jacksonville the largest city, in land size, in the US.
Smart growth: A new movement by many states to curb suburban sprawl by
limiting where new construction can take place. Smart growth laws require that
land near cities be used up before any land further out can be developed. So
far, this is only being done an a few parts of our country.
63

The new
US as
some
people
see it.

64

Quiz Yourself:
1. The process where middle-class people move into inner city neighborhoods and
renovate them is called ____________
2. ____________ happens when banks refuse to give loans in what they consider
risky neighborhoods.
3. Because of the housing shortages, the poor have constructed their own settlements
around the city known as __________ _________

4. Businesses are allowed only in certain areas of the settlement because of
____________ ____________
5. Areas known as _____ _______ are areas of about 5,000 people. The data from
that area is used to help define needed services for that area.
6. When cities are so close that they form one continuous band of development this is
known as a ____________
65

7. Social relationships are often described as “colder” in urban areas because…
8. In this model the city develops in a series of sectors not rings. _______

9. ______ (LDC’s or MDC’s) have a higher percentage of people living in urban
settlements but ________ (LDC’s or MDC’s) have more of the very large urban
settlements.
10. _____________ was the first model developed to explain the distributions
of different social groups within urban areas.
11. New cities which develop around the beltway are nodes of consumer and
business services known as ________ _________.

12. When the Europeans took over lands around the world, they changed the
cities by adding services to help the Europeans control the conquered people.
These European planned cities are known as __________ cities.
66

Answer Key:
1.

Gentrification

2.

Redlining

3.

Squatter Settlements

4.

Zoning ordinances

5.

Census tracks

6.

Megalopolis

7. There is a stronger feeling of belonging together in small rural settlements.
8. Hoyt sector model
9. MDC, LDC
10. Burgess Concentric Zone model
11. Edge cities
12. Colonial cities
67

Test Key topic/chapter 13:
These questions come from a combination of our slides, your text book, and common knowledge you should
have discussed in your AP classroom. They are very typical of what you will see on the National Exam.
1) The multiple nuclei theory best explains why different neighborhoods of a city attract people of different… A) ages.
B) ethnic origin C) income D) marital status.
2) Sprawl is the… A) change in density within an urban area from the center to the periphery B) development of new
housing sites not contiguous to the existing built-up area. C) land maintained as open space surrounding an urban area.
D) period in the morning and evening with the heaviest volumes of traffic.
3) People are attracted to suburbs in part because suburbs are characterized by…A) heavy traffic. B) lower opportunity
for home ownership. C) private land surrounding the house. D) row houses and apartments.
4) Megalopolis refers to… A) adjacent, overlapping Metropolitan Statistical Areas. B) central cities. C) consolidated
Metropolitan Statistical Areas. D) central cities plus urbanized areas.
5) Which statement best describes the relationship between urbanization and the Industrial Revolution? A) Urbanization
promoted the Industrial Revolution. B) The Industrial Revolution promoted urbanization. C) Urbanization preceded the
Industrial Revolution by thousands of years. D) Urbanization and the Industrial Revolution are no longer related.
6) The process of legally adding land area to a city in the United States is… A) annexation. B) accreditation. C) an
application of eminent domain. D) defined by urbanized area.

68

7) The process of change in the use of a house, from single-family owner occupancy to abandonment, is… A) blockbusting.
B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining.
8) A process by which banks designate an area within which they refuse to lend money for improvements is… A) blockbusting.
B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining.
9) A recent change in the density gradient has been… A) the elimination of the gap traditionally found in the center. B) an
increase in the extremes between the inner and outer areas. C) an increase in the number of people living in the center.
D) a reduction in the differences in densities found within an urban area.
10) U.S. central cities face fiscal problems because… A) federal and state funds are available. B) low-income people are
concentrated there. C) middle-class families are attracted there. D) redlining is no longer legal.
11) A legal form of segregation in U.S. cities is achieved through...A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) zoning. D) greenbelts.
12) Factories have moved to suburban locations in part because of… A) access to main highways. B) adequate space to build
vertical structures. C) availability of large tracts of high-priced land. D) good rail connections.
13) According to the sector model, the best housing is located in…A) a corridor from downtown to the edge of the city.
B) an outer ring surrounding the city. C) nodes near universities and parks. D) renovated inner-city neighborhoods.
14) Ramshackle houses on the periphery of cities in less developed countries are known as… A) squatter settlements. B) council
estates. C) public housing. D) zone in transition.
15) Higher income people tend to live near the center of the city in all but which of the following regions? A) Latin America
B) North America C) South Asia D) Western Europe

16) The wide boulevards built in cities in less developed countries were most likely built during what era? A) pre-colonial
B) colonial C) independence D) all of the above equally

69

17) According to the multiple nuclei model, an airport is likely to attract nearby… A) industries. B) residences. C) shops.
D) universities.
18) The largest percentage of the U.S. population lives in…A) central cities. B) suburbs. C) non-metropolitan areas. D) all of the
above
19) In U.S. cities, the underclass is… A) clustered in inner-city neighborhoods. B) dispersed throughout the city. C) clustered in
suburbs. D) distributed uniformly in the city.

20) A process of converting a neighborhood from low-income to middle-class is…A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) gentrification.
D) redlining.
21) Higher social heterogeneity in urban settlements means that… A) the people with whom you relax are probably the same ones you
see at work. B) you play a specialized role in the urban economy. C) you compete for limited space. D) you may feel lonely and
isolated in a crowd.
22) The city plus its contiguous built-up suburbs is the… A) central city. B) urbanized area.
D) consolidated metropolitan statistical area

C) metropolitan statistical area.

23) The process whereby an increasing percentage of people live in an urban area is known as… A) demographic transition.
B) rank-size rule. C) urbanization. D) central place theory.
24) Of the ten largest urban areas in the world, how many are in More Developed Countries today? A) 1 B) 4 C) 7 D) 10 E) 2
25) Public housing is…A) conversion of low-income housing to middle-class housing. B) illegally established low-income housing.
C) housing that has changed from single-family owner occupancy to abandonment. D) low-income government-owned housing.
26) According to the concentric zone model, a city develops in a series of… A) corridors. B) nodes. C) rings. D) all of the above

70

27) Chicago is a good location in which to develop urban models because it is located… A) at the hub of the nation's transportation
system. B) in the center of the country. C) on a flat prairie. D) on the shore of Lake Michigan.
28) According to the sector model, the best housing is located in… A) a corridor from downtown to the edge of the city. B) an outer
ring surrounding the city. C) nodes near universities and parks. D) renovated inner-city neighborhoods.
29) The zone of transition in US cities generally contain…A) warehouses B) wealthy neighborhoods C) transportation hubs
D) universities and hospitals E) suburban homes
30) The attractions of shopping malls include all but which of the following? A) frequent concerts and exhibitions B) generous
parking lots C) place to meet friends D) walking distance from homes
The following questions are written at the high school level. You will find some questions from part one often rewritten
here. This is all designed to help you transition to the college/AP style of written questions. Any question preceded with ***
are questions that have been on the national exam before.
31. Most Latin American cities are focused on a…A) central plaza B) government housing project C) zone of heavy industry
D) skyscraper office building E) squatter settlement
32. The multiple-nuclei model of a city structure tends to be most applicable to…A) small cities B) traditional C) Latin American
cities D) newer, fast growing cities E) cities with homogeneous land use
33. ***Locational advantages important to the development of the earliest cities include…A) availability of good harbors for large
ships B) productive agricultural land and defensible sites C) temperate climate and proximity to coal mines D) good
connections by road and canal E) proximity to manufacturing areas

34. In cities, the CBD’s often show uniqueness while the suburbs usually show…A) a large hinterland. B) placelessness C) more
than one node. D) newer zones of transition.

71

35. Many LDC’s have tried to help a previously under-developed part of their country develop by moving their capital
city to that area. This new capital is known as a…A) forward capital B) new development zone C) enterprise zone
D) neocolonial city
36. Today the greatest number of urban dwellers is found in…A) North America
D) Europe E) Asia

B) South America C) Africa

37. ***All of the following have helped create ghettos in North American cities except…A)blockbusting and racial
steering B) redlining by financial institutions C) concentration of public housing and social services D) fixed school
districts E) Economic Enterprise Zones

38. Which of the following is NOT as reason for rapid suburbanization in the US after WW2? A) Mass production of
the automobile B) Reduction of long distance commuting C) Expansion of home construction D) Expansion of the
interstate highway system E) Availability of low down payment terms and long-term mortgages.
39. New cities which developed in the hinterland of large urban areas because of the automobile, are known as…
A) edge cities B) census tracts C) suburban sprawl D) squatter settlements. E) none of these
40. Gentrification refers to… A) moving the homeless into inner city shelters B) The “White Flight” from the urban city
C) losing tax revenue because of stores closing in downtown areas D) middle-class people moving into and renovating
inner city neighborhoods E) the creation of “beltway cities” around the city.

72

4
7
3

5

1
6

2

41-48 all use the sketch above.
41. The sketch in box A above represents which model of the inner structure of urban areas?
C) multiple nuclei model D) Burgess concentric zone model E) peripheral model
42. The models in boxes B and C represent A) Concentric zone and multiple nuclei
concentric zone D) peripheral and concentric zone E) Von Thunen and peripheral

A) Hoyt sector model B) VonThunen’s model

B) Multiple nuclei and Hoyt sector C) Hoyt sector and

43. In which ring (1, 2, etc.) of sketch A above would high-status households in North American cities likely live? A) 1 B) 2 C) 3 D) 4&5
44. In which ring (1, 2, etc.) of sketch A above would high status households in a European city likely live? A) 1

B) 2

C) 3

D) 4&5

45. In model B, zone # 2 is where it is likely because of: A) greenbelting B) squatter settling C) the culture of poverty D) transportation
E) no one knows
46. The model in sketch B is the; A) Hoyt sector model B) Burgess model C) multiple nuclei model D) peripheral model
47. The model in sketch C is the; A) Hoyt sector model B) Burgess model C) multiple nuclei model D) peripheral model
48. Which of these models best describes what has happened in US cities in the last 40 years? A)

B)

C)

73

49.*** In the U.S. a city plus its contiguous built-up suburbs is known as an…A) urbanized area B) zoned area
C) census tract D) Squatter settlement E) none of these
50. Done mostly in Europe, these are areas where land is kept as parks, farms or other kinds of open space and urban
sprawl is not allowed. A) Smart growth
B) zoning
C) filtering
D) census tracts E) greenbelts
51. Which statement best describes the relationship between urbanization and the Industrial Revolution?
A) Urbanization promoted the Industrial Revolution. B) The Industrial Revolution promoted urbanization.
C) Urbanization preceded the Industrial Revolution by thousands of years. D) Urbanization and the Industrial
Revolution are no longer related.
52. The process whereby an increasing percentage of people live in an urban area is known as…
A) Demographic transition. B) rank-size rule. C) Urbanization. D) Central place theory.
53. The city (if it has 50,000 or more people) plus its contiguous built-up suburbs AND the county it is in as well as any
other counties it influences, is known as the ...A) central city B) urbanized area
C) metropolitan statistical area
D) consolidated metropolitan area E) micropolitan statistical area
54. ***Higher social heterogeneity in urban settlements means that …A) the people with whom you relax are probably
the same ones you see at work. B) you play a specialized role in the urban economy. C) you compete for limited
space. D) you may feel lonely and isolated in a crowd.

55. The process of change in the use of a house, from single-family owner occupancy to smaller dwellings for the poor
and then sometimes to abandonment, is…A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining. E) none of
these

74

Free Response #1:
The Bid Rent theory says that the closer you get to the
CBD the higher the cost for land, yet in most American
cities you find the poorest people living near the
expensive CBD and the richest living further away.
Explain:
A. Why neighborhoods near the CBD are often poor and
run down?
B. Why are there few grocery and other retail stores in
these neighborhoods?
C. Why is this not really true in European and Latin
American countries?

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75

FR #2:
Think of the map of your school, explain the
layout of your school using the Multiple Nuclei
Model
The main office is the CBD.
Completely explain your answer using specific
buildings and/or land areas in your explanation
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76

Answer Key:
1. B

14. A

27. C

40. D

53. C

2. B

15. B

28. A

41. D

54. D

3. C

16. B

29. A

42. B

55. B

4. A

17. A

30. D

43. D

5. B

18. B

31. A

44. A

6. A

19. A

32. D

45. D

7. B

20. C

33. B

46. A

8. D

21. D

34. B

47. C

9. D

22. B

35. A

48. C

10. B

23. C

36. E

49. A

11. C

24. C

37. E

50. E

12. A

25. D

38. B

51. B

13. A

26. C

39. A

52. C
77

FR. #1: ( 15 pts. for each section…total of 45 pts.)
A. In the US the move of the wealthy and middle class to the suburbs has left the older houses and apartments near the CBD empty.
This has lowered their value to the point where the poor can afford these dwellings and have made these neighborhoods their
homes. The poor can not pay for upkeep of these dwellings, or to pay high taxes. The lack of upkeep and tax money to repair the
roads and schools, adds to the downward spiral of the neighborhood. With little spending money for shopping, the poor do not
spend much in the stores. This causes many stores to close and move to the suburbs where the spending customers and money
went. The closing of the stores adds to the poverty of the area by taking away some of the jobs that were in the neighborhood. This
becomes a vicious cycle of poverty and deterioration. (15 points)

B. There are few retail stores and groceries is the area because the poor do not have money to shop. The lack of spending forces
many stores out of business or forces them to move to better locations. There also can be higher crime in these areas and the
crime often takes place at the stores. This is another reason for the stores to move out of the neighborhood. (15 points)
C. Neighborhoods in European and Latin American cities are different from those of US cities. In Europe and Latin America, the
wealthy and middle class still live near or in the CBD. The higher tax base and more spending ability of the upper and middle
classes, keeps the CBD area flourishing with jobs and in constant repair and upkeep of the cities’ physical condition. (15 points)

FR #2: (10 total points.)
You will need to judge how effectively you displayed you school
in the Multiple Nuclei Model. Refer to the model itself to help you
determine your success and grade.
School’s main office
78

Calculating your grade on test 13.
Add how many you got correct on the multiple choice part (55 possible) to how many
points you scored on the FR portion (55 possible)…110 total.
The following scale will show the approximate score if this test were the real AP exam. Remember that this
is an approximation. While 65-74% is normally the range for a 3 on the test, it is not definite. Over the
years I have seen scores as low as 60% be the low portion of a 3 score.

Out of 110 possible points:
72-83 is most likely a 3
84-94 is most likely a 4

95-110 is most likely a 5

Now lets start our review for the national exam by
reviewing the 33 key models and theories of the
course…the next PowerPoint.


Slide 13

Key topic/chapter 13…Urban Patterns
Key terms:
Annexation
Concentric zone model
Density gradient
Edge cities
Filtering
Galactic city
Gentrification
Greenbelts
Megalopolis
MSA
Multiple nuclei model
Peripheral model

Public housing
Redlining
Renovated housing
Scattered site
Squatter settlement
Sector model
Smart growth
Sprawl
Underclass
Urban renewal
Zone in transition
Zoning
1

Chapter 13…Urban Areas.
How are Cities planned?
Why

are cities where they are?
How are they organized?
Why are some areas of a city
different from
other areas of the same city?
What is the future of cities?
2

Settlement


Settlement - permanent collections of buildings,
where people live, work, and obtain services

3

ORIGINS OF SETTLEMENTS


Religious - graves, churches, temples



Cultural - schools, libraries



Political/Military - leader’s house, walls



Economic - stores, food
4

TYPES OF SETTLEMENTS


Rural Settlements - agriculture as the
predominant occupation.



Urban settlements - principal industries are
secondary and tertiary.

5

RURAL SETTLEMENTS
Clustered rural settlements –grouped
settlements in rural areas to minimize travel

Dispersed rural Settlements - isolated farms
with enclosed continuous fields (Found only in
N. America and Britain).

6

Urban Geographers want to know the global distribution of urban
settlements. MDC’s have a high percentage of people living in urban
areas because of the shift from agriculture-manufacturing-services.
Geographers are also interested in where people and activities are
distributed within urban spaces. What are the differences between the
inner-city and suburban areas and why?
As we saw in the last chapter, many downtowns are unique and can
often be recognized in photos where the suburbs often look very
much alike (Placelessness). Why? Suburbs offer the chance to avoid
some of the city problems (crime, tight living area, expensive
land/rent, noise, age of buildings) while still keeping a connection with
the goods and services of the city: jobs, sports teams, culture, shops,
recreation, etc.
7

Where is this place?

8

Today’s cities are evolving and changing. Although different internal
situations characterize urban areas in the US and elsewhere, the
problems arising from current spatial trends are quite similar in all cities.
Where have urban areas grown: in the early 1800’s only 3% of the earth’s
people lived in cities and only Beijing China had more than 1 million
people. Today over ½ of the world’s people live in cities and we have over
400 cities of at least 1 million people.

Urbanization: is the process by which city population grows.
Cities population growth is measured in 2 dimensions;
1. An increase in the number of people living in the cities.
2. An increase in the percentage of people living in the cities.
This distinction is important because they happen for different reason and
have different global distributions.
9

Increasing Percentage of People in Cities: a large percentage of people living in urban
areas is a measure of a country’s level of development. In MDC’s about ¾ of the people
live in urban areas compared to about 2/5 of people in LDC’s. (Except in Latin America
where the level is closer to MDC’s.)
The higher percentage of people in urban areas comes from the changes that have
occurred in the last 200 years as we went from agriculture (primary jobs) to industrial
(secondary jobs) and now service jobs, all created by the Industrial Revolution of the
1800’s.
People moved to the cities for industrial jobs, but in MDC’s this process has largely
ended because nearly everyone interested in moving to the cities from farms has already
done so.
In LDC’s the percentage of people living in urban areas is growing as people are pushed
off of their farms and replaced by machines and as people move to cities looking/hoping
for industrial jobs.
10

Increasing Number of People in Cities: MDC’s have a higher percentage of
people living in urban settlements but LDC’s have more of the very large urban
settlements (Primate cities). (Rank-size rule, primate cities, chapter 12.)

This is interesting because typically the large cities are created from the
improvements brought by the Industrial Revolution. This is not the case with the
large LDC cities. Migration to the primate city in LDC’s is happening even though
job opportunities may not be available. Increasing the population growth in LDC
cities is the fact that medical services are better in these cities, thus the child
mortality rate is lower.
Defining Urban Settlements: defining where urban areas end and rural areas
begin is not easy. Geographers have formulated definitions that distinguish
between urban and rural areas in two ways: Social differences and Physical
differences.
11

Percent Urban Population

Percent of the population living in urban areas is usually higher in MDCs
than in LDCs.

12

The most populated cities in the world

Of the top
20, only
Moscow,
Tokyo and
New York
are in MDC’s

Shanghai China has 14,608,512 people
13

14

15

Social Differences Between Urban and Rural Settlements: it is fair to say that rural
people and urban people follow different ways of life. A city can be defined as having 3
characteristics:
1. Large size. People in rural settlements know most of the other people in the
settlement. Not true in big cities. Social relationships are often described as “colder” in
urban areas because you only see some people at work instead of growing up with
them in the settlement.
2. High Density. Having lots of people in a tiny area creates social consequences. A
high density of people living in a small area can only be supported if the people
specialize (they can’t all be farmers). People are encouraged to compete for jobs, room,
and survival in a tightly limited space. Social groups compete to occupy the same space
(ethnic/ race problems). Rural settlements have very little of this problem.
3. Social Heterogeneity. The larger the settlement, the greater the variety of people.
Being “unusual” in a large settlement is more likely to be accepted than in a small rural
one. But despite the freedom to be different that large urban settlements give you,
people living there often feel alone because so many people are different from them.
There is a stronger feeling of belonging together in small rural settlements.
16

These 3 differences do not fully answer the question of where urban settlements
begin and rural ones end because in today’s MDC’s most everyone has access to
cars, telephones, televisions, and “urban type” jobs which reduce the differences
between urban and rural lifestyles. “City folk” and “Country folk” are more alike
today than they are different. To help distinguish between urban and rural areas we
need to add the physical definition of rural and urban to the equation.
Physical Definitions of Urban Settlements: In ancient time, cities had defensive
walls for protection which clearly defined the physical boundaries of the city. Today
the walls are gone but we can still define the physical boundaries in 3 ways:
1. Legal boundary. These are the official boundaries of a city as recognized by
the government of the country or state. These “city limits” have been officially given
to the city and are physically marked on official maps. The local government of the
city has authority to make laws and protect the people inside the city boundaries.
17

2. Urbanized area. This is the city plus its suburbs or urbanized area that
surrounds the city. About 70 percent of US residents live in urbanized areas with
40% being in the suburbs and 30% inside the city limits. The suburbs may have
their own city governments but the huge central city dominates what happens in
the entire area.
3. Metropolitan Statistical Area. Cities have an even bigger influence on people
than just those living in their city limits and surrounding urbanized areas. People
from far away come to shop, use the services, support the sports teams, read
the newspapers and watch the television broadcasts of the city. Thus the city
has a “functional area” which is its total zone of influence. The US Bureau of
Census has created a method of measuring the functional area of the city.
Known as the Metropolitan statistical area (MSA) this area includes:
•An urbanized area with a population of at least 50,000
•The county within which the city is located.
•Adjacent counties with a high population density and a large percentage of
residents working in the central city’s county.
18

Metropolitan Area of Philadelphia

City of
Philadelphia

Urbanized
area
(suburbs)
Metropolitan
Statistical
Area

The metropolitan area of Philadelphia is
spread over several counties and four states.
It is also a diversified trade center, given its
position on the Delaware river.

19

20

21

Micropolitan Statistical Areas: Smaller areas with between
10,000 and 50,000 people, the county where it is found, and
adjacent counties tied to the city. This would be a small town and
the area dominated by it.
Overlapping Metropolitan Areas: Some adjacent MSA’s overlap.
A county between two central cities may send a large number of
commuters to jobs in both cities. In some areas the cities are so
close that they form one continuous urban complex. This is
known as a Megalopolis (great city).
In a megalopolis, the downtown CBD often has its own
distinctive look and the urban areas are visually separated by
parks, open spaces, and dairy/truck farms. But at the periphery
of the urban areas, the boundaries overlap.
22

Colorado Springs, population 431,000

Ocala, Florida, population 56,000

Florala, Alabama, population 1,900

23

Megalopolis, from northern Va. To Maine.
This Illustrates the
difference between
strict city proper
definitions and broader
urban agglomerations.
To define urbanized
areas, the U.S. Census
Bureau uses the term
Metropolitan Statistical
Area (MSA) or
Consolidated MSA
(CMSA) if two or more of
them overlap.
24

Where are People Distributed within Urban Areas? People are not
just distributed at random in urban areas. For the most part they
concentrate in particular neighborhoods depending on their social
characteristics. Geographers want to see where people with
particular characteristics are likely to live and why.

Three models which try to explain the growth of a city:

The Burgess Model

The Hoyt Sector Model

The Harris and Ullman
multiple Nuclei Model
25

Burgess Concentric Zone Model

In the concentric zone model, a city grows in a series of rings surrounding the CBD.

Burgess Concentric Zone Model: This is the first used to explain the
distributions of different social groups within urban areas. It says that a
city grows outward from a central place in a series of concentric rings.
The precise size and width of the rings vary from one city to another, but
some basic types of rings appear in all cities in the same order (see chart
above).
26

•Hoyt Sector Model: In this model the city develops in a
series of sectors not rings. Certain areas of the city are
more attractive for various activities, originally because
of an environmental factor (or even pure chance). As the
city grows, activities extend outward in a wedge shape.
For example, once a wealthy neighborhood is built the
next wealthy neighborhood will extend from the first
neighborhood further outward from the center. In this
way, the best housing is found in a corridor extending
outward from the center to the outer edge (see chart on
the next page).
27

The Hoyt Sector Model

In the sector model, a city grows in a series of
wedges or corridors extending out from the
CBD.
28

•Harris and Ullman’s Multiple Nuclei Model: According
to this model, a city is a complex structure that includes
more than one center around which activities revolve.
Examples of these nodes include a port, parks,
stadium, neighborhood business center, university, and
airport (see chart). This theory states that some
activities are attracted to particular nodes, whereas
others try to avoid them. A university node may attract
well educated people and bookstores while the port will
attract hotels and warehouses. Heavy industry and
expensive houses rarely are found together. This
model shows the effect of the automobile more than
any other model.
29

The Harris and Ullman Multiple Nuclei model

The multiple nuclei model views a city as a
collection of individual centers, around which
different people and activities cluster.

30

Applications of the Models: The three models help explain where and in some
cases, why people live where they do. None of the models by themselves fully
explains why and where different types of people live, but combined they give
you as good a look as possible at the “Why” of “Where.” Effective use of the
models depends on getting good data on the areas. Most countries take a
census every 10 years to help determine useful data about the people and
places of the country. In our country we divide the census data into areas
known as census tracts of about 5,000 people. Each census tract has the data
that summarizes the characteristics of the people living within that tract. This
information includes things like the race, income, age, and education of the
people living in that tract.
Social Area Analysis: The data from the census tracts can all be plotted onto
maps to show the characteristics of the people living in that tract. This map is
known as a social area analysis.
31

Using Census tract information…Seattle, Washington
Each lined area is a
census tract of about 5000
people in Seattle
Washington. These maps
show average household
income for 1990 and
2000…note the changes in
income in some areas
between 1990 and 2000.
Using this information, a
business can make
decisions about where
they want to locate a new
store or the future of
existing stores.
You can find census tract
information on many topics
such as; age, education
level, race, ethnicity, crime
rate, and land ownership.
Note the areas with
incomes over
$63,000.

All can be very valuable
information to people
looking to open
businesses.

32

Examine the changes
between 1990 and
2000.

Oakland, California’s Ethnic neighborhoods
The small bordered areas are census tracks of 5000 people.

33

Use of the Models Outside of North America: The 3 models will also work in other
places in the world; however social groups in other countries may not have the
same reasons for selecting particular neighborhoods as Americans do.
European Cities: As in the US, wealthier people in European cities cluster along a
sector extending outward from the CBD, however unlike the US, wealthy and
middle class Europeans still live in the inner rings of the neighborhoods near the
CBD not out in the suburbs. In the past, poorer people lived in the center of the
city. Before electricity, social segregation was vertical: richer people lived on the
first or second floor of a building while the poorer people lived in the basement or
upper floors. In the Industrial Revolution, housing for the poor was constructed
near the factories and away from the rich.
Today poorer Europeans are less likely to live in the inner-city. Poor quality
housing has been renovated for the rich or turned into office buildings. Poorer
Europeans tend to live in the outskirts of the city. Vast suburbs with dozens of high
rise apartments house the poor. They face long commutes to reach their jobs in
the city.
34

European cities generally do not have the “suburban
sprawl” that US cities have. European cities tend to be
more pedestrian friendly with more parks downtown as
Europeans tend to still live downtown.
US cities have taller buildings as European cities tend to
be older and more historic.

American cities have more ethnic neighborhoods than
European cities. Ethnic neighborhoods that do exist in
European cities tend to be in the suburbs. WHY?
Because the established richer neighborhoods tend to be
downtown in European cities.
35

Less Developed Countries: Like Europe, most LDC’s accommodate their poor in the
suburbs with their middle class and rich living near the center of the city. LDC’s have
passed through 3 periods of city building: before the Europeans arrived, during the
period of European colonialism, and since independence from European control.

Pre-colonial Cities: Before the Europeans arrived few cities existed in Africa, Asia, and
Latin America and most people lived in small rural settlements. Those cities that existed
were mostly laid out surrounding a religious center; with the rest of the city laid out in a
hieratical concentric pattern (like the Burgess model) from government buildings,
homes of the wealthy, and businesses related to the religion out to other businesses
and shops.
Colonial cities: When the Europeans took over these lands, they changed the cities by
adding services to help the Europeans control the conquered people. Often a new
European style city would be build next to the existing native one. The new European
cities contained wider streets, a public square, larger houses and a much lower density.
The Spanish used the “Law of the Indies” which was a city plan designed specifically to
build cities in a “Spanish” style. (Gridiron pattern for streets centered on a church and
central plaza, walls around individual houses and neighborhoods centered around
smaller plazas and more churches.)
36

Early Mexico city was laid out in a grid pattern of streets. This followed
the Spanish “Law of the Indies.”

37

Central Plaza in Mexico City 1920 photo. Typical Colonial City plan.

Part of downtown Mexico city today still shows the
building plan of the “Law of the Indies.”

38

Cities since Independence: Following independence, cities have become
the focal point of the development of most LDC’s. Millions of people have
migrated to the cities (Primate cities) looking for jobs and services. Some
capitals have been moved to isolated areas in an attempt to help develop
that area of the country (Brasília) This is know as a forward capital. Latin
American cities have developed their own unique style.
Squatter settlements: The LDC’s are unable to house the rapidly growing
number of poor who are flowing into the cities. Because of the housing
shortages, the poor have constructed their own settlements around the city.
These settlements have few services because neither the city nor the
residents can afford them. Squatters have two basic choices for housing.
1. Illegally move into empty real houses located in the city or,
2. Rent slum housing.
(85% of the population of Addis Ababa in Ethiopia lives in squatter
settlements, slums or other illegal housing.)
39

Squatter shacks in Manila, the Philippines

40

Squatter settlement in Ethiopia

41

Zimbabwe, Africa

42

Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

43

Latin American City Model:
In many Latin
American cities,
the wealthy live in
the inner city and
in a sector
extending along a
commercial spine.
In situ accretion- businesses
and homes constantly under
construction/repair.
Zone of maturity-2nd best
housing in the city.
The poor live in squatter settlements on the
periphery of the city.

Disamenity- unpleasant area
used by the poor to get to the
market.

44

The City Outline of Rio de Janeiro
The rich tourist areas and expensive condo apartments are along the coast
and beach while the poor live in squatter shacks in the hills.

45

City problems:
Inner-City Physical Problems: Most US inner cities were constructed before the 1950’s
(people began to move to the suburbs in the 1950’s so new construction moved out of
the city).
Process of Deterioration (how a city deteriorates): A city doesn’t suddenly become old
and full of slummy areas. It happens over time. When a group of low-income people
inhabit an area of a city, nearby neighborhoods will often look to move out. They sell or
rent to more low-income occupants thus expanding the low-income area. Two processes
cause/speed up the devaluation of areas:
1. Filtering, 2. Redlining.
Filtering: Large houses and buildings that once housed rich downtown workers (who
moved to the suburbs) are taken over by landlords who don’t live in that area (they
moved to the suburbs too). Rents are low so the landlord doesn’t take as good care of
the property as they should and the property becomes run down or abandoned. Stores
close, or move, due to lack of sales. 100 years ago these neighborhoods would be used
by immigrants and ethnic businesses would succeed in those areas. Now, with a decline
in immigration, these neighborhoods have shrunk and so have schools, businesses and
other services. Thousands of vacant houses and buildings stand empty in inner cities
across America.

46

Redlining: Some banks refuse to give loans in what they consider
risky neighborhoods. They draw a red line on a map around areas
where they will not give loans. Without loans, these neighborhoods
have a hard time rebuilding/remodeling. Though illegal, this still
happens. Bankers just don’t put these “no-loan” areas on a map.

Urban Renewal: This is the series of projects to improve European
and N. American cities by buying up the blighted neighborhoods,
moving the people to new government built housing projects, and
building new roads, and other projects to make the inner city
attractive for business again. National and State government grants
help pay for these projects.
47

Public housing: Housing for the poor, built with government funding as part of
urban renewal. In the US this is only about 2% of the housing while in some
countries it may be more (Britain is 30%). Public housing built in the 50’s & 60’s
were largely high rise apartments, but those are seen as being unsatisfactory.
Problems arise from cramming large numbers of poor people into one area.
Today most public housing projects are one to three story buildings with many of
them being scattered around different parts of the city rather than clustered into
one area.
Because urban renewal has been criticized for destroying the social cohesion of
older neighborhoods, many governments (like the US) have stopped funding
most projects since the 1970’s. What do we do instead?
Renovated Housing: An alternative often used since the 70’s is to renovate a
building instead of urban renewal. The process where middle-class people
move into inner-city neighborhoods and renovate them is called gentrification.
Gentrified inner-city neighborhoods also attract middle-class people who work
downtown. Living close to work saves the hassle of commuting and rejuvenates
run down inner-city neighborhoods
48

Gentrified building downtown Harlem, NY. Note the supermarket.

49

Inner-City Social Problems: Inner-city residents are often referred to as the
permanent underclass because they are trapped in an unending cycle of
economic and social problems. High unemployment, alcoholism, drug
addiction, literacy, juvenile delinquency, and crime all exist at a higher rate
among those who live in the inner-city. Lack of jobs means lack of tax dollars
to pay for police and fire protection as well as good schools. Lack of job skills
and homelessness are also tremendous problems.
Culture of Poverty: Inner-city residents are trapped in a permanent underclass
culture that reproduces itself. In the US, unwed mothers give birth to 2/3 of the
babies in the inner-city. 90% of these children live with only one parent and it
is real hard for one parent to keep a job and take care of children. Both suffer
and a shortage of care and daily attention by the parent contributes to the kids
not learning the skills necessary to do well in school which leads to poor jobs
for their futures. Poverty leads to more poverty. Many families on welfare have
only one parent because it is financially better if one parent is gone, that way
the single parent gets food stamps and other services from the government
that they would not get if it was a 2 family household.
50

Crime: Trapped in a hopeless environment, some inner-city
residents turn to drugs. Drug use is a problem in inner-city
areas and the suburbs, but rates of drug use in inner-cities
are the highest.
Ethnic and Racial Segregation: As seen in chapter 7, many
neighborhoods in the US are segregated by ethnicity with
African Americans and Hispanics concentrated in one or two
continuous areas and whites living in the suburbs. Even small
cities display a strong distinction among neighborhoods. A
frequent division is between the east and west or north and
south side of town, or the railroad tracks. A family seeking a
new residence will seek the areas where the characteristics
of the people meet their own.

51

The exodus
from the
American city.
This has
happened in
many American
cities since the
1960’s.

52

Changes in Cities in the U.S.
U.S. population has been moving out of the city centers to the suburbs:
suburbanization and counter urbanization

Developed Countries: suburbanization

 wealthy move to suburbs
 automobiles and roads; ‘American
Dream’ of the home in the suburbs.
 better services
 wealthy move to suburbs
Counter urbanization

idyllic settings
cost of land for retirement
slow pace, yet high tech
connections to services and markets
53

U.S. intraregional migration during 1990s.

Inner city economic problems: the concentration of low income
residents in inner cities has caused economic problems. These
people require public services but can pay very little in taxes to
support the services. They need stores and jobs but have little
money to spend in the store and few skills for jobs (so the stores
close). To try to fight these problems many local and state
governments use tax monies to try to renovate these areas, but this
shifts tax money needed for other areas to the inner city (votes on
election day).
Annexation: Many cities could help their tax problem by adding the
new suburbs to be part of their city (annexation). After all, many of
these suburban people use the city for its’ jobs etc., so why not add
them into the city? Today, most people in the suburbs do not want
to be annexed into the city and so they do not vote to be annexed.
54

The Peripheral Model: According to this model, an urban area
consists of an inner city surrounded by large suburban residential
and business areas (MSA) tied together by a beltway or highway
that circles the city. Around the beltway are nodes of consumer
and business services called edge cities (see diagram of multiple
nuclei model). These edge cities sprang up to provide services
and jobs to the people in the suburbs.
Density Gradient: As you travel outward from the center of the
city, the density of people declines. Inner city has big apartments
of 250 of more people per acre. Suburbs have fewer people per
acre (but lots of acres) and finally you leave the cities periphery
you find few people. The number of houses per unit of land
diminishes as distance from the center of the city increases.
55

The Edge cities (bedroom communities) of Houston

The central city is surrounded by a ring road, around which are
suburban areas and edge cities, shopping malls, office parks,
industrial areas, and service complexes.

Known as
bedroom
communities
because
people live
there but
mostly don’t
work there.
They drive
into the city
for work.
56

As you move from the center of the city outward, the density of the population
changes. This is know as the density gradient. Two big changes have occurred in
the density gradient of today’s cities:
1. The number of people living in the center has decreased.
2. The density difference between the inner city and the suburbs is declining
because the inner city density is dropping and the suburban density is growing
due to more large apartments being built in the suburbs.
Cost of Suburban or Urban Sprawl: Urban Sprawl is the progressive spread of
development over the landscape. As long as we Americans want single-family
detached houses, land on the fringe of urban areas will be converted from open
space to residential use. The cost of this growth is more than the loss of land, it is
also the cost of new roads, utilities, building stores and offices and the cost of
automobiles to move these people over even longer distances. Lots of these new
developments are built on what was once farmland. Wonderful productive soil now
under concrete.

Greenbelts: are areas where, by law, the open space can not be used for any
construction. This is mostly found in Europe.

57

Once farmland that is being converted to suburbs and cities.

58

Tyson’s Corner Virginia in 1940

59

Washington, DC. MSA.

Tyson’s Corner Virginia
today.
Washington D.C. is off
In the distance.

60

Suburban Segregation: The “new” segregation.
Suburban segregation takes two forms:
1. Residents are separated from commercial and manufacturing activities
which are confined someplace else. (The whole neighborhood is
nothing but houses because they drive for services.)
2. The price of the house eliminates some from being able to live there. This
creates a homogeneous suburb of the same economic class of people.
This never existed before in history. Where we once had vertical
segregation of the classes we now we have horizontal segregation.
3. But this may be reversing as new statistics show that people are beginning
to move back to the city. Why? Cost of transportation.
Zoning Ordinances: This idea developed in Europe and later America in the
early decades of the 20th century. This means that businesses are allowed only
in certain areas of the settlement. (No all night taco stands inside your single
family neighborhood.)
Motor vehicles: The wide use of the automobile is largely responsible for the
American movement to the suburbs. Not only did people move out but 1/4 of
the land inside all American cities are now roads, streets, and parking lots.

61

Public Transportation: Because few US workers live within walking distance
of their jobs, urban areas are characterized by extensive commuting and the
problems that come with it. As much as 40% of all trips made into or out from
a city during the day takes place within just 4 hours. (2 in the morning and 2 in
the late afternoon). RUSH HOUR!!! In large cities, public transportation, like
subways and busses, are better suited to move people but Americans still
prefer their own cars. Public transportation is cheaper, cleaner, and more
energy efficient than personal cars, yet in the US only 5% of city travel is
done using public transit systems. American’s love their personal car too
much.
Local Government Fragmentation: Because of the large number of local
governments in the US (look at the settlements in Pinellas County) it is
difficult to solve some of the regional problems like garbage disposal, water
management, traffic and public housing.
62

Metropolitan government: This idea tries to put many local governments into a
larger unit that can better handle the urban problems. The 2 ways to do this
are:
1. Federations in which the individual settlements have their own police,
firemen, and tax collection but they all agree to be part of a second
government which handles transportation, water, sewage, parks and
welfare for all the communities.
2. Consolidations: In this method, several cities and the county may form one
government. Jacksonville’s government runs not only the town but the
county too, this makes Jacksonville the largest city, in land size, in the US.
Smart growth: A new movement by many states to curb suburban sprawl by
limiting where new construction can take place. Smart growth laws require that
land near cities be used up before any land further out can be developed. So
far, this is only being done an a few parts of our country.
63

The new
US as
some
people
see it.

64

Quiz Yourself:
1. The process where middle-class people move into inner city neighborhoods and
renovate them is called ____________
2. ____________ happens when banks refuse to give loans in what they consider
risky neighborhoods.
3. Because of the housing shortages, the poor have constructed their own settlements
around the city known as __________ _________

4. Businesses are allowed only in certain areas of the settlement because of
____________ ____________
5. Areas known as _____ _______ are areas of about 5,000 people. The data from
that area is used to help define needed services for that area.
6. When cities are so close that they form one continuous band of development this is
known as a ____________
65

7. Social relationships are often described as “colder” in urban areas because…
8. In this model the city develops in a series of sectors not rings. _______

9. ______ (LDC’s or MDC’s) have a higher percentage of people living in urban
settlements but ________ (LDC’s or MDC’s) have more of the very large urban
settlements.
10. _____________ was the first model developed to explain the distributions
of different social groups within urban areas.
11. New cities which develop around the beltway are nodes of consumer and
business services known as ________ _________.

12. When the Europeans took over lands around the world, they changed the
cities by adding services to help the Europeans control the conquered people.
These European planned cities are known as __________ cities.
66

Answer Key:
1.

Gentrification

2.

Redlining

3.

Squatter Settlements

4.

Zoning ordinances

5.

Census tracks

6.

Megalopolis

7. There is a stronger feeling of belonging together in small rural settlements.
8. Hoyt sector model
9. MDC, LDC
10. Burgess Concentric Zone model
11. Edge cities
12. Colonial cities
67

Test Key topic/chapter 13:
These questions come from a combination of our slides, your text book, and common knowledge you should
have discussed in your AP classroom. They are very typical of what you will see on the National Exam.
1) The multiple nuclei theory best explains why different neighborhoods of a city attract people of different… A) ages.
B) ethnic origin C) income D) marital status.
2) Sprawl is the… A) change in density within an urban area from the center to the periphery B) development of new
housing sites not contiguous to the existing built-up area. C) land maintained as open space surrounding an urban area.
D) period in the morning and evening with the heaviest volumes of traffic.
3) People are attracted to suburbs in part because suburbs are characterized by…A) heavy traffic. B) lower opportunity
for home ownership. C) private land surrounding the house. D) row houses and apartments.
4) Megalopolis refers to… A) adjacent, overlapping Metropolitan Statistical Areas. B) central cities. C) consolidated
Metropolitan Statistical Areas. D) central cities plus urbanized areas.
5) Which statement best describes the relationship between urbanization and the Industrial Revolution? A) Urbanization
promoted the Industrial Revolution. B) The Industrial Revolution promoted urbanization. C) Urbanization preceded the
Industrial Revolution by thousands of years. D) Urbanization and the Industrial Revolution are no longer related.
6) The process of legally adding land area to a city in the United States is… A) annexation. B) accreditation. C) an
application of eminent domain. D) defined by urbanized area.

68

7) The process of change in the use of a house, from single-family owner occupancy to abandonment, is… A) blockbusting.
B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining.
8) A process by which banks designate an area within which they refuse to lend money for improvements is… A) blockbusting.
B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining.
9) A recent change in the density gradient has been… A) the elimination of the gap traditionally found in the center. B) an
increase in the extremes between the inner and outer areas. C) an increase in the number of people living in the center.
D) a reduction in the differences in densities found within an urban area.
10) U.S. central cities face fiscal problems because… A) federal and state funds are available. B) low-income people are
concentrated there. C) middle-class families are attracted there. D) redlining is no longer legal.
11) A legal form of segregation in U.S. cities is achieved through...A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) zoning. D) greenbelts.
12) Factories have moved to suburban locations in part because of… A) access to main highways. B) adequate space to build
vertical structures. C) availability of large tracts of high-priced land. D) good rail connections.
13) According to the sector model, the best housing is located in…A) a corridor from downtown to the edge of the city.
B) an outer ring surrounding the city. C) nodes near universities and parks. D) renovated inner-city neighborhoods.
14) Ramshackle houses on the periphery of cities in less developed countries are known as… A) squatter settlements. B) council
estates. C) public housing. D) zone in transition.
15) Higher income people tend to live near the center of the city in all but which of the following regions? A) Latin America
B) North America C) South Asia D) Western Europe

16) The wide boulevards built in cities in less developed countries were most likely built during what era? A) pre-colonial
B) colonial C) independence D) all of the above equally

69

17) According to the multiple nuclei model, an airport is likely to attract nearby… A) industries. B) residences. C) shops.
D) universities.
18) The largest percentage of the U.S. population lives in…A) central cities. B) suburbs. C) non-metropolitan areas. D) all of the
above
19) In U.S. cities, the underclass is… A) clustered in inner-city neighborhoods. B) dispersed throughout the city. C) clustered in
suburbs. D) distributed uniformly in the city.

20) A process of converting a neighborhood from low-income to middle-class is…A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) gentrification.
D) redlining.
21) Higher social heterogeneity in urban settlements means that… A) the people with whom you relax are probably the same ones you
see at work. B) you play a specialized role in the urban economy. C) you compete for limited space. D) you may feel lonely and
isolated in a crowd.
22) The city plus its contiguous built-up suburbs is the… A) central city. B) urbanized area.
D) consolidated metropolitan statistical area

C) metropolitan statistical area.

23) The process whereby an increasing percentage of people live in an urban area is known as… A) demographic transition.
B) rank-size rule. C) urbanization. D) central place theory.
24) Of the ten largest urban areas in the world, how many are in More Developed Countries today? A) 1 B) 4 C) 7 D) 10 E) 2
25) Public housing is…A) conversion of low-income housing to middle-class housing. B) illegally established low-income housing.
C) housing that has changed from single-family owner occupancy to abandonment. D) low-income government-owned housing.
26) According to the concentric zone model, a city develops in a series of… A) corridors. B) nodes. C) rings. D) all of the above

70

27) Chicago is a good location in which to develop urban models because it is located… A) at the hub of the nation's transportation
system. B) in the center of the country. C) on a flat prairie. D) on the shore of Lake Michigan.
28) According to the sector model, the best housing is located in… A) a corridor from downtown to the edge of the city. B) an outer
ring surrounding the city. C) nodes near universities and parks. D) renovated inner-city neighborhoods.
29) The zone of transition in US cities generally contain…A) warehouses B) wealthy neighborhoods C) transportation hubs
D) universities and hospitals E) suburban homes
30) The attractions of shopping malls include all but which of the following? A) frequent concerts and exhibitions B) generous
parking lots C) place to meet friends D) walking distance from homes
The following questions are written at the high school level. You will find some questions from part one often rewritten
here. This is all designed to help you transition to the college/AP style of written questions. Any question preceded with ***
are questions that have been on the national exam before.
31. Most Latin American cities are focused on a…A) central plaza B) government housing project C) zone of heavy industry
D) skyscraper office building E) squatter settlement
32. The multiple-nuclei model of a city structure tends to be most applicable to…A) small cities B) traditional C) Latin American
cities D) newer, fast growing cities E) cities with homogeneous land use
33. ***Locational advantages important to the development of the earliest cities include…A) availability of good harbors for large
ships B) productive agricultural land and defensible sites C) temperate climate and proximity to coal mines D) good
connections by road and canal E) proximity to manufacturing areas

34. In cities, the CBD’s often show uniqueness while the suburbs usually show…A) a large hinterland. B) placelessness C) more
than one node. D) newer zones of transition.

71

35. Many LDC’s have tried to help a previously under-developed part of their country develop by moving their capital
city to that area. This new capital is known as a…A) forward capital B) new development zone C) enterprise zone
D) neocolonial city
36. Today the greatest number of urban dwellers is found in…A) North America
D) Europe E) Asia

B) South America C) Africa

37. ***All of the following have helped create ghettos in North American cities except…A)blockbusting and racial
steering B) redlining by financial institutions C) concentration of public housing and social services D) fixed school
districts E) Economic Enterprise Zones

38. Which of the following is NOT as reason for rapid suburbanization in the US after WW2? A) Mass production of
the automobile B) Reduction of long distance commuting C) Expansion of home construction D) Expansion of the
interstate highway system E) Availability of low down payment terms and long-term mortgages.
39. New cities which developed in the hinterland of large urban areas because of the automobile, are known as…
A) edge cities B) census tracts C) suburban sprawl D) squatter settlements. E) none of these
40. Gentrification refers to… A) moving the homeless into inner city shelters B) The “White Flight” from the urban city
C) losing tax revenue because of stores closing in downtown areas D) middle-class people moving into and renovating
inner city neighborhoods E) the creation of “beltway cities” around the city.

72

4
7
3

5

1
6

2

41-48 all use the sketch above.
41. The sketch in box A above represents which model of the inner structure of urban areas?
C) multiple nuclei model D) Burgess concentric zone model E) peripheral model
42. The models in boxes B and C represent A) Concentric zone and multiple nuclei
concentric zone D) peripheral and concentric zone E) Von Thunen and peripheral

A) Hoyt sector model B) VonThunen’s model

B) Multiple nuclei and Hoyt sector C) Hoyt sector and

43. In which ring (1, 2, etc.) of sketch A above would high-status households in North American cities likely live? A) 1 B) 2 C) 3 D) 4&5
44. In which ring (1, 2, etc.) of sketch A above would high status households in a European city likely live? A) 1

B) 2

C) 3

D) 4&5

45. In model B, zone # 2 is where it is likely because of: A) greenbelting B) squatter settling C) the culture of poverty D) transportation
E) no one knows
46. The model in sketch B is the; A) Hoyt sector model B) Burgess model C) multiple nuclei model D) peripheral model
47. The model in sketch C is the; A) Hoyt sector model B) Burgess model C) multiple nuclei model D) peripheral model
48. Which of these models best describes what has happened in US cities in the last 40 years? A)

B)

C)

73

49.*** In the U.S. a city plus its contiguous built-up suburbs is known as an…A) urbanized area B) zoned area
C) census tract D) Squatter settlement E) none of these
50. Done mostly in Europe, these are areas where land is kept as parks, farms or other kinds of open space and urban
sprawl is not allowed. A) Smart growth
B) zoning
C) filtering
D) census tracts E) greenbelts
51. Which statement best describes the relationship between urbanization and the Industrial Revolution?
A) Urbanization promoted the Industrial Revolution. B) The Industrial Revolution promoted urbanization.
C) Urbanization preceded the Industrial Revolution by thousands of years. D) Urbanization and the Industrial
Revolution are no longer related.
52. The process whereby an increasing percentage of people live in an urban area is known as…
A) Demographic transition. B) rank-size rule. C) Urbanization. D) Central place theory.
53. The city (if it has 50,000 or more people) plus its contiguous built-up suburbs AND the county it is in as well as any
other counties it influences, is known as the ...A) central city B) urbanized area
C) metropolitan statistical area
D) consolidated metropolitan area E) micropolitan statistical area
54. ***Higher social heterogeneity in urban settlements means that …A) the people with whom you relax are probably
the same ones you see at work. B) you play a specialized role in the urban economy. C) you compete for limited
space. D) you may feel lonely and isolated in a crowd.

55. The process of change in the use of a house, from single-family owner occupancy to smaller dwellings for the poor
and then sometimes to abandonment, is…A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining. E) none of
these

74

Free Response #1:
The Bid Rent theory says that the closer you get to the
CBD the higher the cost for land, yet in most American
cities you find the poorest people living near the
expensive CBD and the richest living further away.
Explain:
A. Why neighborhoods near the CBD are often poor and
run down?
B. Why are there few grocery and other retail stores in
these neighborhoods?
C. Why is this not really true in European and Latin
American countries?

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75

FR #2:
Think of the map of your school, explain the
layout of your school using the Multiple Nuclei
Model
The main office is the CBD.
Completely explain your answer using specific
buildings and/or land areas in your explanation
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76

Answer Key:
1. B

14. A

27. C

40. D

53. C

2. B

15. B

28. A

41. D

54. D

3. C

16. B

29. A

42. B

55. B

4. A

17. A

30. D

43. D

5. B

18. B

31. A

44. A

6. A

19. A

32. D

45. D

7. B

20. C

33. B

46. A

8. D

21. D

34. B

47. C

9. D

22. B

35. A

48. C

10. B

23. C

36. E

49. A

11. C

24. C

37. E

50. E

12. A

25. D

38. B

51. B

13. A

26. C

39. A

52. C
77

FR. #1: ( 15 pts. for each section…total of 45 pts.)
A. In the US the move of the wealthy and middle class to the suburbs has left the older houses and apartments near the CBD empty.
This has lowered their value to the point where the poor can afford these dwellings and have made these neighborhoods their
homes. The poor can not pay for upkeep of these dwellings, or to pay high taxes. The lack of upkeep and tax money to repair the
roads and schools, adds to the downward spiral of the neighborhood. With little spending money for shopping, the poor do not
spend much in the stores. This causes many stores to close and move to the suburbs where the spending customers and money
went. The closing of the stores adds to the poverty of the area by taking away some of the jobs that were in the neighborhood. This
becomes a vicious cycle of poverty and deterioration. (15 points)

B. There are few retail stores and groceries is the area because the poor do not have money to shop. The lack of spending forces
many stores out of business or forces them to move to better locations. There also can be higher crime in these areas and the
crime often takes place at the stores. This is another reason for the stores to move out of the neighborhood. (15 points)
C. Neighborhoods in European and Latin American cities are different from those of US cities. In Europe and Latin America, the
wealthy and middle class still live near or in the CBD. The higher tax base and more spending ability of the upper and middle
classes, keeps the CBD area flourishing with jobs and in constant repair and upkeep of the cities’ physical condition. (15 points)

FR #2: (10 total points.)
You will need to judge how effectively you displayed you school
in the Multiple Nuclei Model. Refer to the model itself to help you
determine your success and grade.
School’s main office
78

Calculating your grade on test 13.
Add how many you got correct on the multiple choice part (55 possible) to how many
points you scored on the FR portion (55 possible)…110 total.
The following scale will show the approximate score if this test were the real AP exam. Remember that this
is an approximation. While 65-74% is normally the range for a 3 on the test, it is not definite. Over the
years I have seen scores as low as 60% be the low portion of a 3 score.

Out of 110 possible points:
72-83 is most likely a 3
84-94 is most likely a 4

95-110 is most likely a 5

Now lets start our review for the national exam by
reviewing the 33 key models and theories of the
course…the next PowerPoint.


Slide 14

Key topic/chapter 13…Urban Patterns
Key terms:
Annexation
Concentric zone model
Density gradient
Edge cities
Filtering
Galactic city
Gentrification
Greenbelts
Megalopolis
MSA
Multiple nuclei model
Peripheral model

Public housing
Redlining
Renovated housing
Scattered site
Squatter settlement
Sector model
Smart growth
Sprawl
Underclass
Urban renewal
Zone in transition
Zoning
1

Chapter 13…Urban Areas.
How are Cities planned?
Why

are cities where they are?
How are they organized?
Why are some areas of a city
different from
other areas of the same city?
What is the future of cities?
2

Settlement


Settlement - permanent collections of buildings,
where people live, work, and obtain services

3

ORIGINS OF SETTLEMENTS


Religious - graves, churches, temples



Cultural - schools, libraries



Political/Military - leader’s house, walls



Economic - stores, food
4

TYPES OF SETTLEMENTS


Rural Settlements - agriculture as the
predominant occupation.



Urban settlements - principal industries are
secondary and tertiary.

5

RURAL SETTLEMENTS
Clustered rural settlements –grouped
settlements in rural areas to minimize travel

Dispersed rural Settlements - isolated farms
with enclosed continuous fields (Found only in
N. America and Britain).

6

Urban Geographers want to know the global distribution of urban
settlements. MDC’s have a high percentage of people living in urban
areas because of the shift from agriculture-manufacturing-services.
Geographers are also interested in where people and activities are
distributed within urban spaces. What are the differences between the
inner-city and suburban areas and why?
As we saw in the last chapter, many downtowns are unique and can
often be recognized in photos where the suburbs often look very
much alike (Placelessness). Why? Suburbs offer the chance to avoid
some of the city problems (crime, tight living area, expensive
land/rent, noise, age of buildings) while still keeping a connection with
the goods and services of the city: jobs, sports teams, culture, shops,
recreation, etc.
7

Where is this place?

8

Today’s cities are evolving and changing. Although different internal
situations characterize urban areas in the US and elsewhere, the
problems arising from current spatial trends are quite similar in all cities.
Where have urban areas grown: in the early 1800’s only 3% of the earth’s
people lived in cities and only Beijing China had more than 1 million
people. Today over ½ of the world’s people live in cities and we have over
400 cities of at least 1 million people.

Urbanization: is the process by which city population grows.
Cities population growth is measured in 2 dimensions;
1. An increase in the number of people living in the cities.
2. An increase in the percentage of people living in the cities.
This distinction is important because they happen for different reason and
have different global distributions.
9

Increasing Percentage of People in Cities: a large percentage of people living in urban
areas is a measure of a country’s level of development. In MDC’s about ¾ of the people
live in urban areas compared to about 2/5 of people in LDC’s. (Except in Latin America
where the level is closer to MDC’s.)
The higher percentage of people in urban areas comes from the changes that have
occurred in the last 200 years as we went from agriculture (primary jobs) to industrial
(secondary jobs) and now service jobs, all created by the Industrial Revolution of the
1800’s.
People moved to the cities for industrial jobs, but in MDC’s this process has largely
ended because nearly everyone interested in moving to the cities from farms has already
done so.
In LDC’s the percentage of people living in urban areas is growing as people are pushed
off of their farms and replaced by machines and as people move to cities looking/hoping
for industrial jobs.
10

Increasing Number of People in Cities: MDC’s have a higher percentage of
people living in urban settlements but LDC’s have more of the very large urban
settlements (Primate cities). (Rank-size rule, primate cities, chapter 12.)

This is interesting because typically the large cities are created from the
improvements brought by the Industrial Revolution. This is not the case with the
large LDC cities. Migration to the primate city in LDC’s is happening even though
job opportunities may not be available. Increasing the population growth in LDC
cities is the fact that medical services are better in these cities, thus the child
mortality rate is lower.
Defining Urban Settlements: defining where urban areas end and rural areas
begin is not easy. Geographers have formulated definitions that distinguish
between urban and rural areas in two ways: Social differences and Physical
differences.
11

Percent Urban Population

Percent of the population living in urban areas is usually higher in MDCs
than in LDCs.

12

The most populated cities in the world

Of the top
20, only
Moscow,
Tokyo and
New York
are in MDC’s

Shanghai China has 14,608,512 people
13

14

15

Social Differences Between Urban and Rural Settlements: it is fair to say that rural
people and urban people follow different ways of life. A city can be defined as having 3
characteristics:
1. Large size. People in rural settlements know most of the other people in the
settlement. Not true in big cities. Social relationships are often described as “colder” in
urban areas because you only see some people at work instead of growing up with
them in the settlement.
2. High Density. Having lots of people in a tiny area creates social consequences. A
high density of people living in a small area can only be supported if the people
specialize (they can’t all be farmers). People are encouraged to compete for jobs, room,
and survival in a tightly limited space. Social groups compete to occupy the same space
(ethnic/ race problems). Rural settlements have very little of this problem.
3. Social Heterogeneity. The larger the settlement, the greater the variety of people.
Being “unusual” in a large settlement is more likely to be accepted than in a small rural
one. But despite the freedom to be different that large urban settlements give you,
people living there often feel alone because so many people are different from them.
There is a stronger feeling of belonging together in small rural settlements.
16

These 3 differences do not fully answer the question of where urban settlements
begin and rural ones end because in today’s MDC’s most everyone has access to
cars, telephones, televisions, and “urban type” jobs which reduce the differences
between urban and rural lifestyles. “City folk” and “Country folk” are more alike
today than they are different. To help distinguish between urban and rural areas we
need to add the physical definition of rural and urban to the equation.
Physical Definitions of Urban Settlements: In ancient time, cities had defensive
walls for protection which clearly defined the physical boundaries of the city. Today
the walls are gone but we can still define the physical boundaries in 3 ways:
1. Legal boundary. These are the official boundaries of a city as recognized by
the government of the country or state. These “city limits” have been officially given
to the city and are physically marked on official maps. The local government of the
city has authority to make laws and protect the people inside the city boundaries.
17

2. Urbanized area. This is the city plus its suburbs or urbanized area that
surrounds the city. About 70 percent of US residents live in urbanized areas with
40% being in the suburbs and 30% inside the city limits. The suburbs may have
their own city governments but the huge central city dominates what happens in
the entire area.
3. Metropolitan Statistical Area. Cities have an even bigger influence on people
than just those living in their city limits and surrounding urbanized areas. People
from far away come to shop, use the services, support the sports teams, read
the newspapers and watch the television broadcasts of the city. Thus the city
has a “functional area” which is its total zone of influence. The US Bureau of
Census has created a method of measuring the functional area of the city.
Known as the Metropolitan statistical area (MSA) this area includes:
•An urbanized area with a population of at least 50,000
•The county within which the city is located.
•Adjacent counties with a high population density and a large percentage of
residents working in the central city’s county.
18

Metropolitan Area of Philadelphia

City of
Philadelphia

Urbanized
area
(suburbs)
Metropolitan
Statistical
Area

The metropolitan area of Philadelphia is
spread over several counties and four states.
It is also a diversified trade center, given its
position on the Delaware river.

19

20

21

Micropolitan Statistical Areas: Smaller areas with between
10,000 and 50,000 people, the county where it is found, and
adjacent counties tied to the city. This would be a small town and
the area dominated by it.
Overlapping Metropolitan Areas: Some adjacent MSA’s overlap.
A county between two central cities may send a large number of
commuters to jobs in both cities. In some areas the cities are so
close that they form one continuous urban complex. This is
known as a Megalopolis (great city).
In a megalopolis, the downtown CBD often has its own
distinctive look and the urban areas are visually separated by
parks, open spaces, and dairy/truck farms. But at the periphery
of the urban areas, the boundaries overlap.
22

Colorado Springs, population 431,000

Ocala, Florida, population 56,000

Florala, Alabama, population 1,900

23

Megalopolis, from northern Va. To Maine.
This Illustrates the
difference between
strict city proper
definitions and broader
urban agglomerations.
To define urbanized
areas, the U.S. Census
Bureau uses the term
Metropolitan Statistical
Area (MSA) or
Consolidated MSA
(CMSA) if two or more of
them overlap.
24

Where are People Distributed within Urban Areas? People are not
just distributed at random in urban areas. For the most part they
concentrate in particular neighborhoods depending on their social
characteristics. Geographers want to see where people with
particular characteristics are likely to live and why.

Three models which try to explain the growth of a city:

The Burgess Model

The Hoyt Sector Model

The Harris and Ullman
multiple Nuclei Model
25

Burgess Concentric Zone Model

In the concentric zone model, a city grows in a series of rings surrounding the CBD.

Burgess Concentric Zone Model: This is the first used to explain the
distributions of different social groups within urban areas. It says that a
city grows outward from a central place in a series of concentric rings.
The precise size and width of the rings vary from one city to another, but
some basic types of rings appear in all cities in the same order (see chart
above).
26

•Hoyt Sector Model: In this model the city develops in a
series of sectors not rings. Certain areas of the city are
more attractive for various activities, originally because
of an environmental factor (or even pure chance). As the
city grows, activities extend outward in a wedge shape.
For example, once a wealthy neighborhood is built the
next wealthy neighborhood will extend from the first
neighborhood further outward from the center. In this
way, the best housing is found in a corridor extending
outward from the center to the outer edge (see chart on
the next page).
27

The Hoyt Sector Model

In the sector model, a city grows in a series of
wedges or corridors extending out from the
CBD.
28

•Harris and Ullman’s Multiple Nuclei Model: According
to this model, a city is a complex structure that includes
more than one center around which activities revolve.
Examples of these nodes include a port, parks,
stadium, neighborhood business center, university, and
airport (see chart). This theory states that some
activities are attracted to particular nodes, whereas
others try to avoid them. A university node may attract
well educated people and bookstores while the port will
attract hotels and warehouses. Heavy industry and
expensive houses rarely are found together. This
model shows the effect of the automobile more than
any other model.
29

The Harris and Ullman Multiple Nuclei model

The multiple nuclei model views a city as a
collection of individual centers, around which
different people and activities cluster.

30

Applications of the Models: The three models help explain where and in some
cases, why people live where they do. None of the models by themselves fully
explains why and where different types of people live, but combined they give
you as good a look as possible at the “Why” of “Where.” Effective use of the
models depends on getting good data on the areas. Most countries take a
census every 10 years to help determine useful data about the people and
places of the country. In our country we divide the census data into areas
known as census tracts of about 5,000 people. Each census tract has the data
that summarizes the characteristics of the people living within that tract. This
information includes things like the race, income, age, and education of the
people living in that tract.
Social Area Analysis: The data from the census tracts can all be plotted onto
maps to show the characteristics of the people living in that tract. This map is
known as a social area analysis.
31

Using Census tract information…Seattle, Washington
Each lined area is a
census tract of about 5000
people in Seattle
Washington. These maps
show average household
income for 1990 and
2000…note the changes in
income in some areas
between 1990 and 2000.
Using this information, a
business can make
decisions about where
they want to locate a new
store or the future of
existing stores.
You can find census tract
information on many topics
such as; age, education
level, race, ethnicity, crime
rate, and land ownership.
Note the areas with
incomes over
$63,000.

All can be very valuable
information to people
looking to open
businesses.

32

Examine the changes
between 1990 and
2000.

Oakland, California’s Ethnic neighborhoods
The small bordered areas are census tracks of 5000 people.

33

Use of the Models Outside of North America: The 3 models will also work in other
places in the world; however social groups in other countries may not have the
same reasons for selecting particular neighborhoods as Americans do.
European Cities: As in the US, wealthier people in European cities cluster along a
sector extending outward from the CBD, however unlike the US, wealthy and
middle class Europeans still live in the inner rings of the neighborhoods near the
CBD not out in the suburbs. In the past, poorer people lived in the center of the
city. Before electricity, social segregation was vertical: richer people lived on the
first or second floor of a building while the poorer people lived in the basement or
upper floors. In the Industrial Revolution, housing for the poor was constructed
near the factories and away from the rich.
Today poorer Europeans are less likely to live in the inner-city. Poor quality
housing has been renovated for the rich or turned into office buildings. Poorer
Europeans tend to live in the outskirts of the city. Vast suburbs with dozens of high
rise apartments house the poor. They face long commutes to reach their jobs in
the city.
34

European cities generally do not have the “suburban
sprawl” that US cities have. European cities tend to be
more pedestrian friendly with more parks downtown as
Europeans tend to still live downtown.
US cities have taller buildings as European cities tend to
be older and more historic.

American cities have more ethnic neighborhoods than
European cities. Ethnic neighborhoods that do exist in
European cities tend to be in the suburbs. WHY?
Because the established richer neighborhoods tend to be
downtown in European cities.
35

Less Developed Countries: Like Europe, most LDC’s accommodate their poor in the
suburbs with their middle class and rich living near the center of the city. LDC’s have
passed through 3 periods of city building: before the Europeans arrived, during the
period of European colonialism, and since independence from European control.

Pre-colonial Cities: Before the Europeans arrived few cities existed in Africa, Asia, and
Latin America and most people lived in small rural settlements. Those cities that existed
were mostly laid out surrounding a religious center; with the rest of the city laid out in a
hieratical concentric pattern (like the Burgess model) from government buildings,
homes of the wealthy, and businesses related to the religion out to other businesses
and shops.
Colonial cities: When the Europeans took over these lands, they changed the cities by
adding services to help the Europeans control the conquered people. Often a new
European style city would be build next to the existing native one. The new European
cities contained wider streets, a public square, larger houses and a much lower density.
The Spanish used the “Law of the Indies” which was a city plan designed specifically to
build cities in a “Spanish” style. (Gridiron pattern for streets centered on a church and
central plaza, walls around individual houses and neighborhoods centered around
smaller plazas and more churches.)
36

Early Mexico city was laid out in a grid pattern of streets. This followed
the Spanish “Law of the Indies.”

37

Central Plaza in Mexico City 1920 photo. Typical Colonial City plan.

Part of downtown Mexico city today still shows the
building plan of the “Law of the Indies.”

38

Cities since Independence: Following independence, cities have become
the focal point of the development of most LDC’s. Millions of people have
migrated to the cities (Primate cities) looking for jobs and services. Some
capitals have been moved to isolated areas in an attempt to help develop
that area of the country (Brasília) This is know as a forward capital. Latin
American cities have developed their own unique style.
Squatter settlements: The LDC’s are unable to house the rapidly growing
number of poor who are flowing into the cities. Because of the housing
shortages, the poor have constructed their own settlements around the city.
These settlements have few services because neither the city nor the
residents can afford them. Squatters have two basic choices for housing.
1. Illegally move into empty real houses located in the city or,
2. Rent slum housing.
(85% of the population of Addis Ababa in Ethiopia lives in squatter
settlements, slums or other illegal housing.)
39

Squatter shacks in Manila, the Philippines

40

Squatter settlement in Ethiopia

41

Zimbabwe, Africa

42

Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

43

Latin American City Model:
In many Latin
American cities,
the wealthy live in
the inner city and
in a sector
extending along a
commercial spine.
In situ accretion- businesses
and homes constantly under
construction/repair.
Zone of maturity-2nd best
housing in the city.
The poor live in squatter settlements on the
periphery of the city.

Disamenity- unpleasant area
used by the poor to get to the
market.

44

The City Outline of Rio de Janeiro
The rich tourist areas and expensive condo apartments are along the coast
and beach while the poor live in squatter shacks in the hills.

45

City problems:
Inner-City Physical Problems: Most US inner cities were constructed before the 1950’s
(people began to move to the suburbs in the 1950’s so new construction moved out of
the city).
Process of Deterioration (how a city deteriorates): A city doesn’t suddenly become old
and full of slummy areas. It happens over time. When a group of low-income people
inhabit an area of a city, nearby neighborhoods will often look to move out. They sell or
rent to more low-income occupants thus expanding the low-income area. Two processes
cause/speed up the devaluation of areas:
1. Filtering, 2. Redlining.
Filtering: Large houses and buildings that once housed rich downtown workers (who
moved to the suburbs) are taken over by landlords who don’t live in that area (they
moved to the suburbs too). Rents are low so the landlord doesn’t take as good care of
the property as they should and the property becomes run down or abandoned. Stores
close, or move, due to lack of sales. 100 years ago these neighborhoods would be used
by immigrants and ethnic businesses would succeed in those areas. Now, with a decline
in immigration, these neighborhoods have shrunk and so have schools, businesses and
other services. Thousands of vacant houses and buildings stand empty in inner cities
across America.

46

Redlining: Some banks refuse to give loans in what they consider
risky neighborhoods. They draw a red line on a map around areas
where they will not give loans. Without loans, these neighborhoods
have a hard time rebuilding/remodeling. Though illegal, this still
happens. Bankers just don’t put these “no-loan” areas on a map.

Urban Renewal: This is the series of projects to improve European
and N. American cities by buying up the blighted neighborhoods,
moving the people to new government built housing projects, and
building new roads, and other projects to make the inner city
attractive for business again. National and State government grants
help pay for these projects.
47

Public housing: Housing for the poor, built with government funding as part of
urban renewal. In the US this is only about 2% of the housing while in some
countries it may be more (Britain is 30%). Public housing built in the 50’s & 60’s
were largely high rise apartments, but those are seen as being unsatisfactory.
Problems arise from cramming large numbers of poor people into one area.
Today most public housing projects are one to three story buildings with many of
them being scattered around different parts of the city rather than clustered into
one area.
Because urban renewal has been criticized for destroying the social cohesion of
older neighborhoods, many governments (like the US) have stopped funding
most projects since the 1970’s. What do we do instead?
Renovated Housing: An alternative often used since the 70’s is to renovate a
building instead of urban renewal. The process where middle-class people
move into inner-city neighborhoods and renovate them is called gentrification.
Gentrified inner-city neighborhoods also attract middle-class people who work
downtown. Living close to work saves the hassle of commuting and rejuvenates
run down inner-city neighborhoods
48

Gentrified building downtown Harlem, NY. Note the supermarket.

49

Inner-City Social Problems: Inner-city residents are often referred to as the
permanent underclass because they are trapped in an unending cycle of
economic and social problems. High unemployment, alcoholism, drug
addiction, literacy, juvenile delinquency, and crime all exist at a higher rate
among those who live in the inner-city. Lack of jobs means lack of tax dollars
to pay for police and fire protection as well as good schools. Lack of job skills
and homelessness are also tremendous problems.
Culture of Poverty: Inner-city residents are trapped in a permanent underclass
culture that reproduces itself. In the US, unwed mothers give birth to 2/3 of the
babies in the inner-city. 90% of these children live with only one parent and it
is real hard for one parent to keep a job and take care of children. Both suffer
and a shortage of care and daily attention by the parent contributes to the kids
not learning the skills necessary to do well in school which leads to poor jobs
for their futures. Poverty leads to more poverty. Many families on welfare have
only one parent because it is financially better if one parent is gone, that way
the single parent gets food stamps and other services from the government
that they would not get if it was a 2 family household.
50

Crime: Trapped in a hopeless environment, some inner-city
residents turn to drugs. Drug use is a problem in inner-city
areas and the suburbs, but rates of drug use in inner-cities
are the highest.
Ethnic and Racial Segregation: As seen in chapter 7, many
neighborhoods in the US are segregated by ethnicity with
African Americans and Hispanics concentrated in one or two
continuous areas and whites living in the suburbs. Even small
cities display a strong distinction among neighborhoods. A
frequent division is between the east and west or north and
south side of town, or the railroad tracks. A family seeking a
new residence will seek the areas where the characteristics
of the people meet their own.

51

The exodus
from the
American city.
This has
happened in
many American
cities since the
1960’s.

52

Changes in Cities in the U.S.
U.S. population has been moving out of the city centers to the suburbs:
suburbanization and counter urbanization

Developed Countries: suburbanization

 wealthy move to suburbs
 automobiles and roads; ‘American
Dream’ of the home in the suburbs.
 better services
 wealthy move to suburbs
Counter urbanization

idyllic settings
cost of land for retirement
slow pace, yet high tech
connections to services and markets
53

U.S. intraregional migration during 1990s.

Inner city economic problems: the concentration of low income
residents in inner cities has caused economic problems. These
people require public services but can pay very little in taxes to
support the services. They need stores and jobs but have little
money to spend in the store and few skills for jobs (so the stores
close). To try to fight these problems many local and state
governments use tax monies to try to renovate these areas, but this
shifts tax money needed for other areas to the inner city (votes on
election day).
Annexation: Many cities could help their tax problem by adding the
new suburbs to be part of their city (annexation). After all, many of
these suburban people use the city for its’ jobs etc., so why not add
them into the city? Today, most people in the suburbs do not want
to be annexed into the city and so they do not vote to be annexed.
54

The Peripheral Model: According to this model, an urban area
consists of an inner city surrounded by large suburban residential
and business areas (MSA) tied together by a beltway or highway
that circles the city. Around the beltway are nodes of consumer
and business services called edge cities (see diagram of multiple
nuclei model). These edge cities sprang up to provide services
and jobs to the people in the suburbs.
Density Gradient: As you travel outward from the center of the
city, the density of people declines. Inner city has big apartments
of 250 of more people per acre. Suburbs have fewer people per
acre (but lots of acres) and finally you leave the cities periphery
you find few people. The number of houses per unit of land
diminishes as distance from the center of the city increases.
55

The Edge cities (bedroom communities) of Houston

The central city is surrounded by a ring road, around which are
suburban areas and edge cities, shopping malls, office parks,
industrial areas, and service complexes.

Known as
bedroom
communities
because
people live
there but
mostly don’t
work there.
They drive
into the city
for work.
56

As you move from the center of the city outward, the density of the population
changes. This is know as the density gradient. Two big changes have occurred in
the density gradient of today’s cities:
1. The number of people living in the center has decreased.
2. The density difference between the inner city and the suburbs is declining
because the inner city density is dropping and the suburban density is growing
due to more large apartments being built in the suburbs.
Cost of Suburban or Urban Sprawl: Urban Sprawl is the progressive spread of
development over the landscape. As long as we Americans want single-family
detached houses, land on the fringe of urban areas will be converted from open
space to residential use. The cost of this growth is more than the loss of land, it is
also the cost of new roads, utilities, building stores and offices and the cost of
automobiles to move these people over even longer distances. Lots of these new
developments are built on what was once farmland. Wonderful productive soil now
under concrete.

Greenbelts: are areas where, by law, the open space can not be used for any
construction. This is mostly found in Europe.

57

Once farmland that is being converted to suburbs and cities.

58

Tyson’s Corner Virginia in 1940

59

Washington, DC. MSA.

Tyson’s Corner Virginia
today.
Washington D.C. is off
In the distance.

60

Suburban Segregation: The “new” segregation.
Suburban segregation takes two forms:
1. Residents are separated from commercial and manufacturing activities
which are confined someplace else. (The whole neighborhood is
nothing but houses because they drive for services.)
2. The price of the house eliminates some from being able to live there. This
creates a homogeneous suburb of the same economic class of people.
This never existed before in history. Where we once had vertical
segregation of the classes we now we have horizontal segregation.
3. But this may be reversing as new statistics show that people are beginning
to move back to the city. Why? Cost of transportation.
Zoning Ordinances: This idea developed in Europe and later America in the
early decades of the 20th century. This means that businesses are allowed only
in certain areas of the settlement. (No all night taco stands inside your single
family neighborhood.)
Motor vehicles: The wide use of the automobile is largely responsible for the
American movement to the suburbs. Not only did people move out but 1/4 of
the land inside all American cities are now roads, streets, and parking lots.

61

Public Transportation: Because few US workers live within walking distance
of their jobs, urban areas are characterized by extensive commuting and the
problems that come with it. As much as 40% of all trips made into or out from
a city during the day takes place within just 4 hours. (2 in the morning and 2 in
the late afternoon). RUSH HOUR!!! In large cities, public transportation, like
subways and busses, are better suited to move people but Americans still
prefer their own cars. Public transportation is cheaper, cleaner, and more
energy efficient than personal cars, yet in the US only 5% of city travel is
done using public transit systems. American’s love their personal car too
much.
Local Government Fragmentation: Because of the large number of local
governments in the US (look at the settlements in Pinellas County) it is
difficult to solve some of the regional problems like garbage disposal, water
management, traffic and public housing.
62

Metropolitan government: This idea tries to put many local governments into a
larger unit that can better handle the urban problems. The 2 ways to do this
are:
1. Federations in which the individual settlements have their own police,
firemen, and tax collection but they all agree to be part of a second
government which handles transportation, water, sewage, parks and
welfare for all the communities.
2. Consolidations: In this method, several cities and the county may form one
government. Jacksonville’s government runs not only the town but the
county too, this makes Jacksonville the largest city, in land size, in the US.
Smart growth: A new movement by many states to curb suburban sprawl by
limiting where new construction can take place. Smart growth laws require that
land near cities be used up before any land further out can be developed. So
far, this is only being done an a few parts of our country.
63

The new
US as
some
people
see it.

64

Quiz Yourself:
1. The process where middle-class people move into inner city neighborhoods and
renovate them is called ____________
2. ____________ happens when banks refuse to give loans in what they consider
risky neighborhoods.
3. Because of the housing shortages, the poor have constructed their own settlements
around the city known as __________ _________

4. Businesses are allowed only in certain areas of the settlement because of
____________ ____________
5. Areas known as _____ _______ are areas of about 5,000 people. The data from
that area is used to help define needed services for that area.
6. When cities are so close that they form one continuous band of development this is
known as a ____________
65

7. Social relationships are often described as “colder” in urban areas because…
8. In this model the city develops in a series of sectors not rings. _______

9. ______ (LDC’s or MDC’s) have a higher percentage of people living in urban
settlements but ________ (LDC’s or MDC’s) have more of the very large urban
settlements.
10. _____________ was the first model developed to explain the distributions
of different social groups within urban areas.
11. New cities which develop around the beltway are nodes of consumer and
business services known as ________ _________.

12. When the Europeans took over lands around the world, they changed the
cities by adding services to help the Europeans control the conquered people.
These European planned cities are known as __________ cities.
66

Answer Key:
1.

Gentrification

2.

Redlining

3.

Squatter Settlements

4.

Zoning ordinances

5.

Census tracks

6.

Megalopolis

7. There is a stronger feeling of belonging together in small rural settlements.
8. Hoyt sector model
9. MDC, LDC
10. Burgess Concentric Zone model
11. Edge cities
12. Colonial cities
67

Test Key topic/chapter 13:
These questions come from a combination of our slides, your text book, and common knowledge you should
have discussed in your AP classroom. They are very typical of what you will see on the National Exam.
1) The multiple nuclei theory best explains why different neighborhoods of a city attract people of different… A) ages.
B) ethnic origin C) income D) marital status.
2) Sprawl is the… A) change in density within an urban area from the center to the periphery B) development of new
housing sites not contiguous to the existing built-up area. C) land maintained as open space surrounding an urban area.
D) period in the morning and evening with the heaviest volumes of traffic.
3) People are attracted to suburbs in part because suburbs are characterized by…A) heavy traffic. B) lower opportunity
for home ownership. C) private land surrounding the house. D) row houses and apartments.
4) Megalopolis refers to… A) adjacent, overlapping Metropolitan Statistical Areas. B) central cities. C) consolidated
Metropolitan Statistical Areas. D) central cities plus urbanized areas.
5) Which statement best describes the relationship between urbanization and the Industrial Revolution? A) Urbanization
promoted the Industrial Revolution. B) The Industrial Revolution promoted urbanization. C) Urbanization preceded the
Industrial Revolution by thousands of years. D) Urbanization and the Industrial Revolution are no longer related.
6) The process of legally adding land area to a city in the United States is… A) annexation. B) accreditation. C) an
application of eminent domain. D) defined by urbanized area.

68

7) The process of change in the use of a house, from single-family owner occupancy to abandonment, is… A) blockbusting.
B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining.
8) A process by which banks designate an area within which they refuse to lend money for improvements is… A) blockbusting.
B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining.
9) A recent change in the density gradient has been… A) the elimination of the gap traditionally found in the center. B) an
increase in the extremes between the inner and outer areas. C) an increase in the number of people living in the center.
D) a reduction in the differences in densities found within an urban area.
10) U.S. central cities face fiscal problems because… A) federal and state funds are available. B) low-income people are
concentrated there. C) middle-class families are attracted there. D) redlining is no longer legal.
11) A legal form of segregation in U.S. cities is achieved through...A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) zoning. D) greenbelts.
12) Factories have moved to suburban locations in part because of… A) access to main highways. B) adequate space to build
vertical structures. C) availability of large tracts of high-priced land. D) good rail connections.
13) According to the sector model, the best housing is located in…A) a corridor from downtown to the edge of the city.
B) an outer ring surrounding the city. C) nodes near universities and parks. D) renovated inner-city neighborhoods.
14) Ramshackle houses on the periphery of cities in less developed countries are known as… A) squatter settlements. B) council
estates. C) public housing. D) zone in transition.
15) Higher income people tend to live near the center of the city in all but which of the following regions? A) Latin America
B) North America C) South Asia D) Western Europe

16) The wide boulevards built in cities in less developed countries were most likely built during what era? A) pre-colonial
B) colonial C) independence D) all of the above equally

69

17) According to the multiple nuclei model, an airport is likely to attract nearby… A) industries. B) residences. C) shops.
D) universities.
18) The largest percentage of the U.S. population lives in…A) central cities. B) suburbs. C) non-metropolitan areas. D) all of the
above
19) In U.S. cities, the underclass is… A) clustered in inner-city neighborhoods. B) dispersed throughout the city. C) clustered in
suburbs. D) distributed uniformly in the city.

20) A process of converting a neighborhood from low-income to middle-class is…A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) gentrification.
D) redlining.
21) Higher social heterogeneity in urban settlements means that… A) the people with whom you relax are probably the same ones you
see at work. B) you play a specialized role in the urban economy. C) you compete for limited space. D) you may feel lonely and
isolated in a crowd.
22) The city plus its contiguous built-up suburbs is the… A) central city. B) urbanized area.
D) consolidated metropolitan statistical area

C) metropolitan statistical area.

23) The process whereby an increasing percentage of people live in an urban area is known as… A) demographic transition.
B) rank-size rule. C) urbanization. D) central place theory.
24) Of the ten largest urban areas in the world, how many are in More Developed Countries today? A) 1 B) 4 C) 7 D) 10 E) 2
25) Public housing is…A) conversion of low-income housing to middle-class housing. B) illegally established low-income housing.
C) housing that has changed from single-family owner occupancy to abandonment. D) low-income government-owned housing.
26) According to the concentric zone model, a city develops in a series of… A) corridors. B) nodes. C) rings. D) all of the above

70

27) Chicago is a good location in which to develop urban models because it is located… A) at the hub of the nation's transportation
system. B) in the center of the country. C) on a flat prairie. D) on the shore of Lake Michigan.
28) According to the sector model, the best housing is located in… A) a corridor from downtown to the edge of the city. B) an outer
ring surrounding the city. C) nodes near universities and parks. D) renovated inner-city neighborhoods.
29) The zone of transition in US cities generally contain…A) warehouses B) wealthy neighborhoods C) transportation hubs
D) universities and hospitals E) suburban homes
30) The attractions of shopping malls include all but which of the following? A) frequent concerts and exhibitions B) generous
parking lots C) place to meet friends D) walking distance from homes
The following questions are written at the high school level. You will find some questions from part one often rewritten
here. This is all designed to help you transition to the college/AP style of written questions. Any question preceded with ***
are questions that have been on the national exam before.
31. Most Latin American cities are focused on a…A) central plaza B) government housing project C) zone of heavy industry
D) skyscraper office building E) squatter settlement
32. The multiple-nuclei model of a city structure tends to be most applicable to…A) small cities B) traditional C) Latin American
cities D) newer, fast growing cities E) cities with homogeneous land use
33. ***Locational advantages important to the development of the earliest cities include…A) availability of good harbors for large
ships B) productive agricultural land and defensible sites C) temperate climate and proximity to coal mines D) good
connections by road and canal E) proximity to manufacturing areas

34. In cities, the CBD’s often show uniqueness while the suburbs usually show…A) a large hinterland. B) placelessness C) more
than one node. D) newer zones of transition.

71

35. Many LDC’s have tried to help a previously under-developed part of their country develop by moving their capital
city to that area. This new capital is known as a…A) forward capital B) new development zone C) enterprise zone
D) neocolonial city
36. Today the greatest number of urban dwellers is found in…A) North America
D) Europe E) Asia

B) South America C) Africa

37. ***All of the following have helped create ghettos in North American cities except…A)blockbusting and racial
steering B) redlining by financial institutions C) concentration of public housing and social services D) fixed school
districts E) Economic Enterprise Zones

38. Which of the following is NOT as reason for rapid suburbanization in the US after WW2? A) Mass production of
the automobile B) Reduction of long distance commuting C) Expansion of home construction D) Expansion of the
interstate highway system E) Availability of low down payment terms and long-term mortgages.
39. New cities which developed in the hinterland of large urban areas because of the automobile, are known as…
A) edge cities B) census tracts C) suburban sprawl D) squatter settlements. E) none of these
40. Gentrification refers to… A) moving the homeless into inner city shelters B) The “White Flight” from the urban city
C) losing tax revenue because of stores closing in downtown areas D) middle-class people moving into and renovating
inner city neighborhoods E) the creation of “beltway cities” around the city.

72

4
7
3

5

1
6

2

41-48 all use the sketch above.
41. The sketch in box A above represents which model of the inner structure of urban areas?
C) multiple nuclei model D) Burgess concentric zone model E) peripheral model
42. The models in boxes B and C represent A) Concentric zone and multiple nuclei
concentric zone D) peripheral and concentric zone E) Von Thunen and peripheral

A) Hoyt sector model B) VonThunen’s model

B) Multiple nuclei and Hoyt sector C) Hoyt sector and

43. In which ring (1, 2, etc.) of sketch A above would high-status households in North American cities likely live? A) 1 B) 2 C) 3 D) 4&5
44. In which ring (1, 2, etc.) of sketch A above would high status households in a European city likely live? A) 1

B) 2

C) 3

D) 4&5

45. In model B, zone # 2 is where it is likely because of: A) greenbelting B) squatter settling C) the culture of poverty D) transportation
E) no one knows
46. The model in sketch B is the; A) Hoyt sector model B) Burgess model C) multiple nuclei model D) peripheral model
47. The model in sketch C is the; A) Hoyt sector model B) Burgess model C) multiple nuclei model D) peripheral model
48. Which of these models best describes what has happened in US cities in the last 40 years? A)

B)

C)

73

49.*** In the U.S. a city plus its contiguous built-up suburbs is known as an…A) urbanized area B) zoned area
C) census tract D) Squatter settlement E) none of these
50. Done mostly in Europe, these are areas where land is kept as parks, farms or other kinds of open space and urban
sprawl is not allowed. A) Smart growth
B) zoning
C) filtering
D) census tracts E) greenbelts
51. Which statement best describes the relationship between urbanization and the Industrial Revolution?
A) Urbanization promoted the Industrial Revolution. B) The Industrial Revolution promoted urbanization.
C) Urbanization preceded the Industrial Revolution by thousands of years. D) Urbanization and the Industrial
Revolution are no longer related.
52. The process whereby an increasing percentage of people live in an urban area is known as…
A) Demographic transition. B) rank-size rule. C) Urbanization. D) Central place theory.
53. The city (if it has 50,000 or more people) plus its contiguous built-up suburbs AND the county it is in as well as any
other counties it influences, is known as the ...A) central city B) urbanized area
C) metropolitan statistical area
D) consolidated metropolitan area E) micropolitan statistical area
54. ***Higher social heterogeneity in urban settlements means that …A) the people with whom you relax are probably
the same ones you see at work. B) you play a specialized role in the urban economy. C) you compete for limited
space. D) you may feel lonely and isolated in a crowd.

55. The process of change in the use of a house, from single-family owner occupancy to smaller dwellings for the poor
and then sometimes to abandonment, is…A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining. E) none of
these

74

Free Response #1:
The Bid Rent theory says that the closer you get to the
CBD the higher the cost for land, yet in most American
cities you find the poorest people living near the
expensive CBD and the richest living further away.
Explain:
A. Why neighborhoods near the CBD are often poor and
run down?
B. Why are there few grocery and other retail stores in
these neighborhoods?
C. Why is this not really true in European and Latin
American countries?

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75

FR #2:
Think of the map of your school, explain the
layout of your school using the Multiple Nuclei
Model
The main office is the CBD.
Completely explain your answer using specific
buildings and/or land areas in your explanation
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76

Answer Key:
1. B

14. A

27. C

40. D

53. C

2. B

15. B

28. A

41. D

54. D

3. C

16. B

29. A

42. B

55. B

4. A

17. A

30. D

43. D

5. B

18. B

31. A

44. A

6. A

19. A

32. D

45. D

7. B

20. C

33. B

46. A

8. D

21. D

34. B

47. C

9. D

22. B

35. A

48. C

10. B

23. C

36. E

49. A

11. C

24. C

37. E

50. E

12. A

25. D

38. B

51. B

13. A

26. C

39. A

52. C
77

FR. #1: ( 15 pts. for each section…total of 45 pts.)
A. In the US the move of the wealthy and middle class to the suburbs has left the older houses and apartments near the CBD empty.
This has lowered their value to the point where the poor can afford these dwellings and have made these neighborhoods their
homes. The poor can not pay for upkeep of these dwellings, or to pay high taxes. The lack of upkeep and tax money to repair the
roads and schools, adds to the downward spiral of the neighborhood. With little spending money for shopping, the poor do not
spend much in the stores. This causes many stores to close and move to the suburbs where the spending customers and money
went. The closing of the stores adds to the poverty of the area by taking away some of the jobs that were in the neighborhood. This
becomes a vicious cycle of poverty and deterioration. (15 points)

B. There are few retail stores and groceries is the area because the poor do not have money to shop. The lack of spending forces
many stores out of business or forces them to move to better locations. There also can be higher crime in these areas and the
crime often takes place at the stores. This is another reason for the stores to move out of the neighborhood. (15 points)
C. Neighborhoods in European and Latin American cities are different from those of US cities. In Europe and Latin America, the
wealthy and middle class still live near or in the CBD. The higher tax base and more spending ability of the upper and middle
classes, keeps the CBD area flourishing with jobs and in constant repair and upkeep of the cities’ physical condition. (15 points)

FR #2: (10 total points.)
You will need to judge how effectively you displayed you school
in the Multiple Nuclei Model. Refer to the model itself to help you
determine your success and grade.
School’s main office
78

Calculating your grade on test 13.
Add how many you got correct on the multiple choice part (55 possible) to how many
points you scored on the FR portion (55 possible)…110 total.
The following scale will show the approximate score if this test were the real AP exam. Remember that this
is an approximation. While 65-74% is normally the range for a 3 on the test, it is not definite. Over the
years I have seen scores as low as 60% be the low portion of a 3 score.

Out of 110 possible points:
72-83 is most likely a 3
84-94 is most likely a 4

95-110 is most likely a 5

Now lets start our review for the national exam by
reviewing the 33 key models and theories of the
course…the next PowerPoint.


Slide 15

Key topic/chapter 13…Urban Patterns
Key terms:
Annexation
Concentric zone model
Density gradient
Edge cities
Filtering
Galactic city
Gentrification
Greenbelts
Megalopolis
MSA
Multiple nuclei model
Peripheral model

Public housing
Redlining
Renovated housing
Scattered site
Squatter settlement
Sector model
Smart growth
Sprawl
Underclass
Urban renewal
Zone in transition
Zoning
1

Chapter 13…Urban Areas.
How are Cities planned?
Why

are cities where they are?
How are they organized?
Why are some areas of a city
different from
other areas of the same city?
What is the future of cities?
2

Settlement


Settlement - permanent collections of buildings,
where people live, work, and obtain services

3

ORIGINS OF SETTLEMENTS


Religious - graves, churches, temples



Cultural - schools, libraries



Political/Military - leader’s house, walls



Economic - stores, food
4

TYPES OF SETTLEMENTS


Rural Settlements - agriculture as the
predominant occupation.



Urban settlements - principal industries are
secondary and tertiary.

5

RURAL SETTLEMENTS
Clustered rural settlements –grouped
settlements in rural areas to minimize travel

Dispersed rural Settlements - isolated farms
with enclosed continuous fields (Found only in
N. America and Britain).

6

Urban Geographers want to know the global distribution of urban
settlements. MDC’s have a high percentage of people living in urban
areas because of the shift from agriculture-manufacturing-services.
Geographers are also interested in where people and activities are
distributed within urban spaces. What are the differences between the
inner-city and suburban areas and why?
As we saw in the last chapter, many downtowns are unique and can
often be recognized in photos where the suburbs often look very
much alike (Placelessness). Why? Suburbs offer the chance to avoid
some of the city problems (crime, tight living area, expensive
land/rent, noise, age of buildings) while still keeping a connection with
the goods and services of the city: jobs, sports teams, culture, shops,
recreation, etc.
7

Where is this place?

8

Today’s cities are evolving and changing. Although different internal
situations characterize urban areas in the US and elsewhere, the
problems arising from current spatial trends are quite similar in all cities.
Where have urban areas grown: in the early 1800’s only 3% of the earth’s
people lived in cities and only Beijing China had more than 1 million
people. Today over ½ of the world’s people live in cities and we have over
400 cities of at least 1 million people.

Urbanization: is the process by which city population grows.
Cities population growth is measured in 2 dimensions;
1. An increase in the number of people living in the cities.
2. An increase in the percentage of people living in the cities.
This distinction is important because they happen for different reason and
have different global distributions.
9

Increasing Percentage of People in Cities: a large percentage of people living in urban
areas is a measure of a country’s level of development. In MDC’s about ¾ of the people
live in urban areas compared to about 2/5 of people in LDC’s. (Except in Latin America
where the level is closer to MDC’s.)
The higher percentage of people in urban areas comes from the changes that have
occurred in the last 200 years as we went from agriculture (primary jobs) to industrial
(secondary jobs) and now service jobs, all created by the Industrial Revolution of the
1800’s.
People moved to the cities for industrial jobs, but in MDC’s this process has largely
ended because nearly everyone interested in moving to the cities from farms has already
done so.
In LDC’s the percentage of people living in urban areas is growing as people are pushed
off of their farms and replaced by machines and as people move to cities looking/hoping
for industrial jobs.
10

Increasing Number of People in Cities: MDC’s have a higher percentage of
people living in urban settlements but LDC’s have more of the very large urban
settlements (Primate cities). (Rank-size rule, primate cities, chapter 12.)

This is interesting because typically the large cities are created from the
improvements brought by the Industrial Revolution. This is not the case with the
large LDC cities. Migration to the primate city in LDC’s is happening even though
job opportunities may not be available. Increasing the population growth in LDC
cities is the fact that medical services are better in these cities, thus the child
mortality rate is lower.
Defining Urban Settlements: defining where urban areas end and rural areas
begin is not easy. Geographers have formulated definitions that distinguish
between urban and rural areas in two ways: Social differences and Physical
differences.
11

Percent Urban Population

Percent of the population living in urban areas is usually higher in MDCs
than in LDCs.

12

The most populated cities in the world

Of the top
20, only
Moscow,
Tokyo and
New York
are in MDC’s

Shanghai China has 14,608,512 people
13

14

15

Social Differences Between Urban and Rural Settlements: it is fair to say that rural
people and urban people follow different ways of life. A city can be defined as having 3
characteristics:
1. Large size. People in rural settlements know most of the other people in the
settlement. Not true in big cities. Social relationships are often described as “colder” in
urban areas because you only see some people at work instead of growing up with
them in the settlement.
2. High Density. Having lots of people in a tiny area creates social consequences. A
high density of people living in a small area can only be supported if the people
specialize (they can’t all be farmers). People are encouraged to compete for jobs, room,
and survival in a tightly limited space. Social groups compete to occupy the same space
(ethnic/ race problems). Rural settlements have very little of this problem.
3. Social Heterogeneity. The larger the settlement, the greater the variety of people.
Being “unusual” in a large settlement is more likely to be accepted than in a small rural
one. But despite the freedom to be different that large urban settlements give you,
people living there often feel alone because so many people are different from them.
There is a stronger feeling of belonging together in small rural settlements.
16

These 3 differences do not fully answer the question of where urban settlements
begin and rural ones end because in today’s MDC’s most everyone has access to
cars, telephones, televisions, and “urban type” jobs which reduce the differences
between urban and rural lifestyles. “City folk” and “Country folk” are more alike
today than they are different. To help distinguish between urban and rural areas we
need to add the physical definition of rural and urban to the equation.
Physical Definitions of Urban Settlements: In ancient time, cities had defensive
walls for protection which clearly defined the physical boundaries of the city. Today
the walls are gone but we can still define the physical boundaries in 3 ways:
1. Legal boundary. These are the official boundaries of a city as recognized by
the government of the country or state. These “city limits” have been officially given
to the city and are physically marked on official maps. The local government of the
city has authority to make laws and protect the people inside the city boundaries.
17

2. Urbanized area. This is the city plus its suburbs or urbanized area that
surrounds the city. About 70 percent of US residents live in urbanized areas with
40% being in the suburbs and 30% inside the city limits. The suburbs may have
their own city governments but the huge central city dominates what happens in
the entire area.
3. Metropolitan Statistical Area. Cities have an even bigger influence on people
than just those living in their city limits and surrounding urbanized areas. People
from far away come to shop, use the services, support the sports teams, read
the newspapers and watch the television broadcasts of the city. Thus the city
has a “functional area” which is its total zone of influence. The US Bureau of
Census has created a method of measuring the functional area of the city.
Known as the Metropolitan statistical area (MSA) this area includes:
•An urbanized area with a population of at least 50,000
•The county within which the city is located.
•Adjacent counties with a high population density and a large percentage of
residents working in the central city’s county.
18

Metropolitan Area of Philadelphia

City of
Philadelphia

Urbanized
area
(suburbs)
Metropolitan
Statistical
Area

The metropolitan area of Philadelphia is
spread over several counties and four states.
It is also a diversified trade center, given its
position on the Delaware river.

19

20

21

Micropolitan Statistical Areas: Smaller areas with between
10,000 and 50,000 people, the county where it is found, and
adjacent counties tied to the city. This would be a small town and
the area dominated by it.
Overlapping Metropolitan Areas: Some adjacent MSA’s overlap.
A county between two central cities may send a large number of
commuters to jobs in both cities. In some areas the cities are so
close that they form one continuous urban complex. This is
known as a Megalopolis (great city).
In a megalopolis, the downtown CBD often has its own
distinctive look and the urban areas are visually separated by
parks, open spaces, and dairy/truck farms. But at the periphery
of the urban areas, the boundaries overlap.
22

Colorado Springs, population 431,000

Ocala, Florida, population 56,000

Florala, Alabama, population 1,900

23

Megalopolis, from northern Va. To Maine.
This Illustrates the
difference between
strict city proper
definitions and broader
urban agglomerations.
To define urbanized
areas, the U.S. Census
Bureau uses the term
Metropolitan Statistical
Area (MSA) or
Consolidated MSA
(CMSA) if two or more of
them overlap.
24

Where are People Distributed within Urban Areas? People are not
just distributed at random in urban areas. For the most part they
concentrate in particular neighborhoods depending on their social
characteristics. Geographers want to see where people with
particular characteristics are likely to live and why.

Three models which try to explain the growth of a city:

The Burgess Model

The Hoyt Sector Model

The Harris and Ullman
multiple Nuclei Model
25

Burgess Concentric Zone Model

In the concentric zone model, a city grows in a series of rings surrounding the CBD.

Burgess Concentric Zone Model: This is the first used to explain the
distributions of different social groups within urban areas. It says that a
city grows outward from a central place in a series of concentric rings.
The precise size and width of the rings vary from one city to another, but
some basic types of rings appear in all cities in the same order (see chart
above).
26

•Hoyt Sector Model: In this model the city develops in a
series of sectors not rings. Certain areas of the city are
more attractive for various activities, originally because
of an environmental factor (or even pure chance). As the
city grows, activities extend outward in a wedge shape.
For example, once a wealthy neighborhood is built the
next wealthy neighborhood will extend from the first
neighborhood further outward from the center. In this
way, the best housing is found in a corridor extending
outward from the center to the outer edge (see chart on
the next page).
27

The Hoyt Sector Model

In the sector model, a city grows in a series of
wedges or corridors extending out from the
CBD.
28

•Harris and Ullman’s Multiple Nuclei Model: According
to this model, a city is a complex structure that includes
more than one center around which activities revolve.
Examples of these nodes include a port, parks,
stadium, neighborhood business center, university, and
airport (see chart). This theory states that some
activities are attracted to particular nodes, whereas
others try to avoid them. A university node may attract
well educated people and bookstores while the port will
attract hotels and warehouses. Heavy industry and
expensive houses rarely are found together. This
model shows the effect of the automobile more than
any other model.
29

The Harris and Ullman Multiple Nuclei model

The multiple nuclei model views a city as a
collection of individual centers, around which
different people and activities cluster.

30

Applications of the Models: The three models help explain where and in some
cases, why people live where they do. None of the models by themselves fully
explains why and where different types of people live, but combined they give
you as good a look as possible at the “Why” of “Where.” Effective use of the
models depends on getting good data on the areas. Most countries take a
census every 10 years to help determine useful data about the people and
places of the country. In our country we divide the census data into areas
known as census tracts of about 5,000 people. Each census tract has the data
that summarizes the characteristics of the people living within that tract. This
information includes things like the race, income, age, and education of the
people living in that tract.
Social Area Analysis: The data from the census tracts can all be plotted onto
maps to show the characteristics of the people living in that tract. This map is
known as a social area analysis.
31

Using Census tract information…Seattle, Washington
Each lined area is a
census tract of about 5000
people in Seattle
Washington. These maps
show average household
income for 1990 and
2000…note the changes in
income in some areas
between 1990 and 2000.
Using this information, a
business can make
decisions about where
they want to locate a new
store or the future of
existing stores.
You can find census tract
information on many topics
such as; age, education
level, race, ethnicity, crime
rate, and land ownership.
Note the areas with
incomes over
$63,000.

All can be very valuable
information to people
looking to open
businesses.

32

Examine the changes
between 1990 and
2000.

Oakland, California’s Ethnic neighborhoods
The small bordered areas are census tracks of 5000 people.

33

Use of the Models Outside of North America: The 3 models will also work in other
places in the world; however social groups in other countries may not have the
same reasons for selecting particular neighborhoods as Americans do.
European Cities: As in the US, wealthier people in European cities cluster along a
sector extending outward from the CBD, however unlike the US, wealthy and
middle class Europeans still live in the inner rings of the neighborhoods near the
CBD not out in the suburbs. In the past, poorer people lived in the center of the
city. Before electricity, social segregation was vertical: richer people lived on the
first or second floor of a building while the poorer people lived in the basement or
upper floors. In the Industrial Revolution, housing for the poor was constructed
near the factories and away from the rich.
Today poorer Europeans are less likely to live in the inner-city. Poor quality
housing has been renovated for the rich or turned into office buildings. Poorer
Europeans tend to live in the outskirts of the city. Vast suburbs with dozens of high
rise apartments house the poor. They face long commutes to reach their jobs in
the city.
34

European cities generally do not have the “suburban
sprawl” that US cities have. European cities tend to be
more pedestrian friendly with more parks downtown as
Europeans tend to still live downtown.
US cities have taller buildings as European cities tend to
be older and more historic.

American cities have more ethnic neighborhoods than
European cities. Ethnic neighborhoods that do exist in
European cities tend to be in the suburbs. WHY?
Because the established richer neighborhoods tend to be
downtown in European cities.
35

Less Developed Countries: Like Europe, most LDC’s accommodate their poor in the
suburbs with their middle class and rich living near the center of the city. LDC’s have
passed through 3 periods of city building: before the Europeans arrived, during the
period of European colonialism, and since independence from European control.

Pre-colonial Cities: Before the Europeans arrived few cities existed in Africa, Asia, and
Latin America and most people lived in small rural settlements. Those cities that existed
were mostly laid out surrounding a religious center; with the rest of the city laid out in a
hieratical concentric pattern (like the Burgess model) from government buildings,
homes of the wealthy, and businesses related to the religion out to other businesses
and shops.
Colonial cities: When the Europeans took over these lands, they changed the cities by
adding services to help the Europeans control the conquered people. Often a new
European style city would be build next to the existing native one. The new European
cities contained wider streets, a public square, larger houses and a much lower density.
The Spanish used the “Law of the Indies” which was a city plan designed specifically to
build cities in a “Spanish” style. (Gridiron pattern for streets centered on a church and
central plaza, walls around individual houses and neighborhoods centered around
smaller plazas and more churches.)
36

Early Mexico city was laid out in a grid pattern of streets. This followed
the Spanish “Law of the Indies.”

37

Central Plaza in Mexico City 1920 photo. Typical Colonial City plan.

Part of downtown Mexico city today still shows the
building plan of the “Law of the Indies.”

38

Cities since Independence: Following independence, cities have become
the focal point of the development of most LDC’s. Millions of people have
migrated to the cities (Primate cities) looking for jobs and services. Some
capitals have been moved to isolated areas in an attempt to help develop
that area of the country (Brasília) This is know as a forward capital. Latin
American cities have developed their own unique style.
Squatter settlements: The LDC’s are unable to house the rapidly growing
number of poor who are flowing into the cities. Because of the housing
shortages, the poor have constructed their own settlements around the city.
These settlements have few services because neither the city nor the
residents can afford them. Squatters have two basic choices for housing.
1. Illegally move into empty real houses located in the city or,
2. Rent slum housing.
(85% of the population of Addis Ababa in Ethiopia lives in squatter
settlements, slums or other illegal housing.)
39

Squatter shacks in Manila, the Philippines

40

Squatter settlement in Ethiopia

41

Zimbabwe, Africa

42

Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

43

Latin American City Model:
In many Latin
American cities,
the wealthy live in
the inner city and
in a sector
extending along a
commercial spine.
In situ accretion- businesses
and homes constantly under
construction/repair.
Zone of maturity-2nd best
housing in the city.
The poor live in squatter settlements on the
periphery of the city.

Disamenity- unpleasant area
used by the poor to get to the
market.

44

The City Outline of Rio de Janeiro
The rich tourist areas and expensive condo apartments are along the coast
and beach while the poor live in squatter shacks in the hills.

45

City problems:
Inner-City Physical Problems: Most US inner cities were constructed before the 1950’s
(people began to move to the suburbs in the 1950’s so new construction moved out of
the city).
Process of Deterioration (how a city deteriorates): A city doesn’t suddenly become old
and full of slummy areas. It happens over time. When a group of low-income people
inhabit an area of a city, nearby neighborhoods will often look to move out. They sell or
rent to more low-income occupants thus expanding the low-income area. Two processes
cause/speed up the devaluation of areas:
1. Filtering, 2. Redlining.
Filtering: Large houses and buildings that once housed rich downtown workers (who
moved to the suburbs) are taken over by landlords who don’t live in that area (they
moved to the suburbs too). Rents are low so the landlord doesn’t take as good care of
the property as they should and the property becomes run down or abandoned. Stores
close, or move, due to lack of sales. 100 years ago these neighborhoods would be used
by immigrants and ethnic businesses would succeed in those areas. Now, with a decline
in immigration, these neighborhoods have shrunk and so have schools, businesses and
other services. Thousands of vacant houses and buildings stand empty in inner cities
across America.

46

Redlining: Some banks refuse to give loans in what they consider
risky neighborhoods. They draw a red line on a map around areas
where they will not give loans. Without loans, these neighborhoods
have a hard time rebuilding/remodeling. Though illegal, this still
happens. Bankers just don’t put these “no-loan” areas on a map.

Urban Renewal: This is the series of projects to improve European
and N. American cities by buying up the blighted neighborhoods,
moving the people to new government built housing projects, and
building new roads, and other projects to make the inner city
attractive for business again. National and State government grants
help pay for these projects.
47

Public housing: Housing for the poor, built with government funding as part of
urban renewal. In the US this is only about 2% of the housing while in some
countries it may be more (Britain is 30%). Public housing built in the 50’s & 60’s
were largely high rise apartments, but those are seen as being unsatisfactory.
Problems arise from cramming large numbers of poor people into one area.
Today most public housing projects are one to three story buildings with many of
them being scattered around different parts of the city rather than clustered into
one area.
Because urban renewal has been criticized for destroying the social cohesion of
older neighborhoods, many governments (like the US) have stopped funding
most projects since the 1970’s. What do we do instead?
Renovated Housing: An alternative often used since the 70’s is to renovate a
building instead of urban renewal. The process where middle-class people
move into inner-city neighborhoods and renovate them is called gentrification.
Gentrified inner-city neighborhoods also attract middle-class people who work
downtown. Living close to work saves the hassle of commuting and rejuvenates
run down inner-city neighborhoods
48

Gentrified building downtown Harlem, NY. Note the supermarket.

49

Inner-City Social Problems: Inner-city residents are often referred to as the
permanent underclass because they are trapped in an unending cycle of
economic and social problems. High unemployment, alcoholism, drug
addiction, literacy, juvenile delinquency, and crime all exist at a higher rate
among those who live in the inner-city. Lack of jobs means lack of tax dollars
to pay for police and fire protection as well as good schools. Lack of job skills
and homelessness are also tremendous problems.
Culture of Poverty: Inner-city residents are trapped in a permanent underclass
culture that reproduces itself. In the US, unwed mothers give birth to 2/3 of the
babies in the inner-city. 90% of these children live with only one parent and it
is real hard for one parent to keep a job and take care of children. Both suffer
and a shortage of care and daily attention by the parent contributes to the kids
not learning the skills necessary to do well in school which leads to poor jobs
for their futures. Poverty leads to more poverty. Many families on welfare have
only one parent because it is financially better if one parent is gone, that way
the single parent gets food stamps and other services from the government
that they would not get if it was a 2 family household.
50

Crime: Trapped in a hopeless environment, some inner-city
residents turn to drugs. Drug use is a problem in inner-city
areas and the suburbs, but rates of drug use in inner-cities
are the highest.
Ethnic and Racial Segregation: As seen in chapter 7, many
neighborhoods in the US are segregated by ethnicity with
African Americans and Hispanics concentrated in one or two
continuous areas and whites living in the suburbs. Even small
cities display a strong distinction among neighborhoods. A
frequent division is between the east and west or north and
south side of town, or the railroad tracks. A family seeking a
new residence will seek the areas where the characteristics
of the people meet their own.

51

The exodus
from the
American city.
This has
happened in
many American
cities since the
1960’s.

52

Changes in Cities in the U.S.
U.S. population has been moving out of the city centers to the suburbs:
suburbanization and counter urbanization

Developed Countries: suburbanization

 wealthy move to suburbs
 automobiles and roads; ‘American
Dream’ of the home in the suburbs.
 better services
 wealthy move to suburbs
Counter urbanization

idyllic settings
cost of land for retirement
slow pace, yet high tech
connections to services and markets
53

U.S. intraregional migration during 1990s.

Inner city economic problems: the concentration of low income
residents in inner cities has caused economic problems. These
people require public services but can pay very little in taxes to
support the services. They need stores and jobs but have little
money to spend in the store and few skills for jobs (so the stores
close). To try to fight these problems many local and state
governments use tax monies to try to renovate these areas, but this
shifts tax money needed for other areas to the inner city (votes on
election day).
Annexation: Many cities could help their tax problem by adding the
new suburbs to be part of their city (annexation). After all, many of
these suburban people use the city for its’ jobs etc., so why not add
them into the city? Today, most people in the suburbs do not want
to be annexed into the city and so they do not vote to be annexed.
54

The Peripheral Model: According to this model, an urban area
consists of an inner city surrounded by large suburban residential
and business areas (MSA) tied together by a beltway or highway
that circles the city. Around the beltway are nodes of consumer
and business services called edge cities (see diagram of multiple
nuclei model). These edge cities sprang up to provide services
and jobs to the people in the suburbs.
Density Gradient: As you travel outward from the center of the
city, the density of people declines. Inner city has big apartments
of 250 of more people per acre. Suburbs have fewer people per
acre (but lots of acres) and finally you leave the cities periphery
you find few people. The number of houses per unit of land
diminishes as distance from the center of the city increases.
55

The Edge cities (bedroom communities) of Houston

The central city is surrounded by a ring road, around which are
suburban areas and edge cities, shopping malls, office parks,
industrial areas, and service complexes.

Known as
bedroom
communities
because
people live
there but
mostly don’t
work there.
They drive
into the city
for work.
56

As you move from the center of the city outward, the density of the population
changes. This is know as the density gradient. Two big changes have occurred in
the density gradient of today’s cities:
1. The number of people living in the center has decreased.
2. The density difference between the inner city and the suburbs is declining
because the inner city density is dropping and the suburban density is growing
due to more large apartments being built in the suburbs.
Cost of Suburban or Urban Sprawl: Urban Sprawl is the progressive spread of
development over the landscape. As long as we Americans want single-family
detached houses, land on the fringe of urban areas will be converted from open
space to residential use. The cost of this growth is more than the loss of land, it is
also the cost of new roads, utilities, building stores and offices and the cost of
automobiles to move these people over even longer distances. Lots of these new
developments are built on what was once farmland. Wonderful productive soil now
under concrete.

Greenbelts: are areas where, by law, the open space can not be used for any
construction. This is mostly found in Europe.

57

Once farmland that is being converted to suburbs and cities.

58

Tyson’s Corner Virginia in 1940

59

Washington, DC. MSA.

Tyson’s Corner Virginia
today.
Washington D.C. is off
In the distance.

60

Suburban Segregation: The “new” segregation.
Suburban segregation takes two forms:
1. Residents are separated from commercial and manufacturing activities
which are confined someplace else. (The whole neighborhood is
nothing but houses because they drive for services.)
2. The price of the house eliminates some from being able to live there. This
creates a homogeneous suburb of the same economic class of people.
This never existed before in history. Where we once had vertical
segregation of the classes we now we have horizontal segregation.
3. But this may be reversing as new statistics show that people are beginning
to move back to the city. Why? Cost of transportation.
Zoning Ordinances: This idea developed in Europe and later America in the
early decades of the 20th century. This means that businesses are allowed only
in certain areas of the settlement. (No all night taco stands inside your single
family neighborhood.)
Motor vehicles: The wide use of the automobile is largely responsible for the
American movement to the suburbs. Not only did people move out but 1/4 of
the land inside all American cities are now roads, streets, and parking lots.

61

Public Transportation: Because few US workers live within walking distance
of their jobs, urban areas are characterized by extensive commuting and the
problems that come with it. As much as 40% of all trips made into or out from
a city during the day takes place within just 4 hours. (2 in the morning and 2 in
the late afternoon). RUSH HOUR!!! In large cities, public transportation, like
subways and busses, are better suited to move people but Americans still
prefer their own cars. Public transportation is cheaper, cleaner, and more
energy efficient than personal cars, yet in the US only 5% of city travel is
done using public transit systems. American’s love their personal car too
much.
Local Government Fragmentation: Because of the large number of local
governments in the US (look at the settlements in Pinellas County) it is
difficult to solve some of the regional problems like garbage disposal, water
management, traffic and public housing.
62

Metropolitan government: This idea tries to put many local governments into a
larger unit that can better handle the urban problems. The 2 ways to do this
are:
1. Federations in which the individual settlements have their own police,
firemen, and tax collection but they all agree to be part of a second
government which handles transportation, water, sewage, parks and
welfare for all the communities.
2. Consolidations: In this method, several cities and the county may form one
government. Jacksonville’s government runs not only the town but the
county too, this makes Jacksonville the largest city, in land size, in the US.
Smart growth: A new movement by many states to curb suburban sprawl by
limiting where new construction can take place. Smart growth laws require that
land near cities be used up before any land further out can be developed. So
far, this is only being done an a few parts of our country.
63

The new
US as
some
people
see it.

64

Quiz Yourself:
1. The process where middle-class people move into inner city neighborhoods and
renovate them is called ____________
2. ____________ happens when banks refuse to give loans in what they consider
risky neighborhoods.
3. Because of the housing shortages, the poor have constructed their own settlements
around the city known as __________ _________

4. Businesses are allowed only in certain areas of the settlement because of
____________ ____________
5. Areas known as _____ _______ are areas of about 5,000 people. The data from
that area is used to help define needed services for that area.
6. When cities are so close that they form one continuous band of development this is
known as a ____________
65

7. Social relationships are often described as “colder” in urban areas because…
8. In this model the city develops in a series of sectors not rings. _______

9. ______ (LDC’s or MDC’s) have a higher percentage of people living in urban
settlements but ________ (LDC’s or MDC’s) have more of the very large urban
settlements.
10. _____________ was the first model developed to explain the distributions
of different social groups within urban areas.
11. New cities which develop around the beltway are nodes of consumer and
business services known as ________ _________.

12. When the Europeans took over lands around the world, they changed the
cities by adding services to help the Europeans control the conquered people.
These European planned cities are known as __________ cities.
66

Answer Key:
1.

Gentrification

2.

Redlining

3.

Squatter Settlements

4.

Zoning ordinances

5.

Census tracks

6.

Megalopolis

7. There is a stronger feeling of belonging together in small rural settlements.
8. Hoyt sector model
9. MDC, LDC
10. Burgess Concentric Zone model
11. Edge cities
12. Colonial cities
67

Test Key topic/chapter 13:
These questions come from a combination of our slides, your text book, and common knowledge you should
have discussed in your AP classroom. They are very typical of what you will see on the National Exam.
1) The multiple nuclei theory best explains why different neighborhoods of a city attract people of different… A) ages.
B) ethnic origin C) income D) marital status.
2) Sprawl is the… A) change in density within an urban area from the center to the periphery B) development of new
housing sites not contiguous to the existing built-up area. C) land maintained as open space surrounding an urban area.
D) period in the morning and evening with the heaviest volumes of traffic.
3) People are attracted to suburbs in part because suburbs are characterized by…A) heavy traffic. B) lower opportunity
for home ownership. C) private land surrounding the house. D) row houses and apartments.
4) Megalopolis refers to… A) adjacent, overlapping Metropolitan Statistical Areas. B) central cities. C) consolidated
Metropolitan Statistical Areas. D) central cities plus urbanized areas.
5) Which statement best describes the relationship between urbanization and the Industrial Revolution? A) Urbanization
promoted the Industrial Revolution. B) The Industrial Revolution promoted urbanization. C) Urbanization preceded the
Industrial Revolution by thousands of years. D) Urbanization and the Industrial Revolution are no longer related.
6) The process of legally adding land area to a city in the United States is… A) annexation. B) accreditation. C) an
application of eminent domain. D) defined by urbanized area.

68

7) The process of change in the use of a house, from single-family owner occupancy to abandonment, is… A) blockbusting.
B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining.
8) A process by which banks designate an area within which they refuse to lend money for improvements is… A) blockbusting.
B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining.
9) A recent change in the density gradient has been… A) the elimination of the gap traditionally found in the center. B) an
increase in the extremes between the inner and outer areas. C) an increase in the number of people living in the center.
D) a reduction in the differences in densities found within an urban area.
10) U.S. central cities face fiscal problems because… A) federal and state funds are available. B) low-income people are
concentrated there. C) middle-class families are attracted there. D) redlining is no longer legal.
11) A legal form of segregation in U.S. cities is achieved through...A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) zoning. D) greenbelts.
12) Factories have moved to suburban locations in part because of… A) access to main highways. B) adequate space to build
vertical structures. C) availability of large tracts of high-priced land. D) good rail connections.
13) According to the sector model, the best housing is located in…A) a corridor from downtown to the edge of the city.
B) an outer ring surrounding the city. C) nodes near universities and parks. D) renovated inner-city neighborhoods.
14) Ramshackle houses on the periphery of cities in less developed countries are known as… A) squatter settlements. B) council
estates. C) public housing. D) zone in transition.
15) Higher income people tend to live near the center of the city in all but which of the following regions? A) Latin America
B) North America C) South Asia D) Western Europe

16) The wide boulevards built in cities in less developed countries were most likely built during what era? A) pre-colonial
B) colonial C) independence D) all of the above equally

69

17) According to the multiple nuclei model, an airport is likely to attract nearby… A) industries. B) residences. C) shops.
D) universities.
18) The largest percentage of the U.S. population lives in…A) central cities. B) suburbs. C) non-metropolitan areas. D) all of the
above
19) In U.S. cities, the underclass is… A) clustered in inner-city neighborhoods. B) dispersed throughout the city. C) clustered in
suburbs. D) distributed uniformly in the city.

20) A process of converting a neighborhood from low-income to middle-class is…A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) gentrification.
D) redlining.
21) Higher social heterogeneity in urban settlements means that… A) the people with whom you relax are probably the same ones you
see at work. B) you play a specialized role in the urban economy. C) you compete for limited space. D) you may feel lonely and
isolated in a crowd.
22) The city plus its contiguous built-up suburbs is the… A) central city. B) urbanized area.
D) consolidated metropolitan statistical area

C) metropolitan statistical area.

23) The process whereby an increasing percentage of people live in an urban area is known as… A) demographic transition.
B) rank-size rule. C) urbanization. D) central place theory.
24) Of the ten largest urban areas in the world, how many are in More Developed Countries today? A) 1 B) 4 C) 7 D) 10 E) 2
25) Public housing is…A) conversion of low-income housing to middle-class housing. B) illegally established low-income housing.
C) housing that has changed from single-family owner occupancy to abandonment. D) low-income government-owned housing.
26) According to the concentric zone model, a city develops in a series of… A) corridors. B) nodes. C) rings. D) all of the above

70

27) Chicago is a good location in which to develop urban models because it is located… A) at the hub of the nation's transportation
system. B) in the center of the country. C) on a flat prairie. D) on the shore of Lake Michigan.
28) According to the sector model, the best housing is located in… A) a corridor from downtown to the edge of the city. B) an outer
ring surrounding the city. C) nodes near universities and parks. D) renovated inner-city neighborhoods.
29) The zone of transition in US cities generally contain…A) warehouses B) wealthy neighborhoods C) transportation hubs
D) universities and hospitals E) suburban homes
30) The attractions of shopping malls include all but which of the following? A) frequent concerts and exhibitions B) generous
parking lots C) place to meet friends D) walking distance from homes
The following questions are written at the high school level. You will find some questions from part one often rewritten
here. This is all designed to help you transition to the college/AP style of written questions. Any question preceded with ***
are questions that have been on the national exam before.
31. Most Latin American cities are focused on a…A) central plaza B) government housing project C) zone of heavy industry
D) skyscraper office building E) squatter settlement
32. The multiple-nuclei model of a city structure tends to be most applicable to…A) small cities B) traditional C) Latin American
cities D) newer, fast growing cities E) cities with homogeneous land use
33. ***Locational advantages important to the development of the earliest cities include…A) availability of good harbors for large
ships B) productive agricultural land and defensible sites C) temperate climate and proximity to coal mines D) good
connections by road and canal E) proximity to manufacturing areas

34. In cities, the CBD’s often show uniqueness while the suburbs usually show…A) a large hinterland. B) placelessness C) more
than one node. D) newer zones of transition.

71

35. Many LDC’s have tried to help a previously under-developed part of their country develop by moving their capital
city to that area. This new capital is known as a…A) forward capital B) new development zone C) enterprise zone
D) neocolonial city
36. Today the greatest number of urban dwellers is found in…A) North America
D) Europe E) Asia

B) South America C) Africa

37. ***All of the following have helped create ghettos in North American cities except…A)blockbusting and racial
steering B) redlining by financial institutions C) concentration of public housing and social services D) fixed school
districts E) Economic Enterprise Zones

38. Which of the following is NOT as reason for rapid suburbanization in the US after WW2? A) Mass production of
the automobile B) Reduction of long distance commuting C) Expansion of home construction D) Expansion of the
interstate highway system E) Availability of low down payment terms and long-term mortgages.
39. New cities which developed in the hinterland of large urban areas because of the automobile, are known as…
A) edge cities B) census tracts C) suburban sprawl D) squatter settlements. E) none of these
40. Gentrification refers to… A) moving the homeless into inner city shelters B) The “White Flight” from the urban city
C) losing tax revenue because of stores closing in downtown areas D) middle-class people moving into and renovating
inner city neighborhoods E) the creation of “beltway cities” around the city.

72

4
7
3

5

1
6

2

41-48 all use the sketch above.
41. The sketch in box A above represents which model of the inner structure of urban areas?
C) multiple nuclei model D) Burgess concentric zone model E) peripheral model
42. The models in boxes B and C represent A) Concentric zone and multiple nuclei
concentric zone D) peripheral and concentric zone E) Von Thunen and peripheral

A) Hoyt sector model B) VonThunen’s model

B) Multiple nuclei and Hoyt sector C) Hoyt sector and

43. In which ring (1, 2, etc.) of sketch A above would high-status households in North American cities likely live? A) 1 B) 2 C) 3 D) 4&5
44. In which ring (1, 2, etc.) of sketch A above would high status households in a European city likely live? A) 1

B) 2

C) 3

D) 4&5

45. In model B, zone # 2 is where it is likely because of: A) greenbelting B) squatter settling C) the culture of poverty D) transportation
E) no one knows
46. The model in sketch B is the; A) Hoyt sector model B) Burgess model C) multiple nuclei model D) peripheral model
47. The model in sketch C is the; A) Hoyt sector model B) Burgess model C) multiple nuclei model D) peripheral model
48. Which of these models best describes what has happened in US cities in the last 40 years? A)

B)

C)

73

49.*** In the U.S. a city plus its contiguous built-up suburbs is known as an…A) urbanized area B) zoned area
C) census tract D) Squatter settlement E) none of these
50. Done mostly in Europe, these are areas where land is kept as parks, farms or other kinds of open space and urban
sprawl is not allowed. A) Smart growth
B) zoning
C) filtering
D) census tracts E) greenbelts
51. Which statement best describes the relationship between urbanization and the Industrial Revolution?
A) Urbanization promoted the Industrial Revolution. B) The Industrial Revolution promoted urbanization.
C) Urbanization preceded the Industrial Revolution by thousands of years. D) Urbanization and the Industrial
Revolution are no longer related.
52. The process whereby an increasing percentage of people live in an urban area is known as…
A) Demographic transition. B) rank-size rule. C) Urbanization. D) Central place theory.
53. The city (if it has 50,000 or more people) plus its contiguous built-up suburbs AND the county it is in as well as any
other counties it influences, is known as the ...A) central city B) urbanized area
C) metropolitan statistical area
D) consolidated metropolitan area E) micropolitan statistical area
54. ***Higher social heterogeneity in urban settlements means that …A) the people with whom you relax are probably
the same ones you see at work. B) you play a specialized role in the urban economy. C) you compete for limited
space. D) you may feel lonely and isolated in a crowd.

55. The process of change in the use of a house, from single-family owner occupancy to smaller dwellings for the poor
and then sometimes to abandonment, is…A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining. E) none of
these

74

Free Response #1:
The Bid Rent theory says that the closer you get to the
CBD the higher the cost for land, yet in most American
cities you find the poorest people living near the
expensive CBD and the richest living further away.
Explain:
A. Why neighborhoods near the CBD are often poor and
run down?
B. Why are there few grocery and other retail stores in
these neighborhoods?
C. Why is this not really true in European and Latin
American countries?

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FR #2:
Think of the map of your school, explain the
layout of your school using the Multiple Nuclei
Model
The main office is the CBD.
Completely explain your answer using specific
buildings and/or land areas in your explanation
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Answer Key:
1. B

14. A

27. C

40. D

53. C

2. B

15. B

28. A

41. D

54. D

3. C

16. B

29. A

42. B

55. B

4. A

17. A

30. D

43. D

5. B

18. B

31. A

44. A

6. A

19. A

32. D

45. D

7. B

20. C

33. B

46. A

8. D

21. D

34. B

47. C

9. D

22. B

35. A

48. C

10. B

23. C

36. E

49. A

11. C

24. C

37. E

50. E

12. A

25. D

38. B

51. B

13. A

26. C

39. A

52. C
77

FR. #1: ( 15 pts. for each section…total of 45 pts.)
A. In the US the move of the wealthy and middle class to the suburbs has left the older houses and apartments near the CBD empty.
This has lowered their value to the point where the poor can afford these dwellings and have made these neighborhoods their
homes. The poor can not pay for upkeep of these dwellings, or to pay high taxes. The lack of upkeep and tax money to repair the
roads and schools, adds to the downward spiral of the neighborhood. With little spending money for shopping, the poor do not
spend much in the stores. This causes many stores to close and move to the suburbs where the spending customers and money
went. The closing of the stores adds to the poverty of the area by taking away some of the jobs that were in the neighborhood. This
becomes a vicious cycle of poverty and deterioration. (15 points)

B. There are few retail stores and groceries is the area because the poor do not have money to shop. The lack of spending forces
many stores out of business or forces them to move to better locations. There also can be higher crime in these areas and the
crime often takes place at the stores. This is another reason for the stores to move out of the neighborhood. (15 points)
C. Neighborhoods in European and Latin American cities are different from those of US cities. In Europe and Latin America, the
wealthy and middle class still live near or in the CBD. The higher tax base and more spending ability of the upper and middle
classes, keeps the CBD area flourishing with jobs and in constant repair and upkeep of the cities’ physical condition. (15 points)

FR #2: (10 total points.)
You will need to judge how effectively you displayed you school
in the Multiple Nuclei Model. Refer to the model itself to help you
determine your success and grade.
School’s main office
78

Calculating your grade on test 13.
Add how many you got correct on the multiple choice part (55 possible) to how many
points you scored on the FR portion (55 possible)…110 total.
The following scale will show the approximate score if this test were the real AP exam. Remember that this
is an approximation. While 65-74% is normally the range for a 3 on the test, it is not definite. Over the
years I have seen scores as low as 60% be the low portion of a 3 score.

Out of 110 possible points:
72-83 is most likely a 3
84-94 is most likely a 4

95-110 is most likely a 5

Now lets start our review for the national exam by
reviewing the 33 key models and theories of the
course…the next PowerPoint.


Slide 16

Key topic/chapter 13…Urban Patterns
Key terms:
Annexation
Concentric zone model
Density gradient
Edge cities
Filtering
Galactic city
Gentrification
Greenbelts
Megalopolis
MSA
Multiple nuclei model
Peripheral model

Public housing
Redlining
Renovated housing
Scattered site
Squatter settlement
Sector model
Smart growth
Sprawl
Underclass
Urban renewal
Zone in transition
Zoning
1

Chapter 13…Urban Areas.
How are Cities planned?
Why

are cities where they are?
How are they organized?
Why are some areas of a city
different from
other areas of the same city?
What is the future of cities?
2

Settlement


Settlement - permanent collections of buildings,
where people live, work, and obtain services

3

ORIGINS OF SETTLEMENTS


Religious - graves, churches, temples



Cultural - schools, libraries



Political/Military - leader’s house, walls



Economic - stores, food
4

TYPES OF SETTLEMENTS


Rural Settlements - agriculture as the
predominant occupation.



Urban settlements - principal industries are
secondary and tertiary.

5

RURAL SETTLEMENTS
Clustered rural settlements –grouped
settlements in rural areas to minimize travel

Dispersed rural Settlements - isolated farms
with enclosed continuous fields (Found only in
N. America and Britain).

6

Urban Geographers want to know the global distribution of urban
settlements. MDC’s have a high percentage of people living in urban
areas because of the shift from agriculture-manufacturing-services.
Geographers are also interested in where people and activities are
distributed within urban spaces. What are the differences between the
inner-city and suburban areas and why?
As we saw in the last chapter, many downtowns are unique and can
often be recognized in photos where the suburbs often look very
much alike (Placelessness). Why? Suburbs offer the chance to avoid
some of the city problems (crime, tight living area, expensive
land/rent, noise, age of buildings) while still keeping a connection with
the goods and services of the city: jobs, sports teams, culture, shops,
recreation, etc.
7

Where is this place?

8

Today’s cities are evolving and changing. Although different internal
situations characterize urban areas in the US and elsewhere, the
problems arising from current spatial trends are quite similar in all cities.
Where have urban areas grown: in the early 1800’s only 3% of the earth’s
people lived in cities and only Beijing China had more than 1 million
people. Today over ½ of the world’s people live in cities and we have over
400 cities of at least 1 million people.

Urbanization: is the process by which city population grows.
Cities population growth is measured in 2 dimensions;
1. An increase in the number of people living in the cities.
2. An increase in the percentage of people living in the cities.
This distinction is important because they happen for different reason and
have different global distributions.
9

Increasing Percentage of People in Cities: a large percentage of people living in urban
areas is a measure of a country’s level of development. In MDC’s about ¾ of the people
live in urban areas compared to about 2/5 of people in LDC’s. (Except in Latin America
where the level is closer to MDC’s.)
The higher percentage of people in urban areas comes from the changes that have
occurred in the last 200 years as we went from agriculture (primary jobs) to industrial
(secondary jobs) and now service jobs, all created by the Industrial Revolution of the
1800’s.
People moved to the cities for industrial jobs, but in MDC’s this process has largely
ended because nearly everyone interested in moving to the cities from farms has already
done so.
In LDC’s the percentage of people living in urban areas is growing as people are pushed
off of their farms and replaced by machines and as people move to cities looking/hoping
for industrial jobs.
10

Increasing Number of People in Cities: MDC’s have a higher percentage of
people living in urban settlements but LDC’s have more of the very large urban
settlements (Primate cities). (Rank-size rule, primate cities, chapter 12.)

This is interesting because typically the large cities are created from the
improvements brought by the Industrial Revolution. This is not the case with the
large LDC cities. Migration to the primate city in LDC’s is happening even though
job opportunities may not be available. Increasing the population growth in LDC
cities is the fact that medical services are better in these cities, thus the child
mortality rate is lower.
Defining Urban Settlements: defining where urban areas end and rural areas
begin is not easy. Geographers have formulated definitions that distinguish
between urban and rural areas in two ways: Social differences and Physical
differences.
11

Percent Urban Population

Percent of the population living in urban areas is usually higher in MDCs
than in LDCs.

12

The most populated cities in the world

Of the top
20, only
Moscow,
Tokyo and
New York
are in MDC’s

Shanghai China has 14,608,512 people
13

14

15

Social Differences Between Urban and Rural Settlements: it is fair to say that rural
people and urban people follow different ways of life. A city can be defined as having 3
characteristics:
1. Large size. People in rural settlements know most of the other people in the
settlement. Not true in big cities. Social relationships are often described as “colder” in
urban areas because you only see some people at work instead of growing up with
them in the settlement.
2. High Density. Having lots of people in a tiny area creates social consequences. A
high density of people living in a small area can only be supported if the people
specialize (they can’t all be farmers). People are encouraged to compete for jobs, room,
and survival in a tightly limited space. Social groups compete to occupy the same space
(ethnic/ race problems). Rural settlements have very little of this problem.
3. Social Heterogeneity. The larger the settlement, the greater the variety of people.
Being “unusual” in a large settlement is more likely to be accepted than in a small rural
one. But despite the freedom to be different that large urban settlements give you,
people living there often feel alone because so many people are different from them.
There is a stronger feeling of belonging together in small rural settlements.
16

These 3 differences do not fully answer the question of where urban settlements
begin and rural ones end because in today’s MDC’s most everyone has access to
cars, telephones, televisions, and “urban type” jobs which reduce the differences
between urban and rural lifestyles. “City folk” and “Country folk” are more alike
today than they are different. To help distinguish between urban and rural areas we
need to add the physical definition of rural and urban to the equation.
Physical Definitions of Urban Settlements: In ancient time, cities had defensive
walls for protection which clearly defined the physical boundaries of the city. Today
the walls are gone but we can still define the physical boundaries in 3 ways:
1. Legal boundary. These are the official boundaries of a city as recognized by
the government of the country or state. These “city limits” have been officially given
to the city and are physically marked on official maps. The local government of the
city has authority to make laws and protect the people inside the city boundaries.
17

2. Urbanized area. This is the city plus its suburbs or urbanized area that
surrounds the city. About 70 percent of US residents live in urbanized areas with
40% being in the suburbs and 30% inside the city limits. The suburbs may have
their own city governments but the huge central city dominates what happens in
the entire area.
3. Metropolitan Statistical Area. Cities have an even bigger influence on people
than just those living in their city limits and surrounding urbanized areas. People
from far away come to shop, use the services, support the sports teams, read
the newspapers and watch the television broadcasts of the city. Thus the city
has a “functional area” which is its total zone of influence. The US Bureau of
Census has created a method of measuring the functional area of the city.
Known as the Metropolitan statistical area (MSA) this area includes:
•An urbanized area with a population of at least 50,000
•The county within which the city is located.
•Adjacent counties with a high population density and a large percentage of
residents working in the central city’s county.
18

Metropolitan Area of Philadelphia

City of
Philadelphia

Urbanized
area
(suburbs)
Metropolitan
Statistical
Area

The metropolitan area of Philadelphia is
spread over several counties and four states.
It is also a diversified trade center, given its
position on the Delaware river.

19

20

21

Micropolitan Statistical Areas: Smaller areas with between
10,000 and 50,000 people, the county where it is found, and
adjacent counties tied to the city. This would be a small town and
the area dominated by it.
Overlapping Metropolitan Areas: Some adjacent MSA’s overlap.
A county between two central cities may send a large number of
commuters to jobs in both cities. In some areas the cities are so
close that they form one continuous urban complex. This is
known as a Megalopolis (great city).
In a megalopolis, the downtown CBD often has its own
distinctive look and the urban areas are visually separated by
parks, open spaces, and dairy/truck farms. But at the periphery
of the urban areas, the boundaries overlap.
22

Colorado Springs, population 431,000

Ocala, Florida, population 56,000

Florala, Alabama, population 1,900

23

Megalopolis, from northern Va. To Maine.
This Illustrates the
difference between
strict city proper
definitions and broader
urban agglomerations.
To define urbanized
areas, the U.S. Census
Bureau uses the term
Metropolitan Statistical
Area (MSA) or
Consolidated MSA
(CMSA) if two or more of
them overlap.
24

Where are People Distributed within Urban Areas? People are not
just distributed at random in urban areas. For the most part they
concentrate in particular neighborhoods depending on their social
characteristics. Geographers want to see where people with
particular characteristics are likely to live and why.

Three models which try to explain the growth of a city:

The Burgess Model

The Hoyt Sector Model

The Harris and Ullman
multiple Nuclei Model
25

Burgess Concentric Zone Model

In the concentric zone model, a city grows in a series of rings surrounding the CBD.

Burgess Concentric Zone Model: This is the first used to explain the
distributions of different social groups within urban areas. It says that a
city grows outward from a central place in a series of concentric rings.
The precise size and width of the rings vary from one city to another, but
some basic types of rings appear in all cities in the same order (see chart
above).
26

•Hoyt Sector Model: In this model the city develops in a
series of sectors not rings. Certain areas of the city are
more attractive for various activities, originally because
of an environmental factor (or even pure chance). As the
city grows, activities extend outward in a wedge shape.
For example, once a wealthy neighborhood is built the
next wealthy neighborhood will extend from the first
neighborhood further outward from the center. In this
way, the best housing is found in a corridor extending
outward from the center to the outer edge (see chart on
the next page).
27

The Hoyt Sector Model

In the sector model, a city grows in a series of
wedges or corridors extending out from the
CBD.
28

•Harris and Ullman’s Multiple Nuclei Model: According
to this model, a city is a complex structure that includes
more than one center around which activities revolve.
Examples of these nodes include a port, parks,
stadium, neighborhood business center, university, and
airport (see chart). This theory states that some
activities are attracted to particular nodes, whereas
others try to avoid them. A university node may attract
well educated people and bookstores while the port will
attract hotels and warehouses. Heavy industry and
expensive houses rarely are found together. This
model shows the effect of the automobile more than
any other model.
29

The Harris and Ullman Multiple Nuclei model

The multiple nuclei model views a city as a
collection of individual centers, around which
different people and activities cluster.

30

Applications of the Models: The three models help explain where and in some
cases, why people live where they do. None of the models by themselves fully
explains why and where different types of people live, but combined they give
you as good a look as possible at the “Why” of “Where.” Effective use of the
models depends on getting good data on the areas. Most countries take a
census every 10 years to help determine useful data about the people and
places of the country. In our country we divide the census data into areas
known as census tracts of about 5,000 people. Each census tract has the data
that summarizes the characteristics of the people living within that tract. This
information includes things like the race, income, age, and education of the
people living in that tract.
Social Area Analysis: The data from the census tracts can all be plotted onto
maps to show the characteristics of the people living in that tract. This map is
known as a social area analysis.
31

Using Census tract information…Seattle, Washington
Each lined area is a
census tract of about 5000
people in Seattle
Washington. These maps
show average household
income for 1990 and
2000…note the changes in
income in some areas
between 1990 and 2000.
Using this information, a
business can make
decisions about where
they want to locate a new
store or the future of
existing stores.
You can find census tract
information on many topics
such as; age, education
level, race, ethnicity, crime
rate, and land ownership.
Note the areas with
incomes over
$63,000.

All can be very valuable
information to people
looking to open
businesses.

32

Examine the changes
between 1990 and
2000.

Oakland, California’s Ethnic neighborhoods
The small bordered areas are census tracks of 5000 people.

33

Use of the Models Outside of North America: The 3 models will also work in other
places in the world; however social groups in other countries may not have the
same reasons for selecting particular neighborhoods as Americans do.
European Cities: As in the US, wealthier people in European cities cluster along a
sector extending outward from the CBD, however unlike the US, wealthy and
middle class Europeans still live in the inner rings of the neighborhoods near the
CBD not out in the suburbs. In the past, poorer people lived in the center of the
city. Before electricity, social segregation was vertical: richer people lived on the
first or second floor of a building while the poorer people lived in the basement or
upper floors. In the Industrial Revolution, housing for the poor was constructed
near the factories and away from the rich.
Today poorer Europeans are less likely to live in the inner-city. Poor quality
housing has been renovated for the rich or turned into office buildings. Poorer
Europeans tend to live in the outskirts of the city. Vast suburbs with dozens of high
rise apartments house the poor. They face long commutes to reach their jobs in
the city.
34

European cities generally do not have the “suburban
sprawl” that US cities have. European cities tend to be
more pedestrian friendly with more parks downtown as
Europeans tend to still live downtown.
US cities have taller buildings as European cities tend to
be older and more historic.

American cities have more ethnic neighborhoods than
European cities. Ethnic neighborhoods that do exist in
European cities tend to be in the suburbs. WHY?
Because the established richer neighborhoods tend to be
downtown in European cities.
35

Less Developed Countries: Like Europe, most LDC’s accommodate their poor in the
suburbs with their middle class and rich living near the center of the city. LDC’s have
passed through 3 periods of city building: before the Europeans arrived, during the
period of European colonialism, and since independence from European control.

Pre-colonial Cities: Before the Europeans arrived few cities existed in Africa, Asia, and
Latin America and most people lived in small rural settlements. Those cities that existed
were mostly laid out surrounding a religious center; with the rest of the city laid out in a
hieratical concentric pattern (like the Burgess model) from government buildings,
homes of the wealthy, and businesses related to the religion out to other businesses
and shops.
Colonial cities: When the Europeans took over these lands, they changed the cities by
adding services to help the Europeans control the conquered people. Often a new
European style city would be build next to the existing native one. The new European
cities contained wider streets, a public square, larger houses and a much lower density.
The Spanish used the “Law of the Indies” which was a city plan designed specifically to
build cities in a “Spanish” style. (Gridiron pattern for streets centered on a church and
central plaza, walls around individual houses and neighborhoods centered around
smaller plazas and more churches.)
36

Early Mexico city was laid out in a grid pattern of streets. This followed
the Spanish “Law of the Indies.”

37

Central Plaza in Mexico City 1920 photo. Typical Colonial City plan.

Part of downtown Mexico city today still shows the
building plan of the “Law of the Indies.”

38

Cities since Independence: Following independence, cities have become
the focal point of the development of most LDC’s. Millions of people have
migrated to the cities (Primate cities) looking for jobs and services. Some
capitals have been moved to isolated areas in an attempt to help develop
that area of the country (Brasília) This is know as a forward capital. Latin
American cities have developed their own unique style.
Squatter settlements: The LDC’s are unable to house the rapidly growing
number of poor who are flowing into the cities. Because of the housing
shortages, the poor have constructed their own settlements around the city.
These settlements have few services because neither the city nor the
residents can afford them. Squatters have two basic choices for housing.
1. Illegally move into empty real houses located in the city or,
2. Rent slum housing.
(85% of the population of Addis Ababa in Ethiopia lives in squatter
settlements, slums or other illegal housing.)
39

Squatter shacks in Manila, the Philippines

40

Squatter settlement in Ethiopia

41

Zimbabwe, Africa

42

Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

43

Latin American City Model:
In many Latin
American cities,
the wealthy live in
the inner city and
in a sector
extending along a
commercial spine.
In situ accretion- businesses
and homes constantly under
construction/repair.
Zone of maturity-2nd best
housing in the city.
The poor live in squatter settlements on the
periphery of the city.

Disamenity- unpleasant area
used by the poor to get to the
market.

44

The City Outline of Rio de Janeiro
The rich tourist areas and expensive condo apartments are along the coast
and beach while the poor live in squatter shacks in the hills.

45

City problems:
Inner-City Physical Problems: Most US inner cities were constructed before the 1950’s
(people began to move to the suburbs in the 1950’s so new construction moved out of
the city).
Process of Deterioration (how a city deteriorates): A city doesn’t suddenly become old
and full of slummy areas. It happens over time. When a group of low-income people
inhabit an area of a city, nearby neighborhoods will often look to move out. They sell or
rent to more low-income occupants thus expanding the low-income area. Two processes
cause/speed up the devaluation of areas:
1. Filtering, 2. Redlining.
Filtering: Large houses and buildings that once housed rich downtown workers (who
moved to the suburbs) are taken over by landlords who don’t live in that area (they
moved to the suburbs too). Rents are low so the landlord doesn’t take as good care of
the property as they should and the property becomes run down or abandoned. Stores
close, or move, due to lack of sales. 100 years ago these neighborhoods would be used
by immigrants and ethnic businesses would succeed in those areas. Now, with a decline
in immigration, these neighborhoods have shrunk and so have schools, businesses and
other services. Thousands of vacant houses and buildings stand empty in inner cities
across America.

46

Redlining: Some banks refuse to give loans in what they consider
risky neighborhoods. They draw a red line on a map around areas
where they will not give loans. Without loans, these neighborhoods
have a hard time rebuilding/remodeling. Though illegal, this still
happens. Bankers just don’t put these “no-loan” areas on a map.

Urban Renewal: This is the series of projects to improve European
and N. American cities by buying up the blighted neighborhoods,
moving the people to new government built housing projects, and
building new roads, and other projects to make the inner city
attractive for business again. National and State government grants
help pay for these projects.
47

Public housing: Housing for the poor, built with government funding as part of
urban renewal. In the US this is only about 2% of the housing while in some
countries it may be more (Britain is 30%). Public housing built in the 50’s & 60’s
were largely high rise apartments, but those are seen as being unsatisfactory.
Problems arise from cramming large numbers of poor people into one area.
Today most public housing projects are one to three story buildings with many of
them being scattered around different parts of the city rather than clustered into
one area.
Because urban renewal has been criticized for destroying the social cohesion of
older neighborhoods, many governments (like the US) have stopped funding
most projects since the 1970’s. What do we do instead?
Renovated Housing: An alternative often used since the 70’s is to renovate a
building instead of urban renewal. The process where middle-class people
move into inner-city neighborhoods and renovate them is called gentrification.
Gentrified inner-city neighborhoods also attract middle-class people who work
downtown. Living close to work saves the hassle of commuting and rejuvenates
run down inner-city neighborhoods
48

Gentrified building downtown Harlem, NY. Note the supermarket.

49

Inner-City Social Problems: Inner-city residents are often referred to as the
permanent underclass because they are trapped in an unending cycle of
economic and social problems. High unemployment, alcoholism, drug
addiction, literacy, juvenile delinquency, and crime all exist at a higher rate
among those who live in the inner-city. Lack of jobs means lack of tax dollars
to pay for police and fire protection as well as good schools. Lack of job skills
and homelessness are also tremendous problems.
Culture of Poverty: Inner-city residents are trapped in a permanent underclass
culture that reproduces itself. In the US, unwed mothers give birth to 2/3 of the
babies in the inner-city. 90% of these children live with only one parent and it
is real hard for one parent to keep a job and take care of children. Both suffer
and a shortage of care and daily attention by the parent contributes to the kids
not learning the skills necessary to do well in school which leads to poor jobs
for their futures. Poverty leads to more poverty. Many families on welfare have
only one parent because it is financially better if one parent is gone, that way
the single parent gets food stamps and other services from the government
that they would not get if it was a 2 family household.
50

Crime: Trapped in a hopeless environment, some inner-city
residents turn to drugs. Drug use is a problem in inner-city
areas and the suburbs, but rates of drug use in inner-cities
are the highest.
Ethnic and Racial Segregation: As seen in chapter 7, many
neighborhoods in the US are segregated by ethnicity with
African Americans and Hispanics concentrated in one or two
continuous areas and whites living in the suburbs. Even small
cities display a strong distinction among neighborhoods. A
frequent division is between the east and west or north and
south side of town, or the railroad tracks. A family seeking a
new residence will seek the areas where the characteristics
of the people meet their own.

51

The exodus
from the
American city.
This has
happened in
many American
cities since the
1960’s.

52

Changes in Cities in the U.S.
U.S. population has been moving out of the city centers to the suburbs:
suburbanization and counter urbanization

Developed Countries: suburbanization

 wealthy move to suburbs
 automobiles and roads; ‘American
Dream’ of the home in the suburbs.
 better services
 wealthy move to suburbs
Counter urbanization

idyllic settings
cost of land for retirement
slow pace, yet high tech
connections to services and markets
53

U.S. intraregional migration during 1990s.

Inner city economic problems: the concentration of low income
residents in inner cities has caused economic problems. These
people require public services but can pay very little in taxes to
support the services. They need stores and jobs but have little
money to spend in the store and few skills for jobs (so the stores
close). To try to fight these problems many local and state
governments use tax monies to try to renovate these areas, but this
shifts tax money needed for other areas to the inner city (votes on
election day).
Annexation: Many cities could help their tax problem by adding the
new suburbs to be part of their city (annexation). After all, many of
these suburban people use the city for its’ jobs etc., so why not add
them into the city? Today, most people in the suburbs do not want
to be annexed into the city and so they do not vote to be annexed.
54

The Peripheral Model: According to this model, an urban area
consists of an inner city surrounded by large suburban residential
and business areas (MSA) tied together by a beltway or highway
that circles the city. Around the beltway are nodes of consumer
and business services called edge cities (see diagram of multiple
nuclei model). These edge cities sprang up to provide services
and jobs to the people in the suburbs.
Density Gradient: As you travel outward from the center of the
city, the density of people declines. Inner city has big apartments
of 250 of more people per acre. Suburbs have fewer people per
acre (but lots of acres) and finally you leave the cities periphery
you find few people. The number of houses per unit of land
diminishes as distance from the center of the city increases.
55

The Edge cities (bedroom communities) of Houston

The central city is surrounded by a ring road, around which are
suburban areas and edge cities, shopping malls, office parks,
industrial areas, and service complexes.

Known as
bedroom
communities
because
people live
there but
mostly don’t
work there.
They drive
into the city
for work.
56

As you move from the center of the city outward, the density of the population
changes. This is know as the density gradient. Two big changes have occurred in
the density gradient of today’s cities:
1. The number of people living in the center has decreased.
2. The density difference between the inner city and the suburbs is declining
because the inner city density is dropping and the suburban density is growing
due to more large apartments being built in the suburbs.
Cost of Suburban or Urban Sprawl: Urban Sprawl is the progressive spread of
development over the landscape. As long as we Americans want single-family
detached houses, land on the fringe of urban areas will be converted from open
space to residential use. The cost of this growth is more than the loss of land, it is
also the cost of new roads, utilities, building stores and offices and the cost of
automobiles to move these people over even longer distances. Lots of these new
developments are built on what was once farmland. Wonderful productive soil now
under concrete.

Greenbelts: are areas where, by law, the open space can not be used for any
construction. This is mostly found in Europe.

57

Once farmland that is being converted to suburbs and cities.

58

Tyson’s Corner Virginia in 1940

59

Washington, DC. MSA.

Tyson’s Corner Virginia
today.
Washington D.C. is off
In the distance.

60

Suburban Segregation: The “new” segregation.
Suburban segregation takes two forms:
1. Residents are separated from commercial and manufacturing activities
which are confined someplace else. (The whole neighborhood is
nothing but houses because they drive for services.)
2. The price of the house eliminates some from being able to live there. This
creates a homogeneous suburb of the same economic class of people.
This never existed before in history. Where we once had vertical
segregation of the classes we now we have horizontal segregation.
3. But this may be reversing as new statistics show that people are beginning
to move back to the city. Why? Cost of transportation.
Zoning Ordinances: This idea developed in Europe and later America in the
early decades of the 20th century. This means that businesses are allowed only
in certain areas of the settlement. (No all night taco stands inside your single
family neighborhood.)
Motor vehicles: The wide use of the automobile is largely responsible for the
American movement to the suburbs. Not only did people move out but 1/4 of
the land inside all American cities are now roads, streets, and parking lots.

61

Public Transportation: Because few US workers live within walking distance
of their jobs, urban areas are characterized by extensive commuting and the
problems that come with it. As much as 40% of all trips made into or out from
a city during the day takes place within just 4 hours. (2 in the morning and 2 in
the late afternoon). RUSH HOUR!!! In large cities, public transportation, like
subways and busses, are better suited to move people but Americans still
prefer their own cars. Public transportation is cheaper, cleaner, and more
energy efficient than personal cars, yet in the US only 5% of city travel is
done using public transit systems. American’s love their personal car too
much.
Local Government Fragmentation: Because of the large number of local
governments in the US (look at the settlements in Pinellas County) it is
difficult to solve some of the regional problems like garbage disposal, water
management, traffic and public housing.
62

Metropolitan government: This idea tries to put many local governments into a
larger unit that can better handle the urban problems. The 2 ways to do this
are:
1. Federations in which the individual settlements have their own police,
firemen, and tax collection but they all agree to be part of a second
government which handles transportation, water, sewage, parks and
welfare for all the communities.
2. Consolidations: In this method, several cities and the county may form one
government. Jacksonville’s government runs not only the town but the
county too, this makes Jacksonville the largest city, in land size, in the US.
Smart growth: A new movement by many states to curb suburban sprawl by
limiting where new construction can take place. Smart growth laws require that
land near cities be used up before any land further out can be developed. So
far, this is only being done an a few parts of our country.
63

The new
US as
some
people
see it.

64

Quiz Yourself:
1. The process where middle-class people move into inner city neighborhoods and
renovate them is called ____________
2. ____________ happens when banks refuse to give loans in what they consider
risky neighborhoods.
3. Because of the housing shortages, the poor have constructed their own settlements
around the city known as __________ _________

4. Businesses are allowed only in certain areas of the settlement because of
____________ ____________
5. Areas known as _____ _______ are areas of about 5,000 people. The data from
that area is used to help define needed services for that area.
6. When cities are so close that they form one continuous band of development this is
known as a ____________
65

7. Social relationships are often described as “colder” in urban areas because…
8. In this model the city develops in a series of sectors not rings. _______

9. ______ (LDC’s or MDC’s) have a higher percentage of people living in urban
settlements but ________ (LDC’s or MDC’s) have more of the very large urban
settlements.
10. _____________ was the first model developed to explain the distributions
of different social groups within urban areas.
11. New cities which develop around the beltway are nodes of consumer and
business services known as ________ _________.

12. When the Europeans took over lands around the world, they changed the
cities by adding services to help the Europeans control the conquered people.
These European planned cities are known as __________ cities.
66

Answer Key:
1.

Gentrification

2.

Redlining

3.

Squatter Settlements

4.

Zoning ordinances

5.

Census tracks

6.

Megalopolis

7. There is a stronger feeling of belonging together in small rural settlements.
8. Hoyt sector model
9. MDC, LDC
10. Burgess Concentric Zone model
11. Edge cities
12. Colonial cities
67

Test Key topic/chapter 13:
These questions come from a combination of our slides, your text book, and common knowledge you should
have discussed in your AP classroom. They are very typical of what you will see on the National Exam.
1) The multiple nuclei theory best explains why different neighborhoods of a city attract people of different… A) ages.
B) ethnic origin C) income D) marital status.
2) Sprawl is the… A) change in density within an urban area from the center to the periphery B) development of new
housing sites not contiguous to the existing built-up area. C) land maintained as open space surrounding an urban area.
D) period in the morning and evening with the heaviest volumes of traffic.
3) People are attracted to suburbs in part because suburbs are characterized by…A) heavy traffic. B) lower opportunity
for home ownership. C) private land surrounding the house. D) row houses and apartments.
4) Megalopolis refers to… A) adjacent, overlapping Metropolitan Statistical Areas. B) central cities. C) consolidated
Metropolitan Statistical Areas. D) central cities plus urbanized areas.
5) Which statement best describes the relationship between urbanization and the Industrial Revolution? A) Urbanization
promoted the Industrial Revolution. B) The Industrial Revolution promoted urbanization. C) Urbanization preceded the
Industrial Revolution by thousands of years. D) Urbanization and the Industrial Revolution are no longer related.
6) The process of legally adding land area to a city in the United States is… A) annexation. B) accreditation. C) an
application of eminent domain. D) defined by urbanized area.

68

7) The process of change in the use of a house, from single-family owner occupancy to abandonment, is… A) blockbusting.
B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining.
8) A process by which banks designate an area within which they refuse to lend money for improvements is… A) blockbusting.
B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining.
9) A recent change in the density gradient has been… A) the elimination of the gap traditionally found in the center. B) an
increase in the extremes between the inner and outer areas. C) an increase in the number of people living in the center.
D) a reduction in the differences in densities found within an urban area.
10) U.S. central cities face fiscal problems because… A) federal and state funds are available. B) low-income people are
concentrated there. C) middle-class families are attracted there. D) redlining is no longer legal.
11) A legal form of segregation in U.S. cities is achieved through...A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) zoning. D) greenbelts.
12) Factories have moved to suburban locations in part because of… A) access to main highways. B) adequate space to build
vertical structures. C) availability of large tracts of high-priced land. D) good rail connections.
13) According to the sector model, the best housing is located in…A) a corridor from downtown to the edge of the city.
B) an outer ring surrounding the city. C) nodes near universities and parks. D) renovated inner-city neighborhoods.
14) Ramshackle houses on the periphery of cities in less developed countries are known as… A) squatter settlements. B) council
estates. C) public housing. D) zone in transition.
15) Higher income people tend to live near the center of the city in all but which of the following regions? A) Latin America
B) North America C) South Asia D) Western Europe

16) The wide boulevards built in cities in less developed countries were most likely built during what era? A) pre-colonial
B) colonial C) independence D) all of the above equally

69

17) According to the multiple nuclei model, an airport is likely to attract nearby… A) industries. B) residences. C) shops.
D) universities.
18) The largest percentage of the U.S. population lives in…A) central cities. B) suburbs. C) non-metropolitan areas. D) all of the
above
19) In U.S. cities, the underclass is… A) clustered in inner-city neighborhoods. B) dispersed throughout the city. C) clustered in
suburbs. D) distributed uniformly in the city.

20) A process of converting a neighborhood from low-income to middle-class is…A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) gentrification.
D) redlining.
21) Higher social heterogeneity in urban settlements means that… A) the people with whom you relax are probably the same ones you
see at work. B) you play a specialized role in the urban economy. C) you compete for limited space. D) you may feel lonely and
isolated in a crowd.
22) The city plus its contiguous built-up suburbs is the… A) central city. B) urbanized area.
D) consolidated metropolitan statistical area

C) metropolitan statistical area.

23) The process whereby an increasing percentage of people live in an urban area is known as… A) demographic transition.
B) rank-size rule. C) urbanization. D) central place theory.
24) Of the ten largest urban areas in the world, how many are in More Developed Countries today? A) 1 B) 4 C) 7 D) 10 E) 2
25) Public housing is…A) conversion of low-income housing to middle-class housing. B) illegally established low-income housing.
C) housing that has changed from single-family owner occupancy to abandonment. D) low-income government-owned housing.
26) According to the concentric zone model, a city develops in a series of… A) corridors. B) nodes. C) rings. D) all of the above

70

27) Chicago is a good location in which to develop urban models because it is located… A) at the hub of the nation's transportation
system. B) in the center of the country. C) on a flat prairie. D) on the shore of Lake Michigan.
28) According to the sector model, the best housing is located in… A) a corridor from downtown to the edge of the city. B) an outer
ring surrounding the city. C) nodes near universities and parks. D) renovated inner-city neighborhoods.
29) The zone of transition in US cities generally contain…A) warehouses B) wealthy neighborhoods C) transportation hubs
D) universities and hospitals E) suburban homes
30) The attractions of shopping malls include all but which of the following? A) frequent concerts and exhibitions B) generous
parking lots C) place to meet friends D) walking distance from homes
The following questions are written at the high school level. You will find some questions from part one often rewritten
here. This is all designed to help you transition to the college/AP style of written questions. Any question preceded with ***
are questions that have been on the national exam before.
31. Most Latin American cities are focused on a…A) central plaza B) government housing project C) zone of heavy industry
D) skyscraper office building E) squatter settlement
32. The multiple-nuclei model of a city structure tends to be most applicable to…A) small cities B) traditional C) Latin American
cities D) newer, fast growing cities E) cities with homogeneous land use
33. ***Locational advantages important to the development of the earliest cities include…A) availability of good harbors for large
ships B) productive agricultural land and defensible sites C) temperate climate and proximity to coal mines D) good
connections by road and canal E) proximity to manufacturing areas

34. In cities, the CBD’s often show uniqueness while the suburbs usually show…A) a large hinterland. B) placelessness C) more
than one node. D) newer zones of transition.

71

35. Many LDC’s have tried to help a previously under-developed part of their country develop by moving their capital
city to that area. This new capital is known as a…A) forward capital B) new development zone C) enterprise zone
D) neocolonial city
36. Today the greatest number of urban dwellers is found in…A) North America
D) Europe E) Asia

B) South America C) Africa

37. ***All of the following have helped create ghettos in North American cities except…A)blockbusting and racial
steering B) redlining by financial institutions C) concentration of public housing and social services D) fixed school
districts E) Economic Enterprise Zones

38. Which of the following is NOT as reason for rapid suburbanization in the US after WW2? A) Mass production of
the automobile B) Reduction of long distance commuting C) Expansion of home construction D) Expansion of the
interstate highway system E) Availability of low down payment terms and long-term mortgages.
39. New cities which developed in the hinterland of large urban areas because of the automobile, are known as…
A) edge cities B) census tracts C) suburban sprawl D) squatter settlements. E) none of these
40. Gentrification refers to… A) moving the homeless into inner city shelters B) The “White Flight” from the urban city
C) losing tax revenue because of stores closing in downtown areas D) middle-class people moving into and renovating
inner city neighborhoods E) the creation of “beltway cities” around the city.

72

4
7
3

5

1
6

2

41-48 all use the sketch above.
41. The sketch in box A above represents which model of the inner structure of urban areas?
C) multiple nuclei model D) Burgess concentric zone model E) peripheral model
42. The models in boxes B and C represent A) Concentric zone and multiple nuclei
concentric zone D) peripheral and concentric zone E) Von Thunen and peripheral

A) Hoyt sector model B) VonThunen’s model

B) Multiple nuclei and Hoyt sector C) Hoyt sector and

43. In which ring (1, 2, etc.) of sketch A above would high-status households in North American cities likely live? A) 1 B) 2 C) 3 D) 4&5
44. In which ring (1, 2, etc.) of sketch A above would high status households in a European city likely live? A) 1

B) 2

C) 3

D) 4&5

45. In model B, zone # 2 is where it is likely because of: A) greenbelting B) squatter settling C) the culture of poverty D) transportation
E) no one knows
46. The model in sketch B is the; A) Hoyt sector model B) Burgess model C) multiple nuclei model D) peripheral model
47. The model in sketch C is the; A) Hoyt sector model B) Burgess model C) multiple nuclei model D) peripheral model
48. Which of these models best describes what has happened in US cities in the last 40 years? A)

B)

C)

73

49.*** In the U.S. a city plus its contiguous built-up suburbs is known as an…A) urbanized area B) zoned area
C) census tract D) Squatter settlement E) none of these
50. Done mostly in Europe, these are areas where land is kept as parks, farms or other kinds of open space and urban
sprawl is not allowed. A) Smart growth
B) zoning
C) filtering
D) census tracts E) greenbelts
51. Which statement best describes the relationship between urbanization and the Industrial Revolution?
A) Urbanization promoted the Industrial Revolution. B) The Industrial Revolution promoted urbanization.
C) Urbanization preceded the Industrial Revolution by thousands of years. D) Urbanization and the Industrial
Revolution are no longer related.
52. The process whereby an increasing percentage of people live in an urban area is known as…
A) Demographic transition. B) rank-size rule. C) Urbanization. D) Central place theory.
53. The city (if it has 50,000 or more people) plus its contiguous built-up suburbs AND the county it is in as well as any
other counties it influences, is known as the ...A) central city B) urbanized area
C) metropolitan statistical area
D) consolidated metropolitan area E) micropolitan statistical area
54. ***Higher social heterogeneity in urban settlements means that …A) the people with whom you relax are probably
the same ones you see at work. B) you play a specialized role in the urban economy. C) you compete for limited
space. D) you may feel lonely and isolated in a crowd.

55. The process of change in the use of a house, from single-family owner occupancy to smaller dwellings for the poor
and then sometimes to abandonment, is…A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining. E) none of
these

74

Free Response #1:
The Bid Rent theory says that the closer you get to the
CBD the higher the cost for land, yet in most American
cities you find the poorest people living near the
expensive CBD and the richest living further away.
Explain:
A. Why neighborhoods near the CBD are often poor and
run down?
B. Why are there few grocery and other retail stores in
these neighborhoods?
C. Why is this not really true in European and Latin
American countries?

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75

FR #2:
Think of the map of your school, explain the
layout of your school using the Multiple Nuclei
Model
The main office is the CBD.
Completely explain your answer using specific
buildings and/or land areas in your explanation
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76

Answer Key:
1. B

14. A

27. C

40. D

53. C

2. B

15. B

28. A

41. D

54. D

3. C

16. B

29. A

42. B

55. B

4. A

17. A

30. D

43. D

5. B

18. B

31. A

44. A

6. A

19. A

32. D

45. D

7. B

20. C

33. B

46. A

8. D

21. D

34. B

47. C

9. D

22. B

35. A

48. C

10. B

23. C

36. E

49. A

11. C

24. C

37. E

50. E

12. A

25. D

38. B

51. B

13. A

26. C

39. A

52. C
77

FR. #1: ( 15 pts. for each section…total of 45 pts.)
A. In the US the move of the wealthy and middle class to the suburbs has left the older houses and apartments near the CBD empty.
This has lowered their value to the point where the poor can afford these dwellings and have made these neighborhoods their
homes. The poor can not pay for upkeep of these dwellings, or to pay high taxes. The lack of upkeep and tax money to repair the
roads and schools, adds to the downward spiral of the neighborhood. With little spending money for shopping, the poor do not
spend much in the stores. This causes many stores to close and move to the suburbs where the spending customers and money
went. The closing of the stores adds to the poverty of the area by taking away some of the jobs that were in the neighborhood. This
becomes a vicious cycle of poverty and deterioration. (15 points)

B. There are few retail stores and groceries is the area because the poor do not have money to shop. The lack of spending forces
many stores out of business or forces them to move to better locations. There also can be higher crime in these areas and the
crime often takes place at the stores. This is another reason for the stores to move out of the neighborhood. (15 points)
C. Neighborhoods in European and Latin American cities are different from those of US cities. In Europe and Latin America, the
wealthy and middle class still live near or in the CBD. The higher tax base and more spending ability of the upper and middle
classes, keeps the CBD area flourishing with jobs and in constant repair and upkeep of the cities’ physical condition. (15 points)

FR #2: (10 total points.)
You will need to judge how effectively you displayed you school
in the Multiple Nuclei Model. Refer to the model itself to help you
determine your success and grade.
School’s main office
78

Calculating your grade on test 13.
Add how many you got correct on the multiple choice part (55 possible) to how many
points you scored on the FR portion (55 possible)…110 total.
The following scale will show the approximate score if this test were the real AP exam. Remember that this
is an approximation. While 65-74% is normally the range for a 3 on the test, it is not definite. Over the
years I have seen scores as low as 60% be the low portion of a 3 score.

Out of 110 possible points:
72-83 is most likely a 3
84-94 is most likely a 4

95-110 is most likely a 5

Now lets start our review for the national exam by
reviewing the 33 key models and theories of the
course…the next PowerPoint.


Slide 17

Key topic/chapter 13…Urban Patterns
Key terms:
Annexation
Concentric zone model
Density gradient
Edge cities
Filtering
Galactic city
Gentrification
Greenbelts
Megalopolis
MSA
Multiple nuclei model
Peripheral model

Public housing
Redlining
Renovated housing
Scattered site
Squatter settlement
Sector model
Smart growth
Sprawl
Underclass
Urban renewal
Zone in transition
Zoning
1

Chapter 13…Urban Areas.
How are Cities planned?
Why

are cities where they are?
How are they organized?
Why are some areas of a city
different from
other areas of the same city?
What is the future of cities?
2

Settlement


Settlement - permanent collections of buildings,
where people live, work, and obtain services

3

ORIGINS OF SETTLEMENTS


Religious - graves, churches, temples



Cultural - schools, libraries



Political/Military - leader’s house, walls



Economic - stores, food
4

TYPES OF SETTLEMENTS


Rural Settlements - agriculture as the
predominant occupation.



Urban settlements - principal industries are
secondary and tertiary.

5

RURAL SETTLEMENTS
Clustered rural settlements –grouped
settlements in rural areas to minimize travel

Dispersed rural Settlements - isolated farms
with enclosed continuous fields (Found only in
N. America and Britain).

6

Urban Geographers want to know the global distribution of urban
settlements. MDC’s have a high percentage of people living in urban
areas because of the shift from agriculture-manufacturing-services.
Geographers are also interested in where people and activities are
distributed within urban spaces. What are the differences between the
inner-city and suburban areas and why?
As we saw in the last chapter, many downtowns are unique and can
often be recognized in photos where the suburbs often look very
much alike (Placelessness). Why? Suburbs offer the chance to avoid
some of the city problems (crime, tight living area, expensive
land/rent, noise, age of buildings) while still keeping a connection with
the goods and services of the city: jobs, sports teams, culture, shops,
recreation, etc.
7

Where is this place?

8

Today’s cities are evolving and changing. Although different internal
situations characterize urban areas in the US and elsewhere, the
problems arising from current spatial trends are quite similar in all cities.
Where have urban areas grown: in the early 1800’s only 3% of the earth’s
people lived in cities and only Beijing China had more than 1 million
people. Today over ½ of the world’s people live in cities and we have over
400 cities of at least 1 million people.

Urbanization: is the process by which city population grows.
Cities population growth is measured in 2 dimensions;
1. An increase in the number of people living in the cities.
2. An increase in the percentage of people living in the cities.
This distinction is important because they happen for different reason and
have different global distributions.
9

Increasing Percentage of People in Cities: a large percentage of people living in urban
areas is a measure of a country’s level of development. In MDC’s about ¾ of the people
live in urban areas compared to about 2/5 of people in LDC’s. (Except in Latin America
where the level is closer to MDC’s.)
The higher percentage of people in urban areas comes from the changes that have
occurred in the last 200 years as we went from agriculture (primary jobs) to industrial
(secondary jobs) and now service jobs, all created by the Industrial Revolution of the
1800’s.
People moved to the cities for industrial jobs, but in MDC’s this process has largely
ended because nearly everyone interested in moving to the cities from farms has already
done so.
In LDC’s the percentage of people living in urban areas is growing as people are pushed
off of their farms and replaced by machines and as people move to cities looking/hoping
for industrial jobs.
10

Increasing Number of People in Cities: MDC’s have a higher percentage of
people living in urban settlements but LDC’s have more of the very large urban
settlements (Primate cities). (Rank-size rule, primate cities, chapter 12.)

This is interesting because typically the large cities are created from the
improvements brought by the Industrial Revolution. This is not the case with the
large LDC cities. Migration to the primate city in LDC’s is happening even though
job opportunities may not be available. Increasing the population growth in LDC
cities is the fact that medical services are better in these cities, thus the child
mortality rate is lower.
Defining Urban Settlements: defining where urban areas end and rural areas
begin is not easy. Geographers have formulated definitions that distinguish
between urban and rural areas in two ways: Social differences and Physical
differences.
11

Percent Urban Population

Percent of the population living in urban areas is usually higher in MDCs
than in LDCs.

12

The most populated cities in the world

Of the top
20, only
Moscow,
Tokyo and
New York
are in MDC’s

Shanghai China has 14,608,512 people
13

14

15

Social Differences Between Urban and Rural Settlements: it is fair to say that rural
people and urban people follow different ways of life. A city can be defined as having 3
characteristics:
1. Large size. People in rural settlements know most of the other people in the
settlement. Not true in big cities. Social relationships are often described as “colder” in
urban areas because you only see some people at work instead of growing up with
them in the settlement.
2. High Density. Having lots of people in a tiny area creates social consequences. A
high density of people living in a small area can only be supported if the people
specialize (they can’t all be farmers). People are encouraged to compete for jobs, room,
and survival in a tightly limited space. Social groups compete to occupy the same space
(ethnic/ race problems). Rural settlements have very little of this problem.
3. Social Heterogeneity. The larger the settlement, the greater the variety of people.
Being “unusual” in a large settlement is more likely to be accepted than in a small rural
one. But despite the freedom to be different that large urban settlements give you,
people living there often feel alone because so many people are different from them.
There is a stronger feeling of belonging together in small rural settlements.
16

These 3 differences do not fully answer the question of where urban settlements
begin and rural ones end because in today’s MDC’s most everyone has access to
cars, telephones, televisions, and “urban type” jobs which reduce the differences
between urban and rural lifestyles. “City folk” and “Country folk” are more alike
today than they are different. To help distinguish between urban and rural areas we
need to add the physical definition of rural and urban to the equation.
Physical Definitions of Urban Settlements: In ancient time, cities had defensive
walls for protection which clearly defined the physical boundaries of the city. Today
the walls are gone but we can still define the physical boundaries in 3 ways:
1. Legal boundary. These are the official boundaries of a city as recognized by
the government of the country or state. These “city limits” have been officially given
to the city and are physically marked on official maps. The local government of the
city has authority to make laws and protect the people inside the city boundaries.
17

2. Urbanized area. This is the city plus its suburbs or urbanized area that
surrounds the city. About 70 percent of US residents live in urbanized areas with
40% being in the suburbs and 30% inside the city limits. The suburbs may have
their own city governments but the huge central city dominates what happens in
the entire area.
3. Metropolitan Statistical Area. Cities have an even bigger influence on people
than just those living in their city limits and surrounding urbanized areas. People
from far away come to shop, use the services, support the sports teams, read
the newspapers and watch the television broadcasts of the city. Thus the city
has a “functional area” which is its total zone of influence. The US Bureau of
Census has created a method of measuring the functional area of the city.
Known as the Metropolitan statistical area (MSA) this area includes:
•An urbanized area with a population of at least 50,000
•The county within which the city is located.
•Adjacent counties with a high population density and a large percentage of
residents working in the central city’s county.
18

Metropolitan Area of Philadelphia

City of
Philadelphia

Urbanized
area
(suburbs)
Metropolitan
Statistical
Area

The metropolitan area of Philadelphia is
spread over several counties and four states.
It is also a diversified trade center, given its
position on the Delaware river.

19

20

21

Micropolitan Statistical Areas: Smaller areas with between
10,000 and 50,000 people, the county where it is found, and
adjacent counties tied to the city. This would be a small town and
the area dominated by it.
Overlapping Metropolitan Areas: Some adjacent MSA’s overlap.
A county between two central cities may send a large number of
commuters to jobs in both cities. In some areas the cities are so
close that they form one continuous urban complex. This is
known as a Megalopolis (great city).
In a megalopolis, the downtown CBD often has its own
distinctive look and the urban areas are visually separated by
parks, open spaces, and dairy/truck farms. But at the periphery
of the urban areas, the boundaries overlap.
22

Colorado Springs, population 431,000

Ocala, Florida, population 56,000

Florala, Alabama, population 1,900

23

Megalopolis, from northern Va. To Maine.
This Illustrates the
difference between
strict city proper
definitions and broader
urban agglomerations.
To define urbanized
areas, the U.S. Census
Bureau uses the term
Metropolitan Statistical
Area (MSA) or
Consolidated MSA
(CMSA) if two or more of
them overlap.
24

Where are People Distributed within Urban Areas? People are not
just distributed at random in urban areas. For the most part they
concentrate in particular neighborhoods depending on their social
characteristics. Geographers want to see where people with
particular characteristics are likely to live and why.

Three models which try to explain the growth of a city:

The Burgess Model

The Hoyt Sector Model

The Harris and Ullman
multiple Nuclei Model
25

Burgess Concentric Zone Model

In the concentric zone model, a city grows in a series of rings surrounding the CBD.

Burgess Concentric Zone Model: This is the first used to explain the
distributions of different social groups within urban areas. It says that a
city grows outward from a central place in a series of concentric rings.
The precise size and width of the rings vary from one city to another, but
some basic types of rings appear in all cities in the same order (see chart
above).
26

•Hoyt Sector Model: In this model the city develops in a
series of sectors not rings. Certain areas of the city are
more attractive for various activities, originally because
of an environmental factor (or even pure chance). As the
city grows, activities extend outward in a wedge shape.
For example, once a wealthy neighborhood is built the
next wealthy neighborhood will extend from the first
neighborhood further outward from the center. In this
way, the best housing is found in a corridor extending
outward from the center to the outer edge (see chart on
the next page).
27

The Hoyt Sector Model

In the sector model, a city grows in a series of
wedges or corridors extending out from the
CBD.
28

•Harris and Ullman’s Multiple Nuclei Model: According
to this model, a city is a complex structure that includes
more than one center around which activities revolve.
Examples of these nodes include a port, parks,
stadium, neighborhood business center, university, and
airport (see chart). This theory states that some
activities are attracted to particular nodes, whereas
others try to avoid them. A university node may attract
well educated people and bookstores while the port will
attract hotels and warehouses. Heavy industry and
expensive houses rarely are found together. This
model shows the effect of the automobile more than
any other model.
29

The Harris and Ullman Multiple Nuclei model

The multiple nuclei model views a city as a
collection of individual centers, around which
different people and activities cluster.

30

Applications of the Models: The three models help explain where and in some
cases, why people live where they do. None of the models by themselves fully
explains why and where different types of people live, but combined they give
you as good a look as possible at the “Why” of “Where.” Effective use of the
models depends on getting good data on the areas. Most countries take a
census every 10 years to help determine useful data about the people and
places of the country. In our country we divide the census data into areas
known as census tracts of about 5,000 people. Each census tract has the data
that summarizes the characteristics of the people living within that tract. This
information includes things like the race, income, age, and education of the
people living in that tract.
Social Area Analysis: The data from the census tracts can all be plotted onto
maps to show the characteristics of the people living in that tract. This map is
known as a social area analysis.
31

Using Census tract information…Seattle, Washington
Each lined area is a
census tract of about 5000
people in Seattle
Washington. These maps
show average household
income for 1990 and
2000…note the changes in
income in some areas
between 1990 and 2000.
Using this information, a
business can make
decisions about where
they want to locate a new
store or the future of
existing stores.
You can find census tract
information on many topics
such as; age, education
level, race, ethnicity, crime
rate, and land ownership.
Note the areas with
incomes over
$63,000.

All can be very valuable
information to people
looking to open
businesses.

32

Examine the changes
between 1990 and
2000.

Oakland, California’s Ethnic neighborhoods
The small bordered areas are census tracks of 5000 people.

33

Use of the Models Outside of North America: The 3 models will also work in other
places in the world; however social groups in other countries may not have the
same reasons for selecting particular neighborhoods as Americans do.
European Cities: As in the US, wealthier people in European cities cluster along a
sector extending outward from the CBD, however unlike the US, wealthy and
middle class Europeans still live in the inner rings of the neighborhoods near the
CBD not out in the suburbs. In the past, poorer people lived in the center of the
city. Before electricity, social segregation was vertical: richer people lived on the
first or second floor of a building while the poorer people lived in the basement or
upper floors. In the Industrial Revolution, housing for the poor was constructed
near the factories and away from the rich.
Today poorer Europeans are less likely to live in the inner-city. Poor quality
housing has been renovated for the rich or turned into office buildings. Poorer
Europeans tend to live in the outskirts of the city. Vast suburbs with dozens of high
rise apartments house the poor. They face long commutes to reach their jobs in
the city.
34

European cities generally do not have the “suburban
sprawl” that US cities have. European cities tend to be
more pedestrian friendly with more parks downtown as
Europeans tend to still live downtown.
US cities have taller buildings as European cities tend to
be older and more historic.

American cities have more ethnic neighborhoods than
European cities. Ethnic neighborhoods that do exist in
European cities tend to be in the suburbs. WHY?
Because the established richer neighborhoods tend to be
downtown in European cities.
35

Less Developed Countries: Like Europe, most LDC’s accommodate their poor in the
suburbs with their middle class and rich living near the center of the city. LDC’s have
passed through 3 periods of city building: before the Europeans arrived, during the
period of European colonialism, and since independence from European control.

Pre-colonial Cities: Before the Europeans arrived few cities existed in Africa, Asia, and
Latin America and most people lived in small rural settlements. Those cities that existed
were mostly laid out surrounding a religious center; with the rest of the city laid out in a
hieratical concentric pattern (like the Burgess model) from government buildings,
homes of the wealthy, and businesses related to the religion out to other businesses
and shops.
Colonial cities: When the Europeans took over these lands, they changed the cities by
adding services to help the Europeans control the conquered people. Often a new
European style city would be build next to the existing native one. The new European
cities contained wider streets, a public square, larger houses and a much lower density.
The Spanish used the “Law of the Indies” which was a city plan designed specifically to
build cities in a “Spanish” style. (Gridiron pattern for streets centered on a church and
central plaza, walls around individual houses and neighborhoods centered around
smaller plazas and more churches.)
36

Early Mexico city was laid out in a grid pattern of streets. This followed
the Spanish “Law of the Indies.”

37

Central Plaza in Mexico City 1920 photo. Typical Colonial City plan.

Part of downtown Mexico city today still shows the
building plan of the “Law of the Indies.”

38

Cities since Independence: Following independence, cities have become
the focal point of the development of most LDC’s. Millions of people have
migrated to the cities (Primate cities) looking for jobs and services. Some
capitals have been moved to isolated areas in an attempt to help develop
that area of the country (Brasília) This is know as a forward capital. Latin
American cities have developed their own unique style.
Squatter settlements: The LDC’s are unable to house the rapidly growing
number of poor who are flowing into the cities. Because of the housing
shortages, the poor have constructed their own settlements around the city.
These settlements have few services because neither the city nor the
residents can afford them. Squatters have two basic choices for housing.
1. Illegally move into empty real houses located in the city or,
2. Rent slum housing.
(85% of the population of Addis Ababa in Ethiopia lives in squatter
settlements, slums or other illegal housing.)
39

Squatter shacks in Manila, the Philippines

40

Squatter settlement in Ethiopia

41

Zimbabwe, Africa

42

Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

43

Latin American City Model:
In many Latin
American cities,
the wealthy live in
the inner city and
in a sector
extending along a
commercial spine.
In situ accretion- businesses
and homes constantly under
construction/repair.
Zone of maturity-2nd best
housing in the city.
The poor live in squatter settlements on the
periphery of the city.

Disamenity- unpleasant area
used by the poor to get to the
market.

44

The City Outline of Rio de Janeiro
The rich tourist areas and expensive condo apartments are along the coast
and beach while the poor live in squatter shacks in the hills.

45

City problems:
Inner-City Physical Problems: Most US inner cities were constructed before the 1950’s
(people began to move to the suburbs in the 1950’s so new construction moved out of
the city).
Process of Deterioration (how a city deteriorates): A city doesn’t suddenly become old
and full of slummy areas. It happens over time. When a group of low-income people
inhabit an area of a city, nearby neighborhoods will often look to move out. They sell or
rent to more low-income occupants thus expanding the low-income area. Two processes
cause/speed up the devaluation of areas:
1. Filtering, 2. Redlining.
Filtering: Large houses and buildings that once housed rich downtown workers (who
moved to the suburbs) are taken over by landlords who don’t live in that area (they
moved to the suburbs too). Rents are low so the landlord doesn’t take as good care of
the property as they should and the property becomes run down or abandoned. Stores
close, or move, due to lack of sales. 100 years ago these neighborhoods would be used
by immigrants and ethnic businesses would succeed in those areas. Now, with a decline
in immigration, these neighborhoods have shrunk and so have schools, businesses and
other services. Thousands of vacant houses and buildings stand empty in inner cities
across America.

46

Redlining: Some banks refuse to give loans in what they consider
risky neighborhoods. They draw a red line on a map around areas
where they will not give loans. Without loans, these neighborhoods
have a hard time rebuilding/remodeling. Though illegal, this still
happens. Bankers just don’t put these “no-loan” areas on a map.

Urban Renewal: This is the series of projects to improve European
and N. American cities by buying up the blighted neighborhoods,
moving the people to new government built housing projects, and
building new roads, and other projects to make the inner city
attractive for business again. National and State government grants
help pay for these projects.
47

Public housing: Housing for the poor, built with government funding as part of
urban renewal. In the US this is only about 2% of the housing while in some
countries it may be more (Britain is 30%). Public housing built in the 50’s & 60’s
were largely high rise apartments, but those are seen as being unsatisfactory.
Problems arise from cramming large numbers of poor people into one area.
Today most public housing projects are one to three story buildings with many of
them being scattered around different parts of the city rather than clustered into
one area.
Because urban renewal has been criticized for destroying the social cohesion of
older neighborhoods, many governments (like the US) have stopped funding
most projects since the 1970’s. What do we do instead?
Renovated Housing: An alternative often used since the 70’s is to renovate a
building instead of urban renewal. The process where middle-class people
move into inner-city neighborhoods and renovate them is called gentrification.
Gentrified inner-city neighborhoods also attract middle-class people who work
downtown. Living close to work saves the hassle of commuting and rejuvenates
run down inner-city neighborhoods
48

Gentrified building downtown Harlem, NY. Note the supermarket.

49

Inner-City Social Problems: Inner-city residents are often referred to as the
permanent underclass because they are trapped in an unending cycle of
economic and social problems. High unemployment, alcoholism, drug
addiction, literacy, juvenile delinquency, and crime all exist at a higher rate
among those who live in the inner-city. Lack of jobs means lack of tax dollars
to pay for police and fire protection as well as good schools. Lack of job skills
and homelessness are also tremendous problems.
Culture of Poverty: Inner-city residents are trapped in a permanent underclass
culture that reproduces itself. In the US, unwed mothers give birth to 2/3 of the
babies in the inner-city. 90% of these children live with only one parent and it
is real hard for one parent to keep a job and take care of children. Both suffer
and a shortage of care and daily attention by the parent contributes to the kids
not learning the skills necessary to do well in school which leads to poor jobs
for their futures. Poverty leads to more poverty. Many families on welfare have
only one parent because it is financially better if one parent is gone, that way
the single parent gets food stamps and other services from the government
that they would not get if it was a 2 family household.
50

Crime: Trapped in a hopeless environment, some inner-city
residents turn to drugs. Drug use is a problem in inner-city
areas and the suburbs, but rates of drug use in inner-cities
are the highest.
Ethnic and Racial Segregation: As seen in chapter 7, many
neighborhoods in the US are segregated by ethnicity with
African Americans and Hispanics concentrated in one or two
continuous areas and whites living in the suburbs. Even small
cities display a strong distinction among neighborhoods. A
frequent division is between the east and west or north and
south side of town, or the railroad tracks. A family seeking a
new residence will seek the areas where the characteristics
of the people meet their own.

51

The exodus
from the
American city.
This has
happened in
many American
cities since the
1960’s.

52

Changes in Cities in the U.S.
U.S. population has been moving out of the city centers to the suburbs:
suburbanization and counter urbanization

Developed Countries: suburbanization

 wealthy move to suburbs
 automobiles and roads; ‘American
Dream’ of the home in the suburbs.
 better services
 wealthy move to suburbs
Counter urbanization

idyllic settings
cost of land for retirement
slow pace, yet high tech
connections to services and markets
53

U.S. intraregional migration during 1990s.

Inner city economic problems: the concentration of low income
residents in inner cities has caused economic problems. These
people require public services but can pay very little in taxes to
support the services. They need stores and jobs but have little
money to spend in the store and few skills for jobs (so the stores
close). To try to fight these problems many local and state
governments use tax monies to try to renovate these areas, but this
shifts tax money needed for other areas to the inner city (votes on
election day).
Annexation: Many cities could help their tax problem by adding the
new suburbs to be part of their city (annexation). After all, many of
these suburban people use the city for its’ jobs etc., so why not add
them into the city? Today, most people in the suburbs do not want
to be annexed into the city and so they do not vote to be annexed.
54

The Peripheral Model: According to this model, an urban area
consists of an inner city surrounded by large suburban residential
and business areas (MSA) tied together by a beltway or highway
that circles the city. Around the beltway are nodes of consumer
and business services called edge cities (see diagram of multiple
nuclei model). These edge cities sprang up to provide services
and jobs to the people in the suburbs.
Density Gradient: As you travel outward from the center of the
city, the density of people declines. Inner city has big apartments
of 250 of more people per acre. Suburbs have fewer people per
acre (but lots of acres) and finally you leave the cities periphery
you find few people. The number of houses per unit of land
diminishes as distance from the center of the city increases.
55

The Edge cities (bedroom communities) of Houston

The central city is surrounded by a ring road, around which are
suburban areas and edge cities, shopping malls, office parks,
industrial areas, and service complexes.

Known as
bedroom
communities
because
people live
there but
mostly don’t
work there.
They drive
into the city
for work.
56

As you move from the center of the city outward, the density of the population
changes. This is know as the density gradient. Two big changes have occurred in
the density gradient of today’s cities:
1. The number of people living in the center has decreased.
2. The density difference between the inner city and the suburbs is declining
because the inner city density is dropping and the suburban density is growing
due to more large apartments being built in the suburbs.
Cost of Suburban or Urban Sprawl: Urban Sprawl is the progressive spread of
development over the landscape. As long as we Americans want single-family
detached houses, land on the fringe of urban areas will be converted from open
space to residential use. The cost of this growth is more than the loss of land, it is
also the cost of new roads, utilities, building stores and offices and the cost of
automobiles to move these people over even longer distances. Lots of these new
developments are built on what was once farmland. Wonderful productive soil now
under concrete.

Greenbelts: are areas where, by law, the open space can not be used for any
construction. This is mostly found in Europe.

57

Once farmland that is being converted to suburbs and cities.

58

Tyson’s Corner Virginia in 1940

59

Washington, DC. MSA.

Tyson’s Corner Virginia
today.
Washington D.C. is off
In the distance.

60

Suburban Segregation: The “new” segregation.
Suburban segregation takes two forms:
1. Residents are separated from commercial and manufacturing activities
which are confined someplace else. (The whole neighborhood is
nothing but houses because they drive for services.)
2. The price of the house eliminates some from being able to live there. This
creates a homogeneous suburb of the same economic class of people.
This never existed before in history. Where we once had vertical
segregation of the classes we now we have horizontal segregation.
3. But this may be reversing as new statistics show that people are beginning
to move back to the city. Why? Cost of transportation.
Zoning Ordinances: This idea developed in Europe and later America in the
early decades of the 20th century. This means that businesses are allowed only
in certain areas of the settlement. (No all night taco stands inside your single
family neighborhood.)
Motor vehicles: The wide use of the automobile is largely responsible for the
American movement to the suburbs. Not only did people move out but 1/4 of
the land inside all American cities are now roads, streets, and parking lots.

61

Public Transportation: Because few US workers live within walking distance
of their jobs, urban areas are characterized by extensive commuting and the
problems that come with it. As much as 40% of all trips made into or out from
a city during the day takes place within just 4 hours. (2 in the morning and 2 in
the late afternoon). RUSH HOUR!!! In large cities, public transportation, like
subways and busses, are better suited to move people but Americans still
prefer their own cars. Public transportation is cheaper, cleaner, and more
energy efficient than personal cars, yet in the US only 5% of city travel is
done using public transit systems. American’s love their personal car too
much.
Local Government Fragmentation: Because of the large number of local
governments in the US (look at the settlements in Pinellas County) it is
difficult to solve some of the regional problems like garbage disposal, water
management, traffic and public housing.
62

Metropolitan government: This idea tries to put many local governments into a
larger unit that can better handle the urban problems. The 2 ways to do this
are:
1. Federations in which the individual settlements have their own police,
firemen, and tax collection but they all agree to be part of a second
government which handles transportation, water, sewage, parks and
welfare for all the communities.
2. Consolidations: In this method, several cities and the county may form one
government. Jacksonville’s government runs not only the town but the
county too, this makes Jacksonville the largest city, in land size, in the US.
Smart growth: A new movement by many states to curb suburban sprawl by
limiting where new construction can take place. Smart growth laws require that
land near cities be used up before any land further out can be developed. So
far, this is only being done an a few parts of our country.
63

The new
US as
some
people
see it.

64

Quiz Yourself:
1. The process where middle-class people move into inner city neighborhoods and
renovate them is called ____________
2. ____________ happens when banks refuse to give loans in what they consider
risky neighborhoods.
3. Because of the housing shortages, the poor have constructed their own settlements
around the city known as __________ _________

4. Businesses are allowed only in certain areas of the settlement because of
____________ ____________
5. Areas known as _____ _______ are areas of about 5,000 people. The data from
that area is used to help define needed services for that area.
6. When cities are so close that they form one continuous band of development this is
known as a ____________
65

7. Social relationships are often described as “colder” in urban areas because…
8. In this model the city develops in a series of sectors not rings. _______

9. ______ (LDC’s or MDC’s) have a higher percentage of people living in urban
settlements but ________ (LDC’s or MDC’s) have more of the very large urban
settlements.
10. _____________ was the first model developed to explain the distributions
of different social groups within urban areas.
11. New cities which develop around the beltway are nodes of consumer and
business services known as ________ _________.

12. When the Europeans took over lands around the world, they changed the
cities by adding services to help the Europeans control the conquered people.
These European planned cities are known as __________ cities.
66

Answer Key:
1.

Gentrification

2.

Redlining

3.

Squatter Settlements

4.

Zoning ordinances

5.

Census tracks

6.

Megalopolis

7. There is a stronger feeling of belonging together in small rural settlements.
8. Hoyt sector model
9. MDC, LDC
10. Burgess Concentric Zone model
11. Edge cities
12. Colonial cities
67

Test Key topic/chapter 13:
These questions come from a combination of our slides, your text book, and common knowledge you should
have discussed in your AP classroom. They are very typical of what you will see on the National Exam.
1) The multiple nuclei theory best explains why different neighborhoods of a city attract people of different… A) ages.
B) ethnic origin C) income D) marital status.
2) Sprawl is the… A) change in density within an urban area from the center to the periphery B) development of new
housing sites not contiguous to the existing built-up area. C) land maintained as open space surrounding an urban area.
D) period in the morning and evening with the heaviest volumes of traffic.
3) People are attracted to suburbs in part because suburbs are characterized by…A) heavy traffic. B) lower opportunity
for home ownership. C) private land surrounding the house. D) row houses and apartments.
4) Megalopolis refers to… A) adjacent, overlapping Metropolitan Statistical Areas. B) central cities. C) consolidated
Metropolitan Statistical Areas. D) central cities plus urbanized areas.
5) Which statement best describes the relationship between urbanization and the Industrial Revolution? A) Urbanization
promoted the Industrial Revolution. B) The Industrial Revolution promoted urbanization. C) Urbanization preceded the
Industrial Revolution by thousands of years. D) Urbanization and the Industrial Revolution are no longer related.
6) The process of legally adding land area to a city in the United States is… A) annexation. B) accreditation. C) an
application of eminent domain. D) defined by urbanized area.

68

7) The process of change in the use of a house, from single-family owner occupancy to abandonment, is… A) blockbusting.
B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining.
8) A process by which banks designate an area within which they refuse to lend money for improvements is… A) blockbusting.
B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining.
9) A recent change in the density gradient has been… A) the elimination of the gap traditionally found in the center. B) an
increase in the extremes between the inner and outer areas. C) an increase in the number of people living in the center.
D) a reduction in the differences in densities found within an urban area.
10) U.S. central cities face fiscal problems because… A) federal and state funds are available. B) low-income people are
concentrated there. C) middle-class families are attracted there. D) redlining is no longer legal.
11) A legal form of segregation in U.S. cities is achieved through...A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) zoning. D) greenbelts.
12) Factories have moved to suburban locations in part because of… A) access to main highways. B) adequate space to build
vertical structures. C) availability of large tracts of high-priced land. D) good rail connections.
13) According to the sector model, the best housing is located in…A) a corridor from downtown to the edge of the city.
B) an outer ring surrounding the city. C) nodes near universities and parks. D) renovated inner-city neighborhoods.
14) Ramshackle houses on the periphery of cities in less developed countries are known as… A) squatter settlements. B) council
estates. C) public housing. D) zone in transition.
15) Higher income people tend to live near the center of the city in all but which of the following regions? A) Latin America
B) North America C) South Asia D) Western Europe

16) The wide boulevards built in cities in less developed countries were most likely built during what era? A) pre-colonial
B) colonial C) independence D) all of the above equally

69

17) According to the multiple nuclei model, an airport is likely to attract nearby… A) industries. B) residences. C) shops.
D) universities.
18) The largest percentage of the U.S. population lives in…A) central cities. B) suburbs. C) non-metropolitan areas. D) all of the
above
19) In U.S. cities, the underclass is… A) clustered in inner-city neighborhoods. B) dispersed throughout the city. C) clustered in
suburbs. D) distributed uniformly in the city.

20) A process of converting a neighborhood from low-income to middle-class is…A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) gentrification.
D) redlining.
21) Higher social heterogeneity in urban settlements means that… A) the people with whom you relax are probably the same ones you
see at work. B) you play a specialized role in the urban economy. C) you compete for limited space. D) you may feel lonely and
isolated in a crowd.
22) The city plus its contiguous built-up suburbs is the… A) central city. B) urbanized area.
D) consolidated metropolitan statistical area

C) metropolitan statistical area.

23) The process whereby an increasing percentage of people live in an urban area is known as… A) demographic transition.
B) rank-size rule. C) urbanization. D) central place theory.
24) Of the ten largest urban areas in the world, how many are in More Developed Countries today? A) 1 B) 4 C) 7 D) 10 E) 2
25) Public housing is…A) conversion of low-income housing to middle-class housing. B) illegally established low-income housing.
C) housing that has changed from single-family owner occupancy to abandonment. D) low-income government-owned housing.
26) According to the concentric zone model, a city develops in a series of… A) corridors. B) nodes. C) rings. D) all of the above

70

27) Chicago is a good location in which to develop urban models because it is located… A) at the hub of the nation's transportation
system. B) in the center of the country. C) on a flat prairie. D) on the shore of Lake Michigan.
28) According to the sector model, the best housing is located in… A) a corridor from downtown to the edge of the city. B) an outer
ring surrounding the city. C) nodes near universities and parks. D) renovated inner-city neighborhoods.
29) The zone of transition in US cities generally contain…A) warehouses B) wealthy neighborhoods C) transportation hubs
D) universities and hospitals E) suburban homes
30) The attractions of shopping malls include all but which of the following? A) frequent concerts and exhibitions B) generous
parking lots C) place to meet friends D) walking distance from homes
The following questions are written at the high school level. You will find some questions from part one often rewritten
here. This is all designed to help you transition to the college/AP style of written questions. Any question preceded with ***
are questions that have been on the national exam before.
31. Most Latin American cities are focused on a…A) central plaza B) government housing project C) zone of heavy industry
D) skyscraper office building E) squatter settlement
32. The multiple-nuclei model of a city structure tends to be most applicable to…A) small cities B) traditional C) Latin American
cities D) newer, fast growing cities E) cities with homogeneous land use
33. ***Locational advantages important to the development of the earliest cities include…A) availability of good harbors for large
ships B) productive agricultural land and defensible sites C) temperate climate and proximity to coal mines D) good
connections by road and canal E) proximity to manufacturing areas

34. In cities, the CBD’s often show uniqueness while the suburbs usually show…A) a large hinterland. B) placelessness C) more
than one node. D) newer zones of transition.

71

35. Many LDC’s have tried to help a previously under-developed part of their country develop by moving their capital
city to that area. This new capital is known as a…A) forward capital B) new development zone C) enterprise zone
D) neocolonial city
36. Today the greatest number of urban dwellers is found in…A) North America
D) Europe E) Asia

B) South America C) Africa

37. ***All of the following have helped create ghettos in North American cities except…A)blockbusting and racial
steering B) redlining by financial institutions C) concentration of public housing and social services D) fixed school
districts E) Economic Enterprise Zones

38. Which of the following is NOT as reason for rapid suburbanization in the US after WW2? A) Mass production of
the automobile B) Reduction of long distance commuting C) Expansion of home construction D) Expansion of the
interstate highway system E) Availability of low down payment terms and long-term mortgages.
39. New cities which developed in the hinterland of large urban areas because of the automobile, are known as…
A) edge cities B) census tracts C) suburban sprawl D) squatter settlements. E) none of these
40. Gentrification refers to… A) moving the homeless into inner city shelters B) The “White Flight” from the urban city
C) losing tax revenue because of stores closing in downtown areas D) middle-class people moving into and renovating
inner city neighborhoods E) the creation of “beltway cities” around the city.

72

4
7
3

5

1
6

2

41-48 all use the sketch above.
41. The sketch in box A above represents which model of the inner structure of urban areas?
C) multiple nuclei model D) Burgess concentric zone model E) peripheral model
42. The models in boxes B and C represent A) Concentric zone and multiple nuclei
concentric zone D) peripheral and concentric zone E) Von Thunen and peripheral

A) Hoyt sector model B) VonThunen’s model

B) Multiple nuclei and Hoyt sector C) Hoyt sector and

43. In which ring (1, 2, etc.) of sketch A above would high-status households in North American cities likely live? A) 1 B) 2 C) 3 D) 4&5
44. In which ring (1, 2, etc.) of sketch A above would high status households in a European city likely live? A) 1

B) 2

C) 3

D) 4&5

45. In model B, zone # 2 is where it is likely because of: A) greenbelting B) squatter settling C) the culture of poverty D) transportation
E) no one knows
46. The model in sketch B is the; A) Hoyt sector model B) Burgess model C) multiple nuclei model D) peripheral model
47. The model in sketch C is the; A) Hoyt sector model B) Burgess model C) multiple nuclei model D) peripheral model
48. Which of these models best describes what has happened in US cities in the last 40 years? A)

B)

C)

73

49.*** In the U.S. a city plus its contiguous built-up suburbs is known as an…A) urbanized area B) zoned area
C) census tract D) Squatter settlement E) none of these
50. Done mostly in Europe, these are areas where land is kept as parks, farms or other kinds of open space and urban
sprawl is not allowed. A) Smart growth
B) zoning
C) filtering
D) census tracts E) greenbelts
51. Which statement best describes the relationship between urbanization and the Industrial Revolution?
A) Urbanization promoted the Industrial Revolution. B) The Industrial Revolution promoted urbanization.
C) Urbanization preceded the Industrial Revolution by thousands of years. D) Urbanization and the Industrial
Revolution are no longer related.
52. The process whereby an increasing percentage of people live in an urban area is known as…
A) Demographic transition. B) rank-size rule. C) Urbanization. D) Central place theory.
53. The city (if it has 50,000 or more people) plus its contiguous built-up suburbs AND the county it is in as well as any
other counties it influences, is known as the ...A) central city B) urbanized area
C) metropolitan statistical area
D) consolidated metropolitan area E) micropolitan statistical area
54. ***Higher social heterogeneity in urban settlements means that …A) the people with whom you relax are probably
the same ones you see at work. B) you play a specialized role in the urban economy. C) you compete for limited
space. D) you may feel lonely and isolated in a crowd.

55. The process of change in the use of a house, from single-family owner occupancy to smaller dwellings for the poor
and then sometimes to abandonment, is…A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining. E) none of
these

74

Free Response #1:
The Bid Rent theory says that the closer you get to the
CBD the higher the cost for land, yet in most American
cities you find the poorest people living near the
expensive CBD and the richest living further away.
Explain:
A. Why neighborhoods near the CBD are often poor and
run down?
B. Why are there few grocery and other retail stores in
these neighborhoods?
C. Why is this not really true in European and Latin
American countries?

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75

FR #2:
Think of the map of your school, explain the
layout of your school using the Multiple Nuclei
Model
The main office is the CBD.
Completely explain your answer using specific
buildings and/or land areas in your explanation
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76

Answer Key:
1. B

14. A

27. C

40. D

53. C

2. B

15. B

28. A

41. D

54. D

3. C

16. B

29. A

42. B

55. B

4. A

17. A

30. D

43. D

5. B

18. B

31. A

44. A

6. A

19. A

32. D

45. D

7. B

20. C

33. B

46. A

8. D

21. D

34. B

47. C

9. D

22. B

35. A

48. C

10. B

23. C

36. E

49. A

11. C

24. C

37. E

50. E

12. A

25. D

38. B

51. B

13. A

26. C

39. A

52. C
77

FR. #1: ( 15 pts. for each section…total of 45 pts.)
A. In the US the move of the wealthy and middle class to the suburbs has left the older houses and apartments near the CBD empty.
This has lowered their value to the point where the poor can afford these dwellings and have made these neighborhoods their
homes. The poor can not pay for upkeep of these dwellings, or to pay high taxes. The lack of upkeep and tax money to repair the
roads and schools, adds to the downward spiral of the neighborhood. With little spending money for shopping, the poor do not
spend much in the stores. This causes many stores to close and move to the suburbs where the spending customers and money
went. The closing of the stores adds to the poverty of the area by taking away some of the jobs that were in the neighborhood. This
becomes a vicious cycle of poverty and deterioration. (15 points)

B. There are few retail stores and groceries is the area because the poor do not have money to shop. The lack of spending forces
many stores out of business or forces them to move to better locations. There also can be higher crime in these areas and the
crime often takes place at the stores. This is another reason for the stores to move out of the neighborhood. (15 points)
C. Neighborhoods in European and Latin American cities are different from those of US cities. In Europe and Latin America, the
wealthy and middle class still live near or in the CBD. The higher tax base and more spending ability of the upper and middle
classes, keeps the CBD area flourishing with jobs and in constant repair and upkeep of the cities’ physical condition. (15 points)

FR #2: (10 total points.)
You will need to judge how effectively you displayed you school
in the Multiple Nuclei Model. Refer to the model itself to help you
determine your success and grade.
School’s main office
78

Calculating your grade on test 13.
Add how many you got correct on the multiple choice part (55 possible) to how many
points you scored on the FR portion (55 possible)…110 total.
The following scale will show the approximate score if this test were the real AP exam. Remember that this
is an approximation. While 65-74% is normally the range for a 3 on the test, it is not definite. Over the
years I have seen scores as low as 60% be the low portion of a 3 score.

Out of 110 possible points:
72-83 is most likely a 3
84-94 is most likely a 4

95-110 is most likely a 5

Now lets start our review for the national exam by
reviewing the 33 key models and theories of the
course…the next PowerPoint.


Slide 18

Key topic/chapter 13…Urban Patterns
Key terms:
Annexation
Concentric zone model
Density gradient
Edge cities
Filtering
Galactic city
Gentrification
Greenbelts
Megalopolis
MSA
Multiple nuclei model
Peripheral model

Public housing
Redlining
Renovated housing
Scattered site
Squatter settlement
Sector model
Smart growth
Sprawl
Underclass
Urban renewal
Zone in transition
Zoning
1

Chapter 13…Urban Areas.
How are Cities planned?
Why

are cities where they are?
How are they organized?
Why are some areas of a city
different from
other areas of the same city?
What is the future of cities?
2

Settlement


Settlement - permanent collections of buildings,
where people live, work, and obtain services

3

ORIGINS OF SETTLEMENTS


Religious - graves, churches, temples



Cultural - schools, libraries



Political/Military - leader’s house, walls



Economic - stores, food
4

TYPES OF SETTLEMENTS


Rural Settlements - agriculture as the
predominant occupation.



Urban settlements - principal industries are
secondary and tertiary.

5

RURAL SETTLEMENTS
Clustered rural settlements –grouped
settlements in rural areas to minimize travel

Dispersed rural Settlements - isolated farms
with enclosed continuous fields (Found only in
N. America and Britain).

6

Urban Geographers want to know the global distribution of urban
settlements. MDC’s have a high percentage of people living in urban
areas because of the shift from agriculture-manufacturing-services.
Geographers are also interested in where people and activities are
distributed within urban spaces. What are the differences between the
inner-city and suburban areas and why?
As we saw in the last chapter, many downtowns are unique and can
often be recognized in photos where the suburbs often look very
much alike (Placelessness). Why? Suburbs offer the chance to avoid
some of the city problems (crime, tight living area, expensive
land/rent, noise, age of buildings) while still keeping a connection with
the goods and services of the city: jobs, sports teams, culture, shops,
recreation, etc.
7

Where is this place?

8

Today’s cities are evolving and changing. Although different internal
situations characterize urban areas in the US and elsewhere, the
problems arising from current spatial trends are quite similar in all cities.
Where have urban areas grown: in the early 1800’s only 3% of the earth’s
people lived in cities and only Beijing China had more than 1 million
people. Today over ½ of the world’s people live in cities and we have over
400 cities of at least 1 million people.

Urbanization: is the process by which city population grows.
Cities population growth is measured in 2 dimensions;
1. An increase in the number of people living in the cities.
2. An increase in the percentage of people living in the cities.
This distinction is important because they happen for different reason and
have different global distributions.
9

Increasing Percentage of People in Cities: a large percentage of people living in urban
areas is a measure of a country’s level of development. In MDC’s about ¾ of the people
live in urban areas compared to about 2/5 of people in LDC’s. (Except in Latin America
where the level is closer to MDC’s.)
The higher percentage of people in urban areas comes from the changes that have
occurred in the last 200 years as we went from agriculture (primary jobs) to industrial
(secondary jobs) and now service jobs, all created by the Industrial Revolution of the
1800’s.
People moved to the cities for industrial jobs, but in MDC’s this process has largely
ended because nearly everyone interested in moving to the cities from farms has already
done so.
In LDC’s the percentage of people living in urban areas is growing as people are pushed
off of their farms and replaced by machines and as people move to cities looking/hoping
for industrial jobs.
10

Increasing Number of People in Cities: MDC’s have a higher percentage of
people living in urban settlements but LDC’s have more of the very large urban
settlements (Primate cities). (Rank-size rule, primate cities, chapter 12.)

This is interesting because typically the large cities are created from the
improvements brought by the Industrial Revolution. This is not the case with the
large LDC cities. Migration to the primate city in LDC’s is happening even though
job opportunities may not be available. Increasing the population growth in LDC
cities is the fact that medical services are better in these cities, thus the child
mortality rate is lower.
Defining Urban Settlements: defining where urban areas end and rural areas
begin is not easy. Geographers have formulated definitions that distinguish
between urban and rural areas in two ways: Social differences and Physical
differences.
11

Percent Urban Population

Percent of the population living in urban areas is usually higher in MDCs
than in LDCs.

12

The most populated cities in the world

Of the top
20, only
Moscow,
Tokyo and
New York
are in MDC’s

Shanghai China has 14,608,512 people
13

14

15

Social Differences Between Urban and Rural Settlements: it is fair to say that rural
people and urban people follow different ways of life. A city can be defined as having 3
characteristics:
1. Large size. People in rural settlements know most of the other people in the
settlement. Not true in big cities. Social relationships are often described as “colder” in
urban areas because you only see some people at work instead of growing up with
them in the settlement.
2. High Density. Having lots of people in a tiny area creates social consequences. A
high density of people living in a small area can only be supported if the people
specialize (they can’t all be farmers). People are encouraged to compete for jobs, room,
and survival in a tightly limited space. Social groups compete to occupy the same space
(ethnic/ race problems). Rural settlements have very little of this problem.
3. Social Heterogeneity. The larger the settlement, the greater the variety of people.
Being “unusual” in a large settlement is more likely to be accepted than in a small rural
one. But despite the freedom to be different that large urban settlements give you,
people living there often feel alone because so many people are different from them.
There is a stronger feeling of belonging together in small rural settlements.
16

These 3 differences do not fully answer the question of where urban settlements
begin and rural ones end because in today’s MDC’s most everyone has access to
cars, telephones, televisions, and “urban type” jobs which reduce the differences
between urban and rural lifestyles. “City folk” and “Country folk” are more alike
today than they are different. To help distinguish between urban and rural areas we
need to add the physical definition of rural and urban to the equation.
Physical Definitions of Urban Settlements: In ancient time, cities had defensive
walls for protection which clearly defined the physical boundaries of the city. Today
the walls are gone but we can still define the physical boundaries in 3 ways:
1. Legal boundary. These are the official boundaries of a city as recognized by
the government of the country or state. These “city limits” have been officially given
to the city and are physically marked on official maps. The local government of the
city has authority to make laws and protect the people inside the city boundaries.
17

2. Urbanized area. This is the city plus its suburbs or urbanized area that
surrounds the city. About 70 percent of US residents live in urbanized areas with
40% being in the suburbs and 30% inside the city limits. The suburbs may have
their own city governments but the huge central city dominates what happens in
the entire area.
3. Metropolitan Statistical Area. Cities have an even bigger influence on people
than just those living in their city limits and surrounding urbanized areas. People
from far away come to shop, use the services, support the sports teams, read
the newspapers and watch the television broadcasts of the city. Thus the city
has a “functional area” which is its total zone of influence. The US Bureau of
Census has created a method of measuring the functional area of the city.
Known as the Metropolitan statistical area (MSA) this area includes:
•An urbanized area with a population of at least 50,000
•The county within which the city is located.
•Adjacent counties with a high population density and a large percentage of
residents working in the central city’s county.
18

Metropolitan Area of Philadelphia

City of
Philadelphia

Urbanized
area
(suburbs)
Metropolitan
Statistical
Area

The metropolitan area of Philadelphia is
spread over several counties and four states.
It is also a diversified trade center, given its
position on the Delaware river.

19

20

21

Micropolitan Statistical Areas: Smaller areas with between
10,000 and 50,000 people, the county where it is found, and
adjacent counties tied to the city. This would be a small town and
the area dominated by it.
Overlapping Metropolitan Areas: Some adjacent MSA’s overlap.
A county between two central cities may send a large number of
commuters to jobs in both cities. In some areas the cities are so
close that they form one continuous urban complex. This is
known as a Megalopolis (great city).
In a megalopolis, the downtown CBD often has its own
distinctive look and the urban areas are visually separated by
parks, open spaces, and dairy/truck farms. But at the periphery
of the urban areas, the boundaries overlap.
22

Colorado Springs, population 431,000

Ocala, Florida, population 56,000

Florala, Alabama, population 1,900

23

Megalopolis, from northern Va. To Maine.
This Illustrates the
difference between
strict city proper
definitions and broader
urban agglomerations.
To define urbanized
areas, the U.S. Census
Bureau uses the term
Metropolitan Statistical
Area (MSA) or
Consolidated MSA
(CMSA) if two or more of
them overlap.
24

Where are People Distributed within Urban Areas? People are not
just distributed at random in urban areas. For the most part they
concentrate in particular neighborhoods depending on their social
characteristics. Geographers want to see where people with
particular characteristics are likely to live and why.

Three models which try to explain the growth of a city:

The Burgess Model

The Hoyt Sector Model

The Harris and Ullman
multiple Nuclei Model
25

Burgess Concentric Zone Model

In the concentric zone model, a city grows in a series of rings surrounding the CBD.

Burgess Concentric Zone Model: This is the first used to explain the
distributions of different social groups within urban areas. It says that a
city grows outward from a central place in a series of concentric rings.
The precise size and width of the rings vary from one city to another, but
some basic types of rings appear in all cities in the same order (see chart
above).
26

•Hoyt Sector Model: In this model the city develops in a
series of sectors not rings. Certain areas of the city are
more attractive for various activities, originally because
of an environmental factor (or even pure chance). As the
city grows, activities extend outward in a wedge shape.
For example, once a wealthy neighborhood is built the
next wealthy neighborhood will extend from the first
neighborhood further outward from the center. In this
way, the best housing is found in a corridor extending
outward from the center to the outer edge (see chart on
the next page).
27

The Hoyt Sector Model

In the sector model, a city grows in a series of
wedges or corridors extending out from the
CBD.
28

•Harris and Ullman’s Multiple Nuclei Model: According
to this model, a city is a complex structure that includes
more than one center around which activities revolve.
Examples of these nodes include a port, parks,
stadium, neighborhood business center, university, and
airport (see chart). This theory states that some
activities are attracted to particular nodes, whereas
others try to avoid them. A university node may attract
well educated people and bookstores while the port will
attract hotels and warehouses. Heavy industry and
expensive houses rarely are found together. This
model shows the effect of the automobile more than
any other model.
29

The Harris and Ullman Multiple Nuclei model

The multiple nuclei model views a city as a
collection of individual centers, around which
different people and activities cluster.

30

Applications of the Models: The three models help explain where and in some
cases, why people live where they do. None of the models by themselves fully
explains why and where different types of people live, but combined they give
you as good a look as possible at the “Why” of “Where.” Effective use of the
models depends on getting good data on the areas. Most countries take a
census every 10 years to help determine useful data about the people and
places of the country. In our country we divide the census data into areas
known as census tracts of about 5,000 people. Each census tract has the data
that summarizes the characteristics of the people living within that tract. This
information includes things like the race, income, age, and education of the
people living in that tract.
Social Area Analysis: The data from the census tracts can all be plotted onto
maps to show the characteristics of the people living in that tract. This map is
known as a social area analysis.
31

Using Census tract information…Seattle, Washington
Each lined area is a
census tract of about 5000
people in Seattle
Washington. These maps
show average household
income for 1990 and
2000…note the changes in
income in some areas
between 1990 and 2000.
Using this information, a
business can make
decisions about where
they want to locate a new
store or the future of
existing stores.
You can find census tract
information on many topics
such as; age, education
level, race, ethnicity, crime
rate, and land ownership.
Note the areas with
incomes over
$63,000.

All can be very valuable
information to people
looking to open
businesses.

32

Examine the changes
between 1990 and
2000.

Oakland, California’s Ethnic neighborhoods
The small bordered areas are census tracks of 5000 people.

33

Use of the Models Outside of North America: The 3 models will also work in other
places in the world; however social groups in other countries may not have the
same reasons for selecting particular neighborhoods as Americans do.
European Cities: As in the US, wealthier people in European cities cluster along a
sector extending outward from the CBD, however unlike the US, wealthy and
middle class Europeans still live in the inner rings of the neighborhoods near the
CBD not out in the suburbs. In the past, poorer people lived in the center of the
city. Before electricity, social segregation was vertical: richer people lived on the
first or second floor of a building while the poorer people lived in the basement or
upper floors. In the Industrial Revolution, housing for the poor was constructed
near the factories and away from the rich.
Today poorer Europeans are less likely to live in the inner-city. Poor quality
housing has been renovated for the rich or turned into office buildings. Poorer
Europeans tend to live in the outskirts of the city. Vast suburbs with dozens of high
rise apartments house the poor. They face long commutes to reach their jobs in
the city.
34

European cities generally do not have the “suburban
sprawl” that US cities have. European cities tend to be
more pedestrian friendly with more parks downtown as
Europeans tend to still live downtown.
US cities have taller buildings as European cities tend to
be older and more historic.

American cities have more ethnic neighborhoods than
European cities. Ethnic neighborhoods that do exist in
European cities tend to be in the suburbs. WHY?
Because the established richer neighborhoods tend to be
downtown in European cities.
35

Less Developed Countries: Like Europe, most LDC’s accommodate their poor in the
suburbs with their middle class and rich living near the center of the city. LDC’s have
passed through 3 periods of city building: before the Europeans arrived, during the
period of European colonialism, and since independence from European control.

Pre-colonial Cities: Before the Europeans arrived few cities existed in Africa, Asia, and
Latin America and most people lived in small rural settlements. Those cities that existed
were mostly laid out surrounding a religious center; with the rest of the city laid out in a
hieratical concentric pattern (like the Burgess model) from government buildings,
homes of the wealthy, and businesses related to the religion out to other businesses
and shops.
Colonial cities: When the Europeans took over these lands, they changed the cities by
adding services to help the Europeans control the conquered people. Often a new
European style city would be build next to the existing native one. The new European
cities contained wider streets, a public square, larger houses and a much lower density.
The Spanish used the “Law of the Indies” which was a city plan designed specifically to
build cities in a “Spanish” style. (Gridiron pattern for streets centered on a church and
central plaza, walls around individual houses and neighborhoods centered around
smaller plazas and more churches.)
36

Early Mexico city was laid out in a grid pattern of streets. This followed
the Spanish “Law of the Indies.”

37

Central Plaza in Mexico City 1920 photo. Typical Colonial City plan.

Part of downtown Mexico city today still shows the
building plan of the “Law of the Indies.”

38

Cities since Independence: Following independence, cities have become
the focal point of the development of most LDC’s. Millions of people have
migrated to the cities (Primate cities) looking for jobs and services. Some
capitals have been moved to isolated areas in an attempt to help develop
that area of the country (Brasília) This is know as a forward capital. Latin
American cities have developed their own unique style.
Squatter settlements: The LDC’s are unable to house the rapidly growing
number of poor who are flowing into the cities. Because of the housing
shortages, the poor have constructed their own settlements around the city.
These settlements have few services because neither the city nor the
residents can afford them. Squatters have two basic choices for housing.
1. Illegally move into empty real houses located in the city or,
2. Rent slum housing.
(85% of the population of Addis Ababa in Ethiopia lives in squatter
settlements, slums or other illegal housing.)
39

Squatter shacks in Manila, the Philippines

40

Squatter settlement in Ethiopia

41

Zimbabwe, Africa

42

Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

43

Latin American City Model:
In many Latin
American cities,
the wealthy live in
the inner city and
in a sector
extending along a
commercial spine.
In situ accretion- businesses
and homes constantly under
construction/repair.
Zone of maturity-2nd best
housing in the city.
The poor live in squatter settlements on the
periphery of the city.

Disamenity- unpleasant area
used by the poor to get to the
market.

44

The City Outline of Rio de Janeiro
The rich tourist areas and expensive condo apartments are along the coast
and beach while the poor live in squatter shacks in the hills.

45

City problems:
Inner-City Physical Problems: Most US inner cities were constructed before the 1950’s
(people began to move to the suburbs in the 1950’s so new construction moved out of
the city).
Process of Deterioration (how a city deteriorates): A city doesn’t suddenly become old
and full of slummy areas. It happens over time. When a group of low-income people
inhabit an area of a city, nearby neighborhoods will often look to move out. They sell or
rent to more low-income occupants thus expanding the low-income area. Two processes
cause/speed up the devaluation of areas:
1. Filtering, 2. Redlining.
Filtering: Large houses and buildings that once housed rich downtown workers (who
moved to the suburbs) are taken over by landlords who don’t live in that area (they
moved to the suburbs too). Rents are low so the landlord doesn’t take as good care of
the property as they should and the property becomes run down or abandoned. Stores
close, or move, due to lack of sales. 100 years ago these neighborhoods would be used
by immigrants and ethnic businesses would succeed in those areas. Now, with a decline
in immigration, these neighborhoods have shrunk and so have schools, businesses and
other services. Thousands of vacant houses and buildings stand empty in inner cities
across America.

46

Redlining: Some banks refuse to give loans in what they consider
risky neighborhoods. They draw a red line on a map around areas
where they will not give loans. Without loans, these neighborhoods
have a hard time rebuilding/remodeling. Though illegal, this still
happens. Bankers just don’t put these “no-loan” areas on a map.

Urban Renewal: This is the series of projects to improve European
and N. American cities by buying up the blighted neighborhoods,
moving the people to new government built housing projects, and
building new roads, and other projects to make the inner city
attractive for business again. National and State government grants
help pay for these projects.
47

Public housing: Housing for the poor, built with government funding as part of
urban renewal. In the US this is only about 2% of the housing while in some
countries it may be more (Britain is 30%). Public housing built in the 50’s & 60’s
were largely high rise apartments, but those are seen as being unsatisfactory.
Problems arise from cramming large numbers of poor people into one area.
Today most public housing projects are one to three story buildings with many of
them being scattered around different parts of the city rather than clustered into
one area.
Because urban renewal has been criticized for destroying the social cohesion of
older neighborhoods, many governments (like the US) have stopped funding
most projects since the 1970’s. What do we do instead?
Renovated Housing: An alternative often used since the 70’s is to renovate a
building instead of urban renewal. The process where middle-class people
move into inner-city neighborhoods and renovate them is called gentrification.
Gentrified inner-city neighborhoods also attract middle-class people who work
downtown. Living close to work saves the hassle of commuting and rejuvenates
run down inner-city neighborhoods
48

Gentrified building downtown Harlem, NY. Note the supermarket.

49

Inner-City Social Problems: Inner-city residents are often referred to as the
permanent underclass because they are trapped in an unending cycle of
economic and social problems. High unemployment, alcoholism, drug
addiction, literacy, juvenile delinquency, and crime all exist at a higher rate
among those who live in the inner-city. Lack of jobs means lack of tax dollars
to pay for police and fire protection as well as good schools. Lack of job skills
and homelessness are also tremendous problems.
Culture of Poverty: Inner-city residents are trapped in a permanent underclass
culture that reproduces itself. In the US, unwed mothers give birth to 2/3 of the
babies in the inner-city. 90% of these children live with only one parent and it
is real hard for one parent to keep a job and take care of children. Both suffer
and a shortage of care and daily attention by the parent contributes to the kids
not learning the skills necessary to do well in school which leads to poor jobs
for their futures. Poverty leads to more poverty. Many families on welfare have
only one parent because it is financially better if one parent is gone, that way
the single parent gets food stamps and other services from the government
that they would not get if it was a 2 family household.
50

Crime: Trapped in a hopeless environment, some inner-city
residents turn to drugs. Drug use is a problem in inner-city
areas and the suburbs, but rates of drug use in inner-cities
are the highest.
Ethnic and Racial Segregation: As seen in chapter 7, many
neighborhoods in the US are segregated by ethnicity with
African Americans and Hispanics concentrated in one or two
continuous areas and whites living in the suburbs. Even small
cities display a strong distinction among neighborhoods. A
frequent division is between the east and west or north and
south side of town, or the railroad tracks. A family seeking a
new residence will seek the areas where the characteristics
of the people meet their own.

51

The exodus
from the
American city.
This has
happened in
many American
cities since the
1960’s.

52

Changes in Cities in the U.S.
U.S. population has been moving out of the city centers to the suburbs:
suburbanization and counter urbanization

Developed Countries: suburbanization

 wealthy move to suburbs
 automobiles and roads; ‘American
Dream’ of the home in the suburbs.
 better services
 wealthy move to suburbs
Counter urbanization

idyllic settings
cost of land for retirement
slow pace, yet high tech
connections to services and markets
53

U.S. intraregional migration during 1990s.

Inner city economic problems: the concentration of low income
residents in inner cities has caused economic problems. These
people require public services but can pay very little in taxes to
support the services. They need stores and jobs but have little
money to spend in the store and few skills for jobs (so the stores
close). To try to fight these problems many local and state
governments use tax monies to try to renovate these areas, but this
shifts tax money needed for other areas to the inner city (votes on
election day).
Annexation: Many cities could help their tax problem by adding the
new suburbs to be part of their city (annexation). After all, many of
these suburban people use the city for its’ jobs etc., so why not add
them into the city? Today, most people in the suburbs do not want
to be annexed into the city and so they do not vote to be annexed.
54

The Peripheral Model: According to this model, an urban area
consists of an inner city surrounded by large suburban residential
and business areas (MSA) tied together by a beltway or highway
that circles the city. Around the beltway are nodes of consumer
and business services called edge cities (see diagram of multiple
nuclei model). These edge cities sprang up to provide services
and jobs to the people in the suburbs.
Density Gradient: As you travel outward from the center of the
city, the density of people declines. Inner city has big apartments
of 250 of more people per acre. Suburbs have fewer people per
acre (but lots of acres) and finally you leave the cities periphery
you find few people. The number of houses per unit of land
diminishes as distance from the center of the city increases.
55

The Edge cities (bedroom communities) of Houston

The central city is surrounded by a ring road, around which are
suburban areas and edge cities, shopping malls, office parks,
industrial areas, and service complexes.

Known as
bedroom
communities
because
people live
there but
mostly don’t
work there.
They drive
into the city
for work.
56

As you move from the center of the city outward, the density of the population
changes. This is know as the density gradient. Two big changes have occurred in
the density gradient of today’s cities:
1. The number of people living in the center has decreased.
2. The density difference between the inner city and the suburbs is declining
because the inner city density is dropping and the suburban density is growing
due to more large apartments being built in the suburbs.
Cost of Suburban or Urban Sprawl: Urban Sprawl is the progressive spread of
development over the landscape. As long as we Americans want single-family
detached houses, land on the fringe of urban areas will be converted from open
space to residential use. The cost of this growth is more than the loss of land, it is
also the cost of new roads, utilities, building stores and offices and the cost of
automobiles to move these people over even longer distances. Lots of these new
developments are built on what was once farmland. Wonderful productive soil now
under concrete.

Greenbelts: are areas where, by law, the open space can not be used for any
construction. This is mostly found in Europe.

57

Once farmland that is being converted to suburbs and cities.

58

Tyson’s Corner Virginia in 1940

59

Washington, DC. MSA.

Tyson’s Corner Virginia
today.
Washington D.C. is off
In the distance.

60

Suburban Segregation: The “new” segregation.
Suburban segregation takes two forms:
1. Residents are separated from commercial and manufacturing activities
which are confined someplace else. (The whole neighborhood is
nothing but houses because they drive for services.)
2. The price of the house eliminates some from being able to live there. This
creates a homogeneous suburb of the same economic class of people.
This never existed before in history. Where we once had vertical
segregation of the classes we now we have horizontal segregation.
3. But this may be reversing as new statistics show that people are beginning
to move back to the city. Why? Cost of transportation.
Zoning Ordinances: This idea developed in Europe and later America in the
early decades of the 20th century. This means that businesses are allowed only
in certain areas of the settlement. (No all night taco stands inside your single
family neighborhood.)
Motor vehicles: The wide use of the automobile is largely responsible for the
American movement to the suburbs. Not only did people move out but 1/4 of
the land inside all American cities are now roads, streets, and parking lots.

61

Public Transportation: Because few US workers live within walking distance
of their jobs, urban areas are characterized by extensive commuting and the
problems that come with it. As much as 40% of all trips made into or out from
a city during the day takes place within just 4 hours. (2 in the morning and 2 in
the late afternoon). RUSH HOUR!!! In large cities, public transportation, like
subways and busses, are better suited to move people but Americans still
prefer their own cars. Public transportation is cheaper, cleaner, and more
energy efficient than personal cars, yet in the US only 5% of city travel is
done using public transit systems. American’s love their personal car too
much.
Local Government Fragmentation: Because of the large number of local
governments in the US (look at the settlements in Pinellas County) it is
difficult to solve some of the regional problems like garbage disposal, water
management, traffic and public housing.
62

Metropolitan government: This idea tries to put many local governments into a
larger unit that can better handle the urban problems. The 2 ways to do this
are:
1. Federations in which the individual settlements have their own police,
firemen, and tax collection but they all agree to be part of a second
government which handles transportation, water, sewage, parks and
welfare for all the communities.
2. Consolidations: In this method, several cities and the county may form one
government. Jacksonville’s government runs not only the town but the
county too, this makes Jacksonville the largest city, in land size, in the US.
Smart growth: A new movement by many states to curb suburban sprawl by
limiting where new construction can take place. Smart growth laws require that
land near cities be used up before any land further out can be developed. So
far, this is only being done an a few parts of our country.
63

The new
US as
some
people
see it.

64

Quiz Yourself:
1. The process where middle-class people move into inner city neighborhoods and
renovate them is called ____________
2. ____________ happens when banks refuse to give loans in what they consider
risky neighborhoods.
3. Because of the housing shortages, the poor have constructed their own settlements
around the city known as __________ _________

4. Businesses are allowed only in certain areas of the settlement because of
____________ ____________
5. Areas known as _____ _______ are areas of about 5,000 people. The data from
that area is used to help define needed services for that area.
6. When cities are so close that they form one continuous band of development this is
known as a ____________
65

7. Social relationships are often described as “colder” in urban areas because…
8. In this model the city develops in a series of sectors not rings. _______

9. ______ (LDC’s or MDC’s) have a higher percentage of people living in urban
settlements but ________ (LDC’s or MDC’s) have more of the very large urban
settlements.
10. _____________ was the first model developed to explain the distributions
of different social groups within urban areas.
11. New cities which develop around the beltway are nodes of consumer and
business services known as ________ _________.

12. When the Europeans took over lands around the world, they changed the
cities by adding services to help the Europeans control the conquered people.
These European planned cities are known as __________ cities.
66

Answer Key:
1.

Gentrification

2.

Redlining

3.

Squatter Settlements

4.

Zoning ordinances

5.

Census tracks

6.

Megalopolis

7. There is a stronger feeling of belonging together in small rural settlements.
8. Hoyt sector model
9. MDC, LDC
10. Burgess Concentric Zone model
11. Edge cities
12. Colonial cities
67

Test Key topic/chapter 13:
These questions come from a combination of our slides, your text book, and common knowledge you should
have discussed in your AP classroom. They are very typical of what you will see on the National Exam.
1) The multiple nuclei theory best explains why different neighborhoods of a city attract people of different… A) ages.
B) ethnic origin C) income D) marital status.
2) Sprawl is the… A) change in density within an urban area from the center to the periphery B) development of new
housing sites not contiguous to the existing built-up area. C) land maintained as open space surrounding an urban area.
D) period in the morning and evening with the heaviest volumes of traffic.
3) People are attracted to suburbs in part because suburbs are characterized by…A) heavy traffic. B) lower opportunity
for home ownership. C) private land surrounding the house. D) row houses and apartments.
4) Megalopolis refers to… A) adjacent, overlapping Metropolitan Statistical Areas. B) central cities. C) consolidated
Metropolitan Statistical Areas. D) central cities plus urbanized areas.
5) Which statement best describes the relationship between urbanization and the Industrial Revolution? A) Urbanization
promoted the Industrial Revolution. B) The Industrial Revolution promoted urbanization. C) Urbanization preceded the
Industrial Revolution by thousands of years. D) Urbanization and the Industrial Revolution are no longer related.
6) The process of legally adding land area to a city in the United States is… A) annexation. B) accreditation. C) an
application of eminent domain. D) defined by urbanized area.

68

7) The process of change in the use of a house, from single-family owner occupancy to abandonment, is… A) blockbusting.
B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining.
8) A process by which banks designate an area within which they refuse to lend money for improvements is… A) blockbusting.
B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining.
9) A recent change in the density gradient has been… A) the elimination of the gap traditionally found in the center. B) an
increase in the extremes between the inner and outer areas. C) an increase in the number of people living in the center.
D) a reduction in the differences in densities found within an urban area.
10) U.S. central cities face fiscal problems because… A) federal and state funds are available. B) low-income people are
concentrated there. C) middle-class families are attracted there. D) redlining is no longer legal.
11) A legal form of segregation in U.S. cities is achieved through...A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) zoning. D) greenbelts.
12) Factories have moved to suburban locations in part because of… A) access to main highways. B) adequate space to build
vertical structures. C) availability of large tracts of high-priced land. D) good rail connections.
13) According to the sector model, the best housing is located in…A) a corridor from downtown to the edge of the city.
B) an outer ring surrounding the city. C) nodes near universities and parks. D) renovated inner-city neighborhoods.
14) Ramshackle houses on the periphery of cities in less developed countries are known as… A) squatter settlements. B) council
estates. C) public housing. D) zone in transition.
15) Higher income people tend to live near the center of the city in all but which of the following regions? A) Latin America
B) North America C) South Asia D) Western Europe

16) The wide boulevards built in cities in less developed countries were most likely built during what era? A) pre-colonial
B) colonial C) independence D) all of the above equally

69

17) According to the multiple nuclei model, an airport is likely to attract nearby… A) industries. B) residences. C) shops.
D) universities.
18) The largest percentage of the U.S. population lives in…A) central cities. B) suburbs. C) non-metropolitan areas. D) all of the
above
19) In U.S. cities, the underclass is… A) clustered in inner-city neighborhoods. B) dispersed throughout the city. C) clustered in
suburbs. D) distributed uniformly in the city.

20) A process of converting a neighborhood from low-income to middle-class is…A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) gentrification.
D) redlining.
21) Higher social heterogeneity in urban settlements means that… A) the people with whom you relax are probably the same ones you
see at work. B) you play a specialized role in the urban economy. C) you compete for limited space. D) you may feel lonely and
isolated in a crowd.
22) The city plus its contiguous built-up suburbs is the… A) central city. B) urbanized area.
D) consolidated metropolitan statistical area

C) metropolitan statistical area.

23) The process whereby an increasing percentage of people live in an urban area is known as… A) demographic transition.
B) rank-size rule. C) urbanization. D) central place theory.
24) Of the ten largest urban areas in the world, how many are in More Developed Countries today? A) 1 B) 4 C) 7 D) 10 E) 2
25) Public housing is…A) conversion of low-income housing to middle-class housing. B) illegally established low-income housing.
C) housing that has changed from single-family owner occupancy to abandonment. D) low-income government-owned housing.
26) According to the concentric zone model, a city develops in a series of… A) corridors. B) nodes. C) rings. D) all of the above

70

27) Chicago is a good location in which to develop urban models because it is located… A) at the hub of the nation's transportation
system. B) in the center of the country. C) on a flat prairie. D) on the shore of Lake Michigan.
28) According to the sector model, the best housing is located in… A) a corridor from downtown to the edge of the city. B) an outer
ring surrounding the city. C) nodes near universities and parks. D) renovated inner-city neighborhoods.
29) The zone of transition in US cities generally contain…A) warehouses B) wealthy neighborhoods C) transportation hubs
D) universities and hospitals E) suburban homes
30) The attractions of shopping malls include all but which of the following? A) frequent concerts and exhibitions B) generous
parking lots C) place to meet friends D) walking distance from homes
The following questions are written at the high school level. You will find some questions from part one often rewritten
here. This is all designed to help you transition to the college/AP style of written questions. Any question preceded with ***
are questions that have been on the national exam before.
31. Most Latin American cities are focused on a…A) central plaza B) government housing project C) zone of heavy industry
D) skyscraper office building E) squatter settlement
32. The multiple-nuclei model of a city structure tends to be most applicable to…A) small cities B) traditional C) Latin American
cities D) newer, fast growing cities E) cities with homogeneous land use
33. ***Locational advantages important to the development of the earliest cities include…A) availability of good harbors for large
ships B) productive agricultural land and defensible sites C) temperate climate and proximity to coal mines D) good
connections by road and canal E) proximity to manufacturing areas

34. In cities, the CBD’s often show uniqueness while the suburbs usually show…A) a large hinterland. B) placelessness C) more
than one node. D) newer zones of transition.

71

35. Many LDC’s have tried to help a previously under-developed part of their country develop by moving their capital
city to that area. This new capital is known as a…A) forward capital B) new development zone C) enterprise zone
D) neocolonial city
36. Today the greatest number of urban dwellers is found in…A) North America
D) Europe E) Asia

B) South America C) Africa

37. ***All of the following have helped create ghettos in North American cities except…A)blockbusting and racial
steering B) redlining by financial institutions C) concentration of public housing and social services D) fixed school
districts E) Economic Enterprise Zones

38. Which of the following is NOT as reason for rapid suburbanization in the US after WW2? A) Mass production of
the automobile B) Reduction of long distance commuting C) Expansion of home construction D) Expansion of the
interstate highway system E) Availability of low down payment terms and long-term mortgages.
39. New cities which developed in the hinterland of large urban areas because of the automobile, are known as…
A) edge cities B) census tracts C) suburban sprawl D) squatter settlements. E) none of these
40. Gentrification refers to… A) moving the homeless into inner city shelters B) The “White Flight” from the urban city
C) losing tax revenue because of stores closing in downtown areas D) middle-class people moving into and renovating
inner city neighborhoods E) the creation of “beltway cities” around the city.

72

4
7
3

5

1
6

2

41-48 all use the sketch above.
41. The sketch in box A above represents which model of the inner structure of urban areas?
C) multiple nuclei model D) Burgess concentric zone model E) peripheral model
42. The models in boxes B and C represent A) Concentric zone and multiple nuclei
concentric zone D) peripheral and concentric zone E) Von Thunen and peripheral

A) Hoyt sector model B) VonThunen’s model

B) Multiple nuclei and Hoyt sector C) Hoyt sector and

43. In which ring (1, 2, etc.) of sketch A above would high-status households in North American cities likely live? A) 1 B) 2 C) 3 D) 4&5
44. In which ring (1, 2, etc.) of sketch A above would high status households in a European city likely live? A) 1

B) 2

C) 3

D) 4&5

45. In model B, zone # 2 is where it is likely because of: A) greenbelting B) squatter settling C) the culture of poverty D) transportation
E) no one knows
46. The model in sketch B is the; A) Hoyt sector model B) Burgess model C) multiple nuclei model D) peripheral model
47. The model in sketch C is the; A) Hoyt sector model B) Burgess model C) multiple nuclei model D) peripheral model
48. Which of these models best describes what has happened in US cities in the last 40 years? A)

B)

C)

73

49.*** In the U.S. a city plus its contiguous built-up suburbs is known as an…A) urbanized area B) zoned area
C) census tract D) Squatter settlement E) none of these
50. Done mostly in Europe, these are areas where land is kept as parks, farms or other kinds of open space and urban
sprawl is not allowed. A) Smart growth
B) zoning
C) filtering
D) census tracts E) greenbelts
51. Which statement best describes the relationship between urbanization and the Industrial Revolution?
A) Urbanization promoted the Industrial Revolution. B) The Industrial Revolution promoted urbanization.
C) Urbanization preceded the Industrial Revolution by thousands of years. D) Urbanization and the Industrial
Revolution are no longer related.
52. The process whereby an increasing percentage of people live in an urban area is known as…
A) Demographic transition. B) rank-size rule. C) Urbanization. D) Central place theory.
53. The city (if it has 50,000 or more people) plus its contiguous built-up suburbs AND the county it is in as well as any
other counties it influences, is known as the ...A) central city B) urbanized area
C) metropolitan statistical area
D) consolidated metropolitan area E) micropolitan statistical area
54. ***Higher social heterogeneity in urban settlements means that …A) the people with whom you relax are probably
the same ones you see at work. B) you play a specialized role in the urban economy. C) you compete for limited
space. D) you may feel lonely and isolated in a crowd.

55. The process of change in the use of a house, from single-family owner occupancy to smaller dwellings for the poor
and then sometimes to abandonment, is…A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining. E) none of
these

74

Free Response #1:
The Bid Rent theory says that the closer you get to the
CBD the higher the cost for land, yet in most American
cities you find the poorest people living near the
expensive CBD and the richest living further away.
Explain:
A. Why neighborhoods near the CBD are often poor and
run down?
B. Why are there few grocery and other retail stores in
these neighborhoods?
C. Why is this not really true in European and Latin
American countries?

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75

FR #2:
Think of the map of your school, explain the
layout of your school using the Multiple Nuclei
Model
The main office is the CBD.
Completely explain your answer using specific
buildings and/or land areas in your explanation
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76

Answer Key:
1. B

14. A

27. C

40. D

53. C

2. B

15. B

28. A

41. D

54. D

3. C

16. B

29. A

42. B

55. B

4. A

17. A

30. D

43. D

5. B

18. B

31. A

44. A

6. A

19. A

32. D

45. D

7. B

20. C

33. B

46. A

8. D

21. D

34. B

47. C

9. D

22. B

35. A

48. C

10. B

23. C

36. E

49. A

11. C

24. C

37. E

50. E

12. A

25. D

38. B

51. B

13. A

26. C

39. A

52. C
77

FR. #1: ( 15 pts. for each section…total of 45 pts.)
A. In the US the move of the wealthy and middle class to the suburbs has left the older houses and apartments near the CBD empty.
This has lowered their value to the point where the poor can afford these dwellings and have made these neighborhoods their
homes. The poor can not pay for upkeep of these dwellings, or to pay high taxes. The lack of upkeep and tax money to repair the
roads and schools, adds to the downward spiral of the neighborhood. With little spending money for shopping, the poor do not
spend much in the stores. This causes many stores to close and move to the suburbs where the spending customers and money
went. The closing of the stores adds to the poverty of the area by taking away some of the jobs that were in the neighborhood. This
becomes a vicious cycle of poverty and deterioration. (15 points)

B. There are few retail stores and groceries is the area because the poor do not have money to shop. The lack of spending forces
many stores out of business or forces them to move to better locations. There also can be higher crime in these areas and the
crime often takes place at the stores. This is another reason for the stores to move out of the neighborhood. (15 points)
C. Neighborhoods in European and Latin American cities are different from those of US cities. In Europe and Latin America, the
wealthy and middle class still live near or in the CBD. The higher tax base and more spending ability of the upper and middle
classes, keeps the CBD area flourishing with jobs and in constant repair and upkeep of the cities’ physical condition. (15 points)

FR #2: (10 total points.)
You will need to judge how effectively you displayed you school
in the Multiple Nuclei Model. Refer to the model itself to help you
determine your success and grade.
School’s main office
78

Calculating your grade on test 13.
Add how many you got correct on the multiple choice part (55 possible) to how many
points you scored on the FR portion (55 possible)…110 total.
The following scale will show the approximate score if this test were the real AP exam. Remember that this
is an approximation. While 65-74% is normally the range for a 3 on the test, it is not definite. Over the
years I have seen scores as low as 60% be the low portion of a 3 score.

Out of 110 possible points:
72-83 is most likely a 3
84-94 is most likely a 4

95-110 is most likely a 5

Now lets start our review for the national exam by
reviewing the 33 key models and theories of the
course…the next PowerPoint.


Slide 19

Key topic/chapter 13…Urban Patterns
Key terms:
Annexation
Concentric zone model
Density gradient
Edge cities
Filtering
Galactic city
Gentrification
Greenbelts
Megalopolis
MSA
Multiple nuclei model
Peripheral model

Public housing
Redlining
Renovated housing
Scattered site
Squatter settlement
Sector model
Smart growth
Sprawl
Underclass
Urban renewal
Zone in transition
Zoning
1

Chapter 13…Urban Areas.
How are Cities planned?
Why

are cities where they are?
How are they organized?
Why are some areas of a city
different from
other areas of the same city?
What is the future of cities?
2

Settlement


Settlement - permanent collections of buildings,
where people live, work, and obtain services

3

ORIGINS OF SETTLEMENTS


Religious - graves, churches, temples



Cultural - schools, libraries



Political/Military - leader’s house, walls



Economic - stores, food
4

TYPES OF SETTLEMENTS


Rural Settlements - agriculture as the
predominant occupation.



Urban settlements - principal industries are
secondary and tertiary.

5

RURAL SETTLEMENTS
Clustered rural settlements –grouped
settlements in rural areas to minimize travel

Dispersed rural Settlements - isolated farms
with enclosed continuous fields (Found only in
N. America and Britain).

6

Urban Geographers want to know the global distribution of urban
settlements. MDC’s have a high percentage of people living in urban
areas because of the shift from agriculture-manufacturing-services.
Geographers are also interested in where people and activities are
distributed within urban spaces. What are the differences between the
inner-city and suburban areas and why?
As we saw in the last chapter, many downtowns are unique and can
often be recognized in photos where the suburbs often look very
much alike (Placelessness). Why? Suburbs offer the chance to avoid
some of the city problems (crime, tight living area, expensive
land/rent, noise, age of buildings) while still keeping a connection with
the goods and services of the city: jobs, sports teams, culture, shops,
recreation, etc.
7

Where is this place?

8

Today’s cities are evolving and changing. Although different internal
situations characterize urban areas in the US and elsewhere, the
problems arising from current spatial trends are quite similar in all cities.
Where have urban areas grown: in the early 1800’s only 3% of the earth’s
people lived in cities and only Beijing China had more than 1 million
people. Today over ½ of the world’s people live in cities and we have over
400 cities of at least 1 million people.

Urbanization: is the process by which city population grows.
Cities population growth is measured in 2 dimensions;
1. An increase in the number of people living in the cities.
2. An increase in the percentage of people living in the cities.
This distinction is important because they happen for different reason and
have different global distributions.
9

Increasing Percentage of People in Cities: a large percentage of people living in urban
areas is a measure of a country’s level of development. In MDC’s about ¾ of the people
live in urban areas compared to about 2/5 of people in LDC’s. (Except in Latin America
where the level is closer to MDC’s.)
The higher percentage of people in urban areas comes from the changes that have
occurred in the last 200 years as we went from agriculture (primary jobs) to industrial
(secondary jobs) and now service jobs, all created by the Industrial Revolution of the
1800’s.
People moved to the cities for industrial jobs, but in MDC’s this process has largely
ended because nearly everyone interested in moving to the cities from farms has already
done so.
In LDC’s the percentage of people living in urban areas is growing as people are pushed
off of their farms and replaced by machines and as people move to cities looking/hoping
for industrial jobs.
10

Increasing Number of People in Cities: MDC’s have a higher percentage of
people living in urban settlements but LDC’s have more of the very large urban
settlements (Primate cities). (Rank-size rule, primate cities, chapter 12.)

This is interesting because typically the large cities are created from the
improvements brought by the Industrial Revolution. This is not the case with the
large LDC cities. Migration to the primate city in LDC’s is happening even though
job opportunities may not be available. Increasing the population growth in LDC
cities is the fact that medical services are better in these cities, thus the child
mortality rate is lower.
Defining Urban Settlements: defining where urban areas end and rural areas
begin is not easy. Geographers have formulated definitions that distinguish
between urban and rural areas in two ways: Social differences and Physical
differences.
11

Percent Urban Population

Percent of the population living in urban areas is usually higher in MDCs
than in LDCs.

12

The most populated cities in the world

Of the top
20, only
Moscow,
Tokyo and
New York
are in MDC’s

Shanghai China has 14,608,512 people
13

14

15

Social Differences Between Urban and Rural Settlements: it is fair to say that rural
people and urban people follow different ways of life. A city can be defined as having 3
characteristics:
1. Large size. People in rural settlements know most of the other people in the
settlement. Not true in big cities. Social relationships are often described as “colder” in
urban areas because you only see some people at work instead of growing up with
them in the settlement.
2. High Density. Having lots of people in a tiny area creates social consequences. A
high density of people living in a small area can only be supported if the people
specialize (they can’t all be farmers). People are encouraged to compete for jobs, room,
and survival in a tightly limited space. Social groups compete to occupy the same space
(ethnic/ race problems). Rural settlements have very little of this problem.
3. Social Heterogeneity. The larger the settlement, the greater the variety of people.
Being “unusual” in a large settlement is more likely to be accepted than in a small rural
one. But despite the freedom to be different that large urban settlements give you,
people living there often feel alone because so many people are different from them.
There is a stronger feeling of belonging together in small rural settlements.
16

These 3 differences do not fully answer the question of where urban settlements
begin and rural ones end because in today’s MDC’s most everyone has access to
cars, telephones, televisions, and “urban type” jobs which reduce the differences
between urban and rural lifestyles. “City folk” and “Country folk” are more alike
today than they are different. To help distinguish between urban and rural areas we
need to add the physical definition of rural and urban to the equation.
Physical Definitions of Urban Settlements: In ancient time, cities had defensive
walls for protection which clearly defined the physical boundaries of the city. Today
the walls are gone but we can still define the physical boundaries in 3 ways:
1. Legal boundary. These are the official boundaries of a city as recognized by
the government of the country or state. These “city limits” have been officially given
to the city and are physically marked on official maps. The local government of the
city has authority to make laws and protect the people inside the city boundaries.
17

2. Urbanized area. This is the city plus its suburbs or urbanized area that
surrounds the city. About 70 percent of US residents live in urbanized areas with
40% being in the suburbs and 30% inside the city limits. The suburbs may have
their own city governments but the huge central city dominates what happens in
the entire area.
3. Metropolitan Statistical Area. Cities have an even bigger influence on people
than just those living in their city limits and surrounding urbanized areas. People
from far away come to shop, use the services, support the sports teams, read
the newspapers and watch the television broadcasts of the city. Thus the city
has a “functional area” which is its total zone of influence. The US Bureau of
Census has created a method of measuring the functional area of the city.
Known as the Metropolitan statistical area (MSA) this area includes:
•An urbanized area with a population of at least 50,000
•The county within which the city is located.
•Adjacent counties with a high population density and a large percentage of
residents working in the central city’s county.
18

Metropolitan Area of Philadelphia

City of
Philadelphia

Urbanized
area
(suburbs)
Metropolitan
Statistical
Area

The metropolitan area of Philadelphia is
spread over several counties and four states.
It is also a diversified trade center, given its
position on the Delaware river.

19

20

21

Micropolitan Statistical Areas: Smaller areas with between
10,000 and 50,000 people, the county where it is found, and
adjacent counties tied to the city. This would be a small town and
the area dominated by it.
Overlapping Metropolitan Areas: Some adjacent MSA’s overlap.
A county between two central cities may send a large number of
commuters to jobs in both cities. In some areas the cities are so
close that they form one continuous urban complex. This is
known as a Megalopolis (great city).
In a megalopolis, the downtown CBD often has its own
distinctive look and the urban areas are visually separated by
parks, open spaces, and dairy/truck farms. But at the periphery
of the urban areas, the boundaries overlap.
22

Colorado Springs, population 431,000

Ocala, Florida, population 56,000

Florala, Alabama, population 1,900

23

Megalopolis, from northern Va. To Maine.
This Illustrates the
difference between
strict city proper
definitions and broader
urban agglomerations.
To define urbanized
areas, the U.S. Census
Bureau uses the term
Metropolitan Statistical
Area (MSA) or
Consolidated MSA
(CMSA) if two or more of
them overlap.
24

Where are People Distributed within Urban Areas? People are not
just distributed at random in urban areas. For the most part they
concentrate in particular neighborhoods depending on their social
characteristics. Geographers want to see where people with
particular characteristics are likely to live and why.

Three models which try to explain the growth of a city:

The Burgess Model

The Hoyt Sector Model

The Harris and Ullman
multiple Nuclei Model
25

Burgess Concentric Zone Model

In the concentric zone model, a city grows in a series of rings surrounding the CBD.

Burgess Concentric Zone Model: This is the first used to explain the
distributions of different social groups within urban areas. It says that a
city grows outward from a central place in a series of concentric rings.
The precise size and width of the rings vary from one city to another, but
some basic types of rings appear in all cities in the same order (see chart
above).
26

•Hoyt Sector Model: In this model the city develops in a
series of sectors not rings. Certain areas of the city are
more attractive for various activities, originally because
of an environmental factor (or even pure chance). As the
city grows, activities extend outward in a wedge shape.
For example, once a wealthy neighborhood is built the
next wealthy neighborhood will extend from the first
neighborhood further outward from the center. In this
way, the best housing is found in a corridor extending
outward from the center to the outer edge (see chart on
the next page).
27

The Hoyt Sector Model

In the sector model, a city grows in a series of
wedges or corridors extending out from the
CBD.
28

•Harris and Ullman’s Multiple Nuclei Model: According
to this model, a city is a complex structure that includes
more than one center around which activities revolve.
Examples of these nodes include a port, parks,
stadium, neighborhood business center, university, and
airport (see chart). This theory states that some
activities are attracted to particular nodes, whereas
others try to avoid them. A university node may attract
well educated people and bookstores while the port will
attract hotels and warehouses. Heavy industry and
expensive houses rarely are found together. This
model shows the effect of the automobile more than
any other model.
29

The Harris and Ullman Multiple Nuclei model

The multiple nuclei model views a city as a
collection of individual centers, around which
different people and activities cluster.

30

Applications of the Models: The three models help explain where and in some
cases, why people live where they do. None of the models by themselves fully
explains why and where different types of people live, but combined they give
you as good a look as possible at the “Why” of “Where.” Effective use of the
models depends on getting good data on the areas. Most countries take a
census every 10 years to help determine useful data about the people and
places of the country. In our country we divide the census data into areas
known as census tracts of about 5,000 people. Each census tract has the data
that summarizes the characteristics of the people living within that tract. This
information includes things like the race, income, age, and education of the
people living in that tract.
Social Area Analysis: The data from the census tracts can all be plotted onto
maps to show the characteristics of the people living in that tract. This map is
known as a social area analysis.
31

Using Census tract information…Seattle, Washington
Each lined area is a
census tract of about 5000
people in Seattle
Washington. These maps
show average household
income for 1990 and
2000…note the changes in
income in some areas
between 1990 and 2000.
Using this information, a
business can make
decisions about where
they want to locate a new
store or the future of
existing stores.
You can find census tract
information on many topics
such as; age, education
level, race, ethnicity, crime
rate, and land ownership.
Note the areas with
incomes over
$63,000.

All can be very valuable
information to people
looking to open
businesses.

32

Examine the changes
between 1990 and
2000.

Oakland, California’s Ethnic neighborhoods
The small bordered areas are census tracks of 5000 people.

33

Use of the Models Outside of North America: The 3 models will also work in other
places in the world; however social groups in other countries may not have the
same reasons for selecting particular neighborhoods as Americans do.
European Cities: As in the US, wealthier people in European cities cluster along a
sector extending outward from the CBD, however unlike the US, wealthy and
middle class Europeans still live in the inner rings of the neighborhoods near the
CBD not out in the suburbs. In the past, poorer people lived in the center of the
city. Before electricity, social segregation was vertical: richer people lived on the
first or second floor of a building while the poorer people lived in the basement or
upper floors. In the Industrial Revolution, housing for the poor was constructed
near the factories and away from the rich.
Today poorer Europeans are less likely to live in the inner-city. Poor quality
housing has been renovated for the rich or turned into office buildings. Poorer
Europeans tend to live in the outskirts of the city. Vast suburbs with dozens of high
rise apartments house the poor. They face long commutes to reach their jobs in
the city.
34

European cities generally do not have the “suburban
sprawl” that US cities have. European cities tend to be
more pedestrian friendly with more parks downtown as
Europeans tend to still live downtown.
US cities have taller buildings as European cities tend to
be older and more historic.

American cities have more ethnic neighborhoods than
European cities. Ethnic neighborhoods that do exist in
European cities tend to be in the suburbs. WHY?
Because the established richer neighborhoods tend to be
downtown in European cities.
35

Less Developed Countries: Like Europe, most LDC’s accommodate their poor in the
suburbs with their middle class and rich living near the center of the city. LDC’s have
passed through 3 periods of city building: before the Europeans arrived, during the
period of European colonialism, and since independence from European control.

Pre-colonial Cities: Before the Europeans arrived few cities existed in Africa, Asia, and
Latin America and most people lived in small rural settlements. Those cities that existed
were mostly laid out surrounding a religious center; with the rest of the city laid out in a
hieratical concentric pattern (like the Burgess model) from government buildings,
homes of the wealthy, and businesses related to the religion out to other businesses
and shops.
Colonial cities: When the Europeans took over these lands, they changed the cities by
adding services to help the Europeans control the conquered people. Often a new
European style city would be build next to the existing native one. The new European
cities contained wider streets, a public square, larger houses and a much lower density.
The Spanish used the “Law of the Indies” which was a city plan designed specifically to
build cities in a “Spanish” style. (Gridiron pattern for streets centered on a church and
central plaza, walls around individual houses and neighborhoods centered around
smaller plazas and more churches.)
36

Early Mexico city was laid out in a grid pattern of streets. This followed
the Spanish “Law of the Indies.”

37

Central Plaza in Mexico City 1920 photo. Typical Colonial City plan.

Part of downtown Mexico city today still shows the
building plan of the “Law of the Indies.”

38

Cities since Independence: Following independence, cities have become
the focal point of the development of most LDC’s. Millions of people have
migrated to the cities (Primate cities) looking for jobs and services. Some
capitals have been moved to isolated areas in an attempt to help develop
that area of the country (Brasília) This is know as a forward capital. Latin
American cities have developed their own unique style.
Squatter settlements: The LDC’s are unable to house the rapidly growing
number of poor who are flowing into the cities. Because of the housing
shortages, the poor have constructed their own settlements around the city.
These settlements have few services because neither the city nor the
residents can afford them. Squatters have two basic choices for housing.
1. Illegally move into empty real houses located in the city or,
2. Rent slum housing.
(85% of the population of Addis Ababa in Ethiopia lives in squatter
settlements, slums or other illegal housing.)
39

Squatter shacks in Manila, the Philippines

40

Squatter settlement in Ethiopia

41

Zimbabwe, Africa

42

Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

43

Latin American City Model:
In many Latin
American cities,
the wealthy live in
the inner city and
in a sector
extending along a
commercial spine.
In situ accretion- businesses
and homes constantly under
construction/repair.
Zone of maturity-2nd best
housing in the city.
The poor live in squatter settlements on the
periphery of the city.

Disamenity- unpleasant area
used by the poor to get to the
market.

44

The City Outline of Rio de Janeiro
The rich tourist areas and expensive condo apartments are along the coast
and beach while the poor live in squatter shacks in the hills.

45

City problems:
Inner-City Physical Problems: Most US inner cities were constructed before the 1950’s
(people began to move to the suburbs in the 1950’s so new construction moved out of
the city).
Process of Deterioration (how a city deteriorates): A city doesn’t suddenly become old
and full of slummy areas. It happens over time. When a group of low-income people
inhabit an area of a city, nearby neighborhoods will often look to move out. They sell or
rent to more low-income occupants thus expanding the low-income area. Two processes
cause/speed up the devaluation of areas:
1. Filtering, 2. Redlining.
Filtering: Large houses and buildings that once housed rich downtown workers (who
moved to the suburbs) are taken over by landlords who don’t live in that area (they
moved to the suburbs too). Rents are low so the landlord doesn’t take as good care of
the property as they should and the property becomes run down or abandoned. Stores
close, or move, due to lack of sales. 100 years ago these neighborhoods would be used
by immigrants and ethnic businesses would succeed in those areas. Now, with a decline
in immigration, these neighborhoods have shrunk and so have schools, businesses and
other services. Thousands of vacant houses and buildings stand empty in inner cities
across America.

46

Redlining: Some banks refuse to give loans in what they consider
risky neighborhoods. They draw a red line on a map around areas
where they will not give loans. Without loans, these neighborhoods
have a hard time rebuilding/remodeling. Though illegal, this still
happens. Bankers just don’t put these “no-loan” areas on a map.

Urban Renewal: This is the series of projects to improve European
and N. American cities by buying up the blighted neighborhoods,
moving the people to new government built housing projects, and
building new roads, and other projects to make the inner city
attractive for business again. National and State government grants
help pay for these projects.
47

Public housing: Housing for the poor, built with government funding as part of
urban renewal. In the US this is only about 2% of the housing while in some
countries it may be more (Britain is 30%). Public housing built in the 50’s & 60’s
were largely high rise apartments, but those are seen as being unsatisfactory.
Problems arise from cramming large numbers of poor people into one area.
Today most public housing projects are one to three story buildings with many of
them being scattered around different parts of the city rather than clustered into
one area.
Because urban renewal has been criticized for destroying the social cohesion of
older neighborhoods, many governments (like the US) have stopped funding
most projects since the 1970’s. What do we do instead?
Renovated Housing: An alternative often used since the 70’s is to renovate a
building instead of urban renewal. The process where middle-class people
move into inner-city neighborhoods and renovate them is called gentrification.
Gentrified inner-city neighborhoods also attract middle-class people who work
downtown. Living close to work saves the hassle of commuting and rejuvenates
run down inner-city neighborhoods
48

Gentrified building downtown Harlem, NY. Note the supermarket.

49

Inner-City Social Problems: Inner-city residents are often referred to as the
permanent underclass because they are trapped in an unending cycle of
economic and social problems. High unemployment, alcoholism, drug
addiction, literacy, juvenile delinquency, and crime all exist at a higher rate
among those who live in the inner-city. Lack of jobs means lack of tax dollars
to pay for police and fire protection as well as good schools. Lack of job skills
and homelessness are also tremendous problems.
Culture of Poverty: Inner-city residents are trapped in a permanent underclass
culture that reproduces itself. In the US, unwed mothers give birth to 2/3 of the
babies in the inner-city. 90% of these children live with only one parent and it
is real hard for one parent to keep a job and take care of children. Both suffer
and a shortage of care and daily attention by the parent contributes to the kids
not learning the skills necessary to do well in school which leads to poor jobs
for their futures. Poverty leads to more poverty. Many families on welfare have
only one parent because it is financially better if one parent is gone, that way
the single parent gets food stamps and other services from the government
that they would not get if it was a 2 family household.
50

Crime: Trapped in a hopeless environment, some inner-city
residents turn to drugs. Drug use is a problem in inner-city
areas and the suburbs, but rates of drug use in inner-cities
are the highest.
Ethnic and Racial Segregation: As seen in chapter 7, many
neighborhoods in the US are segregated by ethnicity with
African Americans and Hispanics concentrated in one or two
continuous areas and whites living in the suburbs. Even small
cities display a strong distinction among neighborhoods. A
frequent division is between the east and west or north and
south side of town, or the railroad tracks. A family seeking a
new residence will seek the areas where the characteristics
of the people meet their own.

51

The exodus
from the
American city.
This has
happened in
many American
cities since the
1960’s.

52

Changes in Cities in the U.S.
U.S. population has been moving out of the city centers to the suburbs:
suburbanization and counter urbanization

Developed Countries: suburbanization

 wealthy move to suburbs
 automobiles and roads; ‘American
Dream’ of the home in the suburbs.
 better services
 wealthy move to suburbs
Counter urbanization

idyllic settings
cost of land for retirement
slow pace, yet high tech
connections to services and markets
53

U.S. intraregional migration during 1990s.

Inner city economic problems: the concentration of low income
residents in inner cities has caused economic problems. These
people require public services but can pay very little in taxes to
support the services. They need stores and jobs but have little
money to spend in the store and few skills for jobs (so the stores
close). To try to fight these problems many local and state
governments use tax monies to try to renovate these areas, but this
shifts tax money needed for other areas to the inner city (votes on
election day).
Annexation: Many cities could help their tax problem by adding the
new suburbs to be part of their city (annexation). After all, many of
these suburban people use the city for its’ jobs etc., so why not add
them into the city? Today, most people in the suburbs do not want
to be annexed into the city and so they do not vote to be annexed.
54

The Peripheral Model: According to this model, an urban area
consists of an inner city surrounded by large suburban residential
and business areas (MSA) tied together by a beltway or highway
that circles the city. Around the beltway are nodes of consumer
and business services called edge cities (see diagram of multiple
nuclei model). These edge cities sprang up to provide services
and jobs to the people in the suburbs.
Density Gradient: As you travel outward from the center of the
city, the density of people declines. Inner city has big apartments
of 250 of more people per acre. Suburbs have fewer people per
acre (but lots of acres) and finally you leave the cities periphery
you find few people. The number of houses per unit of land
diminishes as distance from the center of the city increases.
55

The Edge cities (bedroom communities) of Houston

The central city is surrounded by a ring road, around which are
suburban areas and edge cities, shopping malls, office parks,
industrial areas, and service complexes.

Known as
bedroom
communities
because
people live
there but
mostly don’t
work there.
They drive
into the city
for work.
56

As you move from the center of the city outward, the density of the population
changes. This is know as the density gradient. Two big changes have occurred in
the density gradient of today’s cities:
1. The number of people living in the center has decreased.
2. The density difference between the inner city and the suburbs is declining
because the inner city density is dropping and the suburban density is growing
due to more large apartments being built in the suburbs.
Cost of Suburban or Urban Sprawl: Urban Sprawl is the progressive spread of
development over the landscape. As long as we Americans want single-family
detached houses, land on the fringe of urban areas will be converted from open
space to residential use. The cost of this growth is more than the loss of land, it is
also the cost of new roads, utilities, building stores and offices and the cost of
automobiles to move these people over even longer distances. Lots of these new
developments are built on what was once farmland. Wonderful productive soil now
under concrete.

Greenbelts: are areas where, by law, the open space can not be used for any
construction. This is mostly found in Europe.

57

Once farmland that is being converted to suburbs and cities.

58

Tyson’s Corner Virginia in 1940

59

Washington, DC. MSA.

Tyson’s Corner Virginia
today.
Washington D.C. is off
In the distance.

60

Suburban Segregation: The “new” segregation.
Suburban segregation takes two forms:
1. Residents are separated from commercial and manufacturing activities
which are confined someplace else. (The whole neighborhood is
nothing but houses because they drive for services.)
2. The price of the house eliminates some from being able to live there. This
creates a homogeneous suburb of the same economic class of people.
This never existed before in history. Where we once had vertical
segregation of the classes we now we have horizontal segregation.
3. But this may be reversing as new statistics show that people are beginning
to move back to the city. Why? Cost of transportation.
Zoning Ordinances: This idea developed in Europe and later America in the
early decades of the 20th century. This means that businesses are allowed only
in certain areas of the settlement. (No all night taco stands inside your single
family neighborhood.)
Motor vehicles: The wide use of the automobile is largely responsible for the
American movement to the suburbs. Not only did people move out but 1/4 of
the land inside all American cities are now roads, streets, and parking lots.

61

Public Transportation: Because few US workers live within walking distance
of their jobs, urban areas are characterized by extensive commuting and the
problems that come with it. As much as 40% of all trips made into or out from
a city during the day takes place within just 4 hours. (2 in the morning and 2 in
the late afternoon). RUSH HOUR!!! In large cities, public transportation, like
subways and busses, are better suited to move people but Americans still
prefer their own cars. Public transportation is cheaper, cleaner, and more
energy efficient than personal cars, yet in the US only 5% of city travel is
done using public transit systems. American’s love their personal car too
much.
Local Government Fragmentation: Because of the large number of local
governments in the US (look at the settlements in Pinellas County) it is
difficult to solve some of the regional problems like garbage disposal, water
management, traffic and public housing.
62

Metropolitan government: This idea tries to put many local governments into a
larger unit that can better handle the urban problems. The 2 ways to do this
are:
1. Federations in which the individual settlements have their own police,
firemen, and tax collection but they all agree to be part of a second
government which handles transportation, water, sewage, parks and
welfare for all the communities.
2. Consolidations: In this method, several cities and the county may form one
government. Jacksonville’s government runs not only the town but the
county too, this makes Jacksonville the largest city, in land size, in the US.
Smart growth: A new movement by many states to curb suburban sprawl by
limiting where new construction can take place. Smart growth laws require that
land near cities be used up before any land further out can be developed. So
far, this is only being done an a few parts of our country.
63

The new
US as
some
people
see it.

64

Quiz Yourself:
1. The process where middle-class people move into inner city neighborhoods and
renovate them is called ____________
2. ____________ happens when banks refuse to give loans in what they consider
risky neighborhoods.
3. Because of the housing shortages, the poor have constructed their own settlements
around the city known as __________ _________

4. Businesses are allowed only in certain areas of the settlement because of
____________ ____________
5. Areas known as _____ _______ are areas of about 5,000 people. The data from
that area is used to help define needed services for that area.
6. When cities are so close that they form one continuous band of development this is
known as a ____________
65

7. Social relationships are often described as “colder” in urban areas because…
8. In this model the city develops in a series of sectors not rings. _______

9. ______ (LDC’s or MDC’s) have a higher percentage of people living in urban
settlements but ________ (LDC’s or MDC’s) have more of the very large urban
settlements.
10. _____________ was the first model developed to explain the distributions
of different social groups within urban areas.
11. New cities which develop around the beltway are nodes of consumer and
business services known as ________ _________.

12. When the Europeans took over lands around the world, they changed the
cities by adding services to help the Europeans control the conquered people.
These European planned cities are known as __________ cities.
66

Answer Key:
1.

Gentrification

2.

Redlining

3.

Squatter Settlements

4.

Zoning ordinances

5.

Census tracks

6.

Megalopolis

7. There is a stronger feeling of belonging together in small rural settlements.
8. Hoyt sector model
9. MDC, LDC
10. Burgess Concentric Zone model
11. Edge cities
12. Colonial cities
67

Test Key topic/chapter 13:
These questions come from a combination of our slides, your text book, and common knowledge you should
have discussed in your AP classroom. They are very typical of what you will see on the National Exam.
1) The multiple nuclei theory best explains why different neighborhoods of a city attract people of different… A) ages.
B) ethnic origin C) income D) marital status.
2) Sprawl is the… A) change in density within an urban area from the center to the periphery B) development of new
housing sites not contiguous to the existing built-up area. C) land maintained as open space surrounding an urban area.
D) period in the morning and evening with the heaviest volumes of traffic.
3) People are attracted to suburbs in part because suburbs are characterized by…A) heavy traffic. B) lower opportunity
for home ownership. C) private land surrounding the house. D) row houses and apartments.
4) Megalopolis refers to… A) adjacent, overlapping Metropolitan Statistical Areas. B) central cities. C) consolidated
Metropolitan Statistical Areas. D) central cities plus urbanized areas.
5) Which statement best describes the relationship between urbanization and the Industrial Revolution? A) Urbanization
promoted the Industrial Revolution. B) The Industrial Revolution promoted urbanization. C) Urbanization preceded the
Industrial Revolution by thousands of years. D) Urbanization and the Industrial Revolution are no longer related.
6) The process of legally adding land area to a city in the United States is… A) annexation. B) accreditation. C) an
application of eminent domain. D) defined by urbanized area.

68

7) The process of change in the use of a house, from single-family owner occupancy to abandonment, is… A) blockbusting.
B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining.
8) A process by which banks designate an area within which they refuse to lend money for improvements is… A) blockbusting.
B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining.
9) A recent change in the density gradient has been… A) the elimination of the gap traditionally found in the center. B) an
increase in the extremes between the inner and outer areas. C) an increase in the number of people living in the center.
D) a reduction in the differences in densities found within an urban area.
10) U.S. central cities face fiscal problems because… A) federal and state funds are available. B) low-income people are
concentrated there. C) middle-class families are attracted there. D) redlining is no longer legal.
11) A legal form of segregation in U.S. cities is achieved through...A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) zoning. D) greenbelts.
12) Factories have moved to suburban locations in part because of… A) access to main highways. B) adequate space to build
vertical structures. C) availability of large tracts of high-priced land. D) good rail connections.
13) According to the sector model, the best housing is located in…A) a corridor from downtown to the edge of the city.
B) an outer ring surrounding the city. C) nodes near universities and parks. D) renovated inner-city neighborhoods.
14) Ramshackle houses on the periphery of cities in less developed countries are known as… A) squatter settlements. B) council
estates. C) public housing. D) zone in transition.
15) Higher income people tend to live near the center of the city in all but which of the following regions? A) Latin America
B) North America C) South Asia D) Western Europe

16) The wide boulevards built in cities in less developed countries were most likely built during what era? A) pre-colonial
B) colonial C) independence D) all of the above equally

69

17) According to the multiple nuclei model, an airport is likely to attract nearby… A) industries. B) residences. C) shops.
D) universities.
18) The largest percentage of the U.S. population lives in…A) central cities. B) suburbs. C) non-metropolitan areas. D) all of the
above
19) In U.S. cities, the underclass is… A) clustered in inner-city neighborhoods. B) dispersed throughout the city. C) clustered in
suburbs. D) distributed uniformly in the city.

20) A process of converting a neighborhood from low-income to middle-class is…A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) gentrification.
D) redlining.
21) Higher social heterogeneity in urban settlements means that… A) the people with whom you relax are probably the same ones you
see at work. B) you play a specialized role in the urban economy. C) you compete for limited space. D) you may feel lonely and
isolated in a crowd.
22) The city plus its contiguous built-up suburbs is the… A) central city. B) urbanized area.
D) consolidated metropolitan statistical area

C) metropolitan statistical area.

23) The process whereby an increasing percentage of people live in an urban area is known as… A) demographic transition.
B) rank-size rule. C) urbanization. D) central place theory.
24) Of the ten largest urban areas in the world, how many are in More Developed Countries today? A) 1 B) 4 C) 7 D) 10 E) 2
25) Public housing is…A) conversion of low-income housing to middle-class housing. B) illegally established low-income housing.
C) housing that has changed from single-family owner occupancy to abandonment. D) low-income government-owned housing.
26) According to the concentric zone model, a city develops in a series of… A) corridors. B) nodes. C) rings. D) all of the above

70

27) Chicago is a good location in which to develop urban models because it is located… A) at the hub of the nation's transportation
system. B) in the center of the country. C) on a flat prairie. D) on the shore of Lake Michigan.
28) According to the sector model, the best housing is located in… A) a corridor from downtown to the edge of the city. B) an outer
ring surrounding the city. C) nodes near universities and parks. D) renovated inner-city neighborhoods.
29) The zone of transition in US cities generally contain…A) warehouses B) wealthy neighborhoods C) transportation hubs
D) universities and hospitals E) suburban homes
30) The attractions of shopping malls include all but which of the following? A) frequent concerts and exhibitions B) generous
parking lots C) place to meet friends D) walking distance from homes
The following questions are written at the high school level. You will find some questions from part one often rewritten
here. This is all designed to help you transition to the college/AP style of written questions. Any question preceded with ***
are questions that have been on the national exam before.
31. Most Latin American cities are focused on a…A) central plaza B) government housing project C) zone of heavy industry
D) skyscraper office building E) squatter settlement
32. The multiple-nuclei model of a city structure tends to be most applicable to…A) small cities B) traditional C) Latin American
cities D) newer, fast growing cities E) cities with homogeneous land use
33. ***Locational advantages important to the development of the earliest cities include…A) availability of good harbors for large
ships B) productive agricultural land and defensible sites C) temperate climate and proximity to coal mines D) good
connections by road and canal E) proximity to manufacturing areas

34. In cities, the CBD’s often show uniqueness while the suburbs usually show…A) a large hinterland. B) placelessness C) more
than one node. D) newer zones of transition.

71

35. Many LDC’s have tried to help a previously under-developed part of their country develop by moving their capital
city to that area. This new capital is known as a…A) forward capital B) new development zone C) enterprise zone
D) neocolonial city
36. Today the greatest number of urban dwellers is found in…A) North America
D) Europe E) Asia

B) South America C) Africa

37. ***All of the following have helped create ghettos in North American cities except…A)blockbusting and racial
steering B) redlining by financial institutions C) concentration of public housing and social services D) fixed school
districts E) Economic Enterprise Zones

38. Which of the following is NOT as reason for rapid suburbanization in the US after WW2? A) Mass production of
the automobile B) Reduction of long distance commuting C) Expansion of home construction D) Expansion of the
interstate highway system E) Availability of low down payment terms and long-term mortgages.
39. New cities which developed in the hinterland of large urban areas because of the automobile, are known as…
A) edge cities B) census tracts C) suburban sprawl D) squatter settlements. E) none of these
40. Gentrification refers to… A) moving the homeless into inner city shelters B) The “White Flight” from the urban city
C) losing tax revenue because of stores closing in downtown areas D) middle-class people moving into and renovating
inner city neighborhoods E) the creation of “beltway cities” around the city.

72

4
7
3

5

1
6

2

41-48 all use the sketch above.
41. The sketch in box A above represents which model of the inner structure of urban areas?
C) multiple nuclei model D) Burgess concentric zone model E) peripheral model
42. The models in boxes B and C represent A) Concentric zone and multiple nuclei
concentric zone D) peripheral and concentric zone E) Von Thunen and peripheral

A) Hoyt sector model B) VonThunen’s model

B) Multiple nuclei and Hoyt sector C) Hoyt sector and

43. In which ring (1, 2, etc.) of sketch A above would high-status households in North American cities likely live? A) 1 B) 2 C) 3 D) 4&5
44. In which ring (1, 2, etc.) of sketch A above would high status households in a European city likely live? A) 1

B) 2

C) 3

D) 4&5

45. In model B, zone # 2 is where it is likely because of: A) greenbelting B) squatter settling C) the culture of poverty D) transportation
E) no one knows
46. The model in sketch B is the; A) Hoyt sector model B) Burgess model C) multiple nuclei model D) peripheral model
47. The model in sketch C is the; A) Hoyt sector model B) Burgess model C) multiple nuclei model D) peripheral model
48. Which of these models best describes what has happened in US cities in the last 40 years? A)

B)

C)

73

49.*** In the U.S. a city plus its contiguous built-up suburbs is known as an…A) urbanized area B) zoned area
C) census tract D) Squatter settlement E) none of these
50. Done mostly in Europe, these are areas where land is kept as parks, farms or other kinds of open space and urban
sprawl is not allowed. A) Smart growth
B) zoning
C) filtering
D) census tracts E) greenbelts
51. Which statement best describes the relationship between urbanization and the Industrial Revolution?
A) Urbanization promoted the Industrial Revolution. B) The Industrial Revolution promoted urbanization.
C) Urbanization preceded the Industrial Revolution by thousands of years. D) Urbanization and the Industrial
Revolution are no longer related.
52. The process whereby an increasing percentage of people live in an urban area is known as…
A) Demographic transition. B) rank-size rule. C) Urbanization. D) Central place theory.
53. The city (if it has 50,000 or more people) plus its contiguous built-up suburbs AND the county it is in as well as any
other counties it influences, is known as the ...A) central city B) urbanized area
C) metropolitan statistical area
D) consolidated metropolitan area E) micropolitan statistical area
54. ***Higher social heterogeneity in urban settlements means that …A) the people with whom you relax are probably
the same ones you see at work. B) you play a specialized role in the urban economy. C) you compete for limited
space. D) you may feel lonely and isolated in a crowd.

55. The process of change in the use of a house, from single-family owner occupancy to smaller dwellings for the poor
and then sometimes to abandonment, is…A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining. E) none of
these

74

Free Response #1:
The Bid Rent theory says that the closer you get to the
CBD the higher the cost for land, yet in most American
cities you find the poorest people living near the
expensive CBD and the richest living further away.
Explain:
A. Why neighborhoods near the CBD are often poor and
run down?
B. Why are there few grocery and other retail stores in
these neighborhoods?
C. Why is this not really true in European and Latin
American countries?

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75

FR #2:
Think of the map of your school, explain the
layout of your school using the Multiple Nuclei
Model
The main office is the CBD.
Completely explain your answer using specific
buildings and/or land areas in your explanation
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76

Answer Key:
1. B

14. A

27. C

40. D

53. C

2. B

15. B

28. A

41. D

54. D

3. C

16. B

29. A

42. B

55. B

4. A

17. A

30. D

43. D

5. B

18. B

31. A

44. A

6. A

19. A

32. D

45. D

7. B

20. C

33. B

46. A

8. D

21. D

34. B

47. C

9. D

22. B

35. A

48. C

10. B

23. C

36. E

49. A

11. C

24. C

37. E

50. E

12. A

25. D

38. B

51. B

13. A

26. C

39. A

52. C
77

FR. #1: ( 15 pts. for each section…total of 45 pts.)
A. In the US the move of the wealthy and middle class to the suburbs has left the older houses and apartments near the CBD empty.
This has lowered their value to the point where the poor can afford these dwellings and have made these neighborhoods their
homes. The poor can not pay for upkeep of these dwellings, or to pay high taxes. The lack of upkeep and tax money to repair the
roads and schools, adds to the downward spiral of the neighborhood. With little spending money for shopping, the poor do not
spend much in the stores. This causes many stores to close and move to the suburbs where the spending customers and money
went. The closing of the stores adds to the poverty of the area by taking away some of the jobs that were in the neighborhood. This
becomes a vicious cycle of poverty and deterioration. (15 points)

B. There are few retail stores and groceries is the area because the poor do not have money to shop. The lack of spending forces
many stores out of business or forces them to move to better locations. There also can be higher crime in these areas and the
crime often takes place at the stores. This is another reason for the stores to move out of the neighborhood. (15 points)
C. Neighborhoods in European and Latin American cities are different from those of US cities. In Europe and Latin America, the
wealthy and middle class still live near or in the CBD. The higher tax base and more spending ability of the upper and middle
classes, keeps the CBD area flourishing with jobs and in constant repair and upkeep of the cities’ physical condition. (15 points)

FR #2: (10 total points.)
You will need to judge how effectively you displayed you school
in the Multiple Nuclei Model. Refer to the model itself to help you
determine your success and grade.
School’s main office
78

Calculating your grade on test 13.
Add how many you got correct on the multiple choice part (55 possible) to how many
points you scored on the FR portion (55 possible)…110 total.
The following scale will show the approximate score if this test were the real AP exam. Remember that this
is an approximation. While 65-74% is normally the range for a 3 on the test, it is not definite. Over the
years I have seen scores as low as 60% be the low portion of a 3 score.

Out of 110 possible points:
72-83 is most likely a 3
84-94 is most likely a 4

95-110 is most likely a 5

Now lets start our review for the national exam by
reviewing the 33 key models and theories of the
course…the next PowerPoint.


Slide 20

Key topic/chapter 13…Urban Patterns
Key terms:
Annexation
Concentric zone model
Density gradient
Edge cities
Filtering
Galactic city
Gentrification
Greenbelts
Megalopolis
MSA
Multiple nuclei model
Peripheral model

Public housing
Redlining
Renovated housing
Scattered site
Squatter settlement
Sector model
Smart growth
Sprawl
Underclass
Urban renewal
Zone in transition
Zoning
1

Chapter 13…Urban Areas.
How are Cities planned?
Why

are cities where they are?
How are they organized?
Why are some areas of a city
different from
other areas of the same city?
What is the future of cities?
2

Settlement


Settlement - permanent collections of buildings,
where people live, work, and obtain services

3

ORIGINS OF SETTLEMENTS


Religious - graves, churches, temples



Cultural - schools, libraries



Political/Military - leader’s house, walls



Economic - stores, food
4

TYPES OF SETTLEMENTS


Rural Settlements - agriculture as the
predominant occupation.



Urban settlements - principal industries are
secondary and tertiary.

5

RURAL SETTLEMENTS
Clustered rural settlements –grouped
settlements in rural areas to minimize travel

Dispersed rural Settlements - isolated farms
with enclosed continuous fields (Found only in
N. America and Britain).

6

Urban Geographers want to know the global distribution of urban
settlements. MDC’s have a high percentage of people living in urban
areas because of the shift from agriculture-manufacturing-services.
Geographers are also interested in where people and activities are
distributed within urban spaces. What are the differences between the
inner-city and suburban areas and why?
As we saw in the last chapter, many downtowns are unique and can
often be recognized in photos where the suburbs often look very
much alike (Placelessness). Why? Suburbs offer the chance to avoid
some of the city problems (crime, tight living area, expensive
land/rent, noise, age of buildings) while still keeping a connection with
the goods and services of the city: jobs, sports teams, culture, shops,
recreation, etc.
7

Where is this place?

8

Today’s cities are evolving and changing. Although different internal
situations characterize urban areas in the US and elsewhere, the
problems arising from current spatial trends are quite similar in all cities.
Where have urban areas grown: in the early 1800’s only 3% of the earth’s
people lived in cities and only Beijing China had more than 1 million
people. Today over ½ of the world’s people live in cities and we have over
400 cities of at least 1 million people.

Urbanization: is the process by which city population grows.
Cities population growth is measured in 2 dimensions;
1. An increase in the number of people living in the cities.
2. An increase in the percentage of people living in the cities.
This distinction is important because they happen for different reason and
have different global distributions.
9

Increasing Percentage of People in Cities: a large percentage of people living in urban
areas is a measure of a country’s level of development. In MDC’s about ¾ of the people
live in urban areas compared to about 2/5 of people in LDC’s. (Except in Latin America
where the level is closer to MDC’s.)
The higher percentage of people in urban areas comes from the changes that have
occurred in the last 200 years as we went from agriculture (primary jobs) to industrial
(secondary jobs) and now service jobs, all created by the Industrial Revolution of the
1800’s.
People moved to the cities for industrial jobs, but in MDC’s this process has largely
ended because nearly everyone interested in moving to the cities from farms has already
done so.
In LDC’s the percentage of people living in urban areas is growing as people are pushed
off of their farms and replaced by machines and as people move to cities looking/hoping
for industrial jobs.
10

Increasing Number of People in Cities: MDC’s have a higher percentage of
people living in urban settlements but LDC’s have more of the very large urban
settlements (Primate cities). (Rank-size rule, primate cities, chapter 12.)

This is interesting because typically the large cities are created from the
improvements brought by the Industrial Revolution. This is not the case with the
large LDC cities. Migration to the primate city in LDC’s is happening even though
job opportunities may not be available. Increasing the population growth in LDC
cities is the fact that medical services are better in these cities, thus the child
mortality rate is lower.
Defining Urban Settlements: defining where urban areas end and rural areas
begin is not easy. Geographers have formulated definitions that distinguish
between urban and rural areas in two ways: Social differences and Physical
differences.
11

Percent Urban Population

Percent of the population living in urban areas is usually higher in MDCs
than in LDCs.

12

The most populated cities in the world

Of the top
20, only
Moscow,
Tokyo and
New York
are in MDC’s

Shanghai China has 14,608,512 people
13

14

15

Social Differences Between Urban and Rural Settlements: it is fair to say that rural
people and urban people follow different ways of life. A city can be defined as having 3
characteristics:
1. Large size. People in rural settlements know most of the other people in the
settlement. Not true in big cities. Social relationships are often described as “colder” in
urban areas because you only see some people at work instead of growing up with
them in the settlement.
2. High Density. Having lots of people in a tiny area creates social consequences. A
high density of people living in a small area can only be supported if the people
specialize (they can’t all be farmers). People are encouraged to compete for jobs, room,
and survival in a tightly limited space. Social groups compete to occupy the same space
(ethnic/ race problems). Rural settlements have very little of this problem.
3. Social Heterogeneity. The larger the settlement, the greater the variety of people.
Being “unusual” in a large settlement is more likely to be accepted than in a small rural
one. But despite the freedom to be different that large urban settlements give you,
people living there often feel alone because so many people are different from them.
There is a stronger feeling of belonging together in small rural settlements.
16

These 3 differences do not fully answer the question of where urban settlements
begin and rural ones end because in today’s MDC’s most everyone has access to
cars, telephones, televisions, and “urban type” jobs which reduce the differences
between urban and rural lifestyles. “City folk” and “Country folk” are more alike
today than they are different. To help distinguish between urban and rural areas we
need to add the physical definition of rural and urban to the equation.
Physical Definitions of Urban Settlements: In ancient time, cities had defensive
walls for protection which clearly defined the physical boundaries of the city. Today
the walls are gone but we can still define the physical boundaries in 3 ways:
1. Legal boundary. These are the official boundaries of a city as recognized by
the government of the country or state. These “city limits” have been officially given
to the city and are physically marked on official maps. The local government of the
city has authority to make laws and protect the people inside the city boundaries.
17

2. Urbanized area. This is the city plus its suburbs or urbanized area that
surrounds the city. About 70 percent of US residents live in urbanized areas with
40% being in the suburbs and 30% inside the city limits. The suburbs may have
their own city governments but the huge central city dominates what happens in
the entire area.
3. Metropolitan Statistical Area. Cities have an even bigger influence on people
than just those living in their city limits and surrounding urbanized areas. People
from far away come to shop, use the services, support the sports teams, read
the newspapers and watch the television broadcasts of the city. Thus the city
has a “functional area” which is its total zone of influence. The US Bureau of
Census has created a method of measuring the functional area of the city.
Known as the Metropolitan statistical area (MSA) this area includes:
•An urbanized area with a population of at least 50,000
•The county within which the city is located.
•Adjacent counties with a high population density and a large percentage of
residents working in the central city’s county.
18

Metropolitan Area of Philadelphia

City of
Philadelphia

Urbanized
area
(suburbs)
Metropolitan
Statistical
Area

The metropolitan area of Philadelphia is
spread over several counties and four states.
It is also a diversified trade center, given its
position on the Delaware river.

19

20

21

Micropolitan Statistical Areas: Smaller areas with between
10,000 and 50,000 people, the county where it is found, and
adjacent counties tied to the city. This would be a small town and
the area dominated by it.
Overlapping Metropolitan Areas: Some adjacent MSA’s overlap.
A county between two central cities may send a large number of
commuters to jobs in both cities. In some areas the cities are so
close that they form one continuous urban complex. This is
known as a Megalopolis (great city).
In a megalopolis, the downtown CBD often has its own
distinctive look and the urban areas are visually separated by
parks, open spaces, and dairy/truck farms. But at the periphery
of the urban areas, the boundaries overlap.
22

Colorado Springs, population 431,000

Ocala, Florida, population 56,000

Florala, Alabama, population 1,900

23

Megalopolis, from northern Va. To Maine.
This Illustrates the
difference between
strict city proper
definitions and broader
urban agglomerations.
To define urbanized
areas, the U.S. Census
Bureau uses the term
Metropolitan Statistical
Area (MSA) or
Consolidated MSA
(CMSA) if two or more of
them overlap.
24

Where are People Distributed within Urban Areas? People are not
just distributed at random in urban areas. For the most part they
concentrate in particular neighborhoods depending on their social
characteristics. Geographers want to see where people with
particular characteristics are likely to live and why.

Three models which try to explain the growth of a city:

The Burgess Model

The Hoyt Sector Model

The Harris and Ullman
multiple Nuclei Model
25

Burgess Concentric Zone Model

In the concentric zone model, a city grows in a series of rings surrounding the CBD.

Burgess Concentric Zone Model: This is the first used to explain the
distributions of different social groups within urban areas. It says that a
city grows outward from a central place in a series of concentric rings.
The precise size and width of the rings vary from one city to another, but
some basic types of rings appear in all cities in the same order (see chart
above).
26

•Hoyt Sector Model: In this model the city develops in a
series of sectors not rings. Certain areas of the city are
more attractive for various activities, originally because
of an environmental factor (or even pure chance). As the
city grows, activities extend outward in a wedge shape.
For example, once a wealthy neighborhood is built the
next wealthy neighborhood will extend from the first
neighborhood further outward from the center. In this
way, the best housing is found in a corridor extending
outward from the center to the outer edge (see chart on
the next page).
27

The Hoyt Sector Model

In the sector model, a city grows in a series of
wedges or corridors extending out from the
CBD.
28

•Harris and Ullman’s Multiple Nuclei Model: According
to this model, a city is a complex structure that includes
more than one center around which activities revolve.
Examples of these nodes include a port, parks,
stadium, neighborhood business center, university, and
airport (see chart). This theory states that some
activities are attracted to particular nodes, whereas
others try to avoid them. A university node may attract
well educated people and bookstores while the port will
attract hotels and warehouses. Heavy industry and
expensive houses rarely are found together. This
model shows the effect of the automobile more than
any other model.
29

The Harris and Ullman Multiple Nuclei model

The multiple nuclei model views a city as a
collection of individual centers, around which
different people and activities cluster.

30

Applications of the Models: The three models help explain where and in some
cases, why people live where they do. None of the models by themselves fully
explains why and where different types of people live, but combined they give
you as good a look as possible at the “Why” of “Where.” Effective use of the
models depends on getting good data on the areas. Most countries take a
census every 10 years to help determine useful data about the people and
places of the country. In our country we divide the census data into areas
known as census tracts of about 5,000 people. Each census tract has the data
that summarizes the characteristics of the people living within that tract. This
information includes things like the race, income, age, and education of the
people living in that tract.
Social Area Analysis: The data from the census tracts can all be plotted onto
maps to show the characteristics of the people living in that tract. This map is
known as a social area analysis.
31

Using Census tract information…Seattle, Washington
Each lined area is a
census tract of about 5000
people in Seattle
Washington. These maps
show average household
income for 1990 and
2000…note the changes in
income in some areas
between 1990 and 2000.
Using this information, a
business can make
decisions about where
they want to locate a new
store or the future of
existing stores.
You can find census tract
information on many topics
such as; age, education
level, race, ethnicity, crime
rate, and land ownership.
Note the areas with
incomes over
$63,000.

All can be very valuable
information to people
looking to open
businesses.

32

Examine the changes
between 1990 and
2000.

Oakland, California’s Ethnic neighborhoods
The small bordered areas are census tracks of 5000 people.

33

Use of the Models Outside of North America: The 3 models will also work in other
places in the world; however social groups in other countries may not have the
same reasons for selecting particular neighborhoods as Americans do.
European Cities: As in the US, wealthier people in European cities cluster along a
sector extending outward from the CBD, however unlike the US, wealthy and
middle class Europeans still live in the inner rings of the neighborhoods near the
CBD not out in the suburbs. In the past, poorer people lived in the center of the
city. Before electricity, social segregation was vertical: richer people lived on the
first or second floor of a building while the poorer people lived in the basement or
upper floors. In the Industrial Revolution, housing for the poor was constructed
near the factories and away from the rich.
Today poorer Europeans are less likely to live in the inner-city. Poor quality
housing has been renovated for the rich or turned into office buildings. Poorer
Europeans tend to live in the outskirts of the city. Vast suburbs with dozens of high
rise apartments house the poor. They face long commutes to reach their jobs in
the city.
34

European cities generally do not have the “suburban
sprawl” that US cities have. European cities tend to be
more pedestrian friendly with more parks downtown as
Europeans tend to still live downtown.
US cities have taller buildings as European cities tend to
be older and more historic.

American cities have more ethnic neighborhoods than
European cities. Ethnic neighborhoods that do exist in
European cities tend to be in the suburbs. WHY?
Because the established richer neighborhoods tend to be
downtown in European cities.
35

Less Developed Countries: Like Europe, most LDC’s accommodate their poor in the
suburbs with their middle class and rich living near the center of the city. LDC’s have
passed through 3 periods of city building: before the Europeans arrived, during the
period of European colonialism, and since independence from European control.

Pre-colonial Cities: Before the Europeans arrived few cities existed in Africa, Asia, and
Latin America and most people lived in small rural settlements. Those cities that existed
were mostly laid out surrounding a religious center; with the rest of the city laid out in a
hieratical concentric pattern (like the Burgess model) from government buildings,
homes of the wealthy, and businesses related to the religion out to other businesses
and shops.
Colonial cities: When the Europeans took over these lands, they changed the cities by
adding services to help the Europeans control the conquered people. Often a new
European style city would be build next to the existing native one. The new European
cities contained wider streets, a public square, larger houses and a much lower density.
The Spanish used the “Law of the Indies” which was a city plan designed specifically to
build cities in a “Spanish” style. (Gridiron pattern for streets centered on a church and
central plaza, walls around individual houses and neighborhoods centered around
smaller plazas and more churches.)
36

Early Mexico city was laid out in a grid pattern of streets. This followed
the Spanish “Law of the Indies.”

37

Central Plaza in Mexico City 1920 photo. Typical Colonial City plan.

Part of downtown Mexico city today still shows the
building plan of the “Law of the Indies.”

38

Cities since Independence: Following independence, cities have become
the focal point of the development of most LDC’s. Millions of people have
migrated to the cities (Primate cities) looking for jobs and services. Some
capitals have been moved to isolated areas in an attempt to help develop
that area of the country (Brasília) This is know as a forward capital. Latin
American cities have developed their own unique style.
Squatter settlements: The LDC’s are unable to house the rapidly growing
number of poor who are flowing into the cities. Because of the housing
shortages, the poor have constructed their own settlements around the city.
These settlements have few services because neither the city nor the
residents can afford them. Squatters have two basic choices for housing.
1. Illegally move into empty real houses located in the city or,
2. Rent slum housing.
(85% of the population of Addis Ababa in Ethiopia lives in squatter
settlements, slums or other illegal housing.)
39

Squatter shacks in Manila, the Philippines

40

Squatter settlement in Ethiopia

41

Zimbabwe, Africa

42

Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

43

Latin American City Model:
In many Latin
American cities,
the wealthy live in
the inner city and
in a sector
extending along a
commercial spine.
In situ accretion- businesses
and homes constantly under
construction/repair.
Zone of maturity-2nd best
housing in the city.
The poor live in squatter settlements on the
periphery of the city.

Disamenity- unpleasant area
used by the poor to get to the
market.

44

The City Outline of Rio de Janeiro
The rich tourist areas and expensive condo apartments are along the coast
and beach while the poor live in squatter shacks in the hills.

45

City problems:
Inner-City Physical Problems: Most US inner cities were constructed before the 1950’s
(people began to move to the suburbs in the 1950’s so new construction moved out of
the city).
Process of Deterioration (how a city deteriorates): A city doesn’t suddenly become old
and full of slummy areas. It happens over time. When a group of low-income people
inhabit an area of a city, nearby neighborhoods will often look to move out. They sell or
rent to more low-income occupants thus expanding the low-income area. Two processes
cause/speed up the devaluation of areas:
1. Filtering, 2. Redlining.
Filtering: Large houses and buildings that once housed rich downtown workers (who
moved to the suburbs) are taken over by landlords who don’t live in that area (they
moved to the suburbs too). Rents are low so the landlord doesn’t take as good care of
the property as they should and the property becomes run down or abandoned. Stores
close, or move, due to lack of sales. 100 years ago these neighborhoods would be used
by immigrants and ethnic businesses would succeed in those areas. Now, with a decline
in immigration, these neighborhoods have shrunk and so have schools, businesses and
other services. Thousands of vacant houses and buildings stand empty in inner cities
across America.

46

Redlining: Some banks refuse to give loans in what they consider
risky neighborhoods. They draw a red line on a map around areas
where they will not give loans. Without loans, these neighborhoods
have a hard time rebuilding/remodeling. Though illegal, this still
happens. Bankers just don’t put these “no-loan” areas on a map.

Urban Renewal: This is the series of projects to improve European
and N. American cities by buying up the blighted neighborhoods,
moving the people to new government built housing projects, and
building new roads, and other projects to make the inner city
attractive for business again. National and State government grants
help pay for these projects.
47

Public housing: Housing for the poor, built with government funding as part of
urban renewal. In the US this is only about 2% of the housing while in some
countries it may be more (Britain is 30%). Public housing built in the 50’s & 60’s
were largely high rise apartments, but those are seen as being unsatisfactory.
Problems arise from cramming large numbers of poor people into one area.
Today most public housing projects are one to three story buildings with many of
them being scattered around different parts of the city rather than clustered into
one area.
Because urban renewal has been criticized for destroying the social cohesion of
older neighborhoods, many governments (like the US) have stopped funding
most projects since the 1970’s. What do we do instead?
Renovated Housing: An alternative often used since the 70’s is to renovate a
building instead of urban renewal. The process where middle-class people
move into inner-city neighborhoods and renovate them is called gentrification.
Gentrified inner-city neighborhoods also attract middle-class people who work
downtown. Living close to work saves the hassle of commuting and rejuvenates
run down inner-city neighborhoods
48

Gentrified building downtown Harlem, NY. Note the supermarket.

49

Inner-City Social Problems: Inner-city residents are often referred to as the
permanent underclass because they are trapped in an unending cycle of
economic and social problems. High unemployment, alcoholism, drug
addiction, literacy, juvenile delinquency, and crime all exist at a higher rate
among those who live in the inner-city. Lack of jobs means lack of tax dollars
to pay for police and fire protection as well as good schools. Lack of job skills
and homelessness are also tremendous problems.
Culture of Poverty: Inner-city residents are trapped in a permanent underclass
culture that reproduces itself. In the US, unwed mothers give birth to 2/3 of the
babies in the inner-city. 90% of these children live with only one parent and it
is real hard for one parent to keep a job and take care of children. Both suffer
and a shortage of care and daily attention by the parent contributes to the kids
not learning the skills necessary to do well in school which leads to poor jobs
for their futures. Poverty leads to more poverty. Many families on welfare have
only one parent because it is financially better if one parent is gone, that way
the single parent gets food stamps and other services from the government
that they would not get if it was a 2 family household.
50

Crime: Trapped in a hopeless environment, some inner-city
residents turn to drugs. Drug use is a problem in inner-city
areas and the suburbs, but rates of drug use in inner-cities
are the highest.
Ethnic and Racial Segregation: As seen in chapter 7, many
neighborhoods in the US are segregated by ethnicity with
African Americans and Hispanics concentrated in one or two
continuous areas and whites living in the suburbs. Even small
cities display a strong distinction among neighborhoods. A
frequent division is between the east and west or north and
south side of town, or the railroad tracks. A family seeking a
new residence will seek the areas where the characteristics
of the people meet their own.

51

The exodus
from the
American city.
This has
happened in
many American
cities since the
1960’s.

52

Changes in Cities in the U.S.
U.S. population has been moving out of the city centers to the suburbs:
suburbanization and counter urbanization

Developed Countries: suburbanization

 wealthy move to suburbs
 automobiles and roads; ‘American
Dream’ of the home in the suburbs.
 better services
 wealthy move to suburbs
Counter urbanization

idyllic settings
cost of land for retirement
slow pace, yet high tech
connections to services and markets
53

U.S. intraregional migration during 1990s.

Inner city economic problems: the concentration of low income
residents in inner cities has caused economic problems. These
people require public services but can pay very little in taxes to
support the services. They need stores and jobs but have little
money to spend in the store and few skills for jobs (so the stores
close). To try to fight these problems many local and state
governments use tax monies to try to renovate these areas, but this
shifts tax money needed for other areas to the inner city (votes on
election day).
Annexation: Many cities could help their tax problem by adding the
new suburbs to be part of their city (annexation). After all, many of
these suburban people use the city for its’ jobs etc., so why not add
them into the city? Today, most people in the suburbs do not want
to be annexed into the city and so they do not vote to be annexed.
54

The Peripheral Model: According to this model, an urban area
consists of an inner city surrounded by large suburban residential
and business areas (MSA) tied together by a beltway or highway
that circles the city. Around the beltway are nodes of consumer
and business services called edge cities (see diagram of multiple
nuclei model). These edge cities sprang up to provide services
and jobs to the people in the suburbs.
Density Gradient: As you travel outward from the center of the
city, the density of people declines. Inner city has big apartments
of 250 of more people per acre. Suburbs have fewer people per
acre (but lots of acres) and finally you leave the cities periphery
you find few people. The number of houses per unit of land
diminishes as distance from the center of the city increases.
55

The Edge cities (bedroom communities) of Houston

The central city is surrounded by a ring road, around which are
suburban areas and edge cities, shopping malls, office parks,
industrial areas, and service complexes.

Known as
bedroom
communities
because
people live
there but
mostly don’t
work there.
They drive
into the city
for work.
56

As you move from the center of the city outward, the density of the population
changes. This is know as the density gradient. Two big changes have occurred in
the density gradient of today’s cities:
1. The number of people living in the center has decreased.
2. The density difference between the inner city and the suburbs is declining
because the inner city density is dropping and the suburban density is growing
due to more large apartments being built in the suburbs.
Cost of Suburban or Urban Sprawl: Urban Sprawl is the progressive spread of
development over the landscape. As long as we Americans want single-family
detached houses, land on the fringe of urban areas will be converted from open
space to residential use. The cost of this growth is more than the loss of land, it is
also the cost of new roads, utilities, building stores and offices and the cost of
automobiles to move these people over even longer distances. Lots of these new
developments are built on what was once farmland. Wonderful productive soil now
under concrete.

Greenbelts: are areas where, by law, the open space can not be used for any
construction. This is mostly found in Europe.

57

Once farmland that is being converted to suburbs and cities.

58

Tyson’s Corner Virginia in 1940

59

Washington, DC. MSA.

Tyson’s Corner Virginia
today.
Washington D.C. is off
In the distance.

60

Suburban Segregation: The “new” segregation.
Suburban segregation takes two forms:
1. Residents are separated from commercial and manufacturing activities
which are confined someplace else. (The whole neighborhood is
nothing but houses because they drive for services.)
2. The price of the house eliminates some from being able to live there. This
creates a homogeneous suburb of the same economic class of people.
This never existed before in history. Where we once had vertical
segregation of the classes we now we have horizontal segregation.
3. But this may be reversing as new statistics show that people are beginning
to move back to the city. Why? Cost of transportation.
Zoning Ordinances: This idea developed in Europe and later America in the
early decades of the 20th century. This means that businesses are allowed only
in certain areas of the settlement. (No all night taco stands inside your single
family neighborhood.)
Motor vehicles: The wide use of the automobile is largely responsible for the
American movement to the suburbs. Not only did people move out but 1/4 of
the land inside all American cities are now roads, streets, and parking lots.

61

Public Transportation: Because few US workers live within walking distance
of their jobs, urban areas are characterized by extensive commuting and the
problems that come with it. As much as 40% of all trips made into or out from
a city during the day takes place within just 4 hours. (2 in the morning and 2 in
the late afternoon). RUSH HOUR!!! In large cities, public transportation, like
subways and busses, are better suited to move people but Americans still
prefer their own cars. Public transportation is cheaper, cleaner, and more
energy efficient than personal cars, yet in the US only 5% of city travel is
done using public transit systems. American’s love their personal car too
much.
Local Government Fragmentation: Because of the large number of local
governments in the US (look at the settlements in Pinellas County) it is
difficult to solve some of the regional problems like garbage disposal, water
management, traffic and public housing.
62

Metropolitan government: This idea tries to put many local governments into a
larger unit that can better handle the urban problems. The 2 ways to do this
are:
1. Federations in which the individual settlements have their own police,
firemen, and tax collection but they all agree to be part of a second
government which handles transportation, water, sewage, parks and
welfare for all the communities.
2. Consolidations: In this method, several cities and the county may form one
government. Jacksonville’s government runs not only the town but the
county too, this makes Jacksonville the largest city, in land size, in the US.
Smart growth: A new movement by many states to curb suburban sprawl by
limiting where new construction can take place. Smart growth laws require that
land near cities be used up before any land further out can be developed. So
far, this is only being done an a few parts of our country.
63

The new
US as
some
people
see it.

64

Quiz Yourself:
1. The process where middle-class people move into inner city neighborhoods and
renovate them is called ____________
2. ____________ happens when banks refuse to give loans in what they consider
risky neighborhoods.
3. Because of the housing shortages, the poor have constructed their own settlements
around the city known as __________ _________

4. Businesses are allowed only in certain areas of the settlement because of
____________ ____________
5. Areas known as _____ _______ are areas of about 5,000 people. The data from
that area is used to help define needed services for that area.
6. When cities are so close that they form one continuous band of development this is
known as a ____________
65

7. Social relationships are often described as “colder” in urban areas because…
8. In this model the city develops in a series of sectors not rings. _______

9. ______ (LDC’s or MDC’s) have a higher percentage of people living in urban
settlements but ________ (LDC’s or MDC’s) have more of the very large urban
settlements.
10. _____________ was the first model developed to explain the distributions
of different social groups within urban areas.
11. New cities which develop around the beltway are nodes of consumer and
business services known as ________ _________.

12. When the Europeans took over lands around the world, they changed the
cities by adding services to help the Europeans control the conquered people.
These European planned cities are known as __________ cities.
66

Answer Key:
1.

Gentrification

2.

Redlining

3.

Squatter Settlements

4.

Zoning ordinances

5.

Census tracks

6.

Megalopolis

7. There is a stronger feeling of belonging together in small rural settlements.
8. Hoyt sector model
9. MDC, LDC
10. Burgess Concentric Zone model
11. Edge cities
12. Colonial cities
67

Test Key topic/chapter 13:
These questions come from a combination of our slides, your text book, and common knowledge you should
have discussed in your AP classroom. They are very typical of what you will see on the National Exam.
1) The multiple nuclei theory best explains why different neighborhoods of a city attract people of different… A) ages.
B) ethnic origin C) income D) marital status.
2) Sprawl is the… A) change in density within an urban area from the center to the periphery B) development of new
housing sites not contiguous to the existing built-up area. C) land maintained as open space surrounding an urban area.
D) period in the morning and evening with the heaviest volumes of traffic.
3) People are attracted to suburbs in part because suburbs are characterized by…A) heavy traffic. B) lower opportunity
for home ownership. C) private land surrounding the house. D) row houses and apartments.
4) Megalopolis refers to… A) adjacent, overlapping Metropolitan Statistical Areas. B) central cities. C) consolidated
Metropolitan Statistical Areas. D) central cities plus urbanized areas.
5) Which statement best describes the relationship between urbanization and the Industrial Revolution? A) Urbanization
promoted the Industrial Revolution. B) The Industrial Revolution promoted urbanization. C) Urbanization preceded the
Industrial Revolution by thousands of years. D) Urbanization and the Industrial Revolution are no longer related.
6) The process of legally adding land area to a city in the United States is… A) annexation. B) accreditation. C) an
application of eminent domain. D) defined by urbanized area.

68

7) The process of change in the use of a house, from single-family owner occupancy to abandonment, is… A) blockbusting.
B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining.
8) A process by which banks designate an area within which they refuse to lend money for improvements is… A) blockbusting.
B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining.
9) A recent change in the density gradient has been… A) the elimination of the gap traditionally found in the center. B) an
increase in the extremes between the inner and outer areas. C) an increase in the number of people living in the center.
D) a reduction in the differences in densities found within an urban area.
10) U.S. central cities face fiscal problems because… A) federal and state funds are available. B) low-income people are
concentrated there. C) middle-class families are attracted there. D) redlining is no longer legal.
11) A legal form of segregation in U.S. cities is achieved through...A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) zoning. D) greenbelts.
12) Factories have moved to suburban locations in part because of… A) access to main highways. B) adequate space to build
vertical structures. C) availability of large tracts of high-priced land. D) good rail connections.
13) According to the sector model, the best housing is located in…A) a corridor from downtown to the edge of the city.
B) an outer ring surrounding the city. C) nodes near universities and parks. D) renovated inner-city neighborhoods.
14) Ramshackle houses on the periphery of cities in less developed countries are known as… A) squatter settlements. B) council
estates. C) public housing. D) zone in transition.
15) Higher income people tend to live near the center of the city in all but which of the following regions? A) Latin America
B) North America C) South Asia D) Western Europe

16) The wide boulevards built in cities in less developed countries were most likely built during what era? A) pre-colonial
B) colonial C) independence D) all of the above equally

69

17) According to the multiple nuclei model, an airport is likely to attract nearby… A) industries. B) residences. C) shops.
D) universities.
18) The largest percentage of the U.S. population lives in…A) central cities. B) suburbs. C) non-metropolitan areas. D) all of the
above
19) In U.S. cities, the underclass is… A) clustered in inner-city neighborhoods. B) dispersed throughout the city. C) clustered in
suburbs. D) distributed uniformly in the city.

20) A process of converting a neighborhood from low-income to middle-class is…A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) gentrification.
D) redlining.
21) Higher social heterogeneity in urban settlements means that… A) the people with whom you relax are probably the same ones you
see at work. B) you play a specialized role in the urban economy. C) you compete for limited space. D) you may feel lonely and
isolated in a crowd.
22) The city plus its contiguous built-up suburbs is the… A) central city. B) urbanized area.
D) consolidated metropolitan statistical area

C) metropolitan statistical area.

23) The process whereby an increasing percentage of people live in an urban area is known as… A) demographic transition.
B) rank-size rule. C) urbanization. D) central place theory.
24) Of the ten largest urban areas in the world, how many are in More Developed Countries today? A) 1 B) 4 C) 7 D) 10 E) 2
25) Public housing is…A) conversion of low-income housing to middle-class housing. B) illegally established low-income housing.
C) housing that has changed from single-family owner occupancy to abandonment. D) low-income government-owned housing.
26) According to the concentric zone model, a city develops in a series of… A) corridors. B) nodes. C) rings. D) all of the above

70

27) Chicago is a good location in which to develop urban models because it is located… A) at the hub of the nation's transportation
system. B) in the center of the country. C) on a flat prairie. D) on the shore of Lake Michigan.
28) According to the sector model, the best housing is located in… A) a corridor from downtown to the edge of the city. B) an outer
ring surrounding the city. C) nodes near universities and parks. D) renovated inner-city neighborhoods.
29) The zone of transition in US cities generally contain…A) warehouses B) wealthy neighborhoods C) transportation hubs
D) universities and hospitals E) suburban homes
30) The attractions of shopping malls include all but which of the following? A) frequent concerts and exhibitions B) generous
parking lots C) place to meet friends D) walking distance from homes
The following questions are written at the high school level. You will find some questions from part one often rewritten
here. This is all designed to help you transition to the college/AP style of written questions. Any question preceded with ***
are questions that have been on the national exam before.
31. Most Latin American cities are focused on a…A) central plaza B) government housing project C) zone of heavy industry
D) skyscraper office building E) squatter settlement
32. The multiple-nuclei model of a city structure tends to be most applicable to…A) small cities B) traditional C) Latin American
cities D) newer, fast growing cities E) cities with homogeneous land use
33. ***Locational advantages important to the development of the earliest cities include…A) availability of good harbors for large
ships B) productive agricultural land and defensible sites C) temperate climate and proximity to coal mines D) good
connections by road and canal E) proximity to manufacturing areas

34. In cities, the CBD’s often show uniqueness while the suburbs usually show…A) a large hinterland. B) placelessness C) more
than one node. D) newer zones of transition.

71

35. Many LDC’s have tried to help a previously under-developed part of their country develop by moving their capital
city to that area. This new capital is known as a…A) forward capital B) new development zone C) enterprise zone
D) neocolonial city
36. Today the greatest number of urban dwellers is found in…A) North America
D) Europe E) Asia

B) South America C) Africa

37. ***All of the following have helped create ghettos in North American cities except…A)blockbusting and racial
steering B) redlining by financial institutions C) concentration of public housing and social services D) fixed school
districts E) Economic Enterprise Zones

38. Which of the following is NOT as reason for rapid suburbanization in the US after WW2? A) Mass production of
the automobile B) Reduction of long distance commuting C) Expansion of home construction D) Expansion of the
interstate highway system E) Availability of low down payment terms and long-term mortgages.
39. New cities which developed in the hinterland of large urban areas because of the automobile, are known as…
A) edge cities B) census tracts C) suburban sprawl D) squatter settlements. E) none of these
40. Gentrification refers to… A) moving the homeless into inner city shelters B) The “White Flight” from the urban city
C) losing tax revenue because of stores closing in downtown areas D) middle-class people moving into and renovating
inner city neighborhoods E) the creation of “beltway cities” around the city.

72

4
7
3

5

1
6

2

41-48 all use the sketch above.
41. The sketch in box A above represents which model of the inner structure of urban areas?
C) multiple nuclei model D) Burgess concentric zone model E) peripheral model
42. The models in boxes B and C represent A) Concentric zone and multiple nuclei
concentric zone D) peripheral and concentric zone E) Von Thunen and peripheral

A) Hoyt sector model B) VonThunen’s model

B) Multiple nuclei and Hoyt sector C) Hoyt sector and

43. In which ring (1, 2, etc.) of sketch A above would high-status households in North American cities likely live? A) 1 B) 2 C) 3 D) 4&5
44. In which ring (1, 2, etc.) of sketch A above would high status households in a European city likely live? A) 1

B) 2

C) 3

D) 4&5

45. In model B, zone # 2 is where it is likely because of: A) greenbelting B) squatter settling C) the culture of poverty D) transportation
E) no one knows
46. The model in sketch B is the; A) Hoyt sector model B) Burgess model C) multiple nuclei model D) peripheral model
47. The model in sketch C is the; A) Hoyt sector model B) Burgess model C) multiple nuclei model D) peripheral model
48. Which of these models best describes what has happened in US cities in the last 40 years? A)

B)

C)

73

49.*** In the U.S. a city plus its contiguous built-up suburbs is known as an…A) urbanized area B) zoned area
C) census tract D) Squatter settlement E) none of these
50. Done mostly in Europe, these are areas where land is kept as parks, farms or other kinds of open space and urban
sprawl is not allowed. A) Smart growth
B) zoning
C) filtering
D) census tracts E) greenbelts
51. Which statement best describes the relationship between urbanization and the Industrial Revolution?
A) Urbanization promoted the Industrial Revolution. B) The Industrial Revolution promoted urbanization.
C) Urbanization preceded the Industrial Revolution by thousands of years. D) Urbanization and the Industrial
Revolution are no longer related.
52. The process whereby an increasing percentage of people live in an urban area is known as…
A) Demographic transition. B) rank-size rule. C) Urbanization. D) Central place theory.
53. The city (if it has 50,000 or more people) plus its contiguous built-up suburbs AND the county it is in as well as any
other counties it influences, is known as the ...A) central city B) urbanized area
C) metropolitan statistical area
D) consolidated metropolitan area E) micropolitan statistical area
54. ***Higher social heterogeneity in urban settlements means that …A) the people with whom you relax are probably
the same ones you see at work. B) you play a specialized role in the urban economy. C) you compete for limited
space. D) you may feel lonely and isolated in a crowd.

55. The process of change in the use of a house, from single-family owner occupancy to smaller dwellings for the poor
and then sometimes to abandonment, is…A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining. E) none of
these

74

Free Response #1:
The Bid Rent theory says that the closer you get to the
CBD the higher the cost for land, yet in most American
cities you find the poorest people living near the
expensive CBD and the richest living further away.
Explain:
A. Why neighborhoods near the CBD are often poor and
run down?
B. Why are there few grocery and other retail stores in
these neighborhoods?
C. Why is this not really true in European and Latin
American countries?

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FR #2:
Think of the map of your school, explain the
layout of your school using the Multiple Nuclei
Model
The main office is the CBD.
Completely explain your answer using specific
buildings and/or land areas in your explanation
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76

Answer Key:
1. B

14. A

27. C

40. D

53. C

2. B

15. B

28. A

41. D

54. D

3. C

16. B

29. A

42. B

55. B

4. A

17. A

30. D

43. D

5. B

18. B

31. A

44. A

6. A

19. A

32. D

45. D

7. B

20. C

33. B

46. A

8. D

21. D

34. B

47. C

9. D

22. B

35. A

48. C

10. B

23. C

36. E

49. A

11. C

24. C

37. E

50. E

12. A

25. D

38. B

51. B

13. A

26. C

39. A

52. C
77

FR. #1: ( 15 pts. for each section…total of 45 pts.)
A. In the US the move of the wealthy and middle class to the suburbs has left the older houses and apartments near the CBD empty.
This has lowered their value to the point where the poor can afford these dwellings and have made these neighborhoods their
homes. The poor can not pay for upkeep of these dwellings, or to pay high taxes. The lack of upkeep and tax money to repair the
roads and schools, adds to the downward spiral of the neighborhood. With little spending money for shopping, the poor do not
spend much in the stores. This causes many stores to close and move to the suburbs where the spending customers and money
went. The closing of the stores adds to the poverty of the area by taking away some of the jobs that were in the neighborhood. This
becomes a vicious cycle of poverty and deterioration. (15 points)

B. There are few retail stores and groceries is the area because the poor do not have money to shop. The lack of spending forces
many stores out of business or forces them to move to better locations. There also can be higher crime in these areas and the
crime often takes place at the stores. This is another reason for the stores to move out of the neighborhood. (15 points)
C. Neighborhoods in European and Latin American cities are different from those of US cities. In Europe and Latin America, the
wealthy and middle class still live near or in the CBD. The higher tax base and more spending ability of the upper and middle
classes, keeps the CBD area flourishing with jobs and in constant repair and upkeep of the cities’ physical condition. (15 points)

FR #2: (10 total points.)
You will need to judge how effectively you displayed you school
in the Multiple Nuclei Model. Refer to the model itself to help you
determine your success and grade.
School’s main office
78

Calculating your grade on test 13.
Add how many you got correct on the multiple choice part (55 possible) to how many
points you scored on the FR portion (55 possible)…110 total.
The following scale will show the approximate score if this test were the real AP exam. Remember that this
is an approximation. While 65-74% is normally the range for a 3 on the test, it is not definite. Over the
years I have seen scores as low as 60% be the low portion of a 3 score.

Out of 110 possible points:
72-83 is most likely a 3
84-94 is most likely a 4

95-110 is most likely a 5

Now lets start our review for the national exam by
reviewing the 33 key models and theories of the
course…the next PowerPoint.


Slide 21

Key topic/chapter 13…Urban Patterns
Key terms:
Annexation
Concentric zone model
Density gradient
Edge cities
Filtering
Galactic city
Gentrification
Greenbelts
Megalopolis
MSA
Multiple nuclei model
Peripheral model

Public housing
Redlining
Renovated housing
Scattered site
Squatter settlement
Sector model
Smart growth
Sprawl
Underclass
Urban renewal
Zone in transition
Zoning
1

Chapter 13…Urban Areas.
How are Cities planned?
Why

are cities where they are?
How are they organized?
Why are some areas of a city
different from
other areas of the same city?
What is the future of cities?
2

Settlement


Settlement - permanent collections of buildings,
where people live, work, and obtain services

3

ORIGINS OF SETTLEMENTS


Religious - graves, churches, temples



Cultural - schools, libraries



Political/Military - leader’s house, walls



Economic - stores, food
4

TYPES OF SETTLEMENTS


Rural Settlements - agriculture as the
predominant occupation.



Urban settlements - principal industries are
secondary and tertiary.

5

RURAL SETTLEMENTS
Clustered rural settlements –grouped
settlements in rural areas to minimize travel

Dispersed rural Settlements - isolated farms
with enclosed continuous fields (Found only in
N. America and Britain).

6

Urban Geographers want to know the global distribution of urban
settlements. MDC’s have a high percentage of people living in urban
areas because of the shift from agriculture-manufacturing-services.
Geographers are also interested in where people and activities are
distributed within urban spaces. What are the differences between the
inner-city and suburban areas and why?
As we saw in the last chapter, many downtowns are unique and can
often be recognized in photos where the suburbs often look very
much alike (Placelessness). Why? Suburbs offer the chance to avoid
some of the city problems (crime, tight living area, expensive
land/rent, noise, age of buildings) while still keeping a connection with
the goods and services of the city: jobs, sports teams, culture, shops,
recreation, etc.
7

Where is this place?

8

Today’s cities are evolving and changing. Although different internal
situations characterize urban areas in the US and elsewhere, the
problems arising from current spatial trends are quite similar in all cities.
Where have urban areas grown: in the early 1800’s only 3% of the earth’s
people lived in cities and only Beijing China had more than 1 million
people. Today over ½ of the world’s people live in cities and we have over
400 cities of at least 1 million people.

Urbanization: is the process by which city population grows.
Cities population growth is measured in 2 dimensions;
1. An increase in the number of people living in the cities.
2. An increase in the percentage of people living in the cities.
This distinction is important because they happen for different reason and
have different global distributions.
9

Increasing Percentage of People in Cities: a large percentage of people living in urban
areas is a measure of a country’s level of development. In MDC’s about ¾ of the people
live in urban areas compared to about 2/5 of people in LDC’s. (Except in Latin America
where the level is closer to MDC’s.)
The higher percentage of people in urban areas comes from the changes that have
occurred in the last 200 years as we went from agriculture (primary jobs) to industrial
(secondary jobs) and now service jobs, all created by the Industrial Revolution of the
1800’s.
People moved to the cities for industrial jobs, but in MDC’s this process has largely
ended because nearly everyone interested in moving to the cities from farms has already
done so.
In LDC’s the percentage of people living in urban areas is growing as people are pushed
off of their farms and replaced by machines and as people move to cities looking/hoping
for industrial jobs.
10

Increasing Number of People in Cities: MDC’s have a higher percentage of
people living in urban settlements but LDC’s have more of the very large urban
settlements (Primate cities). (Rank-size rule, primate cities, chapter 12.)

This is interesting because typically the large cities are created from the
improvements brought by the Industrial Revolution. This is not the case with the
large LDC cities. Migration to the primate city in LDC’s is happening even though
job opportunities may not be available. Increasing the population growth in LDC
cities is the fact that medical services are better in these cities, thus the child
mortality rate is lower.
Defining Urban Settlements: defining where urban areas end and rural areas
begin is not easy. Geographers have formulated definitions that distinguish
between urban and rural areas in two ways: Social differences and Physical
differences.
11

Percent Urban Population

Percent of the population living in urban areas is usually higher in MDCs
than in LDCs.

12

The most populated cities in the world

Of the top
20, only
Moscow,
Tokyo and
New York
are in MDC’s

Shanghai China has 14,608,512 people
13

14

15

Social Differences Between Urban and Rural Settlements: it is fair to say that rural
people and urban people follow different ways of life. A city can be defined as having 3
characteristics:
1. Large size. People in rural settlements know most of the other people in the
settlement. Not true in big cities. Social relationships are often described as “colder” in
urban areas because you only see some people at work instead of growing up with
them in the settlement.
2. High Density. Having lots of people in a tiny area creates social consequences. A
high density of people living in a small area can only be supported if the people
specialize (they can’t all be farmers). People are encouraged to compete for jobs, room,
and survival in a tightly limited space. Social groups compete to occupy the same space
(ethnic/ race problems). Rural settlements have very little of this problem.
3. Social Heterogeneity. The larger the settlement, the greater the variety of people.
Being “unusual” in a large settlement is more likely to be accepted than in a small rural
one. But despite the freedom to be different that large urban settlements give you,
people living there often feel alone because so many people are different from them.
There is a stronger feeling of belonging together in small rural settlements.
16

These 3 differences do not fully answer the question of where urban settlements
begin and rural ones end because in today’s MDC’s most everyone has access to
cars, telephones, televisions, and “urban type” jobs which reduce the differences
between urban and rural lifestyles. “City folk” and “Country folk” are more alike
today than they are different. To help distinguish between urban and rural areas we
need to add the physical definition of rural and urban to the equation.
Physical Definitions of Urban Settlements: In ancient time, cities had defensive
walls for protection which clearly defined the physical boundaries of the city. Today
the walls are gone but we can still define the physical boundaries in 3 ways:
1. Legal boundary. These are the official boundaries of a city as recognized by
the government of the country or state. These “city limits” have been officially given
to the city and are physically marked on official maps. The local government of the
city has authority to make laws and protect the people inside the city boundaries.
17

2. Urbanized area. This is the city plus its suburbs or urbanized area that
surrounds the city. About 70 percent of US residents live in urbanized areas with
40% being in the suburbs and 30% inside the city limits. The suburbs may have
their own city governments but the huge central city dominates what happens in
the entire area.
3. Metropolitan Statistical Area. Cities have an even bigger influence on people
than just those living in their city limits and surrounding urbanized areas. People
from far away come to shop, use the services, support the sports teams, read
the newspapers and watch the television broadcasts of the city. Thus the city
has a “functional area” which is its total zone of influence. The US Bureau of
Census has created a method of measuring the functional area of the city.
Known as the Metropolitan statistical area (MSA) this area includes:
•An urbanized area with a population of at least 50,000
•The county within which the city is located.
•Adjacent counties with a high population density and a large percentage of
residents working in the central city’s county.
18

Metropolitan Area of Philadelphia

City of
Philadelphia

Urbanized
area
(suburbs)
Metropolitan
Statistical
Area

The metropolitan area of Philadelphia is
spread over several counties and four states.
It is also a diversified trade center, given its
position on the Delaware river.

19

20

21

Micropolitan Statistical Areas: Smaller areas with between
10,000 and 50,000 people, the county where it is found, and
adjacent counties tied to the city. This would be a small town and
the area dominated by it.
Overlapping Metropolitan Areas: Some adjacent MSA’s overlap.
A county between two central cities may send a large number of
commuters to jobs in both cities. In some areas the cities are so
close that they form one continuous urban complex. This is
known as a Megalopolis (great city).
In a megalopolis, the downtown CBD often has its own
distinctive look and the urban areas are visually separated by
parks, open spaces, and dairy/truck farms. But at the periphery
of the urban areas, the boundaries overlap.
22

Colorado Springs, population 431,000

Ocala, Florida, population 56,000

Florala, Alabama, population 1,900

23

Megalopolis, from northern Va. To Maine.
This Illustrates the
difference between
strict city proper
definitions and broader
urban agglomerations.
To define urbanized
areas, the U.S. Census
Bureau uses the term
Metropolitan Statistical
Area (MSA) or
Consolidated MSA
(CMSA) if two or more of
them overlap.
24

Where are People Distributed within Urban Areas? People are not
just distributed at random in urban areas. For the most part they
concentrate in particular neighborhoods depending on their social
characteristics. Geographers want to see where people with
particular characteristics are likely to live and why.

Three models which try to explain the growth of a city:

The Burgess Model

The Hoyt Sector Model

The Harris and Ullman
multiple Nuclei Model
25

Burgess Concentric Zone Model

In the concentric zone model, a city grows in a series of rings surrounding the CBD.

Burgess Concentric Zone Model: This is the first used to explain the
distributions of different social groups within urban areas. It says that a
city grows outward from a central place in a series of concentric rings.
The precise size and width of the rings vary from one city to another, but
some basic types of rings appear in all cities in the same order (see chart
above).
26

•Hoyt Sector Model: In this model the city develops in a
series of sectors not rings. Certain areas of the city are
more attractive for various activities, originally because
of an environmental factor (or even pure chance). As the
city grows, activities extend outward in a wedge shape.
For example, once a wealthy neighborhood is built the
next wealthy neighborhood will extend from the first
neighborhood further outward from the center. In this
way, the best housing is found in a corridor extending
outward from the center to the outer edge (see chart on
the next page).
27

The Hoyt Sector Model

In the sector model, a city grows in a series of
wedges or corridors extending out from the
CBD.
28

•Harris and Ullman’s Multiple Nuclei Model: According
to this model, a city is a complex structure that includes
more than one center around which activities revolve.
Examples of these nodes include a port, parks,
stadium, neighborhood business center, university, and
airport (see chart). This theory states that some
activities are attracted to particular nodes, whereas
others try to avoid them. A university node may attract
well educated people and bookstores while the port will
attract hotels and warehouses. Heavy industry and
expensive houses rarely are found together. This
model shows the effect of the automobile more than
any other model.
29

The Harris and Ullman Multiple Nuclei model

The multiple nuclei model views a city as a
collection of individual centers, around which
different people and activities cluster.

30

Applications of the Models: The three models help explain where and in some
cases, why people live where they do. None of the models by themselves fully
explains why and where different types of people live, but combined they give
you as good a look as possible at the “Why” of “Where.” Effective use of the
models depends on getting good data on the areas. Most countries take a
census every 10 years to help determine useful data about the people and
places of the country. In our country we divide the census data into areas
known as census tracts of about 5,000 people. Each census tract has the data
that summarizes the characteristics of the people living within that tract. This
information includes things like the race, income, age, and education of the
people living in that tract.
Social Area Analysis: The data from the census tracts can all be plotted onto
maps to show the characteristics of the people living in that tract. This map is
known as a social area analysis.
31

Using Census tract information…Seattle, Washington
Each lined area is a
census tract of about 5000
people in Seattle
Washington. These maps
show average household
income for 1990 and
2000…note the changes in
income in some areas
between 1990 and 2000.
Using this information, a
business can make
decisions about where
they want to locate a new
store or the future of
existing stores.
You can find census tract
information on many topics
such as; age, education
level, race, ethnicity, crime
rate, and land ownership.
Note the areas with
incomes over
$63,000.

All can be very valuable
information to people
looking to open
businesses.

32

Examine the changes
between 1990 and
2000.

Oakland, California’s Ethnic neighborhoods
The small bordered areas are census tracks of 5000 people.

33

Use of the Models Outside of North America: The 3 models will also work in other
places in the world; however social groups in other countries may not have the
same reasons for selecting particular neighborhoods as Americans do.
European Cities: As in the US, wealthier people in European cities cluster along a
sector extending outward from the CBD, however unlike the US, wealthy and
middle class Europeans still live in the inner rings of the neighborhoods near the
CBD not out in the suburbs. In the past, poorer people lived in the center of the
city. Before electricity, social segregation was vertical: richer people lived on the
first or second floor of a building while the poorer people lived in the basement or
upper floors. In the Industrial Revolution, housing for the poor was constructed
near the factories and away from the rich.
Today poorer Europeans are less likely to live in the inner-city. Poor quality
housing has been renovated for the rich or turned into office buildings. Poorer
Europeans tend to live in the outskirts of the city. Vast suburbs with dozens of high
rise apartments house the poor. They face long commutes to reach their jobs in
the city.
34

European cities generally do not have the “suburban
sprawl” that US cities have. European cities tend to be
more pedestrian friendly with more parks downtown as
Europeans tend to still live downtown.
US cities have taller buildings as European cities tend to
be older and more historic.

American cities have more ethnic neighborhoods than
European cities. Ethnic neighborhoods that do exist in
European cities tend to be in the suburbs. WHY?
Because the established richer neighborhoods tend to be
downtown in European cities.
35

Less Developed Countries: Like Europe, most LDC’s accommodate their poor in the
suburbs with their middle class and rich living near the center of the city. LDC’s have
passed through 3 periods of city building: before the Europeans arrived, during the
period of European colonialism, and since independence from European control.

Pre-colonial Cities: Before the Europeans arrived few cities existed in Africa, Asia, and
Latin America and most people lived in small rural settlements. Those cities that existed
were mostly laid out surrounding a religious center; with the rest of the city laid out in a
hieratical concentric pattern (like the Burgess model) from government buildings,
homes of the wealthy, and businesses related to the religion out to other businesses
and shops.
Colonial cities: When the Europeans took over these lands, they changed the cities by
adding services to help the Europeans control the conquered people. Often a new
European style city would be build next to the existing native one. The new European
cities contained wider streets, a public square, larger houses and a much lower density.
The Spanish used the “Law of the Indies” which was a city plan designed specifically to
build cities in a “Spanish” style. (Gridiron pattern for streets centered on a church and
central plaza, walls around individual houses and neighborhoods centered around
smaller plazas and more churches.)
36

Early Mexico city was laid out in a grid pattern of streets. This followed
the Spanish “Law of the Indies.”

37

Central Plaza in Mexico City 1920 photo. Typical Colonial City plan.

Part of downtown Mexico city today still shows the
building plan of the “Law of the Indies.”

38

Cities since Independence: Following independence, cities have become
the focal point of the development of most LDC’s. Millions of people have
migrated to the cities (Primate cities) looking for jobs and services. Some
capitals have been moved to isolated areas in an attempt to help develop
that area of the country (Brasília) This is know as a forward capital. Latin
American cities have developed their own unique style.
Squatter settlements: The LDC’s are unable to house the rapidly growing
number of poor who are flowing into the cities. Because of the housing
shortages, the poor have constructed their own settlements around the city.
These settlements have few services because neither the city nor the
residents can afford them. Squatters have two basic choices for housing.
1. Illegally move into empty real houses located in the city or,
2. Rent slum housing.
(85% of the population of Addis Ababa in Ethiopia lives in squatter
settlements, slums or other illegal housing.)
39

Squatter shacks in Manila, the Philippines

40

Squatter settlement in Ethiopia

41

Zimbabwe, Africa

42

Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

43

Latin American City Model:
In many Latin
American cities,
the wealthy live in
the inner city and
in a sector
extending along a
commercial spine.
In situ accretion- businesses
and homes constantly under
construction/repair.
Zone of maturity-2nd best
housing in the city.
The poor live in squatter settlements on the
periphery of the city.

Disamenity- unpleasant area
used by the poor to get to the
market.

44

The City Outline of Rio de Janeiro
The rich tourist areas and expensive condo apartments are along the coast
and beach while the poor live in squatter shacks in the hills.

45

City problems:
Inner-City Physical Problems: Most US inner cities were constructed before the 1950’s
(people began to move to the suburbs in the 1950’s so new construction moved out of
the city).
Process of Deterioration (how a city deteriorates): A city doesn’t suddenly become old
and full of slummy areas. It happens over time. When a group of low-income people
inhabit an area of a city, nearby neighborhoods will often look to move out. They sell or
rent to more low-income occupants thus expanding the low-income area. Two processes
cause/speed up the devaluation of areas:
1. Filtering, 2. Redlining.
Filtering: Large houses and buildings that once housed rich downtown workers (who
moved to the suburbs) are taken over by landlords who don’t live in that area (they
moved to the suburbs too). Rents are low so the landlord doesn’t take as good care of
the property as they should and the property becomes run down or abandoned. Stores
close, or move, due to lack of sales. 100 years ago these neighborhoods would be used
by immigrants and ethnic businesses would succeed in those areas. Now, with a decline
in immigration, these neighborhoods have shrunk and so have schools, businesses and
other services. Thousands of vacant houses and buildings stand empty in inner cities
across America.

46

Redlining: Some banks refuse to give loans in what they consider
risky neighborhoods. They draw a red line on a map around areas
where they will not give loans. Without loans, these neighborhoods
have a hard time rebuilding/remodeling. Though illegal, this still
happens. Bankers just don’t put these “no-loan” areas on a map.

Urban Renewal: This is the series of projects to improve European
and N. American cities by buying up the blighted neighborhoods,
moving the people to new government built housing projects, and
building new roads, and other projects to make the inner city
attractive for business again. National and State government grants
help pay for these projects.
47

Public housing: Housing for the poor, built with government funding as part of
urban renewal. In the US this is only about 2% of the housing while in some
countries it may be more (Britain is 30%). Public housing built in the 50’s & 60’s
were largely high rise apartments, but those are seen as being unsatisfactory.
Problems arise from cramming large numbers of poor people into one area.
Today most public housing projects are one to three story buildings with many of
them being scattered around different parts of the city rather than clustered into
one area.
Because urban renewal has been criticized for destroying the social cohesion of
older neighborhoods, many governments (like the US) have stopped funding
most projects since the 1970’s. What do we do instead?
Renovated Housing: An alternative often used since the 70’s is to renovate a
building instead of urban renewal. The process where middle-class people
move into inner-city neighborhoods and renovate them is called gentrification.
Gentrified inner-city neighborhoods also attract middle-class people who work
downtown. Living close to work saves the hassle of commuting and rejuvenates
run down inner-city neighborhoods
48

Gentrified building downtown Harlem, NY. Note the supermarket.

49

Inner-City Social Problems: Inner-city residents are often referred to as the
permanent underclass because they are trapped in an unending cycle of
economic and social problems. High unemployment, alcoholism, drug
addiction, literacy, juvenile delinquency, and crime all exist at a higher rate
among those who live in the inner-city. Lack of jobs means lack of tax dollars
to pay for police and fire protection as well as good schools. Lack of job skills
and homelessness are also tremendous problems.
Culture of Poverty: Inner-city residents are trapped in a permanent underclass
culture that reproduces itself. In the US, unwed mothers give birth to 2/3 of the
babies in the inner-city. 90% of these children live with only one parent and it
is real hard for one parent to keep a job and take care of children. Both suffer
and a shortage of care and daily attention by the parent contributes to the kids
not learning the skills necessary to do well in school which leads to poor jobs
for their futures. Poverty leads to more poverty. Many families on welfare have
only one parent because it is financially better if one parent is gone, that way
the single parent gets food stamps and other services from the government
that they would not get if it was a 2 family household.
50

Crime: Trapped in a hopeless environment, some inner-city
residents turn to drugs. Drug use is a problem in inner-city
areas and the suburbs, but rates of drug use in inner-cities
are the highest.
Ethnic and Racial Segregation: As seen in chapter 7, many
neighborhoods in the US are segregated by ethnicity with
African Americans and Hispanics concentrated in one or two
continuous areas and whites living in the suburbs. Even small
cities display a strong distinction among neighborhoods. A
frequent division is between the east and west or north and
south side of town, or the railroad tracks. A family seeking a
new residence will seek the areas where the characteristics
of the people meet their own.

51

The exodus
from the
American city.
This has
happened in
many American
cities since the
1960’s.

52

Changes in Cities in the U.S.
U.S. population has been moving out of the city centers to the suburbs:
suburbanization and counter urbanization

Developed Countries: suburbanization

 wealthy move to suburbs
 automobiles and roads; ‘American
Dream’ of the home in the suburbs.
 better services
 wealthy move to suburbs
Counter urbanization

idyllic settings
cost of land for retirement
slow pace, yet high tech
connections to services and markets
53

U.S. intraregional migration during 1990s.

Inner city economic problems: the concentration of low income
residents in inner cities has caused economic problems. These
people require public services but can pay very little in taxes to
support the services. They need stores and jobs but have little
money to spend in the store and few skills for jobs (so the stores
close). To try to fight these problems many local and state
governments use tax monies to try to renovate these areas, but this
shifts tax money needed for other areas to the inner city (votes on
election day).
Annexation: Many cities could help their tax problem by adding the
new suburbs to be part of their city (annexation). After all, many of
these suburban people use the city for its’ jobs etc., so why not add
them into the city? Today, most people in the suburbs do not want
to be annexed into the city and so they do not vote to be annexed.
54

The Peripheral Model: According to this model, an urban area
consists of an inner city surrounded by large suburban residential
and business areas (MSA) tied together by a beltway or highway
that circles the city. Around the beltway are nodes of consumer
and business services called edge cities (see diagram of multiple
nuclei model). These edge cities sprang up to provide services
and jobs to the people in the suburbs.
Density Gradient: As you travel outward from the center of the
city, the density of people declines. Inner city has big apartments
of 250 of more people per acre. Suburbs have fewer people per
acre (but lots of acres) and finally you leave the cities periphery
you find few people. The number of houses per unit of land
diminishes as distance from the center of the city increases.
55

The Edge cities (bedroom communities) of Houston

The central city is surrounded by a ring road, around which are
suburban areas and edge cities, shopping malls, office parks,
industrial areas, and service complexes.

Known as
bedroom
communities
because
people live
there but
mostly don’t
work there.
They drive
into the city
for work.
56

As you move from the center of the city outward, the density of the population
changes. This is know as the density gradient. Two big changes have occurred in
the density gradient of today’s cities:
1. The number of people living in the center has decreased.
2. The density difference between the inner city and the suburbs is declining
because the inner city density is dropping and the suburban density is growing
due to more large apartments being built in the suburbs.
Cost of Suburban or Urban Sprawl: Urban Sprawl is the progressive spread of
development over the landscape. As long as we Americans want single-family
detached houses, land on the fringe of urban areas will be converted from open
space to residential use. The cost of this growth is more than the loss of land, it is
also the cost of new roads, utilities, building stores and offices and the cost of
automobiles to move these people over even longer distances. Lots of these new
developments are built on what was once farmland. Wonderful productive soil now
under concrete.

Greenbelts: are areas where, by law, the open space can not be used for any
construction. This is mostly found in Europe.

57

Once farmland that is being converted to suburbs and cities.

58

Tyson’s Corner Virginia in 1940

59

Washington, DC. MSA.

Tyson’s Corner Virginia
today.
Washington D.C. is off
In the distance.

60

Suburban Segregation: The “new” segregation.
Suburban segregation takes two forms:
1. Residents are separated from commercial and manufacturing activities
which are confined someplace else. (The whole neighborhood is
nothing but houses because they drive for services.)
2. The price of the house eliminates some from being able to live there. This
creates a homogeneous suburb of the same economic class of people.
This never existed before in history. Where we once had vertical
segregation of the classes we now we have horizontal segregation.
3. But this may be reversing as new statistics show that people are beginning
to move back to the city. Why? Cost of transportation.
Zoning Ordinances: This idea developed in Europe and later America in the
early decades of the 20th century. This means that businesses are allowed only
in certain areas of the settlement. (No all night taco stands inside your single
family neighborhood.)
Motor vehicles: The wide use of the automobile is largely responsible for the
American movement to the suburbs. Not only did people move out but 1/4 of
the land inside all American cities are now roads, streets, and parking lots.

61

Public Transportation: Because few US workers live within walking distance
of their jobs, urban areas are characterized by extensive commuting and the
problems that come with it. As much as 40% of all trips made into or out from
a city during the day takes place within just 4 hours. (2 in the morning and 2 in
the late afternoon). RUSH HOUR!!! In large cities, public transportation, like
subways and busses, are better suited to move people but Americans still
prefer their own cars. Public transportation is cheaper, cleaner, and more
energy efficient than personal cars, yet in the US only 5% of city travel is
done using public transit systems. American’s love their personal car too
much.
Local Government Fragmentation: Because of the large number of local
governments in the US (look at the settlements in Pinellas County) it is
difficult to solve some of the regional problems like garbage disposal, water
management, traffic and public housing.
62

Metropolitan government: This idea tries to put many local governments into a
larger unit that can better handle the urban problems. The 2 ways to do this
are:
1. Federations in which the individual settlements have their own police,
firemen, and tax collection but they all agree to be part of a second
government which handles transportation, water, sewage, parks and
welfare for all the communities.
2. Consolidations: In this method, several cities and the county may form one
government. Jacksonville’s government runs not only the town but the
county too, this makes Jacksonville the largest city, in land size, in the US.
Smart growth: A new movement by many states to curb suburban sprawl by
limiting where new construction can take place. Smart growth laws require that
land near cities be used up before any land further out can be developed. So
far, this is only being done an a few parts of our country.
63

The new
US as
some
people
see it.

64

Quiz Yourself:
1. The process where middle-class people move into inner city neighborhoods and
renovate them is called ____________
2. ____________ happens when banks refuse to give loans in what they consider
risky neighborhoods.
3. Because of the housing shortages, the poor have constructed their own settlements
around the city known as __________ _________

4. Businesses are allowed only in certain areas of the settlement because of
____________ ____________
5. Areas known as _____ _______ are areas of about 5,000 people. The data from
that area is used to help define needed services for that area.
6. When cities are so close that they form one continuous band of development this is
known as a ____________
65

7. Social relationships are often described as “colder” in urban areas because…
8. In this model the city develops in a series of sectors not rings. _______

9. ______ (LDC’s or MDC’s) have a higher percentage of people living in urban
settlements but ________ (LDC’s or MDC’s) have more of the very large urban
settlements.
10. _____________ was the first model developed to explain the distributions
of different social groups within urban areas.
11. New cities which develop around the beltway are nodes of consumer and
business services known as ________ _________.

12. When the Europeans took over lands around the world, they changed the
cities by adding services to help the Europeans control the conquered people.
These European planned cities are known as __________ cities.
66

Answer Key:
1.

Gentrification

2.

Redlining

3.

Squatter Settlements

4.

Zoning ordinances

5.

Census tracks

6.

Megalopolis

7. There is a stronger feeling of belonging together in small rural settlements.
8. Hoyt sector model
9. MDC, LDC
10. Burgess Concentric Zone model
11. Edge cities
12. Colonial cities
67

Test Key topic/chapter 13:
These questions come from a combination of our slides, your text book, and common knowledge you should
have discussed in your AP classroom. They are very typical of what you will see on the National Exam.
1) The multiple nuclei theory best explains why different neighborhoods of a city attract people of different… A) ages.
B) ethnic origin C) income D) marital status.
2) Sprawl is the… A) change in density within an urban area from the center to the periphery B) development of new
housing sites not contiguous to the existing built-up area. C) land maintained as open space surrounding an urban area.
D) period in the morning and evening with the heaviest volumes of traffic.
3) People are attracted to suburbs in part because suburbs are characterized by…A) heavy traffic. B) lower opportunity
for home ownership. C) private land surrounding the house. D) row houses and apartments.
4) Megalopolis refers to… A) adjacent, overlapping Metropolitan Statistical Areas. B) central cities. C) consolidated
Metropolitan Statistical Areas. D) central cities plus urbanized areas.
5) Which statement best describes the relationship between urbanization and the Industrial Revolution? A) Urbanization
promoted the Industrial Revolution. B) The Industrial Revolution promoted urbanization. C) Urbanization preceded the
Industrial Revolution by thousands of years. D) Urbanization and the Industrial Revolution are no longer related.
6) The process of legally adding land area to a city in the United States is… A) annexation. B) accreditation. C) an
application of eminent domain. D) defined by urbanized area.

68

7) The process of change in the use of a house, from single-family owner occupancy to abandonment, is… A) blockbusting.
B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining.
8) A process by which banks designate an area within which they refuse to lend money for improvements is… A) blockbusting.
B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining.
9) A recent change in the density gradient has been… A) the elimination of the gap traditionally found in the center. B) an
increase in the extremes between the inner and outer areas. C) an increase in the number of people living in the center.
D) a reduction in the differences in densities found within an urban area.
10) U.S. central cities face fiscal problems because… A) federal and state funds are available. B) low-income people are
concentrated there. C) middle-class families are attracted there. D) redlining is no longer legal.
11) A legal form of segregation in U.S. cities is achieved through...A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) zoning. D) greenbelts.
12) Factories have moved to suburban locations in part because of… A) access to main highways. B) adequate space to build
vertical structures. C) availability of large tracts of high-priced land. D) good rail connections.
13) According to the sector model, the best housing is located in…A) a corridor from downtown to the edge of the city.
B) an outer ring surrounding the city. C) nodes near universities and parks. D) renovated inner-city neighborhoods.
14) Ramshackle houses on the periphery of cities in less developed countries are known as… A) squatter settlements. B) council
estates. C) public housing. D) zone in transition.
15) Higher income people tend to live near the center of the city in all but which of the following regions? A) Latin America
B) North America C) South Asia D) Western Europe

16) The wide boulevards built in cities in less developed countries were most likely built during what era? A) pre-colonial
B) colonial C) independence D) all of the above equally

69

17) According to the multiple nuclei model, an airport is likely to attract nearby… A) industries. B) residences. C) shops.
D) universities.
18) The largest percentage of the U.S. population lives in…A) central cities. B) suburbs. C) non-metropolitan areas. D) all of the
above
19) In U.S. cities, the underclass is… A) clustered in inner-city neighborhoods. B) dispersed throughout the city. C) clustered in
suburbs. D) distributed uniformly in the city.

20) A process of converting a neighborhood from low-income to middle-class is…A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) gentrification.
D) redlining.
21) Higher social heterogeneity in urban settlements means that… A) the people with whom you relax are probably the same ones you
see at work. B) you play a specialized role in the urban economy. C) you compete for limited space. D) you may feel lonely and
isolated in a crowd.
22) The city plus its contiguous built-up suburbs is the… A) central city. B) urbanized area.
D) consolidated metropolitan statistical area

C) metropolitan statistical area.

23) The process whereby an increasing percentage of people live in an urban area is known as… A) demographic transition.
B) rank-size rule. C) urbanization. D) central place theory.
24) Of the ten largest urban areas in the world, how many are in More Developed Countries today? A) 1 B) 4 C) 7 D) 10 E) 2
25) Public housing is…A) conversion of low-income housing to middle-class housing. B) illegally established low-income housing.
C) housing that has changed from single-family owner occupancy to abandonment. D) low-income government-owned housing.
26) According to the concentric zone model, a city develops in a series of… A) corridors. B) nodes. C) rings. D) all of the above

70

27) Chicago is a good location in which to develop urban models because it is located… A) at the hub of the nation's transportation
system. B) in the center of the country. C) on a flat prairie. D) on the shore of Lake Michigan.
28) According to the sector model, the best housing is located in… A) a corridor from downtown to the edge of the city. B) an outer
ring surrounding the city. C) nodes near universities and parks. D) renovated inner-city neighborhoods.
29) The zone of transition in US cities generally contain…A) warehouses B) wealthy neighborhoods C) transportation hubs
D) universities and hospitals E) suburban homes
30) The attractions of shopping malls include all but which of the following? A) frequent concerts and exhibitions B) generous
parking lots C) place to meet friends D) walking distance from homes
The following questions are written at the high school level. You will find some questions from part one often rewritten
here. This is all designed to help you transition to the college/AP style of written questions. Any question preceded with ***
are questions that have been on the national exam before.
31. Most Latin American cities are focused on a…A) central plaza B) government housing project C) zone of heavy industry
D) skyscraper office building E) squatter settlement
32. The multiple-nuclei model of a city structure tends to be most applicable to…A) small cities B) traditional C) Latin American
cities D) newer, fast growing cities E) cities with homogeneous land use
33. ***Locational advantages important to the development of the earliest cities include…A) availability of good harbors for large
ships B) productive agricultural land and defensible sites C) temperate climate and proximity to coal mines D) good
connections by road and canal E) proximity to manufacturing areas

34. In cities, the CBD’s often show uniqueness while the suburbs usually show…A) a large hinterland. B) placelessness C) more
than one node. D) newer zones of transition.

71

35. Many LDC’s have tried to help a previously under-developed part of their country develop by moving their capital
city to that area. This new capital is known as a…A) forward capital B) new development zone C) enterprise zone
D) neocolonial city
36. Today the greatest number of urban dwellers is found in…A) North America
D) Europe E) Asia

B) South America C) Africa

37. ***All of the following have helped create ghettos in North American cities except…A)blockbusting and racial
steering B) redlining by financial institutions C) concentration of public housing and social services D) fixed school
districts E) Economic Enterprise Zones

38. Which of the following is NOT as reason for rapid suburbanization in the US after WW2? A) Mass production of
the automobile B) Reduction of long distance commuting C) Expansion of home construction D) Expansion of the
interstate highway system E) Availability of low down payment terms and long-term mortgages.
39. New cities which developed in the hinterland of large urban areas because of the automobile, are known as…
A) edge cities B) census tracts C) suburban sprawl D) squatter settlements. E) none of these
40. Gentrification refers to… A) moving the homeless into inner city shelters B) The “White Flight” from the urban city
C) losing tax revenue because of stores closing in downtown areas D) middle-class people moving into and renovating
inner city neighborhoods E) the creation of “beltway cities” around the city.

72

4
7
3

5

1
6

2

41-48 all use the sketch above.
41. The sketch in box A above represents which model of the inner structure of urban areas?
C) multiple nuclei model D) Burgess concentric zone model E) peripheral model
42. The models in boxes B and C represent A) Concentric zone and multiple nuclei
concentric zone D) peripheral and concentric zone E) Von Thunen and peripheral

A) Hoyt sector model B) VonThunen’s model

B) Multiple nuclei and Hoyt sector C) Hoyt sector and

43. In which ring (1, 2, etc.) of sketch A above would high-status households in North American cities likely live? A) 1 B) 2 C) 3 D) 4&5
44. In which ring (1, 2, etc.) of sketch A above would high status households in a European city likely live? A) 1

B) 2

C) 3

D) 4&5

45. In model B, zone # 2 is where it is likely because of: A) greenbelting B) squatter settling C) the culture of poverty D) transportation
E) no one knows
46. The model in sketch B is the; A) Hoyt sector model B) Burgess model C) multiple nuclei model D) peripheral model
47. The model in sketch C is the; A) Hoyt sector model B) Burgess model C) multiple nuclei model D) peripheral model
48. Which of these models best describes what has happened in US cities in the last 40 years? A)

B)

C)

73

49.*** In the U.S. a city plus its contiguous built-up suburbs is known as an…A) urbanized area B) zoned area
C) census tract D) Squatter settlement E) none of these
50. Done mostly in Europe, these are areas where land is kept as parks, farms or other kinds of open space and urban
sprawl is not allowed. A) Smart growth
B) zoning
C) filtering
D) census tracts E) greenbelts
51. Which statement best describes the relationship between urbanization and the Industrial Revolution?
A) Urbanization promoted the Industrial Revolution. B) The Industrial Revolution promoted urbanization.
C) Urbanization preceded the Industrial Revolution by thousands of years. D) Urbanization and the Industrial
Revolution are no longer related.
52. The process whereby an increasing percentage of people live in an urban area is known as…
A) Demographic transition. B) rank-size rule. C) Urbanization. D) Central place theory.
53. The city (if it has 50,000 or more people) plus its contiguous built-up suburbs AND the county it is in as well as any
other counties it influences, is known as the ...A) central city B) urbanized area
C) metropolitan statistical area
D) consolidated metropolitan area E) micropolitan statistical area
54. ***Higher social heterogeneity in urban settlements means that …A) the people with whom you relax are probably
the same ones you see at work. B) you play a specialized role in the urban economy. C) you compete for limited
space. D) you may feel lonely and isolated in a crowd.

55. The process of change in the use of a house, from single-family owner occupancy to smaller dwellings for the poor
and then sometimes to abandonment, is…A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining. E) none of
these

74

Free Response #1:
The Bid Rent theory says that the closer you get to the
CBD the higher the cost for land, yet in most American
cities you find the poorest people living near the
expensive CBD and the richest living further away.
Explain:
A. Why neighborhoods near the CBD are often poor and
run down?
B. Why are there few grocery and other retail stores in
these neighborhoods?
C. Why is this not really true in European and Latin
American countries?

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75

FR #2:
Think of the map of your school, explain the
layout of your school using the Multiple Nuclei
Model
The main office is the CBD.
Completely explain your answer using specific
buildings and/or land areas in your explanation
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76

Answer Key:
1. B

14. A

27. C

40. D

53. C

2. B

15. B

28. A

41. D

54. D

3. C

16. B

29. A

42. B

55. B

4. A

17. A

30. D

43. D

5. B

18. B

31. A

44. A

6. A

19. A

32. D

45. D

7. B

20. C

33. B

46. A

8. D

21. D

34. B

47. C

9. D

22. B

35. A

48. C

10. B

23. C

36. E

49. A

11. C

24. C

37. E

50. E

12. A

25. D

38. B

51. B

13. A

26. C

39. A

52. C
77

FR. #1: ( 15 pts. for each section…total of 45 pts.)
A. In the US the move of the wealthy and middle class to the suburbs has left the older houses and apartments near the CBD empty.
This has lowered their value to the point where the poor can afford these dwellings and have made these neighborhoods their
homes. The poor can not pay for upkeep of these dwellings, or to pay high taxes. The lack of upkeep and tax money to repair the
roads and schools, adds to the downward spiral of the neighborhood. With little spending money for shopping, the poor do not
spend much in the stores. This causes many stores to close and move to the suburbs where the spending customers and money
went. The closing of the stores adds to the poverty of the area by taking away some of the jobs that were in the neighborhood. This
becomes a vicious cycle of poverty and deterioration. (15 points)

B. There are few retail stores and groceries is the area because the poor do not have money to shop. The lack of spending forces
many stores out of business or forces them to move to better locations. There also can be higher crime in these areas and the
crime often takes place at the stores. This is another reason for the stores to move out of the neighborhood. (15 points)
C. Neighborhoods in European and Latin American cities are different from those of US cities. In Europe and Latin America, the
wealthy and middle class still live near or in the CBD. The higher tax base and more spending ability of the upper and middle
classes, keeps the CBD area flourishing with jobs and in constant repair and upkeep of the cities’ physical condition. (15 points)

FR #2: (10 total points.)
You will need to judge how effectively you displayed you school
in the Multiple Nuclei Model. Refer to the model itself to help you
determine your success and grade.
School’s main office
78

Calculating your grade on test 13.
Add how many you got correct on the multiple choice part (55 possible) to how many
points you scored on the FR portion (55 possible)…110 total.
The following scale will show the approximate score if this test were the real AP exam. Remember that this
is an approximation. While 65-74% is normally the range for a 3 on the test, it is not definite. Over the
years I have seen scores as low as 60% be the low portion of a 3 score.

Out of 110 possible points:
72-83 is most likely a 3
84-94 is most likely a 4

95-110 is most likely a 5

Now lets start our review for the national exam by
reviewing the 33 key models and theories of the
course…the next PowerPoint.


Slide 22

Key topic/chapter 13…Urban Patterns
Key terms:
Annexation
Concentric zone model
Density gradient
Edge cities
Filtering
Galactic city
Gentrification
Greenbelts
Megalopolis
MSA
Multiple nuclei model
Peripheral model

Public housing
Redlining
Renovated housing
Scattered site
Squatter settlement
Sector model
Smart growth
Sprawl
Underclass
Urban renewal
Zone in transition
Zoning
1

Chapter 13…Urban Areas.
How are Cities planned?
Why

are cities where they are?
How are they organized?
Why are some areas of a city
different from
other areas of the same city?
What is the future of cities?
2

Settlement


Settlement - permanent collections of buildings,
where people live, work, and obtain services

3

ORIGINS OF SETTLEMENTS


Religious - graves, churches, temples



Cultural - schools, libraries



Political/Military - leader’s house, walls



Economic - stores, food
4

TYPES OF SETTLEMENTS


Rural Settlements - agriculture as the
predominant occupation.



Urban settlements - principal industries are
secondary and tertiary.

5

RURAL SETTLEMENTS
Clustered rural settlements –grouped
settlements in rural areas to minimize travel

Dispersed rural Settlements - isolated farms
with enclosed continuous fields (Found only in
N. America and Britain).

6

Urban Geographers want to know the global distribution of urban
settlements. MDC’s have a high percentage of people living in urban
areas because of the shift from agriculture-manufacturing-services.
Geographers are also interested in where people and activities are
distributed within urban spaces. What are the differences between the
inner-city and suburban areas and why?
As we saw in the last chapter, many downtowns are unique and can
often be recognized in photos where the suburbs often look very
much alike (Placelessness). Why? Suburbs offer the chance to avoid
some of the city problems (crime, tight living area, expensive
land/rent, noise, age of buildings) while still keeping a connection with
the goods and services of the city: jobs, sports teams, culture, shops,
recreation, etc.
7

Where is this place?

8

Today’s cities are evolving and changing. Although different internal
situations characterize urban areas in the US and elsewhere, the
problems arising from current spatial trends are quite similar in all cities.
Where have urban areas grown: in the early 1800’s only 3% of the earth’s
people lived in cities and only Beijing China had more than 1 million
people. Today over ½ of the world’s people live in cities and we have over
400 cities of at least 1 million people.

Urbanization: is the process by which city population grows.
Cities population growth is measured in 2 dimensions;
1. An increase in the number of people living in the cities.
2. An increase in the percentage of people living in the cities.
This distinction is important because they happen for different reason and
have different global distributions.
9

Increasing Percentage of People in Cities: a large percentage of people living in urban
areas is a measure of a country’s level of development. In MDC’s about ¾ of the people
live in urban areas compared to about 2/5 of people in LDC’s. (Except in Latin America
where the level is closer to MDC’s.)
The higher percentage of people in urban areas comes from the changes that have
occurred in the last 200 years as we went from agriculture (primary jobs) to industrial
(secondary jobs) and now service jobs, all created by the Industrial Revolution of the
1800’s.
People moved to the cities for industrial jobs, but in MDC’s this process has largely
ended because nearly everyone interested in moving to the cities from farms has already
done so.
In LDC’s the percentage of people living in urban areas is growing as people are pushed
off of their farms and replaced by machines and as people move to cities looking/hoping
for industrial jobs.
10

Increasing Number of People in Cities: MDC’s have a higher percentage of
people living in urban settlements but LDC’s have more of the very large urban
settlements (Primate cities). (Rank-size rule, primate cities, chapter 12.)

This is interesting because typically the large cities are created from the
improvements brought by the Industrial Revolution. This is not the case with the
large LDC cities. Migration to the primate city in LDC’s is happening even though
job opportunities may not be available. Increasing the population growth in LDC
cities is the fact that medical services are better in these cities, thus the child
mortality rate is lower.
Defining Urban Settlements: defining where urban areas end and rural areas
begin is not easy. Geographers have formulated definitions that distinguish
between urban and rural areas in two ways: Social differences and Physical
differences.
11

Percent Urban Population

Percent of the population living in urban areas is usually higher in MDCs
than in LDCs.

12

The most populated cities in the world

Of the top
20, only
Moscow,
Tokyo and
New York
are in MDC’s

Shanghai China has 14,608,512 people
13

14

15

Social Differences Between Urban and Rural Settlements: it is fair to say that rural
people and urban people follow different ways of life. A city can be defined as having 3
characteristics:
1. Large size. People in rural settlements know most of the other people in the
settlement. Not true in big cities. Social relationships are often described as “colder” in
urban areas because you only see some people at work instead of growing up with
them in the settlement.
2. High Density. Having lots of people in a tiny area creates social consequences. A
high density of people living in a small area can only be supported if the people
specialize (they can’t all be farmers). People are encouraged to compete for jobs, room,
and survival in a tightly limited space. Social groups compete to occupy the same space
(ethnic/ race problems). Rural settlements have very little of this problem.
3. Social Heterogeneity. The larger the settlement, the greater the variety of people.
Being “unusual” in a large settlement is more likely to be accepted than in a small rural
one. But despite the freedom to be different that large urban settlements give you,
people living there often feel alone because so many people are different from them.
There is a stronger feeling of belonging together in small rural settlements.
16

These 3 differences do not fully answer the question of where urban settlements
begin and rural ones end because in today’s MDC’s most everyone has access to
cars, telephones, televisions, and “urban type” jobs which reduce the differences
between urban and rural lifestyles. “City folk” and “Country folk” are more alike
today than they are different. To help distinguish between urban and rural areas we
need to add the physical definition of rural and urban to the equation.
Physical Definitions of Urban Settlements: In ancient time, cities had defensive
walls for protection which clearly defined the physical boundaries of the city. Today
the walls are gone but we can still define the physical boundaries in 3 ways:
1. Legal boundary. These are the official boundaries of a city as recognized by
the government of the country or state. These “city limits” have been officially given
to the city and are physically marked on official maps. The local government of the
city has authority to make laws and protect the people inside the city boundaries.
17

2. Urbanized area. This is the city plus its suburbs or urbanized area that
surrounds the city. About 70 percent of US residents live in urbanized areas with
40% being in the suburbs and 30% inside the city limits. The suburbs may have
their own city governments but the huge central city dominates what happens in
the entire area.
3. Metropolitan Statistical Area. Cities have an even bigger influence on people
than just those living in their city limits and surrounding urbanized areas. People
from far away come to shop, use the services, support the sports teams, read
the newspapers and watch the television broadcasts of the city. Thus the city
has a “functional area” which is its total zone of influence. The US Bureau of
Census has created a method of measuring the functional area of the city.
Known as the Metropolitan statistical area (MSA) this area includes:
•An urbanized area with a population of at least 50,000
•The county within which the city is located.
•Adjacent counties with a high population density and a large percentage of
residents working in the central city’s county.
18

Metropolitan Area of Philadelphia

City of
Philadelphia

Urbanized
area
(suburbs)
Metropolitan
Statistical
Area

The metropolitan area of Philadelphia is
spread over several counties and four states.
It is also a diversified trade center, given its
position on the Delaware river.

19

20

21

Micropolitan Statistical Areas: Smaller areas with between
10,000 and 50,000 people, the county where it is found, and
adjacent counties tied to the city. This would be a small town and
the area dominated by it.
Overlapping Metropolitan Areas: Some adjacent MSA’s overlap.
A county between two central cities may send a large number of
commuters to jobs in both cities. In some areas the cities are so
close that they form one continuous urban complex. This is
known as a Megalopolis (great city).
In a megalopolis, the downtown CBD often has its own
distinctive look and the urban areas are visually separated by
parks, open spaces, and dairy/truck farms. But at the periphery
of the urban areas, the boundaries overlap.
22

Colorado Springs, population 431,000

Ocala, Florida, population 56,000

Florala, Alabama, population 1,900

23

Megalopolis, from northern Va. To Maine.
This Illustrates the
difference between
strict city proper
definitions and broader
urban agglomerations.
To define urbanized
areas, the U.S. Census
Bureau uses the term
Metropolitan Statistical
Area (MSA) or
Consolidated MSA
(CMSA) if two or more of
them overlap.
24

Where are People Distributed within Urban Areas? People are not
just distributed at random in urban areas. For the most part they
concentrate in particular neighborhoods depending on their social
characteristics. Geographers want to see where people with
particular characteristics are likely to live and why.

Three models which try to explain the growth of a city:

The Burgess Model

The Hoyt Sector Model

The Harris and Ullman
multiple Nuclei Model
25

Burgess Concentric Zone Model

In the concentric zone model, a city grows in a series of rings surrounding the CBD.

Burgess Concentric Zone Model: This is the first used to explain the
distributions of different social groups within urban areas. It says that a
city grows outward from a central place in a series of concentric rings.
The precise size and width of the rings vary from one city to another, but
some basic types of rings appear in all cities in the same order (see chart
above).
26

•Hoyt Sector Model: In this model the city develops in a
series of sectors not rings. Certain areas of the city are
more attractive for various activities, originally because
of an environmental factor (or even pure chance). As the
city grows, activities extend outward in a wedge shape.
For example, once a wealthy neighborhood is built the
next wealthy neighborhood will extend from the first
neighborhood further outward from the center. In this
way, the best housing is found in a corridor extending
outward from the center to the outer edge (see chart on
the next page).
27

The Hoyt Sector Model

In the sector model, a city grows in a series of
wedges or corridors extending out from the
CBD.
28

•Harris and Ullman’s Multiple Nuclei Model: According
to this model, a city is a complex structure that includes
more than one center around which activities revolve.
Examples of these nodes include a port, parks,
stadium, neighborhood business center, university, and
airport (see chart). This theory states that some
activities are attracted to particular nodes, whereas
others try to avoid them. A university node may attract
well educated people and bookstores while the port will
attract hotels and warehouses. Heavy industry and
expensive houses rarely are found together. This
model shows the effect of the automobile more than
any other model.
29

The Harris and Ullman Multiple Nuclei model

The multiple nuclei model views a city as a
collection of individual centers, around which
different people and activities cluster.

30

Applications of the Models: The three models help explain where and in some
cases, why people live where they do. None of the models by themselves fully
explains why and where different types of people live, but combined they give
you as good a look as possible at the “Why” of “Where.” Effective use of the
models depends on getting good data on the areas. Most countries take a
census every 10 years to help determine useful data about the people and
places of the country. In our country we divide the census data into areas
known as census tracts of about 5,000 people. Each census tract has the data
that summarizes the characteristics of the people living within that tract. This
information includes things like the race, income, age, and education of the
people living in that tract.
Social Area Analysis: The data from the census tracts can all be plotted onto
maps to show the characteristics of the people living in that tract. This map is
known as a social area analysis.
31

Using Census tract information…Seattle, Washington
Each lined area is a
census tract of about 5000
people in Seattle
Washington. These maps
show average household
income for 1990 and
2000…note the changes in
income in some areas
between 1990 and 2000.
Using this information, a
business can make
decisions about where
they want to locate a new
store or the future of
existing stores.
You can find census tract
information on many topics
such as; age, education
level, race, ethnicity, crime
rate, and land ownership.
Note the areas with
incomes over
$63,000.

All can be very valuable
information to people
looking to open
businesses.

32

Examine the changes
between 1990 and
2000.

Oakland, California’s Ethnic neighborhoods
The small bordered areas are census tracks of 5000 people.

33

Use of the Models Outside of North America: The 3 models will also work in other
places in the world; however social groups in other countries may not have the
same reasons for selecting particular neighborhoods as Americans do.
European Cities: As in the US, wealthier people in European cities cluster along a
sector extending outward from the CBD, however unlike the US, wealthy and
middle class Europeans still live in the inner rings of the neighborhoods near the
CBD not out in the suburbs. In the past, poorer people lived in the center of the
city. Before electricity, social segregation was vertical: richer people lived on the
first or second floor of a building while the poorer people lived in the basement or
upper floors. In the Industrial Revolution, housing for the poor was constructed
near the factories and away from the rich.
Today poorer Europeans are less likely to live in the inner-city. Poor quality
housing has been renovated for the rich or turned into office buildings. Poorer
Europeans tend to live in the outskirts of the city. Vast suburbs with dozens of high
rise apartments house the poor. They face long commutes to reach their jobs in
the city.
34

European cities generally do not have the “suburban
sprawl” that US cities have. European cities tend to be
more pedestrian friendly with more parks downtown as
Europeans tend to still live downtown.
US cities have taller buildings as European cities tend to
be older and more historic.

American cities have more ethnic neighborhoods than
European cities. Ethnic neighborhoods that do exist in
European cities tend to be in the suburbs. WHY?
Because the established richer neighborhoods tend to be
downtown in European cities.
35

Less Developed Countries: Like Europe, most LDC’s accommodate their poor in the
suburbs with their middle class and rich living near the center of the city. LDC’s have
passed through 3 periods of city building: before the Europeans arrived, during the
period of European colonialism, and since independence from European control.

Pre-colonial Cities: Before the Europeans arrived few cities existed in Africa, Asia, and
Latin America and most people lived in small rural settlements. Those cities that existed
were mostly laid out surrounding a religious center; with the rest of the city laid out in a
hieratical concentric pattern (like the Burgess model) from government buildings,
homes of the wealthy, and businesses related to the religion out to other businesses
and shops.
Colonial cities: When the Europeans took over these lands, they changed the cities by
adding services to help the Europeans control the conquered people. Often a new
European style city would be build next to the existing native one. The new European
cities contained wider streets, a public square, larger houses and a much lower density.
The Spanish used the “Law of the Indies” which was a city plan designed specifically to
build cities in a “Spanish” style. (Gridiron pattern for streets centered on a church and
central plaza, walls around individual houses and neighborhoods centered around
smaller plazas and more churches.)
36

Early Mexico city was laid out in a grid pattern of streets. This followed
the Spanish “Law of the Indies.”

37

Central Plaza in Mexico City 1920 photo. Typical Colonial City plan.

Part of downtown Mexico city today still shows the
building plan of the “Law of the Indies.”

38

Cities since Independence: Following independence, cities have become
the focal point of the development of most LDC’s. Millions of people have
migrated to the cities (Primate cities) looking for jobs and services. Some
capitals have been moved to isolated areas in an attempt to help develop
that area of the country (Brasília) This is know as a forward capital. Latin
American cities have developed their own unique style.
Squatter settlements: The LDC’s are unable to house the rapidly growing
number of poor who are flowing into the cities. Because of the housing
shortages, the poor have constructed their own settlements around the city.
These settlements have few services because neither the city nor the
residents can afford them. Squatters have two basic choices for housing.
1. Illegally move into empty real houses located in the city or,
2. Rent slum housing.
(85% of the population of Addis Ababa in Ethiopia lives in squatter
settlements, slums or other illegal housing.)
39

Squatter shacks in Manila, the Philippines

40

Squatter settlement in Ethiopia

41

Zimbabwe, Africa

42

Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

43

Latin American City Model:
In many Latin
American cities,
the wealthy live in
the inner city and
in a sector
extending along a
commercial spine.
In situ accretion- businesses
and homes constantly under
construction/repair.
Zone of maturity-2nd best
housing in the city.
The poor live in squatter settlements on the
periphery of the city.

Disamenity- unpleasant area
used by the poor to get to the
market.

44

The City Outline of Rio de Janeiro
The rich tourist areas and expensive condo apartments are along the coast
and beach while the poor live in squatter shacks in the hills.

45

City problems:
Inner-City Physical Problems: Most US inner cities were constructed before the 1950’s
(people began to move to the suburbs in the 1950’s so new construction moved out of
the city).
Process of Deterioration (how a city deteriorates): A city doesn’t suddenly become old
and full of slummy areas. It happens over time. When a group of low-income people
inhabit an area of a city, nearby neighborhoods will often look to move out. They sell or
rent to more low-income occupants thus expanding the low-income area. Two processes
cause/speed up the devaluation of areas:
1. Filtering, 2. Redlining.
Filtering: Large houses and buildings that once housed rich downtown workers (who
moved to the suburbs) are taken over by landlords who don’t live in that area (they
moved to the suburbs too). Rents are low so the landlord doesn’t take as good care of
the property as they should and the property becomes run down or abandoned. Stores
close, or move, due to lack of sales. 100 years ago these neighborhoods would be used
by immigrants and ethnic businesses would succeed in those areas. Now, with a decline
in immigration, these neighborhoods have shrunk and so have schools, businesses and
other services. Thousands of vacant houses and buildings stand empty in inner cities
across America.

46

Redlining: Some banks refuse to give loans in what they consider
risky neighborhoods. They draw a red line on a map around areas
where they will not give loans. Without loans, these neighborhoods
have a hard time rebuilding/remodeling. Though illegal, this still
happens. Bankers just don’t put these “no-loan” areas on a map.

Urban Renewal: This is the series of projects to improve European
and N. American cities by buying up the blighted neighborhoods,
moving the people to new government built housing projects, and
building new roads, and other projects to make the inner city
attractive for business again. National and State government grants
help pay for these projects.
47

Public housing: Housing for the poor, built with government funding as part of
urban renewal. In the US this is only about 2% of the housing while in some
countries it may be more (Britain is 30%). Public housing built in the 50’s & 60’s
were largely high rise apartments, but those are seen as being unsatisfactory.
Problems arise from cramming large numbers of poor people into one area.
Today most public housing projects are one to three story buildings with many of
them being scattered around different parts of the city rather than clustered into
one area.
Because urban renewal has been criticized for destroying the social cohesion of
older neighborhoods, many governments (like the US) have stopped funding
most projects since the 1970’s. What do we do instead?
Renovated Housing: An alternative often used since the 70’s is to renovate a
building instead of urban renewal. The process where middle-class people
move into inner-city neighborhoods and renovate them is called gentrification.
Gentrified inner-city neighborhoods also attract middle-class people who work
downtown. Living close to work saves the hassle of commuting and rejuvenates
run down inner-city neighborhoods
48

Gentrified building downtown Harlem, NY. Note the supermarket.

49

Inner-City Social Problems: Inner-city residents are often referred to as the
permanent underclass because they are trapped in an unending cycle of
economic and social problems. High unemployment, alcoholism, drug
addiction, literacy, juvenile delinquency, and crime all exist at a higher rate
among those who live in the inner-city. Lack of jobs means lack of tax dollars
to pay for police and fire protection as well as good schools. Lack of job skills
and homelessness are also tremendous problems.
Culture of Poverty: Inner-city residents are trapped in a permanent underclass
culture that reproduces itself. In the US, unwed mothers give birth to 2/3 of the
babies in the inner-city. 90% of these children live with only one parent and it
is real hard for one parent to keep a job and take care of children. Both suffer
and a shortage of care and daily attention by the parent contributes to the kids
not learning the skills necessary to do well in school which leads to poor jobs
for their futures. Poverty leads to more poverty. Many families on welfare have
only one parent because it is financially better if one parent is gone, that way
the single parent gets food stamps and other services from the government
that they would not get if it was a 2 family household.
50

Crime: Trapped in a hopeless environment, some inner-city
residents turn to drugs. Drug use is a problem in inner-city
areas and the suburbs, but rates of drug use in inner-cities
are the highest.
Ethnic and Racial Segregation: As seen in chapter 7, many
neighborhoods in the US are segregated by ethnicity with
African Americans and Hispanics concentrated in one or two
continuous areas and whites living in the suburbs. Even small
cities display a strong distinction among neighborhoods. A
frequent division is between the east and west or north and
south side of town, or the railroad tracks. A family seeking a
new residence will seek the areas where the characteristics
of the people meet their own.

51

The exodus
from the
American city.
This has
happened in
many American
cities since the
1960’s.

52

Changes in Cities in the U.S.
U.S. population has been moving out of the city centers to the suburbs:
suburbanization and counter urbanization

Developed Countries: suburbanization

 wealthy move to suburbs
 automobiles and roads; ‘American
Dream’ of the home in the suburbs.
 better services
 wealthy move to suburbs
Counter urbanization

idyllic settings
cost of land for retirement
slow pace, yet high tech
connections to services and markets
53

U.S. intraregional migration during 1990s.

Inner city economic problems: the concentration of low income
residents in inner cities has caused economic problems. These
people require public services but can pay very little in taxes to
support the services. They need stores and jobs but have little
money to spend in the store and few skills for jobs (so the stores
close). To try to fight these problems many local and state
governments use tax monies to try to renovate these areas, but this
shifts tax money needed for other areas to the inner city (votes on
election day).
Annexation: Many cities could help their tax problem by adding the
new suburbs to be part of their city (annexation). After all, many of
these suburban people use the city for its’ jobs etc., so why not add
them into the city? Today, most people in the suburbs do not want
to be annexed into the city and so they do not vote to be annexed.
54

The Peripheral Model: According to this model, an urban area
consists of an inner city surrounded by large suburban residential
and business areas (MSA) tied together by a beltway or highway
that circles the city. Around the beltway are nodes of consumer
and business services called edge cities (see diagram of multiple
nuclei model). These edge cities sprang up to provide services
and jobs to the people in the suburbs.
Density Gradient: As you travel outward from the center of the
city, the density of people declines. Inner city has big apartments
of 250 of more people per acre. Suburbs have fewer people per
acre (but lots of acres) and finally you leave the cities periphery
you find few people. The number of houses per unit of land
diminishes as distance from the center of the city increases.
55

The Edge cities (bedroom communities) of Houston

The central city is surrounded by a ring road, around which are
suburban areas and edge cities, shopping malls, office parks,
industrial areas, and service complexes.

Known as
bedroom
communities
because
people live
there but
mostly don’t
work there.
They drive
into the city
for work.
56

As you move from the center of the city outward, the density of the population
changes. This is know as the density gradient. Two big changes have occurred in
the density gradient of today’s cities:
1. The number of people living in the center has decreased.
2. The density difference between the inner city and the suburbs is declining
because the inner city density is dropping and the suburban density is growing
due to more large apartments being built in the suburbs.
Cost of Suburban or Urban Sprawl: Urban Sprawl is the progressive spread of
development over the landscape. As long as we Americans want single-family
detached houses, land on the fringe of urban areas will be converted from open
space to residential use. The cost of this growth is more than the loss of land, it is
also the cost of new roads, utilities, building stores and offices and the cost of
automobiles to move these people over even longer distances. Lots of these new
developments are built on what was once farmland. Wonderful productive soil now
under concrete.

Greenbelts: are areas where, by law, the open space can not be used for any
construction. This is mostly found in Europe.

57

Once farmland that is being converted to suburbs and cities.

58

Tyson’s Corner Virginia in 1940

59

Washington, DC. MSA.

Tyson’s Corner Virginia
today.
Washington D.C. is off
In the distance.

60

Suburban Segregation: The “new” segregation.
Suburban segregation takes two forms:
1. Residents are separated from commercial and manufacturing activities
which are confined someplace else. (The whole neighborhood is
nothing but houses because they drive for services.)
2. The price of the house eliminates some from being able to live there. This
creates a homogeneous suburb of the same economic class of people.
This never existed before in history. Where we once had vertical
segregation of the classes we now we have horizontal segregation.
3. But this may be reversing as new statistics show that people are beginning
to move back to the city. Why? Cost of transportation.
Zoning Ordinances: This idea developed in Europe and later America in the
early decades of the 20th century. This means that businesses are allowed only
in certain areas of the settlement. (No all night taco stands inside your single
family neighborhood.)
Motor vehicles: The wide use of the automobile is largely responsible for the
American movement to the suburbs. Not only did people move out but 1/4 of
the land inside all American cities are now roads, streets, and parking lots.

61

Public Transportation: Because few US workers live within walking distance
of their jobs, urban areas are characterized by extensive commuting and the
problems that come with it. As much as 40% of all trips made into or out from
a city during the day takes place within just 4 hours. (2 in the morning and 2 in
the late afternoon). RUSH HOUR!!! In large cities, public transportation, like
subways and busses, are better suited to move people but Americans still
prefer their own cars. Public transportation is cheaper, cleaner, and more
energy efficient than personal cars, yet in the US only 5% of city travel is
done using public transit systems. American’s love their personal car too
much.
Local Government Fragmentation: Because of the large number of local
governments in the US (look at the settlements in Pinellas County) it is
difficult to solve some of the regional problems like garbage disposal, water
management, traffic and public housing.
62

Metropolitan government: This idea tries to put many local governments into a
larger unit that can better handle the urban problems. The 2 ways to do this
are:
1. Federations in which the individual settlements have their own police,
firemen, and tax collection but they all agree to be part of a second
government which handles transportation, water, sewage, parks and
welfare for all the communities.
2. Consolidations: In this method, several cities and the county may form one
government. Jacksonville’s government runs not only the town but the
county too, this makes Jacksonville the largest city, in land size, in the US.
Smart growth: A new movement by many states to curb suburban sprawl by
limiting where new construction can take place. Smart growth laws require that
land near cities be used up before any land further out can be developed. So
far, this is only being done an a few parts of our country.
63

The new
US as
some
people
see it.

64

Quiz Yourself:
1. The process where middle-class people move into inner city neighborhoods and
renovate them is called ____________
2. ____________ happens when banks refuse to give loans in what they consider
risky neighborhoods.
3. Because of the housing shortages, the poor have constructed their own settlements
around the city known as __________ _________

4. Businesses are allowed only in certain areas of the settlement because of
____________ ____________
5. Areas known as _____ _______ are areas of about 5,000 people. The data from
that area is used to help define needed services for that area.
6. When cities are so close that they form one continuous band of development this is
known as a ____________
65

7. Social relationships are often described as “colder” in urban areas because…
8. In this model the city develops in a series of sectors not rings. _______

9. ______ (LDC’s or MDC’s) have a higher percentage of people living in urban
settlements but ________ (LDC’s or MDC’s) have more of the very large urban
settlements.
10. _____________ was the first model developed to explain the distributions
of different social groups within urban areas.
11. New cities which develop around the beltway are nodes of consumer and
business services known as ________ _________.

12. When the Europeans took over lands around the world, they changed the
cities by adding services to help the Europeans control the conquered people.
These European planned cities are known as __________ cities.
66

Answer Key:
1.

Gentrification

2.

Redlining

3.

Squatter Settlements

4.

Zoning ordinances

5.

Census tracks

6.

Megalopolis

7. There is a stronger feeling of belonging together in small rural settlements.
8. Hoyt sector model
9. MDC, LDC
10. Burgess Concentric Zone model
11. Edge cities
12. Colonial cities
67

Test Key topic/chapter 13:
These questions come from a combination of our slides, your text book, and common knowledge you should
have discussed in your AP classroom. They are very typical of what you will see on the National Exam.
1) The multiple nuclei theory best explains why different neighborhoods of a city attract people of different… A) ages.
B) ethnic origin C) income D) marital status.
2) Sprawl is the… A) change in density within an urban area from the center to the periphery B) development of new
housing sites not contiguous to the existing built-up area. C) land maintained as open space surrounding an urban area.
D) period in the morning and evening with the heaviest volumes of traffic.
3) People are attracted to suburbs in part because suburbs are characterized by…A) heavy traffic. B) lower opportunity
for home ownership. C) private land surrounding the house. D) row houses and apartments.
4) Megalopolis refers to… A) adjacent, overlapping Metropolitan Statistical Areas. B) central cities. C) consolidated
Metropolitan Statistical Areas. D) central cities plus urbanized areas.
5) Which statement best describes the relationship between urbanization and the Industrial Revolution? A) Urbanization
promoted the Industrial Revolution. B) The Industrial Revolution promoted urbanization. C) Urbanization preceded the
Industrial Revolution by thousands of years. D) Urbanization and the Industrial Revolution are no longer related.
6) The process of legally adding land area to a city in the United States is… A) annexation. B) accreditation. C) an
application of eminent domain. D) defined by urbanized area.

68

7) The process of change in the use of a house, from single-family owner occupancy to abandonment, is… A) blockbusting.
B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining.
8) A process by which banks designate an area within which they refuse to lend money for improvements is… A) blockbusting.
B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining.
9) A recent change in the density gradient has been… A) the elimination of the gap traditionally found in the center. B) an
increase in the extremes between the inner and outer areas. C) an increase in the number of people living in the center.
D) a reduction in the differences in densities found within an urban area.
10) U.S. central cities face fiscal problems because… A) federal and state funds are available. B) low-income people are
concentrated there. C) middle-class families are attracted there. D) redlining is no longer legal.
11) A legal form of segregation in U.S. cities is achieved through...A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) zoning. D) greenbelts.
12) Factories have moved to suburban locations in part because of… A) access to main highways. B) adequate space to build
vertical structures. C) availability of large tracts of high-priced land. D) good rail connections.
13) According to the sector model, the best housing is located in…A) a corridor from downtown to the edge of the city.
B) an outer ring surrounding the city. C) nodes near universities and parks. D) renovated inner-city neighborhoods.
14) Ramshackle houses on the periphery of cities in less developed countries are known as… A) squatter settlements. B) council
estates. C) public housing. D) zone in transition.
15) Higher income people tend to live near the center of the city in all but which of the following regions? A) Latin America
B) North America C) South Asia D) Western Europe

16) The wide boulevards built in cities in less developed countries were most likely built during what era? A) pre-colonial
B) colonial C) independence D) all of the above equally

69

17) According to the multiple nuclei model, an airport is likely to attract nearby… A) industries. B) residences. C) shops.
D) universities.
18) The largest percentage of the U.S. population lives in…A) central cities. B) suburbs. C) non-metropolitan areas. D) all of the
above
19) In U.S. cities, the underclass is… A) clustered in inner-city neighborhoods. B) dispersed throughout the city. C) clustered in
suburbs. D) distributed uniformly in the city.

20) A process of converting a neighborhood from low-income to middle-class is…A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) gentrification.
D) redlining.
21) Higher social heterogeneity in urban settlements means that… A) the people with whom you relax are probably the same ones you
see at work. B) you play a specialized role in the urban economy. C) you compete for limited space. D) you may feel lonely and
isolated in a crowd.
22) The city plus its contiguous built-up suburbs is the… A) central city. B) urbanized area.
D) consolidated metropolitan statistical area

C) metropolitan statistical area.

23) The process whereby an increasing percentage of people live in an urban area is known as… A) demographic transition.
B) rank-size rule. C) urbanization. D) central place theory.
24) Of the ten largest urban areas in the world, how many are in More Developed Countries today? A) 1 B) 4 C) 7 D) 10 E) 2
25) Public housing is…A) conversion of low-income housing to middle-class housing. B) illegally established low-income housing.
C) housing that has changed from single-family owner occupancy to abandonment. D) low-income government-owned housing.
26) According to the concentric zone model, a city develops in a series of… A) corridors. B) nodes. C) rings. D) all of the above

70

27) Chicago is a good location in which to develop urban models because it is located… A) at the hub of the nation's transportation
system. B) in the center of the country. C) on a flat prairie. D) on the shore of Lake Michigan.
28) According to the sector model, the best housing is located in… A) a corridor from downtown to the edge of the city. B) an outer
ring surrounding the city. C) nodes near universities and parks. D) renovated inner-city neighborhoods.
29) The zone of transition in US cities generally contain…A) warehouses B) wealthy neighborhoods C) transportation hubs
D) universities and hospitals E) suburban homes
30) The attractions of shopping malls include all but which of the following? A) frequent concerts and exhibitions B) generous
parking lots C) place to meet friends D) walking distance from homes
The following questions are written at the high school level. You will find some questions from part one often rewritten
here. This is all designed to help you transition to the college/AP style of written questions. Any question preceded with ***
are questions that have been on the national exam before.
31. Most Latin American cities are focused on a…A) central plaza B) government housing project C) zone of heavy industry
D) skyscraper office building E) squatter settlement
32. The multiple-nuclei model of a city structure tends to be most applicable to…A) small cities B) traditional C) Latin American
cities D) newer, fast growing cities E) cities with homogeneous land use
33. ***Locational advantages important to the development of the earliest cities include…A) availability of good harbors for large
ships B) productive agricultural land and defensible sites C) temperate climate and proximity to coal mines D) good
connections by road and canal E) proximity to manufacturing areas

34. In cities, the CBD’s often show uniqueness while the suburbs usually show…A) a large hinterland. B) placelessness C) more
than one node. D) newer zones of transition.

71

35. Many LDC’s have tried to help a previously under-developed part of their country develop by moving their capital
city to that area. This new capital is known as a…A) forward capital B) new development zone C) enterprise zone
D) neocolonial city
36. Today the greatest number of urban dwellers is found in…A) North America
D) Europe E) Asia

B) South America C) Africa

37. ***All of the following have helped create ghettos in North American cities except…A)blockbusting and racial
steering B) redlining by financial institutions C) concentration of public housing and social services D) fixed school
districts E) Economic Enterprise Zones

38. Which of the following is NOT as reason for rapid suburbanization in the US after WW2? A) Mass production of
the automobile B) Reduction of long distance commuting C) Expansion of home construction D) Expansion of the
interstate highway system E) Availability of low down payment terms and long-term mortgages.
39. New cities which developed in the hinterland of large urban areas because of the automobile, are known as…
A) edge cities B) census tracts C) suburban sprawl D) squatter settlements. E) none of these
40. Gentrification refers to… A) moving the homeless into inner city shelters B) The “White Flight” from the urban city
C) losing tax revenue because of stores closing in downtown areas D) middle-class people moving into and renovating
inner city neighborhoods E) the creation of “beltway cities” around the city.

72

4
7
3

5

1
6

2

41-48 all use the sketch above.
41. The sketch in box A above represents which model of the inner structure of urban areas?
C) multiple nuclei model D) Burgess concentric zone model E) peripheral model
42. The models in boxes B and C represent A) Concentric zone and multiple nuclei
concentric zone D) peripheral and concentric zone E) Von Thunen and peripheral

A) Hoyt sector model B) VonThunen’s model

B) Multiple nuclei and Hoyt sector C) Hoyt sector and

43. In which ring (1, 2, etc.) of sketch A above would high-status households in North American cities likely live? A) 1 B) 2 C) 3 D) 4&5
44. In which ring (1, 2, etc.) of sketch A above would high status households in a European city likely live? A) 1

B) 2

C) 3

D) 4&5

45. In model B, zone # 2 is where it is likely because of: A) greenbelting B) squatter settling C) the culture of poverty D) transportation
E) no one knows
46. The model in sketch B is the; A) Hoyt sector model B) Burgess model C) multiple nuclei model D) peripheral model
47. The model in sketch C is the; A) Hoyt sector model B) Burgess model C) multiple nuclei model D) peripheral model
48. Which of these models best describes what has happened in US cities in the last 40 years? A)

B)

C)

73

49.*** In the U.S. a city plus its contiguous built-up suburbs is known as an…A) urbanized area B) zoned area
C) census tract D) Squatter settlement E) none of these
50. Done mostly in Europe, these are areas where land is kept as parks, farms or other kinds of open space and urban
sprawl is not allowed. A) Smart growth
B) zoning
C) filtering
D) census tracts E) greenbelts
51. Which statement best describes the relationship between urbanization and the Industrial Revolution?
A) Urbanization promoted the Industrial Revolution. B) The Industrial Revolution promoted urbanization.
C) Urbanization preceded the Industrial Revolution by thousands of years. D) Urbanization and the Industrial
Revolution are no longer related.
52. The process whereby an increasing percentage of people live in an urban area is known as…
A) Demographic transition. B) rank-size rule. C) Urbanization. D) Central place theory.
53. The city (if it has 50,000 or more people) plus its contiguous built-up suburbs AND the county it is in as well as any
other counties it influences, is known as the ...A) central city B) urbanized area
C) metropolitan statistical area
D) consolidated metropolitan area E) micropolitan statistical area
54. ***Higher social heterogeneity in urban settlements means that …A) the people with whom you relax are probably
the same ones you see at work. B) you play a specialized role in the urban economy. C) you compete for limited
space. D) you may feel lonely and isolated in a crowd.

55. The process of change in the use of a house, from single-family owner occupancy to smaller dwellings for the poor
and then sometimes to abandonment, is…A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining. E) none of
these

74

Free Response #1:
The Bid Rent theory says that the closer you get to the
CBD the higher the cost for land, yet in most American
cities you find the poorest people living near the
expensive CBD and the richest living further away.
Explain:
A. Why neighborhoods near the CBD are often poor and
run down?
B. Why are there few grocery and other retail stores in
these neighborhoods?
C. Why is this not really true in European and Latin
American countries?

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75

FR #2:
Think of the map of your school, explain the
layout of your school using the Multiple Nuclei
Model
The main office is the CBD.
Completely explain your answer using specific
buildings and/or land areas in your explanation
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76

Answer Key:
1. B

14. A

27. C

40. D

53. C

2. B

15. B

28. A

41. D

54. D

3. C

16. B

29. A

42. B

55. B

4. A

17. A

30. D

43. D

5. B

18. B

31. A

44. A

6. A

19. A

32. D

45. D

7. B

20. C

33. B

46. A

8. D

21. D

34. B

47. C

9. D

22. B

35. A

48. C

10. B

23. C

36. E

49. A

11. C

24. C

37. E

50. E

12. A

25. D

38. B

51. B

13. A

26. C

39. A

52. C
77

FR. #1: ( 15 pts. for each section…total of 45 pts.)
A. In the US the move of the wealthy and middle class to the suburbs has left the older houses and apartments near the CBD empty.
This has lowered their value to the point where the poor can afford these dwellings and have made these neighborhoods their
homes. The poor can not pay for upkeep of these dwellings, or to pay high taxes. The lack of upkeep and tax money to repair the
roads and schools, adds to the downward spiral of the neighborhood. With little spending money for shopping, the poor do not
spend much in the stores. This causes many stores to close and move to the suburbs where the spending customers and money
went. The closing of the stores adds to the poverty of the area by taking away some of the jobs that were in the neighborhood. This
becomes a vicious cycle of poverty and deterioration. (15 points)

B. There are few retail stores and groceries is the area because the poor do not have money to shop. The lack of spending forces
many stores out of business or forces them to move to better locations. There also can be higher crime in these areas and the
crime often takes place at the stores. This is another reason for the stores to move out of the neighborhood. (15 points)
C. Neighborhoods in European and Latin American cities are different from those of US cities. In Europe and Latin America, the
wealthy and middle class still live near or in the CBD. The higher tax base and more spending ability of the upper and middle
classes, keeps the CBD area flourishing with jobs and in constant repair and upkeep of the cities’ physical condition. (15 points)

FR #2: (10 total points.)
You will need to judge how effectively you displayed you school
in the Multiple Nuclei Model. Refer to the model itself to help you
determine your success and grade.
School’s main office
78

Calculating your grade on test 13.
Add how many you got correct on the multiple choice part (55 possible) to how many
points you scored on the FR portion (55 possible)…110 total.
The following scale will show the approximate score if this test were the real AP exam. Remember that this
is an approximation. While 65-74% is normally the range for a 3 on the test, it is not definite. Over the
years I have seen scores as low as 60% be the low portion of a 3 score.

Out of 110 possible points:
72-83 is most likely a 3
84-94 is most likely a 4

95-110 is most likely a 5

Now lets start our review for the national exam by
reviewing the 33 key models and theories of the
course…the next PowerPoint.


Slide 23

Key topic/chapter 13…Urban Patterns
Key terms:
Annexation
Concentric zone model
Density gradient
Edge cities
Filtering
Galactic city
Gentrification
Greenbelts
Megalopolis
MSA
Multiple nuclei model
Peripheral model

Public housing
Redlining
Renovated housing
Scattered site
Squatter settlement
Sector model
Smart growth
Sprawl
Underclass
Urban renewal
Zone in transition
Zoning
1

Chapter 13…Urban Areas.
How are Cities planned?
Why

are cities where they are?
How are they organized?
Why are some areas of a city
different from
other areas of the same city?
What is the future of cities?
2

Settlement


Settlement - permanent collections of buildings,
where people live, work, and obtain services

3

ORIGINS OF SETTLEMENTS


Religious - graves, churches, temples



Cultural - schools, libraries



Political/Military - leader’s house, walls



Economic - stores, food
4

TYPES OF SETTLEMENTS


Rural Settlements - agriculture as the
predominant occupation.



Urban settlements - principal industries are
secondary and tertiary.

5

RURAL SETTLEMENTS
Clustered rural settlements –grouped
settlements in rural areas to minimize travel

Dispersed rural Settlements - isolated farms
with enclosed continuous fields (Found only in
N. America and Britain).

6

Urban Geographers want to know the global distribution of urban
settlements. MDC’s have a high percentage of people living in urban
areas because of the shift from agriculture-manufacturing-services.
Geographers are also interested in where people and activities are
distributed within urban spaces. What are the differences between the
inner-city and suburban areas and why?
As we saw in the last chapter, many downtowns are unique and can
often be recognized in photos where the suburbs often look very
much alike (Placelessness). Why? Suburbs offer the chance to avoid
some of the city problems (crime, tight living area, expensive
land/rent, noise, age of buildings) while still keeping a connection with
the goods and services of the city: jobs, sports teams, culture, shops,
recreation, etc.
7

Where is this place?

8

Today’s cities are evolving and changing. Although different internal
situations characterize urban areas in the US and elsewhere, the
problems arising from current spatial trends are quite similar in all cities.
Where have urban areas grown: in the early 1800’s only 3% of the earth’s
people lived in cities and only Beijing China had more than 1 million
people. Today over ½ of the world’s people live in cities and we have over
400 cities of at least 1 million people.

Urbanization: is the process by which city population grows.
Cities population growth is measured in 2 dimensions;
1. An increase in the number of people living in the cities.
2. An increase in the percentage of people living in the cities.
This distinction is important because they happen for different reason and
have different global distributions.
9

Increasing Percentage of People in Cities: a large percentage of people living in urban
areas is a measure of a country’s level of development. In MDC’s about ¾ of the people
live in urban areas compared to about 2/5 of people in LDC’s. (Except in Latin America
where the level is closer to MDC’s.)
The higher percentage of people in urban areas comes from the changes that have
occurred in the last 200 years as we went from agriculture (primary jobs) to industrial
(secondary jobs) and now service jobs, all created by the Industrial Revolution of the
1800’s.
People moved to the cities for industrial jobs, but in MDC’s this process has largely
ended because nearly everyone interested in moving to the cities from farms has already
done so.
In LDC’s the percentage of people living in urban areas is growing as people are pushed
off of their farms and replaced by machines and as people move to cities looking/hoping
for industrial jobs.
10

Increasing Number of People in Cities: MDC’s have a higher percentage of
people living in urban settlements but LDC’s have more of the very large urban
settlements (Primate cities). (Rank-size rule, primate cities, chapter 12.)

This is interesting because typically the large cities are created from the
improvements brought by the Industrial Revolution. This is not the case with the
large LDC cities. Migration to the primate city in LDC’s is happening even though
job opportunities may not be available. Increasing the population growth in LDC
cities is the fact that medical services are better in these cities, thus the child
mortality rate is lower.
Defining Urban Settlements: defining where urban areas end and rural areas
begin is not easy. Geographers have formulated definitions that distinguish
between urban and rural areas in two ways: Social differences and Physical
differences.
11

Percent Urban Population

Percent of the population living in urban areas is usually higher in MDCs
than in LDCs.

12

The most populated cities in the world

Of the top
20, only
Moscow,
Tokyo and
New York
are in MDC’s

Shanghai China has 14,608,512 people
13

14

15

Social Differences Between Urban and Rural Settlements: it is fair to say that rural
people and urban people follow different ways of life. A city can be defined as having 3
characteristics:
1. Large size. People in rural settlements know most of the other people in the
settlement. Not true in big cities. Social relationships are often described as “colder” in
urban areas because you only see some people at work instead of growing up with
them in the settlement.
2. High Density. Having lots of people in a tiny area creates social consequences. A
high density of people living in a small area can only be supported if the people
specialize (they can’t all be farmers). People are encouraged to compete for jobs, room,
and survival in a tightly limited space. Social groups compete to occupy the same space
(ethnic/ race problems). Rural settlements have very little of this problem.
3. Social Heterogeneity. The larger the settlement, the greater the variety of people.
Being “unusual” in a large settlement is more likely to be accepted than in a small rural
one. But despite the freedom to be different that large urban settlements give you,
people living there often feel alone because so many people are different from them.
There is a stronger feeling of belonging together in small rural settlements.
16

These 3 differences do not fully answer the question of where urban settlements
begin and rural ones end because in today’s MDC’s most everyone has access to
cars, telephones, televisions, and “urban type” jobs which reduce the differences
between urban and rural lifestyles. “City folk” and “Country folk” are more alike
today than they are different. To help distinguish between urban and rural areas we
need to add the physical definition of rural and urban to the equation.
Physical Definitions of Urban Settlements: In ancient time, cities had defensive
walls for protection which clearly defined the physical boundaries of the city. Today
the walls are gone but we can still define the physical boundaries in 3 ways:
1. Legal boundary. These are the official boundaries of a city as recognized by
the government of the country or state. These “city limits” have been officially given
to the city and are physically marked on official maps. The local government of the
city has authority to make laws and protect the people inside the city boundaries.
17

2. Urbanized area. This is the city plus its suburbs or urbanized area that
surrounds the city. About 70 percent of US residents live in urbanized areas with
40% being in the suburbs and 30% inside the city limits. The suburbs may have
their own city governments but the huge central city dominates what happens in
the entire area.
3. Metropolitan Statistical Area. Cities have an even bigger influence on people
than just those living in their city limits and surrounding urbanized areas. People
from far away come to shop, use the services, support the sports teams, read
the newspapers and watch the television broadcasts of the city. Thus the city
has a “functional area” which is its total zone of influence. The US Bureau of
Census has created a method of measuring the functional area of the city.
Known as the Metropolitan statistical area (MSA) this area includes:
•An urbanized area with a population of at least 50,000
•The county within which the city is located.
•Adjacent counties with a high population density and a large percentage of
residents working in the central city’s county.
18

Metropolitan Area of Philadelphia

City of
Philadelphia

Urbanized
area
(suburbs)
Metropolitan
Statistical
Area

The metropolitan area of Philadelphia is
spread over several counties and four states.
It is also a diversified trade center, given its
position on the Delaware river.

19

20

21

Micropolitan Statistical Areas: Smaller areas with between
10,000 and 50,000 people, the county where it is found, and
adjacent counties tied to the city. This would be a small town and
the area dominated by it.
Overlapping Metropolitan Areas: Some adjacent MSA’s overlap.
A county between two central cities may send a large number of
commuters to jobs in both cities. In some areas the cities are so
close that they form one continuous urban complex. This is
known as a Megalopolis (great city).
In a megalopolis, the downtown CBD often has its own
distinctive look and the urban areas are visually separated by
parks, open spaces, and dairy/truck farms. But at the periphery
of the urban areas, the boundaries overlap.
22

Colorado Springs, population 431,000

Ocala, Florida, population 56,000

Florala, Alabama, population 1,900

23

Megalopolis, from northern Va. To Maine.
This Illustrates the
difference between
strict city proper
definitions and broader
urban agglomerations.
To define urbanized
areas, the U.S. Census
Bureau uses the term
Metropolitan Statistical
Area (MSA) or
Consolidated MSA
(CMSA) if two or more of
them overlap.
24

Where are People Distributed within Urban Areas? People are not
just distributed at random in urban areas. For the most part they
concentrate in particular neighborhoods depending on their social
characteristics. Geographers want to see where people with
particular characteristics are likely to live and why.

Three models which try to explain the growth of a city:

The Burgess Model

The Hoyt Sector Model

The Harris and Ullman
multiple Nuclei Model
25

Burgess Concentric Zone Model

In the concentric zone model, a city grows in a series of rings surrounding the CBD.

Burgess Concentric Zone Model: This is the first used to explain the
distributions of different social groups within urban areas. It says that a
city grows outward from a central place in a series of concentric rings.
The precise size and width of the rings vary from one city to another, but
some basic types of rings appear in all cities in the same order (see chart
above).
26

•Hoyt Sector Model: In this model the city develops in a
series of sectors not rings. Certain areas of the city are
more attractive for various activities, originally because
of an environmental factor (or even pure chance). As the
city grows, activities extend outward in a wedge shape.
For example, once a wealthy neighborhood is built the
next wealthy neighborhood will extend from the first
neighborhood further outward from the center. In this
way, the best housing is found in a corridor extending
outward from the center to the outer edge (see chart on
the next page).
27

The Hoyt Sector Model

In the sector model, a city grows in a series of
wedges or corridors extending out from the
CBD.
28

•Harris and Ullman’s Multiple Nuclei Model: According
to this model, a city is a complex structure that includes
more than one center around which activities revolve.
Examples of these nodes include a port, parks,
stadium, neighborhood business center, university, and
airport (see chart). This theory states that some
activities are attracted to particular nodes, whereas
others try to avoid them. A university node may attract
well educated people and bookstores while the port will
attract hotels and warehouses. Heavy industry and
expensive houses rarely are found together. This
model shows the effect of the automobile more than
any other model.
29

The Harris and Ullman Multiple Nuclei model

The multiple nuclei model views a city as a
collection of individual centers, around which
different people and activities cluster.

30

Applications of the Models: The three models help explain where and in some
cases, why people live where they do. None of the models by themselves fully
explains why and where different types of people live, but combined they give
you as good a look as possible at the “Why” of “Where.” Effective use of the
models depends on getting good data on the areas. Most countries take a
census every 10 years to help determine useful data about the people and
places of the country. In our country we divide the census data into areas
known as census tracts of about 5,000 people. Each census tract has the data
that summarizes the characteristics of the people living within that tract. This
information includes things like the race, income, age, and education of the
people living in that tract.
Social Area Analysis: The data from the census tracts can all be plotted onto
maps to show the characteristics of the people living in that tract. This map is
known as a social area analysis.
31

Using Census tract information…Seattle, Washington
Each lined area is a
census tract of about 5000
people in Seattle
Washington. These maps
show average household
income for 1990 and
2000…note the changes in
income in some areas
between 1990 and 2000.
Using this information, a
business can make
decisions about where
they want to locate a new
store or the future of
existing stores.
You can find census tract
information on many topics
such as; age, education
level, race, ethnicity, crime
rate, and land ownership.
Note the areas with
incomes over
$63,000.

All can be very valuable
information to people
looking to open
businesses.

32

Examine the changes
between 1990 and
2000.

Oakland, California’s Ethnic neighborhoods
The small bordered areas are census tracks of 5000 people.

33

Use of the Models Outside of North America: The 3 models will also work in other
places in the world; however social groups in other countries may not have the
same reasons for selecting particular neighborhoods as Americans do.
European Cities: As in the US, wealthier people in European cities cluster along a
sector extending outward from the CBD, however unlike the US, wealthy and
middle class Europeans still live in the inner rings of the neighborhoods near the
CBD not out in the suburbs. In the past, poorer people lived in the center of the
city. Before electricity, social segregation was vertical: richer people lived on the
first or second floor of a building while the poorer people lived in the basement or
upper floors. In the Industrial Revolution, housing for the poor was constructed
near the factories and away from the rich.
Today poorer Europeans are less likely to live in the inner-city. Poor quality
housing has been renovated for the rich or turned into office buildings. Poorer
Europeans tend to live in the outskirts of the city. Vast suburbs with dozens of high
rise apartments house the poor. They face long commutes to reach their jobs in
the city.
34

European cities generally do not have the “suburban
sprawl” that US cities have. European cities tend to be
more pedestrian friendly with more parks downtown as
Europeans tend to still live downtown.
US cities have taller buildings as European cities tend to
be older and more historic.

American cities have more ethnic neighborhoods than
European cities. Ethnic neighborhoods that do exist in
European cities tend to be in the suburbs. WHY?
Because the established richer neighborhoods tend to be
downtown in European cities.
35

Less Developed Countries: Like Europe, most LDC’s accommodate their poor in the
suburbs with their middle class and rich living near the center of the city. LDC’s have
passed through 3 periods of city building: before the Europeans arrived, during the
period of European colonialism, and since independence from European control.

Pre-colonial Cities: Before the Europeans arrived few cities existed in Africa, Asia, and
Latin America and most people lived in small rural settlements. Those cities that existed
were mostly laid out surrounding a religious center; with the rest of the city laid out in a
hieratical concentric pattern (like the Burgess model) from government buildings,
homes of the wealthy, and businesses related to the religion out to other businesses
and shops.
Colonial cities: When the Europeans took over these lands, they changed the cities by
adding services to help the Europeans control the conquered people. Often a new
European style city would be build next to the existing native one. The new European
cities contained wider streets, a public square, larger houses and a much lower density.
The Spanish used the “Law of the Indies” which was a city plan designed specifically to
build cities in a “Spanish” style. (Gridiron pattern for streets centered on a church and
central plaza, walls around individual houses and neighborhoods centered around
smaller plazas and more churches.)
36

Early Mexico city was laid out in a grid pattern of streets. This followed
the Spanish “Law of the Indies.”

37

Central Plaza in Mexico City 1920 photo. Typical Colonial City plan.

Part of downtown Mexico city today still shows the
building plan of the “Law of the Indies.”

38

Cities since Independence: Following independence, cities have become
the focal point of the development of most LDC’s. Millions of people have
migrated to the cities (Primate cities) looking for jobs and services. Some
capitals have been moved to isolated areas in an attempt to help develop
that area of the country (Brasília) This is know as a forward capital. Latin
American cities have developed their own unique style.
Squatter settlements: The LDC’s are unable to house the rapidly growing
number of poor who are flowing into the cities. Because of the housing
shortages, the poor have constructed their own settlements around the city.
These settlements have few services because neither the city nor the
residents can afford them. Squatters have two basic choices for housing.
1. Illegally move into empty real houses located in the city or,
2. Rent slum housing.
(85% of the population of Addis Ababa in Ethiopia lives in squatter
settlements, slums or other illegal housing.)
39

Squatter shacks in Manila, the Philippines

40

Squatter settlement in Ethiopia

41

Zimbabwe, Africa

42

Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

43

Latin American City Model:
In many Latin
American cities,
the wealthy live in
the inner city and
in a sector
extending along a
commercial spine.
In situ accretion- businesses
and homes constantly under
construction/repair.
Zone of maturity-2nd best
housing in the city.
The poor live in squatter settlements on the
periphery of the city.

Disamenity- unpleasant area
used by the poor to get to the
market.

44

The City Outline of Rio de Janeiro
The rich tourist areas and expensive condo apartments are along the coast
and beach while the poor live in squatter shacks in the hills.

45

City problems:
Inner-City Physical Problems: Most US inner cities were constructed before the 1950’s
(people began to move to the suburbs in the 1950’s so new construction moved out of
the city).
Process of Deterioration (how a city deteriorates): A city doesn’t suddenly become old
and full of slummy areas. It happens over time. When a group of low-income people
inhabit an area of a city, nearby neighborhoods will often look to move out. They sell or
rent to more low-income occupants thus expanding the low-income area. Two processes
cause/speed up the devaluation of areas:
1. Filtering, 2. Redlining.
Filtering: Large houses and buildings that once housed rich downtown workers (who
moved to the suburbs) are taken over by landlords who don’t live in that area (they
moved to the suburbs too). Rents are low so the landlord doesn’t take as good care of
the property as they should and the property becomes run down or abandoned. Stores
close, or move, due to lack of sales. 100 years ago these neighborhoods would be used
by immigrants and ethnic businesses would succeed in those areas. Now, with a decline
in immigration, these neighborhoods have shrunk and so have schools, businesses and
other services. Thousands of vacant houses and buildings stand empty in inner cities
across America.

46

Redlining: Some banks refuse to give loans in what they consider
risky neighborhoods. They draw a red line on a map around areas
where they will not give loans. Without loans, these neighborhoods
have a hard time rebuilding/remodeling. Though illegal, this still
happens. Bankers just don’t put these “no-loan” areas on a map.

Urban Renewal: This is the series of projects to improve European
and N. American cities by buying up the blighted neighborhoods,
moving the people to new government built housing projects, and
building new roads, and other projects to make the inner city
attractive for business again. National and State government grants
help pay for these projects.
47

Public housing: Housing for the poor, built with government funding as part of
urban renewal. In the US this is only about 2% of the housing while in some
countries it may be more (Britain is 30%). Public housing built in the 50’s & 60’s
were largely high rise apartments, but those are seen as being unsatisfactory.
Problems arise from cramming large numbers of poor people into one area.
Today most public housing projects are one to three story buildings with many of
them being scattered around different parts of the city rather than clustered into
one area.
Because urban renewal has been criticized for destroying the social cohesion of
older neighborhoods, many governments (like the US) have stopped funding
most projects since the 1970’s. What do we do instead?
Renovated Housing: An alternative often used since the 70’s is to renovate a
building instead of urban renewal. The process where middle-class people
move into inner-city neighborhoods and renovate them is called gentrification.
Gentrified inner-city neighborhoods also attract middle-class people who work
downtown. Living close to work saves the hassle of commuting and rejuvenates
run down inner-city neighborhoods
48

Gentrified building downtown Harlem, NY. Note the supermarket.

49

Inner-City Social Problems: Inner-city residents are often referred to as the
permanent underclass because they are trapped in an unending cycle of
economic and social problems. High unemployment, alcoholism, drug
addiction, literacy, juvenile delinquency, and crime all exist at a higher rate
among those who live in the inner-city. Lack of jobs means lack of tax dollars
to pay for police and fire protection as well as good schools. Lack of job skills
and homelessness are also tremendous problems.
Culture of Poverty: Inner-city residents are trapped in a permanent underclass
culture that reproduces itself. In the US, unwed mothers give birth to 2/3 of the
babies in the inner-city. 90% of these children live with only one parent and it
is real hard for one parent to keep a job and take care of children. Both suffer
and a shortage of care and daily attention by the parent contributes to the kids
not learning the skills necessary to do well in school which leads to poor jobs
for their futures. Poverty leads to more poverty. Many families on welfare have
only one parent because it is financially better if one parent is gone, that way
the single parent gets food stamps and other services from the government
that they would not get if it was a 2 family household.
50

Crime: Trapped in a hopeless environment, some inner-city
residents turn to drugs. Drug use is a problem in inner-city
areas and the suburbs, but rates of drug use in inner-cities
are the highest.
Ethnic and Racial Segregation: As seen in chapter 7, many
neighborhoods in the US are segregated by ethnicity with
African Americans and Hispanics concentrated in one or two
continuous areas and whites living in the suburbs. Even small
cities display a strong distinction among neighborhoods. A
frequent division is between the east and west or north and
south side of town, or the railroad tracks. A family seeking a
new residence will seek the areas where the characteristics
of the people meet their own.

51

The exodus
from the
American city.
This has
happened in
many American
cities since the
1960’s.

52

Changes in Cities in the U.S.
U.S. population has been moving out of the city centers to the suburbs:
suburbanization and counter urbanization

Developed Countries: suburbanization

 wealthy move to suburbs
 automobiles and roads; ‘American
Dream’ of the home in the suburbs.
 better services
 wealthy move to suburbs
Counter urbanization

idyllic settings
cost of land for retirement
slow pace, yet high tech
connections to services and markets
53

U.S. intraregional migration during 1990s.

Inner city economic problems: the concentration of low income
residents in inner cities has caused economic problems. These
people require public services but can pay very little in taxes to
support the services. They need stores and jobs but have little
money to spend in the store and few skills for jobs (so the stores
close). To try to fight these problems many local and state
governments use tax monies to try to renovate these areas, but this
shifts tax money needed for other areas to the inner city (votes on
election day).
Annexation: Many cities could help their tax problem by adding the
new suburbs to be part of their city (annexation). After all, many of
these suburban people use the city for its’ jobs etc., so why not add
them into the city? Today, most people in the suburbs do not want
to be annexed into the city and so they do not vote to be annexed.
54

The Peripheral Model: According to this model, an urban area
consists of an inner city surrounded by large suburban residential
and business areas (MSA) tied together by a beltway or highway
that circles the city. Around the beltway are nodes of consumer
and business services called edge cities (see diagram of multiple
nuclei model). These edge cities sprang up to provide services
and jobs to the people in the suburbs.
Density Gradient: As you travel outward from the center of the
city, the density of people declines. Inner city has big apartments
of 250 of more people per acre. Suburbs have fewer people per
acre (but lots of acres) and finally you leave the cities periphery
you find few people. The number of houses per unit of land
diminishes as distance from the center of the city increases.
55

The Edge cities (bedroom communities) of Houston

The central city is surrounded by a ring road, around which are
suburban areas and edge cities, shopping malls, office parks,
industrial areas, and service complexes.

Known as
bedroom
communities
because
people live
there but
mostly don’t
work there.
They drive
into the city
for work.
56

As you move from the center of the city outward, the density of the population
changes. This is know as the density gradient. Two big changes have occurred in
the density gradient of today’s cities:
1. The number of people living in the center has decreased.
2. The density difference between the inner city and the suburbs is declining
because the inner city density is dropping and the suburban density is growing
due to more large apartments being built in the suburbs.
Cost of Suburban or Urban Sprawl: Urban Sprawl is the progressive spread of
development over the landscape. As long as we Americans want single-family
detached houses, land on the fringe of urban areas will be converted from open
space to residential use. The cost of this growth is more than the loss of land, it is
also the cost of new roads, utilities, building stores and offices and the cost of
automobiles to move these people over even longer distances. Lots of these new
developments are built on what was once farmland. Wonderful productive soil now
under concrete.

Greenbelts: are areas where, by law, the open space can not be used for any
construction. This is mostly found in Europe.

57

Once farmland that is being converted to suburbs and cities.

58

Tyson’s Corner Virginia in 1940

59

Washington, DC. MSA.

Tyson’s Corner Virginia
today.
Washington D.C. is off
In the distance.

60

Suburban Segregation: The “new” segregation.
Suburban segregation takes two forms:
1. Residents are separated from commercial and manufacturing activities
which are confined someplace else. (The whole neighborhood is
nothing but houses because they drive for services.)
2. The price of the house eliminates some from being able to live there. This
creates a homogeneous suburb of the same economic class of people.
This never existed before in history. Where we once had vertical
segregation of the classes we now we have horizontal segregation.
3. But this may be reversing as new statistics show that people are beginning
to move back to the city. Why? Cost of transportation.
Zoning Ordinances: This idea developed in Europe and later America in the
early decades of the 20th century. This means that businesses are allowed only
in certain areas of the settlement. (No all night taco stands inside your single
family neighborhood.)
Motor vehicles: The wide use of the automobile is largely responsible for the
American movement to the suburbs. Not only did people move out but 1/4 of
the land inside all American cities are now roads, streets, and parking lots.

61

Public Transportation: Because few US workers live within walking distance
of their jobs, urban areas are characterized by extensive commuting and the
problems that come with it. As much as 40% of all trips made into or out from
a city during the day takes place within just 4 hours. (2 in the morning and 2 in
the late afternoon). RUSH HOUR!!! In large cities, public transportation, like
subways and busses, are better suited to move people but Americans still
prefer their own cars. Public transportation is cheaper, cleaner, and more
energy efficient than personal cars, yet in the US only 5% of city travel is
done using public transit systems. American’s love their personal car too
much.
Local Government Fragmentation: Because of the large number of local
governments in the US (look at the settlements in Pinellas County) it is
difficult to solve some of the regional problems like garbage disposal, water
management, traffic and public housing.
62

Metropolitan government: This idea tries to put many local governments into a
larger unit that can better handle the urban problems. The 2 ways to do this
are:
1. Federations in which the individual settlements have their own police,
firemen, and tax collection but they all agree to be part of a second
government which handles transportation, water, sewage, parks and
welfare for all the communities.
2. Consolidations: In this method, several cities and the county may form one
government. Jacksonville’s government runs not only the town but the
county too, this makes Jacksonville the largest city, in land size, in the US.
Smart growth: A new movement by many states to curb suburban sprawl by
limiting where new construction can take place. Smart growth laws require that
land near cities be used up before any land further out can be developed. So
far, this is only being done an a few parts of our country.
63

The new
US as
some
people
see it.

64

Quiz Yourself:
1. The process where middle-class people move into inner city neighborhoods and
renovate them is called ____________
2. ____________ happens when banks refuse to give loans in what they consider
risky neighborhoods.
3. Because of the housing shortages, the poor have constructed their own settlements
around the city known as __________ _________

4. Businesses are allowed only in certain areas of the settlement because of
____________ ____________
5. Areas known as _____ _______ are areas of about 5,000 people. The data from
that area is used to help define needed services for that area.
6. When cities are so close that they form one continuous band of development this is
known as a ____________
65

7. Social relationships are often described as “colder” in urban areas because…
8. In this model the city develops in a series of sectors not rings. _______

9. ______ (LDC’s or MDC’s) have a higher percentage of people living in urban
settlements but ________ (LDC’s or MDC’s) have more of the very large urban
settlements.
10. _____________ was the first model developed to explain the distributions
of different social groups within urban areas.
11. New cities which develop around the beltway are nodes of consumer and
business services known as ________ _________.

12. When the Europeans took over lands around the world, they changed the
cities by adding services to help the Europeans control the conquered people.
These European planned cities are known as __________ cities.
66

Answer Key:
1.

Gentrification

2.

Redlining

3.

Squatter Settlements

4.

Zoning ordinances

5.

Census tracks

6.

Megalopolis

7. There is a stronger feeling of belonging together in small rural settlements.
8. Hoyt sector model
9. MDC, LDC
10. Burgess Concentric Zone model
11. Edge cities
12. Colonial cities
67

Test Key topic/chapter 13:
These questions come from a combination of our slides, your text book, and common knowledge you should
have discussed in your AP classroom. They are very typical of what you will see on the National Exam.
1) The multiple nuclei theory best explains why different neighborhoods of a city attract people of different… A) ages.
B) ethnic origin C) income D) marital status.
2) Sprawl is the… A) change in density within an urban area from the center to the periphery B) development of new
housing sites not contiguous to the existing built-up area. C) land maintained as open space surrounding an urban area.
D) period in the morning and evening with the heaviest volumes of traffic.
3) People are attracted to suburbs in part because suburbs are characterized by…A) heavy traffic. B) lower opportunity
for home ownership. C) private land surrounding the house. D) row houses and apartments.
4) Megalopolis refers to… A) adjacent, overlapping Metropolitan Statistical Areas. B) central cities. C) consolidated
Metropolitan Statistical Areas. D) central cities plus urbanized areas.
5) Which statement best describes the relationship between urbanization and the Industrial Revolution? A) Urbanization
promoted the Industrial Revolution. B) The Industrial Revolution promoted urbanization. C) Urbanization preceded the
Industrial Revolution by thousands of years. D) Urbanization and the Industrial Revolution are no longer related.
6) The process of legally adding land area to a city in the United States is… A) annexation. B) accreditation. C) an
application of eminent domain. D) defined by urbanized area.

68

7) The process of change in the use of a house, from single-family owner occupancy to abandonment, is… A) blockbusting.
B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining.
8) A process by which banks designate an area within which they refuse to lend money for improvements is… A) blockbusting.
B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining.
9) A recent change in the density gradient has been… A) the elimination of the gap traditionally found in the center. B) an
increase in the extremes between the inner and outer areas. C) an increase in the number of people living in the center.
D) a reduction in the differences in densities found within an urban area.
10) U.S. central cities face fiscal problems because… A) federal and state funds are available. B) low-income people are
concentrated there. C) middle-class families are attracted there. D) redlining is no longer legal.
11) A legal form of segregation in U.S. cities is achieved through...A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) zoning. D) greenbelts.
12) Factories have moved to suburban locations in part because of… A) access to main highways. B) adequate space to build
vertical structures. C) availability of large tracts of high-priced land. D) good rail connections.
13) According to the sector model, the best housing is located in…A) a corridor from downtown to the edge of the city.
B) an outer ring surrounding the city. C) nodes near universities and parks. D) renovated inner-city neighborhoods.
14) Ramshackle houses on the periphery of cities in less developed countries are known as… A) squatter settlements. B) council
estates. C) public housing. D) zone in transition.
15) Higher income people tend to live near the center of the city in all but which of the following regions? A) Latin America
B) North America C) South Asia D) Western Europe

16) The wide boulevards built in cities in less developed countries were most likely built during what era? A) pre-colonial
B) colonial C) independence D) all of the above equally

69

17) According to the multiple nuclei model, an airport is likely to attract nearby… A) industries. B) residences. C) shops.
D) universities.
18) The largest percentage of the U.S. population lives in…A) central cities. B) suburbs. C) non-metropolitan areas. D) all of the
above
19) In U.S. cities, the underclass is… A) clustered in inner-city neighborhoods. B) dispersed throughout the city. C) clustered in
suburbs. D) distributed uniformly in the city.

20) A process of converting a neighborhood from low-income to middle-class is…A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) gentrification.
D) redlining.
21) Higher social heterogeneity in urban settlements means that… A) the people with whom you relax are probably the same ones you
see at work. B) you play a specialized role in the urban economy. C) you compete for limited space. D) you may feel lonely and
isolated in a crowd.
22) The city plus its contiguous built-up suburbs is the… A) central city. B) urbanized area.
D) consolidated metropolitan statistical area

C) metropolitan statistical area.

23) The process whereby an increasing percentage of people live in an urban area is known as… A) demographic transition.
B) rank-size rule. C) urbanization. D) central place theory.
24) Of the ten largest urban areas in the world, how many are in More Developed Countries today? A) 1 B) 4 C) 7 D) 10 E) 2
25) Public housing is…A) conversion of low-income housing to middle-class housing. B) illegally established low-income housing.
C) housing that has changed from single-family owner occupancy to abandonment. D) low-income government-owned housing.
26) According to the concentric zone model, a city develops in a series of… A) corridors. B) nodes. C) rings. D) all of the above

70

27) Chicago is a good location in which to develop urban models because it is located… A) at the hub of the nation's transportation
system. B) in the center of the country. C) on a flat prairie. D) on the shore of Lake Michigan.
28) According to the sector model, the best housing is located in… A) a corridor from downtown to the edge of the city. B) an outer
ring surrounding the city. C) nodes near universities and parks. D) renovated inner-city neighborhoods.
29) The zone of transition in US cities generally contain…A) warehouses B) wealthy neighborhoods C) transportation hubs
D) universities and hospitals E) suburban homes
30) The attractions of shopping malls include all but which of the following? A) frequent concerts and exhibitions B) generous
parking lots C) place to meet friends D) walking distance from homes
The following questions are written at the high school level. You will find some questions from part one often rewritten
here. This is all designed to help you transition to the college/AP style of written questions. Any question preceded with ***
are questions that have been on the national exam before.
31. Most Latin American cities are focused on a…A) central plaza B) government housing project C) zone of heavy industry
D) skyscraper office building E) squatter settlement
32. The multiple-nuclei model of a city structure tends to be most applicable to…A) small cities B) traditional C) Latin American
cities D) newer, fast growing cities E) cities with homogeneous land use
33. ***Locational advantages important to the development of the earliest cities include…A) availability of good harbors for large
ships B) productive agricultural land and defensible sites C) temperate climate and proximity to coal mines D) good
connections by road and canal E) proximity to manufacturing areas

34. In cities, the CBD’s often show uniqueness while the suburbs usually show…A) a large hinterland. B) placelessness C) more
than one node. D) newer zones of transition.

71

35. Many LDC’s have tried to help a previously under-developed part of their country develop by moving their capital
city to that area. This new capital is known as a…A) forward capital B) new development zone C) enterprise zone
D) neocolonial city
36. Today the greatest number of urban dwellers is found in…A) North America
D) Europe E) Asia

B) South America C) Africa

37. ***All of the following have helped create ghettos in North American cities except…A)blockbusting and racial
steering B) redlining by financial institutions C) concentration of public housing and social services D) fixed school
districts E) Economic Enterprise Zones

38. Which of the following is NOT as reason for rapid suburbanization in the US after WW2? A) Mass production of
the automobile B) Reduction of long distance commuting C) Expansion of home construction D) Expansion of the
interstate highway system E) Availability of low down payment terms and long-term mortgages.
39. New cities which developed in the hinterland of large urban areas because of the automobile, are known as…
A) edge cities B) census tracts C) suburban sprawl D) squatter settlements. E) none of these
40. Gentrification refers to… A) moving the homeless into inner city shelters B) The “White Flight” from the urban city
C) losing tax revenue because of stores closing in downtown areas D) middle-class people moving into and renovating
inner city neighborhoods E) the creation of “beltway cities” around the city.

72

4
7
3

5

1
6

2

41-48 all use the sketch above.
41. The sketch in box A above represents which model of the inner structure of urban areas?
C) multiple nuclei model D) Burgess concentric zone model E) peripheral model
42. The models in boxes B and C represent A) Concentric zone and multiple nuclei
concentric zone D) peripheral and concentric zone E) Von Thunen and peripheral

A) Hoyt sector model B) VonThunen’s model

B) Multiple nuclei and Hoyt sector C) Hoyt sector and

43. In which ring (1, 2, etc.) of sketch A above would high-status households in North American cities likely live? A) 1 B) 2 C) 3 D) 4&5
44. In which ring (1, 2, etc.) of sketch A above would high status households in a European city likely live? A) 1

B) 2

C) 3

D) 4&5

45. In model B, zone # 2 is where it is likely because of: A) greenbelting B) squatter settling C) the culture of poverty D) transportation
E) no one knows
46. The model in sketch B is the; A) Hoyt sector model B) Burgess model C) multiple nuclei model D) peripheral model
47. The model in sketch C is the; A) Hoyt sector model B) Burgess model C) multiple nuclei model D) peripheral model
48. Which of these models best describes what has happened in US cities in the last 40 years? A)

B)

C)

73

49.*** In the U.S. a city plus its contiguous built-up suburbs is known as an…A) urbanized area B) zoned area
C) census tract D) Squatter settlement E) none of these
50. Done mostly in Europe, these are areas where land is kept as parks, farms or other kinds of open space and urban
sprawl is not allowed. A) Smart growth
B) zoning
C) filtering
D) census tracts E) greenbelts
51. Which statement best describes the relationship between urbanization and the Industrial Revolution?
A) Urbanization promoted the Industrial Revolution. B) The Industrial Revolution promoted urbanization.
C) Urbanization preceded the Industrial Revolution by thousands of years. D) Urbanization and the Industrial
Revolution are no longer related.
52. The process whereby an increasing percentage of people live in an urban area is known as…
A) Demographic transition. B) rank-size rule. C) Urbanization. D) Central place theory.
53. The city (if it has 50,000 or more people) plus its contiguous built-up suburbs AND the county it is in as well as any
other counties it influences, is known as the ...A) central city B) urbanized area
C) metropolitan statistical area
D) consolidated metropolitan area E) micropolitan statistical area
54. ***Higher social heterogeneity in urban settlements means that …A) the people with whom you relax are probably
the same ones you see at work. B) you play a specialized role in the urban economy. C) you compete for limited
space. D) you may feel lonely and isolated in a crowd.

55. The process of change in the use of a house, from single-family owner occupancy to smaller dwellings for the poor
and then sometimes to abandonment, is…A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining. E) none of
these

74

Free Response #1:
The Bid Rent theory says that the closer you get to the
CBD the higher the cost for land, yet in most American
cities you find the poorest people living near the
expensive CBD and the richest living further away.
Explain:
A. Why neighborhoods near the CBD are often poor and
run down?
B. Why are there few grocery and other retail stores in
these neighborhoods?
C. Why is this not really true in European and Latin
American countries?

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75

FR #2:
Think of the map of your school, explain the
layout of your school using the Multiple Nuclei
Model
The main office is the CBD.
Completely explain your answer using specific
buildings and/or land areas in your explanation
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76

Answer Key:
1. B

14. A

27. C

40. D

53. C

2. B

15. B

28. A

41. D

54. D

3. C

16. B

29. A

42. B

55. B

4. A

17. A

30. D

43. D

5. B

18. B

31. A

44. A

6. A

19. A

32. D

45. D

7. B

20. C

33. B

46. A

8. D

21. D

34. B

47. C

9. D

22. B

35. A

48. C

10. B

23. C

36. E

49. A

11. C

24. C

37. E

50. E

12. A

25. D

38. B

51. B

13. A

26. C

39. A

52. C
77

FR. #1: ( 15 pts. for each section…total of 45 pts.)
A. In the US the move of the wealthy and middle class to the suburbs has left the older houses and apartments near the CBD empty.
This has lowered their value to the point where the poor can afford these dwellings and have made these neighborhoods their
homes. The poor can not pay for upkeep of these dwellings, or to pay high taxes. The lack of upkeep and tax money to repair the
roads and schools, adds to the downward spiral of the neighborhood. With little spending money for shopping, the poor do not
spend much in the stores. This causes many stores to close and move to the suburbs where the spending customers and money
went. The closing of the stores adds to the poverty of the area by taking away some of the jobs that were in the neighborhood. This
becomes a vicious cycle of poverty and deterioration. (15 points)

B. There are few retail stores and groceries is the area because the poor do not have money to shop. The lack of spending forces
many stores out of business or forces them to move to better locations. There also can be higher crime in these areas and the
crime often takes place at the stores. This is another reason for the stores to move out of the neighborhood. (15 points)
C. Neighborhoods in European and Latin American cities are different from those of US cities. In Europe and Latin America, the
wealthy and middle class still live near or in the CBD. The higher tax base and more spending ability of the upper and middle
classes, keeps the CBD area flourishing with jobs and in constant repair and upkeep of the cities’ physical condition. (15 points)

FR #2: (10 total points.)
You will need to judge how effectively you displayed you school
in the Multiple Nuclei Model. Refer to the model itself to help you
determine your success and grade.
School’s main office
78

Calculating your grade on test 13.
Add how many you got correct on the multiple choice part (55 possible) to how many
points you scored on the FR portion (55 possible)…110 total.
The following scale will show the approximate score if this test were the real AP exam. Remember that this
is an approximation. While 65-74% is normally the range for a 3 on the test, it is not definite. Over the
years I have seen scores as low as 60% be the low portion of a 3 score.

Out of 110 possible points:
72-83 is most likely a 3
84-94 is most likely a 4

95-110 is most likely a 5

Now lets start our review for the national exam by
reviewing the 33 key models and theories of the
course…the next PowerPoint.


Slide 24

Key topic/chapter 13…Urban Patterns
Key terms:
Annexation
Concentric zone model
Density gradient
Edge cities
Filtering
Galactic city
Gentrification
Greenbelts
Megalopolis
MSA
Multiple nuclei model
Peripheral model

Public housing
Redlining
Renovated housing
Scattered site
Squatter settlement
Sector model
Smart growth
Sprawl
Underclass
Urban renewal
Zone in transition
Zoning
1

Chapter 13…Urban Areas.
How are Cities planned?
Why

are cities where they are?
How are they organized?
Why are some areas of a city
different from
other areas of the same city?
What is the future of cities?
2

Settlement


Settlement - permanent collections of buildings,
where people live, work, and obtain services

3

ORIGINS OF SETTLEMENTS


Religious - graves, churches, temples



Cultural - schools, libraries



Political/Military - leader’s house, walls



Economic - stores, food
4

TYPES OF SETTLEMENTS


Rural Settlements - agriculture as the
predominant occupation.



Urban settlements - principal industries are
secondary and tertiary.

5

RURAL SETTLEMENTS
Clustered rural settlements –grouped
settlements in rural areas to minimize travel

Dispersed rural Settlements - isolated farms
with enclosed continuous fields (Found only in
N. America and Britain).

6

Urban Geographers want to know the global distribution of urban
settlements. MDC’s have a high percentage of people living in urban
areas because of the shift from agriculture-manufacturing-services.
Geographers are also interested in where people and activities are
distributed within urban spaces. What are the differences between the
inner-city and suburban areas and why?
As we saw in the last chapter, many downtowns are unique and can
often be recognized in photos where the suburbs often look very
much alike (Placelessness). Why? Suburbs offer the chance to avoid
some of the city problems (crime, tight living area, expensive
land/rent, noise, age of buildings) while still keeping a connection with
the goods and services of the city: jobs, sports teams, culture, shops,
recreation, etc.
7

Where is this place?

8

Today’s cities are evolving and changing. Although different internal
situations characterize urban areas in the US and elsewhere, the
problems arising from current spatial trends are quite similar in all cities.
Where have urban areas grown: in the early 1800’s only 3% of the earth’s
people lived in cities and only Beijing China had more than 1 million
people. Today over ½ of the world’s people live in cities and we have over
400 cities of at least 1 million people.

Urbanization: is the process by which city population grows.
Cities population growth is measured in 2 dimensions;
1. An increase in the number of people living in the cities.
2. An increase in the percentage of people living in the cities.
This distinction is important because they happen for different reason and
have different global distributions.
9

Increasing Percentage of People in Cities: a large percentage of people living in urban
areas is a measure of a country’s level of development. In MDC’s about ¾ of the people
live in urban areas compared to about 2/5 of people in LDC’s. (Except in Latin America
where the level is closer to MDC’s.)
The higher percentage of people in urban areas comes from the changes that have
occurred in the last 200 years as we went from agriculture (primary jobs) to industrial
(secondary jobs) and now service jobs, all created by the Industrial Revolution of the
1800’s.
People moved to the cities for industrial jobs, but in MDC’s this process has largely
ended because nearly everyone interested in moving to the cities from farms has already
done so.
In LDC’s the percentage of people living in urban areas is growing as people are pushed
off of their farms and replaced by machines and as people move to cities looking/hoping
for industrial jobs.
10

Increasing Number of People in Cities: MDC’s have a higher percentage of
people living in urban settlements but LDC’s have more of the very large urban
settlements (Primate cities). (Rank-size rule, primate cities, chapter 12.)

This is interesting because typically the large cities are created from the
improvements brought by the Industrial Revolution. This is not the case with the
large LDC cities. Migration to the primate city in LDC’s is happening even though
job opportunities may not be available. Increasing the population growth in LDC
cities is the fact that medical services are better in these cities, thus the child
mortality rate is lower.
Defining Urban Settlements: defining where urban areas end and rural areas
begin is not easy. Geographers have formulated definitions that distinguish
between urban and rural areas in two ways: Social differences and Physical
differences.
11

Percent Urban Population

Percent of the population living in urban areas is usually higher in MDCs
than in LDCs.

12

The most populated cities in the world

Of the top
20, only
Moscow,
Tokyo and
New York
are in MDC’s

Shanghai China has 14,608,512 people
13

14

15

Social Differences Between Urban and Rural Settlements: it is fair to say that rural
people and urban people follow different ways of life. A city can be defined as having 3
characteristics:
1. Large size. People in rural settlements know most of the other people in the
settlement. Not true in big cities. Social relationships are often described as “colder” in
urban areas because you only see some people at work instead of growing up with
them in the settlement.
2. High Density. Having lots of people in a tiny area creates social consequences. A
high density of people living in a small area can only be supported if the people
specialize (they can’t all be farmers). People are encouraged to compete for jobs, room,
and survival in a tightly limited space. Social groups compete to occupy the same space
(ethnic/ race problems). Rural settlements have very little of this problem.
3. Social Heterogeneity. The larger the settlement, the greater the variety of people.
Being “unusual” in a large settlement is more likely to be accepted than in a small rural
one. But despite the freedom to be different that large urban settlements give you,
people living there often feel alone because so many people are different from them.
There is a stronger feeling of belonging together in small rural settlements.
16

These 3 differences do not fully answer the question of where urban settlements
begin and rural ones end because in today’s MDC’s most everyone has access to
cars, telephones, televisions, and “urban type” jobs which reduce the differences
between urban and rural lifestyles. “City folk” and “Country folk” are more alike
today than they are different. To help distinguish between urban and rural areas we
need to add the physical definition of rural and urban to the equation.
Physical Definitions of Urban Settlements: In ancient time, cities had defensive
walls for protection which clearly defined the physical boundaries of the city. Today
the walls are gone but we can still define the physical boundaries in 3 ways:
1. Legal boundary. These are the official boundaries of a city as recognized by
the government of the country or state. These “city limits” have been officially given
to the city and are physically marked on official maps. The local government of the
city has authority to make laws and protect the people inside the city boundaries.
17

2. Urbanized area. This is the city plus its suburbs or urbanized area that
surrounds the city. About 70 percent of US residents live in urbanized areas with
40% being in the suburbs and 30% inside the city limits. The suburbs may have
their own city governments but the huge central city dominates what happens in
the entire area.
3. Metropolitan Statistical Area. Cities have an even bigger influence on people
than just those living in their city limits and surrounding urbanized areas. People
from far away come to shop, use the services, support the sports teams, read
the newspapers and watch the television broadcasts of the city. Thus the city
has a “functional area” which is its total zone of influence. The US Bureau of
Census has created a method of measuring the functional area of the city.
Known as the Metropolitan statistical area (MSA) this area includes:
•An urbanized area with a population of at least 50,000
•The county within which the city is located.
•Adjacent counties with a high population density and a large percentage of
residents working in the central city’s county.
18

Metropolitan Area of Philadelphia

City of
Philadelphia

Urbanized
area
(suburbs)
Metropolitan
Statistical
Area

The metropolitan area of Philadelphia is
spread over several counties and four states.
It is also a diversified trade center, given its
position on the Delaware river.

19

20

21

Micropolitan Statistical Areas: Smaller areas with between
10,000 and 50,000 people, the county where it is found, and
adjacent counties tied to the city. This would be a small town and
the area dominated by it.
Overlapping Metropolitan Areas: Some adjacent MSA’s overlap.
A county between two central cities may send a large number of
commuters to jobs in both cities. In some areas the cities are so
close that they form one continuous urban complex. This is
known as a Megalopolis (great city).
In a megalopolis, the downtown CBD often has its own
distinctive look and the urban areas are visually separated by
parks, open spaces, and dairy/truck farms. But at the periphery
of the urban areas, the boundaries overlap.
22

Colorado Springs, population 431,000

Ocala, Florida, population 56,000

Florala, Alabama, population 1,900

23

Megalopolis, from northern Va. To Maine.
This Illustrates the
difference between
strict city proper
definitions and broader
urban agglomerations.
To define urbanized
areas, the U.S. Census
Bureau uses the term
Metropolitan Statistical
Area (MSA) or
Consolidated MSA
(CMSA) if two or more of
them overlap.
24

Where are People Distributed within Urban Areas? People are not
just distributed at random in urban areas. For the most part they
concentrate in particular neighborhoods depending on their social
characteristics. Geographers want to see where people with
particular characteristics are likely to live and why.

Three models which try to explain the growth of a city:

The Burgess Model

The Hoyt Sector Model

The Harris and Ullman
multiple Nuclei Model
25

Burgess Concentric Zone Model

In the concentric zone model, a city grows in a series of rings surrounding the CBD.

Burgess Concentric Zone Model: This is the first used to explain the
distributions of different social groups within urban areas. It says that a
city grows outward from a central place in a series of concentric rings.
The precise size and width of the rings vary from one city to another, but
some basic types of rings appear in all cities in the same order (see chart
above).
26

•Hoyt Sector Model: In this model the city develops in a
series of sectors not rings. Certain areas of the city are
more attractive for various activities, originally because
of an environmental factor (or even pure chance). As the
city grows, activities extend outward in a wedge shape.
For example, once a wealthy neighborhood is built the
next wealthy neighborhood will extend from the first
neighborhood further outward from the center. In this
way, the best housing is found in a corridor extending
outward from the center to the outer edge (see chart on
the next page).
27

The Hoyt Sector Model

In the sector model, a city grows in a series of
wedges or corridors extending out from the
CBD.
28

•Harris and Ullman’s Multiple Nuclei Model: According
to this model, a city is a complex structure that includes
more than one center around which activities revolve.
Examples of these nodes include a port, parks,
stadium, neighborhood business center, university, and
airport (see chart). This theory states that some
activities are attracted to particular nodes, whereas
others try to avoid them. A university node may attract
well educated people and bookstores while the port will
attract hotels and warehouses. Heavy industry and
expensive houses rarely are found together. This
model shows the effect of the automobile more than
any other model.
29

The Harris and Ullman Multiple Nuclei model

The multiple nuclei model views a city as a
collection of individual centers, around which
different people and activities cluster.

30

Applications of the Models: The three models help explain where and in some
cases, why people live where they do. None of the models by themselves fully
explains why and where different types of people live, but combined they give
you as good a look as possible at the “Why” of “Where.” Effective use of the
models depends on getting good data on the areas. Most countries take a
census every 10 years to help determine useful data about the people and
places of the country. In our country we divide the census data into areas
known as census tracts of about 5,000 people. Each census tract has the data
that summarizes the characteristics of the people living within that tract. This
information includes things like the race, income, age, and education of the
people living in that tract.
Social Area Analysis: The data from the census tracts can all be plotted onto
maps to show the characteristics of the people living in that tract. This map is
known as a social area analysis.
31

Using Census tract information…Seattle, Washington
Each lined area is a
census tract of about 5000
people in Seattle
Washington. These maps
show average household
income for 1990 and
2000…note the changes in
income in some areas
between 1990 and 2000.
Using this information, a
business can make
decisions about where
they want to locate a new
store or the future of
existing stores.
You can find census tract
information on many topics
such as; age, education
level, race, ethnicity, crime
rate, and land ownership.
Note the areas with
incomes over
$63,000.

All can be very valuable
information to people
looking to open
businesses.

32

Examine the changes
between 1990 and
2000.

Oakland, California’s Ethnic neighborhoods
The small bordered areas are census tracks of 5000 people.

33

Use of the Models Outside of North America: The 3 models will also work in other
places in the world; however social groups in other countries may not have the
same reasons for selecting particular neighborhoods as Americans do.
European Cities: As in the US, wealthier people in European cities cluster along a
sector extending outward from the CBD, however unlike the US, wealthy and
middle class Europeans still live in the inner rings of the neighborhoods near the
CBD not out in the suburbs. In the past, poorer people lived in the center of the
city. Before electricity, social segregation was vertical: richer people lived on the
first or second floor of a building while the poorer people lived in the basement or
upper floors. In the Industrial Revolution, housing for the poor was constructed
near the factories and away from the rich.
Today poorer Europeans are less likely to live in the inner-city. Poor quality
housing has been renovated for the rich or turned into office buildings. Poorer
Europeans tend to live in the outskirts of the city. Vast suburbs with dozens of high
rise apartments house the poor. They face long commutes to reach their jobs in
the city.
34

European cities generally do not have the “suburban
sprawl” that US cities have. European cities tend to be
more pedestrian friendly with more parks downtown as
Europeans tend to still live downtown.
US cities have taller buildings as European cities tend to
be older and more historic.

American cities have more ethnic neighborhoods than
European cities. Ethnic neighborhoods that do exist in
European cities tend to be in the suburbs. WHY?
Because the established richer neighborhoods tend to be
downtown in European cities.
35

Less Developed Countries: Like Europe, most LDC’s accommodate their poor in the
suburbs with their middle class and rich living near the center of the city. LDC’s have
passed through 3 periods of city building: before the Europeans arrived, during the
period of European colonialism, and since independence from European control.

Pre-colonial Cities: Before the Europeans arrived few cities existed in Africa, Asia, and
Latin America and most people lived in small rural settlements. Those cities that existed
were mostly laid out surrounding a religious center; with the rest of the city laid out in a
hieratical concentric pattern (like the Burgess model) from government buildings,
homes of the wealthy, and businesses related to the religion out to other businesses
and shops.
Colonial cities: When the Europeans took over these lands, they changed the cities by
adding services to help the Europeans control the conquered people. Often a new
European style city would be build next to the existing native one. The new European
cities contained wider streets, a public square, larger houses and a much lower density.
The Spanish used the “Law of the Indies” which was a city plan designed specifically to
build cities in a “Spanish” style. (Gridiron pattern for streets centered on a church and
central plaza, walls around individual houses and neighborhoods centered around
smaller plazas and more churches.)
36

Early Mexico city was laid out in a grid pattern of streets. This followed
the Spanish “Law of the Indies.”

37

Central Plaza in Mexico City 1920 photo. Typical Colonial City plan.

Part of downtown Mexico city today still shows the
building plan of the “Law of the Indies.”

38

Cities since Independence: Following independence, cities have become
the focal point of the development of most LDC’s. Millions of people have
migrated to the cities (Primate cities) looking for jobs and services. Some
capitals have been moved to isolated areas in an attempt to help develop
that area of the country (Brasília) This is know as a forward capital. Latin
American cities have developed their own unique style.
Squatter settlements: The LDC’s are unable to house the rapidly growing
number of poor who are flowing into the cities. Because of the housing
shortages, the poor have constructed their own settlements around the city.
These settlements have few services because neither the city nor the
residents can afford them. Squatters have two basic choices for housing.
1. Illegally move into empty real houses located in the city or,
2. Rent slum housing.
(85% of the population of Addis Ababa in Ethiopia lives in squatter
settlements, slums or other illegal housing.)
39

Squatter shacks in Manila, the Philippines

40

Squatter settlement in Ethiopia

41

Zimbabwe, Africa

42

Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

43

Latin American City Model:
In many Latin
American cities,
the wealthy live in
the inner city and
in a sector
extending along a
commercial spine.
In situ accretion- businesses
and homes constantly under
construction/repair.
Zone of maturity-2nd best
housing in the city.
The poor live in squatter settlements on the
periphery of the city.

Disamenity- unpleasant area
used by the poor to get to the
market.

44

The City Outline of Rio de Janeiro
The rich tourist areas and expensive condo apartments are along the coast
and beach while the poor live in squatter shacks in the hills.

45

City problems:
Inner-City Physical Problems: Most US inner cities were constructed before the 1950’s
(people began to move to the suburbs in the 1950’s so new construction moved out of
the city).
Process of Deterioration (how a city deteriorates): A city doesn’t suddenly become old
and full of slummy areas. It happens over time. When a group of low-income people
inhabit an area of a city, nearby neighborhoods will often look to move out. They sell or
rent to more low-income occupants thus expanding the low-income area. Two processes
cause/speed up the devaluation of areas:
1. Filtering, 2. Redlining.
Filtering: Large houses and buildings that once housed rich downtown workers (who
moved to the suburbs) are taken over by landlords who don’t live in that area (they
moved to the suburbs too). Rents are low so the landlord doesn’t take as good care of
the property as they should and the property becomes run down or abandoned. Stores
close, or move, due to lack of sales. 100 years ago these neighborhoods would be used
by immigrants and ethnic businesses would succeed in those areas. Now, with a decline
in immigration, these neighborhoods have shrunk and so have schools, businesses and
other services. Thousands of vacant houses and buildings stand empty in inner cities
across America.

46

Redlining: Some banks refuse to give loans in what they consider
risky neighborhoods. They draw a red line on a map around areas
where they will not give loans. Without loans, these neighborhoods
have a hard time rebuilding/remodeling. Though illegal, this still
happens. Bankers just don’t put these “no-loan” areas on a map.

Urban Renewal: This is the series of projects to improve European
and N. American cities by buying up the blighted neighborhoods,
moving the people to new government built housing projects, and
building new roads, and other projects to make the inner city
attractive for business again. National and State government grants
help pay for these projects.
47

Public housing: Housing for the poor, built with government funding as part of
urban renewal. In the US this is only about 2% of the housing while in some
countries it may be more (Britain is 30%). Public housing built in the 50’s & 60’s
were largely high rise apartments, but those are seen as being unsatisfactory.
Problems arise from cramming large numbers of poor people into one area.
Today most public housing projects are one to three story buildings with many of
them being scattered around different parts of the city rather than clustered into
one area.
Because urban renewal has been criticized for destroying the social cohesion of
older neighborhoods, many governments (like the US) have stopped funding
most projects since the 1970’s. What do we do instead?
Renovated Housing: An alternative often used since the 70’s is to renovate a
building instead of urban renewal. The process where middle-class people
move into inner-city neighborhoods and renovate them is called gentrification.
Gentrified inner-city neighborhoods also attract middle-class people who work
downtown. Living close to work saves the hassle of commuting and rejuvenates
run down inner-city neighborhoods
48

Gentrified building downtown Harlem, NY. Note the supermarket.

49

Inner-City Social Problems: Inner-city residents are often referred to as the
permanent underclass because they are trapped in an unending cycle of
economic and social problems. High unemployment, alcoholism, drug
addiction, literacy, juvenile delinquency, and crime all exist at a higher rate
among those who live in the inner-city. Lack of jobs means lack of tax dollars
to pay for police and fire protection as well as good schools. Lack of job skills
and homelessness are also tremendous problems.
Culture of Poverty: Inner-city residents are trapped in a permanent underclass
culture that reproduces itself. In the US, unwed mothers give birth to 2/3 of the
babies in the inner-city. 90% of these children live with only one parent and it
is real hard for one parent to keep a job and take care of children. Both suffer
and a shortage of care and daily attention by the parent contributes to the kids
not learning the skills necessary to do well in school which leads to poor jobs
for their futures. Poverty leads to more poverty. Many families on welfare have
only one parent because it is financially better if one parent is gone, that way
the single parent gets food stamps and other services from the government
that they would not get if it was a 2 family household.
50

Crime: Trapped in a hopeless environment, some inner-city
residents turn to drugs. Drug use is a problem in inner-city
areas and the suburbs, but rates of drug use in inner-cities
are the highest.
Ethnic and Racial Segregation: As seen in chapter 7, many
neighborhoods in the US are segregated by ethnicity with
African Americans and Hispanics concentrated in one or two
continuous areas and whites living in the suburbs. Even small
cities display a strong distinction among neighborhoods. A
frequent division is between the east and west or north and
south side of town, or the railroad tracks. A family seeking a
new residence will seek the areas where the characteristics
of the people meet their own.

51

The exodus
from the
American city.
This has
happened in
many American
cities since the
1960’s.

52

Changes in Cities in the U.S.
U.S. population has been moving out of the city centers to the suburbs:
suburbanization and counter urbanization

Developed Countries: suburbanization

 wealthy move to suburbs
 automobiles and roads; ‘American
Dream’ of the home in the suburbs.
 better services
 wealthy move to suburbs
Counter urbanization

idyllic settings
cost of land for retirement
slow pace, yet high tech
connections to services and markets
53

U.S. intraregional migration during 1990s.

Inner city economic problems: the concentration of low income
residents in inner cities has caused economic problems. These
people require public services but can pay very little in taxes to
support the services. They need stores and jobs but have little
money to spend in the store and few skills for jobs (so the stores
close). To try to fight these problems many local and state
governments use tax monies to try to renovate these areas, but this
shifts tax money needed for other areas to the inner city (votes on
election day).
Annexation: Many cities could help their tax problem by adding the
new suburbs to be part of their city (annexation). After all, many of
these suburban people use the city for its’ jobs etc., so why not add
them into the city? Today, most people in the suburbs do not want
to be annexed into the city and so they do not vote to be annexed.
54

The Peripheral Model: According to this model, an urban area
consists of an inner city surrounded by large suburban residential
and business areas (MSA) tied together by a beltway or highway
that circles the city. Around the beltway are nodes of consumer
and business services called edge cities (see diagram of multiple
nuclei model). These edge cities sprang up to provide services
and jobs to the people in the suburbs.
Density Gradient: As you travel outward from the center of the
city, the density of people declines. Inner city has big apartments
of 250 of more people per acre. Suburbs have fewer people per
acre (but lots of acres) and finally you leave the cities periphery
you find few people. The number of houses per unit of land
diminishes as distance from the center of the city increases.
55

The Edge cities (bedroom communities) of Houston

The central city is surrounded by a ring road, around which are
suburban areas and edge cities, shopping malls, office parks,
industrial areas, and service complexes.

Known as
bedroom
communities
because
people live
there but
mostly don’t
work there.
They drive
into the city
for work.
56

As you move from the center of the city outward, the density of the population
changes. This is know as the density gradient. Two big changes have occurred in
the density gradient of today’s cities:
1. The number of people living in the center has decreased.
2. The density difference between the inner city and the suburbs is declining
because the inner city density is dropping and the suburban density is growing
due to more large apartments being built in the suburbs.
Cost of Suburban or Urban Sprawl: Urban Sprawl is the progressive spread of
development over the landscape. As long as we Americans want single-family
detached houses, land on the fringe of urban areas will be converted from open
space to residential use. The cost of this growth is more than the loss of land, it is
also the cost of new roads, utilities, building stores and offices and the cost of
automobiles to move these people over even longer distances. Lots of these new
developments are built on what was once farmland. Wonderful productive soil now
under concrete.

Greenbelts: are areas where, by law, the open space can not be used for any
construction. This is mostly found in Europe.

57

Once farmland that is being converted to suburbs and cities.

58

Tyson’s Corner Virginia in 1940

59

Washington, DC. MSA.

Tyson’s Corner Virginia
today.
Washington D.C. is off
In the distance.

60

Suburban Segregation: The “new” segregation.
Suburban segregation takes two forms:
1. Residents are separated from commercial and manufacturing activities
which are confined someplace else. (The whole neighborhood is
nothing but houses because they drive for services.)
2. The price of the house eliminates some from being able to live there. This
creates a homogeneous suburb of the same economic class of people.
This never existed before in history. Where we once had vertical
segregation of the classes we now we have horizontal segregation.
3. But this may be reversing as new statistics show that people are beginning
to move back to the city. Why? Cost of transportation.
Zoning Ordinances: This idea developed in Europe and later America in the
early decades of the 20th century. This means that businesses are allowed only
in certain areas of the settlement. (No all night taco stands inside your single
family neighborhood.)
Motor vehicles: The wide use of the automobile is largely responsible for the
American movement to the suburbs. Not only did people move out but 1/4 of
the land inside all American cities are now roads, streets, and parking lots.

61

Public Transportation: Because few US workers live within walking distance
of their jobs, urban areas are characterized by extensive commuting and the
problems that come with it. As much as 40% of all trips made into or out from
a city during the day takes place within just 4 hours. (2 in the morning and 2 in
the late afternoon). RUSH HOUR!!! In large cities, public transportation, like
subways and busses, are better suited to move people but Americans still
prefer their own cars. Public transportation is cheaper, cleaner, and more
energy efficient than personal cars, yet in the US only 5% of city travel is
done using public transit systems. American’s love their personal car too
much.
Local Government Fragmentation: Because of the large number of local
governments in the US (look at the settlements in Pinellas County) it is
difficult to solve some of the regional problems like garbage disposal, water
management, traffic and public housing.
62

Metropolitan government: This idea tries to put many local governments into a
larger unit that can better handle the urban problems. The 2 ways to do this
are:
1. Federations in which the individual settlements have their own police,
firemen, and tax collection but they all agree to be part of a second
government which handles transportation, water, sewage, parks and
welfare for all the communities.
2. Consolidations: In this method, several cities and the county may form one
government. Jacksonville’s government runs not only the town but the
county too, this makes Jacksonville the largest city, in land size, in the US.
Smart growth: A new movement by many states to curb suburban sprawl by
limiting where new construction can take place. Smart growth laws require that
land near cities be used up before any land further out can be developed. So
far, this is only being done an a few parts of our country.
63

The new
US as
some
people
see it.

64

Quiz Yourself:
1. The process where middle-class people move into inner city neighborhoods and
renovate them is called ____________
2. ____________ happens when banks refuse to give loans in what they consider
risky neighborhoods.
3. Because of the housing shortages, the poor have constructed their own settlements
around the city known as __________ _________

4. Businesses are allowed only in certain areas of the settlement because of
____________ ____________
5. Areas known as _____ _______ are areas of about 5,000 people. The data from
that area is used to help define needed services for that area.
6. When cities are so close that they form one continuous band of development this is
known as a ____________
65

7. Social relationships are often described as “colder” in urban areas because…
8. In this model the city develops in a series of sectors not rings. _______

9. ______ (LDC’s or MDC’s) have a higher percentage of people living in urban
settlements but ________ (LDC’s or MDC’s) have more of the very large urban
settlements.
10. _____________ was the first model developed to explain the distributions
of different social groups within urban areas.
11. New cities which develop around the beltway are nodes of consumer and
business services known as ________ _________.

12. When the Europeans took over lands around the world, they changed the
cities by adding services to help the Europeans control the conquered people.
These European planned cities are known as __________ cities.
66

Answer Key:
1.

Gentrification

2.

Redlining

3.

Squatter Settlements

4.

Zoning ordinances

5.

Census tracks

6.

Megalopolis

7. There is a stronger feeling of belonging together in small rural settlements.
8. Hoyt sector model
9. MDC, LDC
10. Burgess Concentric Zone model
11. Edge cities
12. Colonial cities
67

Test Key topic/chapter 13:
These questions come from a combination of our slides, your text book, and common knowledge you should
have discussed in your AP classroom. They are very typical of what you will see on the National Exam.
1) The multiple nuclei theory best explains why different neighborhoods of a city attract people of different… A) ages.
B) ethnic origin C) income D) marital status.
2) Sprawl is the… A) change in density within an urban area from the center to the periphery B) development of new
housing sites not contiguous to the existing built-up area. C) land maintained as open space surrounding an urban area.
D) period in the morning and evening with the heaviest volumes of traffic.
3) People are attracted to suburbs in part because suburbs are characterized by…A) heavy traffic. B) lower opportunity
for home ownership. C) private land surrounding the house. D) row houses and apartments.
4) Megalopolis refers to… A) adjacent, overlapping Metropolitan Statistical Areas. B) central cities. C) consolidated
Metropolitan Statistical Areas. D) central cities plus urbanized areas.
5) Which statement best describes the relationship between urbanization and the Industrial Revolution? A) Urbanization
promoted the Industrial Revolution. B) The Industrial Revolution promoted urbanization. C) Urbanization preceded the
Industrial Revolution by thousands of years. D) Urbanization and the Industrial Revolution are no longer related.
6) The process of legally adding land area to a city in the United States is… A) annexation. B) accreditation. C) an
application of eminent domain. D) defined by urbanized area.

68

7) The process of change in the use of a house, from single-family owner occupancy to abandonment, is… A) blockbusting.
B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining.
8) A process by which banks designate an area within which they refuse to lend money for improvements is… A) blockbusting.
B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining.
9) A recent change in the density gradient has been… A) the elimination of the gap traditionally found in the center. B) an
increase in the extremes between the inner and outer areas. C) an increase in the number of people living in the center.
D) a reduction in the differences in densities found within an urban area.
10) U.S. central cities face fiscal problems because… A) federal and state funds are available. B) low-income people are
concentrated there. C) middle-class families are attracted there. D) redlining is no longer legal.
11) A legal form of segregation in U.S. cities is achieved through...A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) zoning. D) greenbelts.
12) Factories have moved to suburban locations in part because of… A) access to main highways. B) adequate space to build
vertical structures. C) availability of large tracts of high-priced land. D) good rail connections.
13) According to the sector model, the best housing is located in…A) a corridor from downtown to the edge of the city.
B) an outer ring surrounding the city. C) nodes near universities and parks. D) renovated inner-city neighborhoods.
14) Ramshackle houses on the periphery of cities in less developed countries are known as… A) squatter settlements. B) council
estates. C) public housing. D) zone in transition.
15) Higher income people tend to live near the center of the city in all but which of the following regions? A) Latin America
B) North America C) South Asia D) Western Europe

16) The wide boulevards built in cities in less developed countries were most likely built during what era? A) pre-colonial
B) colonial C) independence D) all of the above equally

69

17) According to the multiple nuclei model, an airport is likely to attract nearby… A) industries. B) residences. C) shops.
D) universities.
18) The largest percentage of the U.S. population lives in…A) central cities. B) suburbs. C) non-metropolitan areas. D) all of the
above
19) In U.S. cities, the underclass is… A) clustered in inner-city neighborhoods. B) dispersed throughout the city. C) clustered in
suburbs. D) distributed uniformly in the city.

20) A process of converting a neighborhood from low-income to middle-class is…A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) gentrification.
D) redlining.
21) Higher social heterogeneity in urban settlements means that… A) the people with whom you relax are probably the same ones you
see at work. B) you play a specialized role in the urban economy. C) you compete for limited space. D) you may feel lonely and
isolated in a crowd.
22) The city plus its contiguous built-up suburbs is the… A) central city. B) urbanized area.
D) consolidated metropolitan statistical area

C) metropolitan statistical area.

23) The process whereby an increasing percentage of people live in an urban area is known as… A) demographic transition.
B) rank-size rule. C) urbanization. D) central place theory.
24) Of the ten largest urban areas in the world, how many are in More Developed Countries today? A) 1 B) 4 C) 7 D) 10 E) 2
25) Public housing is…A) conversion of low-income housing to middle-class housing. B) illegally established low-income housing.
C) housing that has changed from single-family owner occupancy to abandonment. D) low-income government-owned housing.
26) According to the concentric zone model, a city develops in a series of… A) corridors. B) nodes. C) rings. D) all of the above

70

27) Chicago is a good location in which to develop urban models because it is located… A) at the hub of the nation's transportation
system. B) in the center of the country. C) on a flat prairie. D) on the shore of Lake Michigan.
28) According to the sector model, the best housing is located in… A) a corridor from downtown to the edge of the city. B) an outer
ring surrounding the city. C) nodes near universities and parks. D) renovated inner-city neighborhoods.
29) The zone of transition in US cities generally contain…A) warehouses B) wealthy neighborhoods C) transportation hubs
D) universities and hospitals E) suburban homes
30) The attractions of shopping malls include all but which of the following? A) frequent concerts and exhibitions B) generous
parking lots C) place to meet friends D) walking distance from homes
The following questions are written at the high school level. You will find some questions from part one often rewritten
here. This is all designed to help you transition to the college/AP style of written questions. Any question preceded with ***
are questions that have been on the national exam before.
31. Most Latin American cities are focused on a…A) central plaza B) government housing project C) zone of heavy industry
D) skyscraper office building E) squatter settlement
32. The multiple-nuclei model of a city structure tends to be most applicable to…A) small cities B) traditional C) Latin American
cities D) newer, fast growing cities E) cities with homogeneous land use
33. ***Locational advantages important to the development of the earliest cities include…A) availability of good harbors for large
ships B) productive agricultural land and defensible sites C) temperate climate and proximity to coal mines D) good
connections by road and canal E) proximity to manufacturing areas

34. In cities, the CBD’s often show uniqueness while the suburbs usually show…A) a large hinterland. B) placelessness C) more
than one node. D) newer zones of transition.

71

35. Many LDC’s have tried to help a previously under-developed part of their country develop by moving their capital
city to that area. This new capital is known as a…A) forward capital B) new development zone C) enterprise zone
D) neocolonial city
36. Today the greatest number of urban dwellers is found in…A) North America
D) Europe E) Asia

B) South America C) Africa

37. ***All of the following have helped create ghettos in North American cities except…A)blockbusting and racial
steering B) redlining by financial institutions C) concentration of public housing and social services D) fixed school
districts E) Economic Enterprise Zones

38. Which of the following is NOT as reason for rapid suburbanization in the US after WW2? A) Mass production of
the automobile B) Reduction of long distance commuting C) Expansion of home construction D) Expansion of the
interstate highway system E) Availability of low down payment terms and long-term mortgages.
39. New cities which developed in the hinterland of large urban areas because of the automobile, are known as…
A) edge cities B) census tracts C) suburban sprawl D) squatter settlements. E) none of these
40. Gentrification refers to… A) moving the homeless into inner city shelters B) The “White Flight” from the urban city
C) losing tax revenue because of stores closing in downtown areas D) middle-class people moving into and renovating
inner city neighborhoods E) the creation of “beltway cities” around the city.

72

4
7
3

5

1
6

2

41-48 all use the sketch above.
41. The sketch in box A above represents which model of the inner structure of urban areas?
C) multiple nuclei model D) Burgess concentric zone model E) peripheral model
42. The models in boxes B and C represent A) Concentric zone and multiple nuclei
concentric zone D) peripheral and concentric zone E) Von Thunen and peripheral

A) Hoyt sector model B) VonThunen’s model

B) Multiple nuclei and Hoyt sector C) Hoyt sector and

43. In which ring (1, 2, etc.) of sketch A above would high-status households in North American cities likely live? A) 1 B) 2 C) 3 D) 4&5
44. In which ring (1, 2, etc.) of sketch A above would high status households in a European city likely live? A) 1

B) 2

C) 3

D) 4&5

45. In model B, zone # 2 is where it is likely because of: A) greenbelting B) squatter settling C) the culture of poverty D) transportation
E) no one knows
46. The model in sketch B is the; A) Hoyt sector model B) Burgess model C) multiple nuclei model D) peripheral model
47. The model in sketch C is the; A) Hoyt sector model B) Burgess model C) multiple nuclei model D) peripheral model
48. Which of these models best describes what has happened in US cities in the last 40 years? A)

B)

C)

73

49.*** In the U.S. a city plus its contiguous built-up suburbs is known as an…A) urbanized area B) zoned area
C) census tract D) Squatter settlement E) none of these
50. Done mostly in Europe, these are areas where land is kept as parks, farms or other kinds of open space and urban
sprawl is not allowed. A) Smart growth
B) zoning
C) filtering
D) census tracts E) greenbelts
51. Which statement best describes the relationship between urbanization and the Industrial Revolution?
A) Urbanization promoted the Industrial Revolution. B) The Industrial Revolution promoted urbanization.
C) Urbanization preceded the Industrial Revolution by thousands of years. D) Urbanization and the Industrial
Revolution are no longer related.
52. The process whereby an increasing percentage of people live in an urban area is known as…
A) Demographic transition. B) rank-size rule. C) Urbanization. D) Central place theory.
53. The city (if it has 50,000 or more people) plus its contiguous built-up suburbs AND the county it is in as well as any
other counties it influences, is known as the ...A) central city B) urbanized area
C) metropolitan statistical area
D) consolidated metropolitan area E) micropolitan statistical area
54. ***Higher social heterogeneity in urban settlements means that …A) the people with whom you relax are probably
the same ones you see at work. B) you play a specialized role in the urban economy. C) you compete for limited
space. D) you may feel lonely and isolated in a crowd.

55. The process of change in the use of a house, from single-family owner occupancy to smaller dwellings for the poor
and then sometimes to abandonment, is…A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining. E) none of
these

74

Free Response #1:
The Bid Rent theory says that the closer you get to the
CBD the higher the cost for land, yet in most American
cities you find the poorest people living near the
expensive CBD and the richest living further away.
Explain:
A. Why neighborhoods near the CBD are often poor and
run down?
B. Why are there few grocery and other retail stores in
these neighborhoods?
C. Why is this not really true in European and Latin
American countries?

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75

FR #2:
Think of the map of your school, explain the
layout of your school using the Multiple Nuclei
Model
The main office is the CBD.
Completely explain your answer using specific
buildings and/or land areas in your explanation
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76

Answer Key:
1. B

14. A

27. C

40. D

53. C

2. B

15. B

28. A

41. D

54. D

3. C

16. B

29. A

42. B

55. B

4. A

17. A

30. D

43. D

5. B

18. B

31. A

44. A

6. A

19. A

32. D

45. D

7. B

20. C

33. B

46. A

8. D

21. D

34. B

47. C

9. D

22. B

35. A

48. C

10. B

23. C

36. E

49. A

11. C

24. C

37. E

50. E

12. A

25. D

38. B

51. B

13. A

26. C

39. A

52. C
77

FR. #1: ( 15 pts. for each section…total of 45 pts.)
A. In the US the move of the wealthy and middle class to the suburbs has left the older houses and apartments near the CBD empty.
This has lowered their value to the point where the poor can afford these dwellings and have made these neighborhoods their
homes. The poor can not pay for upkeep of these dwellings, or to pay high taxes. The lack of upkeep and tax money to repair the
roads and schools, adds to the downward spiral of the neighborhood. With little spending money for shopping, the poor do not
spend much in the stores. This causes many stores to close and move to the suburbs where the spending customers and money
went. The closing of the stores adds to the poverty of the area by taking away some of the jobs that were in the neighborhood. This
becomes a vicious cycle of poverty and deterioration. (15 points)

B. There are few retail stores and groceries is the area because the poor do not have money to shop. The lack of spending forces
many stores out of business or forces them to move to better locations. There also can be higher crime in these areas and the
crime often takes place at the stores. This is another reason for the stores to move out of the neighborhood. (15 points)
C. Neighborhoods in European and Latin American cities are different from those of US cities. In Europe and Latin America, the
wealthy and middle class still live near or in the CBD. The higher tax base and more spending ability of the upper and middle
classes, keeps the CBD area flourishing with jobs and in constant repair and upkeep of the cities’ physical condition. (15 points)

FR #2: (10 total points.)
You will need to judge how effectively you displayed you school
in the Multiple Nuclei Model. Refer to the model itself to help you
determine your success and grade.
School’s main office
78

Calculating your grade on test 13.
Add how many you got correct on the multiple choice part (55 possible) to how many
points you scored on the FR portion (55 possible)…110 total.
The following scale will show the approximate score if this test were the real AP exam. Remember that this
is an approximation. While 65-74% is normally the range for a 3 on the test, it is not definite. Over the
years I have seen scores as low as 60% be the low portion of a 3 score.

Out of 110 possible points:
72-83 is most likely a 3
84-94 is most likely a 4

95-110 is most likely a 5

Now lets start our review for the national exam by
reviewing the 33 key models and theories of the
course…the next PowerPoint.


Slide 25

Key topic/chapter 13…Urban Patterns
Key terms:
Annexation
Concentric zone model
Density gradient
Edge cities
Filtering
Galactic city
Gentrification
Greenbelts
Megalopolis
MSA
Multiple nuclei model
Peripheral model

Public housing
Redlining
Renovated housing
Scattered site
Squatter settlement
Sector model
Smart growth
Sprawl
Underclass
Urban renewal
Zone in transition
Zoning
1

Chapter 13…Urban Areas.
How are Cities planned?
Why

are cities where they are?
How are they organized?
Why are some areas of a city
different from
other areas of the same city?
What is the future of cities?
2

Settlement


Settlement - permanent collections of buildings,
where people live, work, and obtain services

3

ORIGINS OF SETTLEMENTS


Religious - graves, churches, temples



Cultural - schools, libraries



Political/Military - leader’s house, walls



Economic - stores, food
4

TYPES OF SETTLEMENTS


Rural Settlements - agriculture as the
predominant occupation.



Urban settlements - principal industries are
secondary and tertiary.

5

RURAL SETTLEMENTS
Clustered rural settlements –grouped
settlements in rural areas to minimize travel

Dispersed rural Settlements - isolated farms
with enclosed continuous fields (Found only in
N. America and Britain).

6

Urban Geographers want to know the global distribution of urban
settlements. MDC’s have a high percentage of people living in urban
areas because of the shift from agriculture-manufacturing-services.
Geographers are also interested in where people and activities are
distributed within urban spaces. What are the differences between the
inner-city and suburban areas and why?
As we saw in the last chapter, many downtowns are unique and can
often be recognized in photos where the suburbs often look very
much alike (Placelessness). Why? Suburbs offer the chance to avoid
some of the city problems (crime, tight living area, expensive
land/rent, noise, age of buildings) while still keeping a connection with
the goods and services of the city: jobs, sports teams, culture, shops,
recreation, etc.
7

Where is this place?

8

Today’s cities are evolving and changing. Although different internal
situations characterize urban areas in the US and elsewhere, the
problems arising from current spatial trends are quite similar in all cities.
Where have urban areas grown: in the early 1800’s only 3% of the earth’s
people lived in cities and only Beijing China had more than 1 million
people. Today over ½ of the world’s people live in cities and we have over
400 cities of at least 1 million people.

Urbanization: is the process by which city population grows.
Cities population growth is measured in 2 dimensions;
1. An increase in the number of people living in the cities.
2. An increase in the percentage of people living in the cities.
This distinction is important because they happen for different reason and
have different global distributions.
9

Increasing Percentage of People in Cities: a large percentage of people living in urban
areas is a measure of a country’s level of development. In MDC’s about ¾ of the people
live in urban areas compared to about 2/5 of people in LDC’s. (Except in Latin America
where the level is closer to MDC’s.)
The higher percentage of people in urban areas comes from the changes that have
occurred in the last 200 years as we went from agriculture (primary jobs) to industrial
(secondary jobs) and now service jobs, all created by the Industrial Revolution of the
1800’s.
People moved to the cities for industrial jobs, but in MDC’s this process has largely
ended because nearly everyone interested in moving to the cities from farms has already
done so.
In LDC’s the percentage of people living in urban areas is growing as people are pushed
off of their farms and replaced by machines and as people move to cities looking/hoping
for industrial jobs.
10

Increasing Number of People in Cities: MDC’s have a higher percentage of
people living in urban settlements but LDC’s have more of the very large urban
settlements (Primate cities). (Rank-size rule, primate cities, chapter 12.)

This is interesting because typically the large cities are created from the
improvements brought by the Industrial Revolution. This is not the case with the
large LDC cities. Migration to the primate city in LDC’s is happening even though
job opportunities may not be available. Increasing the population growth in LDC
cities is the fact that medical services are better in these cities, thus the child
mortality rate is lower.
Defining Urban Settlements: defining where urban areas end and rural areas
begin is not easy. Geographers have formulated definitions that distinguish
between urban and rural areas in two ways: Social differences and Physical
differences.
11

Percent Urban Population

Percent of the population living in urban areas is usually higher in MDCs
than in LDCs.

12

The most populated cities in the world

Of the top
20, only
Moscow,
Tokyo and
New York
are in MDC’s

Shanghai China has 14,608,512 people
13

14

15

Social Differences Between Urban and Rural Settlements: it is fair to say that rural
people and urban people follow different ways of life. A city can be defined as having 3
characteristics:
1. Large size. People in rural settlements know most of the other people in the
settlement. Not true in big cities. Social relationships are often described as “colder” in
urban areas because you only see some people at work instead of growing up with
them in the settlement.
2. High Density. Having lots of people in a tiny area creates social consequences. A
high density of people living in a small area can only be supported if the people
specialize (they can’t all be farmers). People are encouraged to compete for jobs, room,
and survival in a tightly limited space. Social groups compete to occupy the same space
(ethnic/ race problems). Rural settlements have very little of this problem.
3. Social Heterogeneity. The larger the settlement, the greater the variety of people.
Being “unusual” in a large settlement is more likely to be accepted than in a small rural
one. But despite the freedom to be different that large urban settlements give you,
people living there often feel alone because so many people are different from them.
There is a stronger feeling of belonging together in small rural settlements.
16

These 3 differences do not fully answer the question of where urban settlements
begin and rural ones end because in today’s MDC’s most everyone has access to
cars, telephones, televisions, and “urban type” jobs which reduce the differences
between urban and rural lifestyles. “City folk” and “Country folk” are more alike
today than they are different. To help distinguish between urban and rural areas we
need to add the physical definition of rural and urban to the equation.
Physical Definitions of Urban Settlements: In ancient time, cities had defensive
walls for protection which clearly defined the physical boundaries of the city. Today
the walls are gone but we can still define the physical boundaries in 3 ways:
1. Legal boundary. These are the official boundaries of a city as recognized by
the government of the country or state. These “city limits” have been officially given
to the city and are physically marked on official maps. The local government of the
city has authority to make laws and protect the people inside the city boundaries.
17

2. Urbanized area. This is the city plus its suburbs or urbanized area that
surrounds the city. About 70 percent of US residents live in urbanized areas with
40% being in the suburbs and 30% inside the city limits. The suburbs may have
their own city governments but the huge central city dominates what happens in
the entire area.
3. Metropolitan Statistical Area. Cities have an even bigger influence on people
than just those living in their city limits and surrounding urbanized areas. People
from far away come to shop, use the services, support the sports teams, read
the newspapers and watch the television broadcasts of the city. Thus the city
has a “functional area” which is its total zone of influence. The US Bureau of
Census has created a method of measuring the functional area of the city.
Known as the Metropolitan statistical area (MSA) this area includes:
•An urbanized area with a population of at least 50,000
•The county within which the city is located.
•Adjacent counties with a high population density and a large percentage of
residents working in the central city’s county.
18

Metropolitan Area of Philadelphia

City of
Philadelphia

Urbanized
area
(suburbs)
Metropolitan
Statistical
Area

The metropolitan area of Philadelphia is
spread over several counties and four states.
It is also a diversified trade center, given its
position on the Delaware river.

19

20

21

Micropolitan Statistical Areas: Smaller areas with between
10,000 and 50,000 people, the county where it is found, and
adjacent counties tied to the city. This would be a small town and
the area dominated by it.
Overlapping Metropolitan Areas: Some adjacent MSA’s overlap.
A county between two central cities may send a large number of
commuters to jobs in both cities. In some areas the cities are so
close that they form one continuous urban complex. This is
known as a Megalopolis (great city).
In a megalopolis, the downtown CBD often has its own
distinctive look and the urban areas are visually separated by
parks, open spaces, and dairy/truck farms. But at the periphery
of the urban areas, the boundaries overlap.
22

Colorado Springs, population 431,000

Ocala, Florida, population 56,000

Florala, Alabama, population 1,900

23

Megalopolis, from northern Va. To Maine.
This Illustrates the
difference between
strict city proper
definitions and broader
urban agglomerations.
To define urbanized
areas, the U.S. Census
Bureau uses the term
Metropolitan Statistical
Area (MSA) or
Consolidated MSA
(CMSA) if two or more of
them overlap.
24

Where are People Distributed within Urban Areas? People are not
just distributed at random in urban areas. For the most part they
concentrate in particular neighborhoods depending on their social
characteristics. Geographers want to see where people with
particular characteristics are likely to live and why.

Three models which try to explain the growth of a city:

The Burgess Model

The Hoyt Sector Model

The Harris and Ullman
multiple Nuclei Model
25

Burgess Concentric Zone Model

In the concentric zone model, a city grows in a series of rings surrounding the CBD.

Burgess Concentric Zone Model: This is the first used to explain the
distributions of different social groups within urban areas. It says that a
city grows outward from a central place in a series of concentric rings.
The precise size and width of the rings vary from one city to another, but
some basic types of rings appear in all cities in the same order (see chart
above).
26

•Hoyt Sector Model: In this model the city develops in a
series of sectors not rings. Certain areas of the city are
more attractive for various activities, originally because
of an environmental factor (or even pure chance). As the
city grows, activities extend outward in a wedge shape.
For example, once a wealthy neighborhood is built the
next wealthy neighborhood will extend from the first
neighborhood further outward from the center. In this
way, the best housing is found in a corridor extending
outward from the center to the outer edge (see chart on
the next page).
27

The Hoyt Sector Model

In the sector model, a city grows in a series of
wedges or corridors extending out from the
CBD.
28

•Harris and Ullman’s Multiple Nuclei Model: According
to this model, a city is a complex structure that includes
more than one center around which activities revolve.
Examples of these nodes include a port, parks,
stadium, neighborhood business center, university, and
airport (see chart). This theory states that some
activities are attracted to particular nodes, whereas
others try to avoid them. A university node may attract
well educated people and bookstores while the port will
attract hotels and warehouses. Heavy industry and
expensive houses rarely are found together. This
model shows the effect of the automobile more than
any other model.
29

The Harris and Ullman Multiple Nuclei model

The multiple nuclei model views a city as a
collection of individual centers, around which
different people and activities cluster.

30

Applications of the Models: The three models help explain where and in some
cases, why people live where they do. None of the models by themselves fully
explains why and where different types of people live, but combined they give
you as good a look as possible at the “Why” of “Where.” Effective use of the
models depends on getting good data on the areas. Most countries take a
census every 10 years to help determine useful data about the people and
places of the country. In our country we divide the census data into areas
known as census tracts of about 5,000 people. Each census tract has the data
that summarizes the characteristics of the people living within that tract. This
information includes things like the race, income, age, and education of the
people living in that tract.
Social Area Analysis: The data from the census tracts can all be plotted onto
maps to show the characteristics of the people living in that tract. This map is
known as a social area analysis.
31

Using Census tract information…Seattle, Washington
Each lined area is a
census tract of about 5000
people in Seattle
Washington. These maps
show average household
income for 1990 and
2000…note the changes in
income in some areas
between 1990 and 2000.
Using this information, a
business can make
decisions about where
they want to locate a new
store or the future of
existing stores.
You can find census tract
information on many topics
such as; age, education
level, race, ethnicity, crime
rate, and land ownership.
Note the areas with
incomes over
$63,000.

All can be very valuable
information to people
looking to open
businesses.

32

Examine the changes
between 1990 and
2000.

Oakland, California’s Ethnic neighborhoods
The small bordered areas are census tracks of 5000 people.

33

Use of the Models Outside of North America: The 3 models will also work in other
places in the world; however social groups in other countries may not have the
same reasons for selecting particular neighborhoods as Americans do.
European Cities: As in the US, wealthier people in European cities cluster along a
sector extending outward from the CBD, however unlike the US, wealthy and
middle class Europeans still live in the inner rings of the neighborhoods near the
CBD not out in the suburbs. In the past, poorer people lived in the center of the
city. Before electricity, social segregation was vertical: richer people lived on the
first or second floor of a building while the poorer people lived in the basement or
upper floors. In the Industrial Revolution, housing for the poor was constructed
near the factories and away from the rich.
Today poorer Europeans are less likely to live in the inner-city. Poor quality
housing has been renovated for the rich or turned into office buildings. Poorer
Europeans tend to live in the outskirts of the city. Vast suburbs with dozens of high
rise apartments house the poor. They face long commutes to reach their jobs in
the city.
34

European cities generally do not have the “suburban
sprawl” that US cities have. European cities tend to be
more pedestrian friendly with more parks downtown as
Europeans tend to still live downtown.
US cities have taller buildings as European cities tend to
be older and more historic.

American cities have more ethnic neighborhoods than
European cities. Ethnic neighborhoods that do exist in
European cities tend to be in the suburbs. WHY?
Because the established richer neighborhoods tend to be
downtown in European cities.
35

Less Developed Countries: Like Europe, most LDC’s accommodate their poor in the
suburbs with their middle class and rich living near the center of the city. LDC’s have
passed through 3 periods of city building: before the Europeans arrived, during the
period of European colonialism, and since independence from European control.

Pre-colonial Cities: Before the Europeans arrived few cities existed in Africa, Asia, and
Latin America and most people lived in small rural settlements. Those cities that existed
were mostly laid out surrounding a religious center; with the rest of the city laid out in a
hieratical concentric pattern (like the Burgess model) from government buildings,
homes of the wealthy, and businesses related to the religion out to other businesses
and shops.
Colonial cities: When the Europeans took over these lands, they changed the cities by
adding services to help the Europeans control the conquered people. Often a new
European style city would be build next to the existing native one. The new European
cities contained wider streets, a public square, larger houses and a much lower density.
The Spanish used the “Law of the Indies” which was a city plan designed specifically to
build cities in a “Spanish” style. (Gridiron pattern for streets centered on a church and
central plaza, walls around individual houses and neighborhoods centered around
smaller plazas and more churches.)
36

Early Mexico city was laid out in a grid pattern of streets. This followed
the Spanish “Law of the Indies.”

37

Central Plaza in Mexico City 1920 photo. Typical Colonial City plan.

Part of downtown Mexico city today still shows the
building plan of the “Law of the Indies.”

38

Cities since Independence: Following independence, cities have become
the focal point of the development of most LDC’s. Millions of people have
migrated to the cities (Primate cities) looking for jobs and services. Some
capitals have been moved to isolated areas in an attempt to help develop
that area of the country (Brasília) This is know as a forward capital. Latin
American cities have developed their own unique style.
Squatter settlements: The LDC’s are unable to house the rapidly growing
number of poor who are flowing into the cities. Because of the housing
shortages, the poor have constructed their own settlements around the city.
These settlements have few services because neither the city nor the
residents can afford them. Squatters have two basic choices for housing.
1. Illegally move into empty real houses located in the city or,
2. Rent slum housing.
(85% of the population of Addis Ababa in Ethiopia lives in squatter
settlements, slums or other illegal housing.)
39

Squatter shacks in Manila, the Philippines

40

Squatter settlement in Ethiopia

41

Zimbabwe, Africa

42

Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

43

Latin American City Model:
In many Latin
American cities,
the wealthy live in
the inner city and
in a sector
extending along a
commercial spine.
In situ accretion- businesses
and homes constantly under
construction/repair.
Zone of maturity-2nd best
housing in the city.
The poor live in squatter settlements on the
periphery of the city.

Disamenity- unpleasant area
used by the poor to get to the
market.

44

The City Outline of Rio de Janeiro
The rich tourist areas and expensive condo apartments are along the coast
and beach while the poor live in squatter shacks in the hills.

45

City problems:
Inner-City Physical Problems: Most US inner cities were constructed before the 1950’s
(people began to move to the suburbs in the 1950’s so new construction moved out of
the city).
Process of Deterioration (how a city deteriorates): A city doesn’t suddenly become old
and full of slummy areas. It happens over time. When a group of low-income people
inhabit an area of a city, nearby neighborhoods will often look to move out. They sell or
rent to more low-income occupants thus expanding the low-income area. Two processes
cause/speed up the devaluation of areas:
1. Filtering, 2. Redlining.
Filtering: Large houses and buildings that once housed rich downtown workers (who
moved to the suburbs) are taken over by landlords who don’t live in that area (they
moved to the suburbs too). Rents are low so the landlord doesn’t take as good care of
the property as they should and the property becomes run down or abandoned. Stores
close, or move, due to lack of sales. 100 years ago these neighborhoods would be used
by immigrants and ethnic businesses would succeed in those areas. Now, with a decline
in immigration, these neighborhoods have shrunk and so have schools, businesses and
other services. Thousands of vacant houses and buildings stand empty in inner cities
across America.

46

Redlining: Some banks refuse to give loans in what they consider
risky neighborhoods. They draw a red line on a map around areas
where they will not give loans. Without loans, these neighborhoods
have a hard time rebuilding/remodeling. Though illegal, this still
happens. Bankers just don’t put these “no-loan” areas on a map.

Urban Renewal: This is the series of projects to improve European
and N. American cities by buying up the blighted neighborhoods,
moving the people to new government built housing projects, and
building new roads, and other projects to make the inner city
attractive for business again. National and State government grants
help pay for these projects.
47

Public housing: Housing for the poor, built with government funding as part of
urban renewal. In the US this is only about 2% of the housing while in some
countries it may be more (Britain is 30%). Public housing built in the 50’s & 60’s
were largely high rise apartments, but those are seen as being unsatisfactory.
Problems arise from cramming large numbers of poor people into one area.
Today most public housing projects are one to three story buildings with many of
them being scattered around different parts of the city rather than clustered into
one area.
Because urban renewal has been criticized for destroying the social cohesion of
older neighborhoods, many governments (like the US) have stopped funding
most projects since the 1970’s. What do we do instead?
Renovated Housing: An alternative often used since the 70’s is to renovate a
building instead of urban renewal. The process where middle-class people
move into inner-city neighborhoods and renovate them is called gentrification.
Gentrified inner-city neighborhoods also attract middle-class people who work
downtown. Living close to work saves the hassle of commuting and rejuvenates
run down inner-city neighborhoods
48

Gentrified building downtown Harlem, NY. Note the supermarket.

49

Inner-City Social Problems: Inner-city residents are often referred to as the
permanent underclass because they are trapped in an unending cycle of
economic and social problems. High unemployment, alcoholism, drug
addiction, literacy, juvenile delinquency, and crime all exist at a higher rate
among those who live in the inner-city. Lack of jobs means lack of tax dollars
to pay for police and fire protection as well as good schools. Lack of job skills
and homelessness are also tremendous problems.
Culture of Poverty: Inner-city residents are trapped in a permanent underclass
culture that reproduces itself. In the US, unwed mothers give birth to 2/3 of the
babies in the inner-city. 90% of these children live with only one parent and it
is real hard for one parent to keep a job and take care of children. Both suffer
and a shortage of care and daily attention by the parent contributes to the kids
not learning the skills necessary to do well in school which leads to poor jobs
for their futures. Poverty leads to more poverty. Many families on welfare have
only one parent because it is financially better if one parent is gone, that way
the single parent gets food stamps and other services from the government
that they would not get if it was a 2 family household.
50

Crime: Trapped in a hopeless environment, some inner-city
residents turn to drugs. Drug use is a problem in inner-city
areas and the suburbs, but rates of drug use in inner-cities
are the highest.
Ethnic and Racial Segregation: As seen in chapter 7, many
neighborhoods in the US are segregated by ethnicity with
African Americans and Hispanics concentrated in one or two
continuous areas and whites living in the suburbs. Even small
cities display a strong distinction among neighborhoods. A
frequent division is between the east and west or north and
south side of town, or the railroad tracks. A family seeking a
new residence will seek the areas where the characteristics
of the people meet their own.

51

The exodus
from the
American city.
This has
happened in
many American
cities since the
1960’s.

52

Changes in Cities in the U.S.
U.S. population has been moving out of the city centers to the suburbs:
suburbanization and counter urbanization

Developed Countries: suburbanization

 wealthy move to suburbs
 automobiles and roads; ‘American
Dream’ of the home in the suburbs.
 better services
 wealthy move to suburbs
Counter urbanization

idyllic settings
cost of land for retirement
slow pace, yet high tech
connections to services and markets
53

U.S. intraregional migration during 1990s.

Inner city economic problems: the concentration of low income
residents in inner cities has caused economic problems. These
people require public services but can pay very little in taxes to
support the services. They need stores and jobs but have little
money to spend in the store and few skills for jobs (so the stores
close). To try to fight these problems many local and state
governments use tax monies to try to renovate these areas, but this
shifts tax money needed for other areas to the inner city (votes on
election day).
Annexation: Many cities could help their tax problem by adding the
new suburbs to be part of their city (annexation). After all, many of
these suburban people use the city for its’ jobs etc., so why not add
them into the city? Today, most people in the suburbs do not want
to be annexed into the city and so they do not vote to be annexed.
54

The Peripheral Model: According to this model, an urban area
consists of an inner city surrounded by large suburban residential
and business areas (MSA) tied together by a beltway or highway
that circles the city. Around the beltway are nodes of consumer
and business services called edge cities (see diagram of multiple
nuclei model). These edge cities sprang up to provide services
and jobs to the people in the suburbs.
Density Gradient: As you travel outward from the center of the
city, the density of people declines. Inner city has big apartments
of 250 of more people per acre. Suburbs have fewer people per
acre (but lots of acres) and finally you leave the cities periphery
you find few people. The number of houses per unit of land
diminishes as distance from the center of the city increases.
55

The Edge cities (bedroom communities) of Houston

The central city is surrounded by a ring road, around which are
suburban areas and edge cities, shopping malls, office parks,
industrial areas, and service complexes.

Known as
bedroom
communities
because
people live
there but
mostly don’t
work there.
They drive
into the city
for work.
56

As you move from the center of the city outward, the density of the population
changes. This is know as the density gradient. Two big changes have occurred in
the density gradient of today’s cities:
1. The number of people living in the center has decreased.
2. The density difference between the inner city and the suburbs is declining
because the inner city density is dropping and the suburban density is growing
due to more large apartments being built in the suburbs.
Cost of Suburban or Urban Sprawl: Urban Sprawl is the progressive spread of
development over the landscape. As long as we Americans want single-family
detached houses, land on the fringe of urban areas will be converted from open
space to residential use. The cost of this growth is more than the loss of land, it is
also the cost of new roads, utilities, building stores and offices and the cost of
automobiles to move these people over even longer distances. Lots of these new
developments are built on what was once farmland. Wonderful productive soil now
under concrete.

Greenbelts: are areas where, by law, the open space can not be used for any
construction. This is mostly found in Europe.

57

Once farmland that is being converted to suburbs and cities.

58

Tyson’s Corner Virginia in 1940

59

Washington, DC. MSA.

Tyson’s Corner Virginia
today.
Washington D.C. is off
In the distance.

60

Suburban Segregation: The “new” segregation.
Suburban segregation takes two forms:
1. Residents are separated from commercial and manufacturing activities
which are confined someplace else. (The whole neighborhood is
nothing but houses because they drive for services.)
2. The price of the house eliminates some from being able to live there. This
creates a homogeneous suburb of the same economic class of people.
This never existed before in history. Where we once had vertical
segregation of the classes we now we have horizontal segregation.
3. But this may be reversing as new statistics show that people are beginning
to move back to the city. Why? Cost of transportation.
Zoning Ordinances: This idea developed in Europe and later America in the
early decades of the 20th century. This means that businesses are allowed only
in certain areas of the settlement. (No all night taco stands inside your single
family neighborhood.)
Motor vehicles: The wide use of the automobile is largely responsible for the
American movement to the suburbs. Not only did people move out but 1/4 of
the land inside all American cities are now roads, streets, and parking lots.

61

Public Transportation: Because few US workers live within walking distance
of their jobs, urban areas are characterized by extensive commuting and the
problems that come with it. As much as 40% of all trips made into or out from
a city during the day takes place within just 4 hours. (2 in the morning and 2 in
the late afternoon). RUSH HOUR!!! In large cities, public transportation, like
subways and busses, are better suited to move people but Americans still
prefer their own cars. Public transportation is cheaper, cleaner, and more
energy efficient than personal cars, yet in the US only 5% of city travel is
done using public transit systems. American’s love their personal car too
much.
Local Government Fragmentation: Because of the large number of local
governments in the US (look at the settlements in Pinellas County) it is
difficult to solve some of the regional problems like garbage disposal, water
management, traffic and public housing.
62

Metropolitan government: This idea tries to put many local governments into a
larger unit that can better handle the urban problems. The 2 ways to do this
are:
1. Federations in which the individual settlements have their own police,
firemen, and tax collection but they all agree to be part of a second
government which handles transportation, water, sewage, parks and
welfare for all the communities.
2. Consolidations: In this method, several cities and the county may form one
government. Jacksonville’s government runs not only the town but the
county too, this makes Jacksonville the largest city, in land size, in the US.
Smart growth: A new movement by many states to curb suburban sprawl by
limiting where new construction can take place. Smart growth laws require that
land near cities be used up before any land further out can be developed. So
far, this is only being done an a few parts of our country.
63

The new
US as
some
people
see it.

64

Quiz Yourself:
1. The process where middle-class people move into inner city neighborhoods and
renovate them is called ____________
2. ____________ happens when banks refuse to give loans in what they consider
risky neighborhoods.
3. Because of the housing shortages, the poor have constructed their own settlements
around the city known as __________ _________

4. Businesses are allowed only in certain areas of the settlement because of
____________ ____________
5. Areas known as _____ _______ are areas of about 5,000 people. The data from
that area is used to help define needed services for that area.
6. When cities are so close that they form one continuous band of development this is
known as a ____________
65

7. Social relationships are often described as “colder” in urban areas because…
8. In this model the city develops in a series of sectors not rings. _______

9. ______ (LDC’s or MDC’s) have a higher percentage of people living in urban
settlements but ________ (LDC’s or MDC’s) have more of the very large urban
settlements.
10. _____________ was the first model developed to explain the distributions
of different social groups within urban areas.
11. New cities which develop around the beltway are nodes of consumer and
business services known as ________ _________.

12. When the Europeans took over lands around the world, they changed the
cities by adding services to help the Europeans control the conquered people.
These European planned cities are known as __________ cities.
66

Answer Key:
1.

Gentrification

2.

Redlining

3.

Squatter Settlements

4.

Zoning ordinances

5.

Census tracks

6.

Megalopolis

7. There is a stronger feeling of belonging together in small rural settlements.
8. Hoyt sector model
9. MDC, LDC
10. Burgess Concentric Zone model
11. Edge cities
12. Colonial cities
67

Test Key topic/chapter 13:
These questions come from a combination of our slides, your text book, and common knowledge you should
have discussed in your AP classroom. They are very typical of what you will see on the National Exam.
1) The multiple nuclei theory best explains why different neighborhoods of a city attract people of different… A) ages.
B) ethnic origin C) income D) marital status.
2) Sprawl is the… A) change in density within an urban area from the center to the periphery B) development of new
housing sites not contiguous to the existing built-up area. C) land maintained as open space surrounding an urban area.
D) period in the morning and evening with the heaviest volumes of traffic.
3) People are attracted to suburbs in part because suburbs are characterized by…A) heavy traffic. B) lower opportunity
for home ownership. C) private land surrounding the house. D) row houses and apartments.
4) Megalopolis refers to… A) adjacent, overlapping Metropolitan Statistical Areas. B) central cities. C) consolidated
Metropolitan Statistical Areas. D) central cities plus urbanized areas.
5) Which statement best describes the relationship between urbanization and the Industrial Revolution? A) Urbanization
promoted the Industrial Revolution. B) The Industrial Revolution promoted urbanization. C) Urbanization preceded the
Industrial Revolution by thousands of years. D) Urbanization and the Industrial Revolution are no longer related.
6) The process of legally adding land area to a city in the United States is… A) annexation. B) accreditation. C) an
application of eminent domain. D) defined by urbanized area.

68

7) The process of change in the use of a house, from single-family owner occupancy to abandonment, is… A) blockbusting.
B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining.
8) A process by which banks designate an area within which they refuse to lend money for improvements is… A) blockbusting.
B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining.
9) A recent change in the density gradient has been… A) the elimination of the gap traditionally found in the center. B) an
increase in the extremes between the inner and outer areas. C) an increase in the number of people living in the center.
D) a reduction in the differences in densities found within an urban area.
10) U.S. central cities face fiscal problems because… A) federal and state funds are available. B) low-income people are
concentrated there. C) middle-class families are attracted there. D) redlining is no longer legal.
11) A legal form of segregation in U.S. cities is achieved through...A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) zoning. D) greenbelts.
12) Factories have moved to suburban locations in part because of… A) access to main highways. B) adequate space to build
vertical structures. C) availability of large tracts of high-priced land. D) good rail connections.
13) According to the sector model, the best housing is located in…A) a corridor from downtown to the edge of the city.
B) an outer ring surrounding the city. C) nodes near universities and parks. D) renovated inner-city neighborhoods.
14) Ramshackle houses on the periphery of cities in less developed countries are known as… A) squatter settlements. B) council
estates. C) public housing. D) zone in transition.
15) Higher income people tend to live near the center of the city in all but which of the following regions? A) Latin America
B) North America C) South Asia D) Western Europe

16) The wide boulevards built in cities in less developed countries were most likely built during what era? A) pre-colonial
B) colonial C) independence D) all of the above equally

69

17) According to the multiple nuclei model, an airport is likely to attract nearby… A) industries. B) residences. C) shops.
D) universities.
18) The largest percentage of the U.S. population lives in…A) central cities. B) suburbs. C) non-metropolitan areas. D) all of the
above
19) In U.S. cities, the underclass is… A) clustered in inner-city neighborhoods. B) dispersed throughout the city. C) clustered in
suburbs. D) distributed uniformly in the city.

20) A process of converting a neighborhood from low-income to middle-class is…A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) gentrification.
D) redlining.
21) Higher social heterogeneity in urban settlements means that… A) the people with whom you relax are probably the same ones you
see at work. B) you play a specialized role in the urban economy. C) you compete for limited space. D) you may feel lonely and
isolated in a crowd.
22) The city plus its contiguous built-up suburbs is the… A) central city. B) urbanized area.
D) consolidated metropolitan statistical area

C) metropolitan statistical area.

23) The process whereby an increasing percentage of people live in an urban area is known as… A) demographic transition.
B) rank-size rule. C) urbanization. D) central place theory.
24) Of the ten largest urban areas in the world, how many are in More Developed Countries today? A) 1 B) 4 C) 7 D) 10 E) 2
25) Public housing is…A) conversion of low-income housing to middle-class housing. B) illegally established low-income housing.
C) housing that has changed from single-family owner occupancy to abandonment. D) low-income government-owned housing.
26) According to the concentric zone model, a city develops in a series of… A) corridors. B) nodes. C) rings. D) all of the above

70

27) Chicago is a good location in which to develop urban models because it is located… A) at the hub of the nation's transportation
system. B) in the center of the country. C) on a flat prairie. D) on the shore of Lake Michigan.
28) According to the sector model, the best housing is located in… A) a corridor from downtown to the edge of the city. B) an outer
ring surrounding the city. C) nodes near universities and parks. D) renovated inner-city neighborhoods.
29) The zone of transition in US cities generally contain…A) warehouses B) wealthy neighborhoods C) transportation hubs
D) universities and hospitals E) suburban homes
30) The attractions of shopping malls include all but which of the following? A) frequent concerts and exhibitions B) generous
parking lots C) place to meet friends D) walking distance from homes
The following questions are written at the high school level. You will find some questions from part one often rewritten
here. This is all designed to help you transition to the college/AP style of written questions. Any question preceded with ***
are questions that have been on the national exam before.
31. Most Latin American cities are focused on a…A) central plaza B) government housing project C) zone of heavy industry
D) skyscraper office building E) squatter settlement
32. The multiple-nuclei model of a city structure tends to be most applicable to…A) small cities B) traditional C) Latin American
cities D) newer, fast growing cities E) cities with homogeneous land use
33. ***Locational advantages important to the development of the earliest cities include…A) availability of good harbors for large
ships B) productive agricultural land and defensible sites C) temperate climate and proximity to coal mines D) good
connections by road and canal E) proximity to manufacturing areas

34. In cities, the CBD’s often show uniqueness while the suburbs usually show…A) a large hinterland. B) placelessness C) more
than one node. D) newer zones of transition.

71

35. Many LDC’s have tried to help a previously under-developed part of their country develop by moving their capital
city to that area. This new capital is known as a…A) forward capital B) new development zone C) enterprise zone
D) neocolonial city
36. Today the greatest number of urban dwellers is found in…A) North America
D) Europe E) Asia

B) South America C) Africa

37. ***All of the following have helped create ghettos in North American cities except…A)blockbusting and racial
steering B) redlining by financial institutions C) concentration of public housing and social services D) fixed school
districts E) Economic Enterprise Zones

38. Which of the following is NOT as reason for rapid suburbanization in the US after WW2? A) Mass production of
the automobile B) Reduction of long distance commuting C) Expansion of home construction D) Expansion of the
interstate highway system E) Availability of low down payment terms and long-term mortgages.
39. New cities which developed in the hinterland of large urban areas because of the automobile, are known as…
A) edge cities B) census tracts C) suburban sprawl D) squatter settlements. E) none of these
40. Gentrification refers to… A) moving the homeless into inner city shelters B) The “White Flight” from the urban city
C) losing tax revenue because of stores closing in downtown areas D) middle-class people moving into and renovating
inner city neighborhoods E) the creation of “beltway cities” around the city.

72

4
7
3

5

1
6

2

41-48 all use the sketch above.
41. The sketch in box A above represents which model of the inner structure of urban areas?
C) multiple nuclei model D) Burgess concentric zone model E) peripheral model
42. The models in boxes B and C represent A) Concentric zone and multiple nuclei
concentric zone D) peripheral and concentric zone E) Von Thunen and peripheral

A) Hoyt sector model B) VonThunen’s model

B) Multiple nuclei and Hoyt sector C) Hoyt sector and

43. In which ring (1, 2, etc.) of sketch A above would high-status households in North American cities likely live? A) 1 B) 2 C) 3 D) 4&5
44. In which ring (1, 2, etc.) of sketch A above would high status households in a European city likely live? A) 1

B) 2

C) 3

D) 4&5

45. In model B, zone # 2 is where it is likely because of: A) greenbelting B) squatter settling C) the culture of poverty D) transportation
E) no one knows
46. The model in sketch B is the; A) Hoyt sector model B) Burgess model C) multiple nuclei model D) peripheral model
47. The model in sketch C is the; A) Hoyt sector model B) Burgess model C) multiple nuclei model D) peripheral model
48. Which of these models best describes what has happened in US cities in the last 40 years? A)

B)

C)

73

49.*** In the U.S. a city plus its contiguous built-up suburbs is known as an…A) urbanized area B) zoned area
C) census tract D) Squatter settlement E) none of these
50. Done mostly in Europe, these are areas where land is kept as parks, farms or other kinds of open space and urban
sprawl is not allowed. A) Smart growth
B) zoning
C) filtering
D) census tracts E) greenbelts
51. Which statement best describes the relationship between urbanization and the Industrial Revolution?
A) Urbanization promoted the Industrial Revolution. B) The Industrial Revolution promoted urbanization.
C) Urbanization preceded the Industrial Revolution by thousands of years. D) Urbanization and the Industrial
Revolution are no longer related.
52. The process whereby an increasing percentage of people live in an urban area is known as…
A) Demographic transition. B) rank-size rule. C) Urbanization. D) Central place theory.
53. The city (if it has 50,000 or more people) plus its contiguous built-up suburbs AND the county it is in as well as any
other counties it influences, is known as the ...A) central city B) urbanized area
C) metropolitan statistical area
D) consolidated metropolitan area E) micropolitan statistical area
54. ***Higher social heterogeneity in urban settlements means that …A) the people with whom you relax are probably
the same ones you see at work. B) you play a specialized role in the urban economy. C) you compete for limited
space. D) you may feel lonely and isolated in a crowd.

55. The process of change in the use of a house, from single-family owner occupancy to smaller dwellings for the poor
and then sometimes to abandonment, is…A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining. E) none of
these

74

Free Response #1:
The Bid Rent theory says that the closer you get to the
CBD the higher the cost for land, yet in most American
cities you find the poorest people living near the
expensive CBD and the richest living further away.
Explain:
A. Why neighborhoods near the CBD are often poor and
run down?
B. Why are there few grocery and other retail stores in
these neighborhoods?
C. Why is this not really true in European and Latin
American countries?

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75

FR #2:
Think of the map of your school, explain the
layout of your school using the Multiple Nuclei
Model
The main office is the CBD.
Completely explain your answer using specific
buildings and/or land areas in your explanation
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76

Answer Key:
1. B

14. A

27. C

40. D

53. C

2. B

15. B

28. A

41. D

54. D

3. C

16. B

29. A

42. B

55. B

4. A

17. A

30. D

43. D

5. B

18. B

31. A

44. A

6. A

19. A

32. D

45. D

7. B

20. C

33. B

46. A

8. D

21. D

34. B

47. C

9. D

22. B

35. A

48. C

10. B

23. C

36. E

49. A

11. C

24. C

37. E

50. E

12. A

25. D

38. B

51. B

13. A

26. C

39. A

52. C
77

FR. #1: ( 15 pts. for each section…total of 45 pts.)
A. In the US the move of the wealthy and middle class to the suburbs has left the older houses and apartments near the CBD empty.
This has lowered their value to the point where the poor can afford these dwellings and have made these neighborhoods their
homes. The poor can not pay for upkeep of these dwellings, or to pay high taxes. The lack of upkeep and tax money to repair the
roads and schools, adds to the downward spiral of the neighborhood. With little spending money for shopping, the poor do not
spend much in the stores. This causes many stores to close and move to the suburbs where the spending customers and money
went. The closing of the stores adds to the poverty of the area by taking away some of the jobs that were in the neighborhood. This
becomes a vicious cycle of poverty and deterioration. (15 points)

B. There are few retail stores and groceries is the area because the poor do not have money to shop. The lack of spending forces
many stores out of business or forces them to move to better locations. There also can be higher crime in these areas and the
crime often takes place at the stores. This is another reason for the stores to move out of the neighborhood. (15 points)
C. Neighborhoods in European and Latin American cities are different from those of US cities. In Europe and Latin America, the
wealthy and middle class still live near or in the CBD. The higher tax base and more spending ability of the upper and middle
classes, keeps the CBD area flourishing with jobs and in constant repair and upkeep of the cities’ physical condition. (15 points)

FR #2: (10 total points.)
You will need to judge how effectively you displayed you school
in the Multiple Nuclei Model. Refer to the model itself to help you
determine your success and grade.
School’s main office
78

Calculating your grade on test 13.
Add how many you got correct on the multiple choice part (55 possible) to how many
points you scored on the FR portion (55 possible)…110 total.
The following scale will show the approximate score if this test were the real AP exam. Remember that this
is an approximation. While 65-74% is normally the range for a 3 on the test, it is not definite. Over the
years I have seen scores as low as 60% be the low portion of a 3 score.

Out of 110 possible points:
72-83 is most likely a 3
84-94 is most likely a 4

95-110 is most likely a 5

Now lets start our review for the national exam by
reviewing the 33 key models and theories of the
course…the next PowerPoint.


Slide 26

Key topic/chapter 13…Urban Patterns
Key terms:
Annexation
Concentric zone model
Density gradient
Edge cities
Filtering
Galactic city
Gentrification
Greenbelts
Megalopolis
MSA
Multiple nuclei model
Peripheral model

Public housing
Redlining
Renovated housing
Scattered site
Squatter settlement
Sector model
Smart growth
Sprawl
Underclass
Urban renewal
Zone in transition
Zoning
1

Chapter 13…Urban Areas.
How are Cities planned?
Why

are cities where they are?
How are they organized?
Why are some areas of a city
different from
other areas of the same city?
What is the future of cities?
2

Settlement


Settlement - permanent collections of buildings,
where people live, work, and obtain services

3

ORIGINS OF SETTLEMENTS


Religious - graves, churches, temples



Cultural - schools, libraries



Political/Military - leader’s house, walls



Economic - stores, food
4

TYPES OF SETTLEMENTS


Rural Settlements - agriculture as the
predominant occupation.



Urban settlements - principal industries are
secondary and tertiary.

5

RURAL SETTLEMENTS
Clustered rural settlements –grouped
settlements in rural areas to minimize travel

Dispersed rural Settlements - isolated farms
with enclosed continuous fields (Found only in
N. America and Britain).

6

Urban Geographers want to know the global distribution of urban
settlements. MDC’s have a high percentage of people living in urban
areas because of the shift from agriculture-manufacturing-services.
Geographers are also interested in where people and activities are
distributed within urban spaces. What are the differences between the
inner-city and suburban areas and why?
As we saw in the last chapter, many downtowns are unique and can
often be recognized in photos where the suburbs often look very
much alike (Placelessness). Why? Suburbs offer the chance to avoid
some of the city problems (crime, tight living area, expensive
land/rent, noise, age of buildings) while still keeping a connection with
the goods and services of the city: jobs, sports teams, culture, shops,
recreation, etc.
7

Where is this place?

8

Today’s cities are evolving and changing. Although different internal
situations characterize urban areas in the US and elsewhere, the
problems arising from current spatial trends are quite similar in all cities.
Where have urban areas grown: in the early 1800’s only 3% of the earth’s
people lived in cities and only Beijing China had more than 1 million
people. Today over ½ of the world’s people live in cities and we have over
400 cities of at least 1 million people.

Urbanization: is the process by which city population grows.
Cities population growth is measured in 2 dimensions;
1. An increase in the number of people living in the cities.
2. An increase in the percentage of people living in the cities.
This distinction is important because they happen for different reason and
have different global distributions.
9

Increasing Percentage of People in Cities: a large percentage of people living in urban
areas is a measure of a country’s level of development. In MDC’s about ¾ of the people
live in urban areas compared to about 2/5 of people in LDC’s. (Except in Latin America
where the level is closer to MDC’s.)
The higher percentage of people in urban areas comes from the changes that have
occurred in the last 200 years as we went from agriculture (primary jobs) to industrial
(secondary jobs) and now service jobs, all created by the Industrial Revolution of the
1800’s.
People moved to the cities for industrial jobs, but in MDC’s this process has largely
ended because nearly everyone interested in moving to the cities from farms has already
done so.
In LDC’s the percentage of people living in urban areas is growing as people are pushed
off of their farms and replaced by machines and as people move to cities looking/hoping
for industrial jobs.
10

Increasing Number of People in Cities: MDC’s have a higher percentage of
people living in urban settlements but LDC’s have more of the very large urban
settlements (Primate cities). (Rank-size rule, primate cities, chapter 12.)

This is interesting because typically the large cities are created from the
improvements brought by the Industrial Revolution. This is not the case with the
large LDC cities. Migration to the primate city in LDC’s is happening even though
job opportunities may not be available. Increasing the population growth in LDC
cities is the fact that medical services are better in these cities, thus the child
mortality rate is lower.
Defining Urban Settlements: defining where urban areas end and rural areas
begin is not easy. Geographers have formulated definitions that distinguish
between urban and rural areas in two ways: Social differences and Physical
differences.
11

Percent Urban Population

Percent of the population living in urban areas is usually higher in MDCs
than in LDCs.

12

The most populated cities in the world

Of the top
20, only
Moscow,
Tokyo and
New York
are in MDC’s

Shanghai China has 14,608,512 people
13

14

15

Social Differences Between Urban and Rural Settlements: it is fair to say that rural
people and urban people follow different ways of life. A city can be defined as having 3
characteristics:
1. Large size. People in rural settlements know most of the other people in the
settlement. Not true in big cities. Social relationships are often described as “colder” in
urban areas because you only see some people at work instead of growing up with
them in the settlement.
2. High Density. Having lots of people in a tiny area creates social consequences. A
high density of people living in a small area can only be supported if the people
specialize (they can’t all be farmers). People are encouraged to compete for jobs, room,
and survival in a tightly limited space. Social groups compete to occupy the same space
(ethnic/ race problems). Rural settlements have very little of this problem.
3. Social Heterogeneity. The larger the settlement, the greater the variety of people.
Being “unusual” in a large settlement is more likely to be accepted than in a small rural
one. But despite the freedom to be different that large urban settlements give you,
people living there often feel alone because so many people are different from them.
There is a stronger feeling of belonging together in small rural settlements.
16

These 3 differences do not fully answer the question of where urban settlements
begin and rural ones end because in today’s MDC’s most everyone has access to
cars, telephones, televisions, and “urban type” jobs which reduce the differences
between urban and rural lifestyles. “City folk” and “Country folk” are more alike
today than they are different. To help distinguish between urban and rural areas we
need to add the physical definition of rural and urban to the equation.
Physical Definitions of Urban Settlements: In ancient time, cities had defensive
walls for protection which clearly defined the physical boundaries of the city. Today
the walls are gone but we can still define the physical boundaries in 3 ways:
1. Legal boundary. These are the official boundaries of a city as recognized by
the government of the country or state. These “city limits” have been officially given
to the city and are physically marked on official maps. The local government of the
city has authority to make laws and protect the people inside the city boundaries.
17

2. Urbanized area. This is the city plus its suburbs or urbanized area that
surrounds the city. About 70 percent of US residents live in urbanized areas with
40% being in the suburbs and 30% inside the city limits. The suburbs may have
their own city governments but the huge central city dominates what happens in
the entire area.
3. Metropolitan Statistical Area. Cities have an even bigger influence on people
than just those living in their city limits and surrounding urbanized areas. People
from far away come to shop, use the services, support the sports teams, read
the newspapers and watch the television broadcasts of the city. Thus the city
has a “functional area” which is its total zone of influence. The US Bureau of
Census has created a method of measuring the functional area of the city.
Known as the Metropolitan statistical area (MSA) this area includes:
•An urbanized area with a population of at least 50,000
•The county within which the city is located.
•Adjacent counties with a high population density and a large percentage of
residents working in the central city’s county.
18

Metropolitan Area of Philadelphia

City of
Philadelphia

Urbanized
area
(suburbs)
Metropolitan
Statistical
Area

The metropolitan area of Philadelphia is
spread over several counties and four states.
It is also a diversified trade center, given its
position on the Delaware river.

19

20

21

Micropolitan Statistical Areas: Smaller areas with between
10,000 and 50,000 people, the county where it is found, and
adjacent counties tied to the city. This would be a small town and
the area dominated by it.
Overlapping Metropolitan Areas: Some adjacent MSA’s overlap.
A county between two central cities may send a large number of
commuters to jobs in both cities. In some areas the cities are so
close that they form one continuous urban complex. This is
known as a Megalopolis (great city).
In a megalopolis, the downtown CBD often has its own
distinctive look and the urban areas are visually separated by
parks, open spaces, and dairy/truck farms. But at the periphery
of the urban areas, the boundaries overlap.
22

Colorado Springs, population 431,000

Ocala, Florida, population 56,000

Florala, Alabama, population 1,900

23

Megalopolis, from northern Va. To Maine.
This Illustrates the
difference between
strict city proper
definitions and broader
urban agglomerations.
To define urbanized
areas, the U.S. Census
Bureau uses the term
Metropolitan Statistical
Area (MSA) or
Consolidated MSA
(CMSA) if two or more of
them overlap.
24

Where are People Distributed within Urban Areas? People are not
just distributed at random in urban areas. For the most part they
concentrate in particular neighborhoods depending on their social
characteristics. Geographers want to see where people with
particular characteristics are likely to live and why.

Three models which try to explain the growth of a city:

The Burgess Model

The Hoyt Sector Model

The Harris and Ullman
multiple Nuclei Model
25

Burgess Concentric Zone Model

In the concentric zone model, a city grows in a series of rings surrounding the CBD.

Burgess Concentric Zone Model: This is the first used to explain the
distributions of different social groups within urban areas. It says that a
city grows outward from a central place in a series of concentric rings.
The precise size and width of the rings vary from one city to another, but
some basic types of rings appear in all cities in the same order (see chart
above).
26

•Hoyt Sector Model: In this model the city develops in a
series of sectors not rings. Certain areas of the city are
more attractive for various activities, originally because
of an environmental factor (or even pure chance). As the
city grows, activities extend outward in a wedge shape.
For example, once a wealthy neighborhood is built the
next wealthy neighborhood will extend from the first
neighborhood further outward from the center. In this
way, the best housing is found in a corridor extending
outward from the center to the outer edge (see chart on
the next page).
27

The Hoyt Sector Model

In the sector model, a city grows in a series of
wedges or corridors extending out from the
CBD.
28

•Harris and Ullman’s Multiple Nuclei Model: According
to this model, a city is a complex structure that includes
more than one center around which activities revolve.
Examples of these nodes include a port, parks,
stadium, neighborhood business center, university, and
airport (see chart). This theory states that some
activities are attracted to particular nodes, whereas
others try to avoid them. A university node may attract
well educated people and bookstores while the port will
attract hotels and warehouses. Heavy industry and
expensive houses rarely are found together. This
model shows the effect of the automobile more than
any other model.
29

The Harris and Ullman Multiple Nuclei model

The multiple nuclei model views a city as a
collection of individual centers, around which
different people and activities cluster.

30

Applications of the Models: The three models help explain where and in some
cases, why people live where they do. None of the models by themselves fully
explains why and where different types of people live, but combined they give
you as good a look as possible at the “Why” of “Where.” Effective use of the
models depends on getting good data on the areas. Most countries take a
census every 10 years to help determine useful data about the people and
places of the country. In our country we divide the census data into areas
known as census tracts of about 5,000 people. Each census tract has the data
that summarizes the characteristics of the people living within that tract. This
information includes things like the race, income, age, and education of the
people living in that tract.
Social Area Analysis: The data from the census tracts can all be plotted onto
maps to show the characteristics of the people living in that tract. This map is
known as a social area analysis.
31

Using Census tract information…Seattle, Washington
Each lined area is a
census tract of about 5000
people in Seattle
Washington. These maps
show average household
income for 1990 and
2000…note the changes in
income in some areas
between 1990 and 2000.
Using this information, a
business can make
decisions about where
they want to locate a new
store or the future of
existing stores.
You can find census tract
information on many topics
such as; age, education
level, race, ethnicity, crime
rate, and land ownership.
Note the areas with
incomes over
$63,000.

All can be very valuable
information to people
looking to open
businesses.

32

Examine the changes
between 1990 and
2000.

Oakland, California’s Ethnic neighborhoods
The small bordered areas are census tracks of 5000 people.

33

Use of the Models Outside of North America: The 3 models will also work in other
places in the world; however social groups in other countries may not have the
same reasons for selecting particular neighborhoods as Americans do.
European Cities: As in the US, wealthier people in European cities cluster along a
sector extending outward from the CBD, however unlike the US, wealthy and
middle class Europeans still live in the inner rings of the neighborhoods near the
CBD not out in the suburbs. In the past, poorer people lived in the center of the
city. Before electricity, social segregation was vertical: richer people lived on the
first or second floor of a building while the poorer people lived in the basement or
upper floors. In the Industrial Revolution, housing for the poor was constructed
near the factories and away from the rich.
Today poorer Europeans are less likely to live in the inner-city. Poor quality
housing has been renovated for the rich or turned into office buildings. Poorer
Europeans tend to live in the outskirts of the city. Vast suburbs with dozens of high
rise apartments house the poor. They face long commutes to reach their jobs in
the city.
34

European cities generally do not have the “suburban
sprawl” that US cities have. European cities tend to be
more pedestrian friendly with more parks downtown as
Europeans tend to still live downtown.
US cities have taller buildings as European cities tend to
be older and more historic.

American cities have more ethnic neighborhoods than
European cities. Ethnic neighborhoods that do exist in
European cities tend to be in the suburbs. WHY?
Because the established richer neighborhoods tend to be
downtown in European cities.
35

Less Developed Countries: Like Europe, most LDC’s accommodate their poor in the
suburbs with their middle class and rich living near the center of the city. LDC’s have
passed through 3 periods of city building: before the Europeans arrived, during the
period of European colonialism, and since independence from European control.

Pre-colonial Cities: Before the Europeans arrived few cities existed in Africa, Asia, and
Latin America and most people lived in small rural settlements. Those cities that existed
were mostly laid out surrounding a religious center; with the rest of the city laid out in a
hieratical concentric pattern (like the Burgess model) from government buildings,
homes of the wealthy, and businesses related to the religion out to other businesses
and shops.
Colonial cities: When the Europeans took over these lands, they changed the cities by
adding services to help the Europeans control the conquered people. Often a new
European style city would be build next to the existing native one. The new European
cities contained wider streets, a public square, larger houses and a much lower density.
The Spanish used the “Law of the Indies” which was a city plan designed specifically to
build cities in a “Spanish” style. (Gridiron pattern for streets centered on a church and
central plaza, walls around individual houses and neighborhoods centered around
smaller plazas and more churches.)
36

Early Mexico city was laid out in a grid pattern of streets. This followed
the Spanish “Law of the Indies.”

37

Central Plaza in Mexico City 1920 photo. Typical Colonial City plan.

Part of downtown Mexico city today still shows the
building plan of the “Law of the Indies.”

38

Cities since Independence: Following independence, cities have become
the focal point of the development of most LDC’s. Millions of people have
migrated to the cities (Primate cities) looking for jobs and services. Some
capitals have been moved to isolated areas in an attempt to help develop
that area of the country (Brasília) This is know as a forward capital. Latin
American cities have developed their own unique style.
Squatter settlements: The LDC’s are unable to house the rapidly growing
number of poor who are flowing into the cities. Because of the housing
shortages, the poor have constructed their own settlements around the city.
These settlements have few services because neither the city nor the
residents can afford them. Squatters have two basic choices for housing.
1. Illegally move into empty real houses located in the city or,
2. Rent slum housing.
(85% of the population of Addis Ababa in Ethiopia lives in squatter
settlements, slums or other illegal housing.)
39

Squatter shacks in Manila, the Philippines

40

Squatter settlement in Ethiopia

41

Zimbabwe, Africa

42

Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

43

Latin American City Model:
In many Latin
American cities,
the wealthy live in
the inner city and
in a sector
extending along a
commercial spine.
In situ accretion- businesses
and homes constantly under
construction/repair.
Zone of maturity-2nd best
housing in the city.
The poor live in squatter settlements on the
periphery of the city.

Disamenity- unpleasant area
used by the poor to get to the
market.

44

The City Outline of Rio de Janeiro
The rich tourist areas and expensive condo apartments are along the coast
and beach while the poor live in squatter shacks in the hills.

45

City problems:
Inner-City Physical Problems: Most US inner cities were constructed before the 1950’s
(people began to move to the suburbs in the 1950’s so new construction moved out of
the city).
Process of Deterioration (how a city deteriorates): A city doesn’t suddenly become old
and full of slummy areas. It happens over time. When a group of low-income people
inhabit an area of a city, nearby neighborhoods will often look to move out. They sell or
rent to more low-income occupants thus expanding the low-income area. Two processes
cause/speed up the devaluation of areas:
1. Filtering, 2. Redlining.
Filtering: Large houses and buildings that once housed rich downtown workers (who
moved to the suburbs) are taken over by landlords who don’t live in that area (they
moved to the suburbs too). Rents are low so the landlord doesn’t take as good care of
the property as they should and the property becomes run down or abandoned. Stores
close, or move, due to lack of sales. 100 years ago these neighborhoods would be used
by immigrants and ethnic businesses would succeed in those areas. Now, with a decline
in immigration, these neighborhoods have shrunk and so have schools, businesses and
other services. Thousands of vacant houses and buildings stand empty in inner cities
across America.

46

Redlining: Some banks refuse to give loans in what they consider
risky neighborhoods. They draw a red line on a map around areas
where they will not give loans. Without loans, these neighborhoods
have a hard time rebuilding/remodeling. Though illegal, this still
happens. Bankers just don’t put these “no-loan” areas on a map.

Urban Renewal: This is the series of projects to improve European
and N. American cities by buying up the blighted neighborhoods,
moving the people to new government built housing projects, and
building new roads, and other projects to make the inner city
attractive for business again. National and State government grants
help pay for these projects.
47

Public housing: Housing for the poor, built with government funding as part of
urban renewal. In the US this is only about 2% of the housing while in some
countries it may be more (Britain is 30%). Public housing built in the 50’s & 60’s
were largely high rise apartments, but those are seen as being unsatisfactory.
Problems arise from cramming large numbers of poor people into one area.
Today most public housing projects are one to three story buildings with many of
them being scattered around different parts of the city rather than clustered into
one area.
Because urban renewal has been criticized for destroying the social cohesion of
older neighborhoods, many governments (like the US) have stopped funding
most projects since the 1970’s. What do we do instead?
Renovated Housing: An alternative often used since the 70’s is to renovate a
building instead of urban renewal. The process where middle-class people
move into inner-city neighborhoods and renovate them is called gentrification.
Gentrified inner-city neighborhoods also attract middle-class people who work
downtown. Living close to work saves the hassle of commuting and rejuvenates
run down inner-city neighborhoods
48

Gentrified building downtown Harlem, NY. Note the supermarket.

49

Inner-City Social Problems: Inner-city residents are often referred to as the
permanent underclass because they are trapped in an unending cycle of
economic and social problems. High unemployment, alcoholism, drug
addiction, literacy, juvenile delinquency, and crime all exist at a higher rate
among those who live in the inner-city. Lack of jobs means lack of tax dollars
to pay for police and fire protection as well as good schools. Lack of job skills
and homelessness are also tremendous problems.
Culture of Poverty: Inner-city residents are trapped in a permanent underclass
culture that reproduces itself. In the US, unwed mothers give birth to 2/3 of the
babies in the inner-city. 90% of these children live with only one parent and it
is real hard for one parent to keep a job and take care of children. Both suffer
and a shortage of care and daily attention by the parent contributes to the kids
not learning the skills necessary to do well in school which leads to poor jobs
for their futures. Poverty leads to more poverty. Many families on welfare have
only one parent because it is financially better if one parent is gone, that way
the single parent gets food stamps and other services from the government
that they would not get if it was a 2 family household.
50

Crime: Trapped in a hopeless environment, some inner-city
residents turn to drugs. Drug use is a problem in inner-city
areas and the suburbs, but rates of drug use in inner-cities
are the highest.
Ethnic and Racial Segregation: As seen in chapter 7, many
neighborhoods in the US are segregated by ethnicity with
African Americans and Hispanics concentrated in one or two
continuous areas and whites living in the suburbs. Even small
cities display a strong distinction among neighborhoods. A
frequent division is between the east and west or north and
south side of town, or the railroad tracks. A family seeking a
new residence will seek the areas where the characteristics
of the people meet their own.

51

The exodus
from the
American city.
This has
happened in
many American
cities since the
1960’s.

52

Changes in Cities in the U.S.
U.S. population has been moving out of the city centers to the suburbs:
suburbanization and counter urbanization

Developed Countries: suburbanization

 wealthy move to suburbs
 automobiles and roads; ‘American
Dream’ of the home in the suburbs.
 better services
 wealthy move to suburbs
Counter urbanization

idyllic settings
cost of land for retirement
slow pace, yet high tech
connections to services and markets
53

U.S. intraregional migration during 1990s.

Inner city economic problems: the concentration of low income
residents in inner cities has caused economic problems. These
people require public services but can pay very little in taxes to
support the services. They need stores and jobs but have little
money to spend in the store and few skills for jobs (so the stores
close). To try to fight these problems many local and state
governments use tax monies to try to renovate these areas, but this
shifts tax money needed for other areas to the inner city (votes on
election day).
Annexation: Many cities could help their tax problem by adding the
new suburbs to be part of their city (annexation). After all, many of
these suburban people use the city for its’ jobs etc., so why not add
them into the city? Today, most people in the suburbs do not want
to be annexed into the city and so they do not vote to be annexed.
54

The Peripheral Model: According to this model, an urban area
consists of an inner city surrounded by large suburban residential
and business areas (MSA) tied together by a beltway or highway
that circles the city. Around the beltway are nodes of consumer
and business services called edge cities (see diagram of multiple
nuclei model). These edge cities sprang up to provide services
and jobs to the people in the suburbs.
Density Gradient: As you travel outward from the center of the
city, the density of people declines. Inner city has big apartments
of 250 of more people per acre. Suburbs have fewer people per
acre (but lots of acres) and finally you leave the cities periphery
you find few people. The number of houses per unit of land
diminishes as distance from the center of the city increases.
55

The Edge cities (bedroom communities) of Houston

The central city is surrounded by a ring road, around which are
suburban areas and edge cities, shopping malls, office parks,
industrial areas, and service complexes.

Known as
bedroom
communities
because
people live
there but
mostly don’t
work there.
They drive
into the city
for work.
56

As you move from the center of the city outward, the density of the population
changes. This is know as the density gradient. Two big changes have occurred in
the density gradient of today’s cities:
1. The number of people living in the center has decreased.
2. The density difference between the inner city and the suburbs is declining
because the inner city density is dropping and the suburban density is growing
due to more large apartments being built in the suburbs.
Cost of Suburban or Urban Sprawl: Urban Sprawl is the progressive spread of
development over the landscape. As long as we Americans want single-family
detached houses, land on the fringe of urban areas will be converted from open
space to residential use. The cost of this growth is more than the loss of land, it is
also the cost of new roads, utilities, building stores and offices and the cost of
automobiles to move these people over even longer distances. Lots of these new
developments are built on what was once farmland. Wonderful productive soil now
under concrete.

Greenbelts: are areas where, by law, the open space can not be used for any
construction. This is mostly found in Europe.

57

Once farmland that is being converted to suburbs and cities.

58

Tyson’s Corner Virginia in 1940

59

Washington, DC. MSA.

Tyson’s Corner Virginia
today.
Washington D.C. is off
In the distance.

60

Suburban Segregation: The “new” segregation.
Suburban segregation takes two forms:
1. Residents are separated from commercial and manufacturing activities
which are confined someplace else. (The whole neighborhood is
nothing but houses because they drive for services.)
2. The price of the house eliminates some from being able to live there. This
creates a homogeneous suburb of the same economic class of people.
This never existed before in history. Where we once had vertical
segregation of the classes we now we have horizontal segregation.
3. But this may be reversing as new statistics show that people are beginning
to move back to the city. Why? Cost of transportation.
Zoning Ordinances: This idea developed in Europe and later America in the
early decades of the 20th century. This means that businesses are allowed only
in certain areas of the settlement. (No all night taco stands inside your single
family neighborhood.)
Motor vehicles: The wide use of the automobile is largely responsible for the
American movement to the suburbs. Not only did people move out but 1/4 of
the land inside all American cities are now roads, streets, and parking lots.

61

Public Transportation: Because few US workers live within walking distance
of their jobs, urban areas are characterized by extensive commuting and the
problems that come with it. As much as 40% of all trips made into or out from
a city during the day takes place within just 4 hours. (2 in the morning and 2 in
the late afternoon). RUSH HOUR!!! In large cities, public transportation, like
subways and busses, are better suited to move people but Americans still
prefer their own cars. Public transportation is cheaper, cleaner, and more
energy efficient than personal cars, yet in the US only 5% of city travel is
done using public transit systems. American’s love their personal car too
much.
Local Government Fragmentation: Because of the large number of local
governments in the US (look at the settlements in Pinellas County) it is
difficult to solve some of the regional problems like garbage disposal, water
management, traffic and public housing.
62

Metropolitan government: This idea tries to put many local governments into a
larger unit that can better handle the urban problems. The 2 ways to do this
are:
1. Federations in which the individual settlements have their own police,
firemen, and tax collection but they all agree to be part of a second
government which handles transportation, water, sewage, parks and
welfare for all the communities.
2. Consolidations: In this method, several cities and the county may form one
government. Jacksonville’s government runs not only the town but the
county too, this makes Jacksonville the largest city, in land size, in the US.
Smart growth: A new movement by many states to curb suburban sprawl by
limiting where new construction can take place. Smart growth laws require that
land near cities be used up before any land further out can be developed. So
far, this is only being done an a few parts of our country.
63

The new
US as
some
people
see it.

64

Quiz Yourself:
1. The process where middle-class people move into inner city neighborhoods and
renovate them is called ____________
2. ____________ happens when banks refuse to give loans in what they consider
risky neighborhoods.
3. Because of the housing shortages, the poor have constructed their own settlements
around the city known as __________ _________

4. Businesses are allowed only in certain areas of the settlement because of
____________ ____________
5. Areas known as _____ _______ are areas of about 5,000 people. The data from
that area is used to help define needed services for that area.
6. When cities are so close that they form one continuous band of development this is
known as a ____________
65

7. Social relationships are often described as “colder” in urban areas because…
8. In this model the city develops in a series of sectors not rings. _______

9. ______ (LDC’s or MDC’s) have a higher percentage of people living in urban
settlements but ________ (LDC’s or MDC’s) have more of the very large urban
settlements.
10. _____________ was the first model developed to explain the distributions
of different social groups within urban areas.
11. New cities which develop around the beltway are nodes of consumer and
business services known as ________ _________.

12. When the Europeans took over lands around the world, they changed the
cities by adding services to help the Europeans control the conquered people.
These European planned cities are known as __________ cities.
66

Answer Key:
1.

Gentrification

2.

Redlining

3.

Squatter Settlements

4.

Zoning ordinances

5.

Census tracks

6.

Megalopolis

7. There is a stronger feeling of belonging together in small rural settlements.
8. Hoyt sector model
9. MDC, LDC
10. Burgess Concentric Zone model
11. Edge cities
12. Colonial cities
67

Test Key topic/chapter 13:
These questions come from a combination of our slides, your text book, and common knowledge you should
have discussed in your AP classroom. They are very typical of what you will see on the National Exam.
1) The multiple nuclei theory best explains why different neighborhoods of a city attract people of different… A) ages.
B) ethnic origin C) income D) marital status.
2) Sprawl is the… A) change in density within an urban area from the center to the periphery B) development of new
housing sites not contiguous to the existing built-up area. C) land maintained as open space surrounding an urban area.
D) period in the morning and evening with the heaviest volumes of traffic.
3) People are attracted to suburbs in part because suburbs are characterized by…A) heavy traffic. B) lower opportunity
for home ownership. C) private land surrounding the house. D) row houses and apartments.
4) Megalopolis refers to… A) adjacent, overlapping Metropolitan Statistical Areas. B) central cities. C) consolidated
Metropolitan Statistical Areas. D) central cities plus urbanized areas.
5) Which statement best describes the relationship between urbanization and the Industrial Revolution? A) Urbanization
promoted the Industrial Revolution. B) The Industrial Revolution promoted urbanization. C) Urbanization preceded the
Industrial Revolution by thousands of years. D) Urbanization and the Industrial Revolution are no longer related.
6) The process of legally adding land area to a city in the United States is… A) annexation. B) accreditation. C) an
application of eminent domain. D) defined by urbanized area.

68

7) The process of change in the use of a house, from single-family owner occupancy to abandonment, is… A) blockbusting.
B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining.
8) A process by which banks designate an area within which they refuse to lend money for improvements is… A) blockbusting.
B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining.
9) A recent change in the density gradient has been… A) the elimination of the gap traditionally found in the center. B) an
increase in the extremes between the inner and outer areas. C) an increase in the number of people living in the center.
D) a reduction in the differences in densities found within an urban area.
10) U.S. central cities face fiscal problems because… A) federal and state funds are available. B) low-income people are
concentrated there. C) middle-class families are attracted there. D) redlining is no longer legal.
11) A legal form of segregation in U.S. cities is achieved through...A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) zoning. D) greenbelts.
12) Factories have moved to suburban locations in part because of… A) access to main highways. B) adequate space to build
vertical structures. C) availability of large tracts of high-priced land. D) good rail connections.
13) According to the sector model, the best housing is located in…A) a corridor from downtown to the edge of the city.
B) an outer ring surrounding the city. C) nodes near universities and parks. D) renovated inner-city neighborhoods.
14) Ramshackle houses on the periphery of cities in less developed countries are known as… A) squatter settlements. B) council
estates. C) public housing. D) zone in transition.
15) Higher income people tend to live near the center of the city in all but which of the following regions? A) Latin America
B) North America C) South Asia D) Western Europe

16) The wide boulevards built in cities in less developed countries were most likely built during what era? A) pre-colonial
B) colonial C) independence D) all of the above equally

69

17) According to the multiple nuclei model, an airport is likely to attract nearby… A) industries. B) residences. C) shops.
D) universities.
18) The largest percentage of the U.S. population lives in…A) central cities. B) suburbs. C) non-metropolitan areas. D) all of the
above
19) In U.S. cities, the underclass is… A) clustered in inner-city neighborhoods. B) dispersed throughout the city. C) clustered in
suburbs. D) distributed uniformly in the city.

20) A process of converting a neighborhood from low-income to middle-class is…A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) gentrification.
D) redlining.
21) Higher social heterogeneity in urban settlements means that… A) the people with whom you relax are probably the same ones you
see at work. B) you play a specialized role in the urban economy. C) you compete for limited space. D) you may feel lonely and
isolated in a crowd.
22) The city plus its contiguous built-up suburbs is the… A) central city. B) urbanized area.
D) consolidated metropolitan statistical area

C) metropolitan statistical area.

23) The process whereby an increasing percentage of people live in an urban area is known as… A) demographic transition.
B) rank-size rule. C) urbanization. D) central place theory.
24) Of the ten largest urban areas in the world, how many are in More Developed Countries today? A) 1 B) 4 C) 7 D) 10 E) 2
25) Public housing is…A) conversion of low-income housing to middle-class housing. B) illegally established low-income housing.
C) housing that has changed from single-family owner occupancy to abandonment. D) low-income government-owned housing.
26) According to the concentric zone model, a city develops in a series of… A) corridors. B) nodes. C) rings. D) all of the above

70

27) Chicago is a good location in which to develop urban models because it is located… A) at the hub of the nation's transportation
system. B) in the center of the country. C) on a flat prairie. D) on the shore of Lake Michigan.
28) According to the sector model, the best housing is located in… A) a corridor from downtown to the edge of the city. B) an outer
ring surrounding the city. C) nodes near universities and parks. D) renovated inner-city neighborhoods.
29) The zone of transition in US cities generally contain…A) warehouses B) wealthy neighborhoods C) transportation hubs
D) universities and hospitals E) suburban homes
30) The attractions of shopping malls include all but which of the following? A) frequent concerts and exhibitions B) generous
parking lots C) place to meet friends D) walking distance from homes
The following questions are written at the high school level. You will find some questions from part one often rewritten
here. This is all designed to help you transition to the college/AP style of written questions. Any question preceded with ***
are questions that have been on the national exam before.
31. Most Latin American cities are focused on a…A) central plaza B) government housing project C) zone of heavy industry
D) skyscraper office building E) squatter settlement
32. The multiple-nuclei model of a city structure tends to be most applicable to…A) small cities B) traditional C) Latin American
cities D) newer, fast growing cities E) cities with homogeneous land use
33. ***Locational advantages important to the development of the earliest cities include…A) availability of good harbors for large
ships B) productive agricultural land and defensible sites C) temperate climate and proximity to coal mines D) good
connections by road and canal E) proximity to manufacturing areas

34. In cities, the CBD’s often show uniqueness while the suburbs usually show…A) a large hinterland. B) placelessness C) more
than one node. D) newer zones of transition.

71

35. Many LDC’s have tried to help a previously under-developed part of their country develop by moving their capital
city to that area. This new capital is known as a…A) forward capital B) new development zone C) enterprise zone
D) neocolonial city
36. Today the greatest number of urban dwellers is found in…A) North America
D) Europe E) Asia

B) South America C) Africa

37. ***All of the following have helped create ghettos in North American cities except…A)blockbusting and racial
steering B) redlining by financial institutions C) concentration of public housing and social services D) fixed school
districts E) Economic Enterprise Zones

38. Which of the following is NOT as reason for rapid suburbanization in the US after WW2? A) Mass production of
the automobile B) Reduction of long distance commuting C) Expansion of home construction D) Expansion of the
interstate highway system E) Availability of low down payment terms and long-term mortgages.
39. New cities which developed in the hinterland of large urban areas because of the automobile, are known as…
A) edge cities B) census tracts C) suburban sprawl D) squatter settlements. E) none of these
40. Gentrification refers to… A) moving the homeless into inner city shelters B) The “White Flight” from the urban city
C) losing tax revenue because of stores closing in downtown areas D) middle-class people moving into and renovating
inner city neighborhoods E) the creation of “beltway cities” around the city.

72

4
7
3

5

1
6

2

41-48 all use the sketch above.
41. The sketch in box A above represents which model of the inner structure of urban areas?
C) multiple nuclei model D) Burgess concentric zone model E) peripheral model
42. The models in boxes B and C represent A) Concentric zone and multiple nuclei
concentric zone D) peripheral and concentric zone E) Von Thunen and peripheral

A) Hoyt sector model B) VonThunen’s model

B) Multiple nuclei and Hoyt sector C) Hoyt sector and

43. In which ring (1, 2, etc.) of sketch A above would high-status households in North American cities likely live? A) 1 B) 2 C) 3 D) 4&5
44. In which ring (1, 2, etc.) of sketch A above would high status households in a European city likely live? A) 1

B) 2

C) 3

D) 4&5

45. In model B, zone # 2 is where it is likely because of: A) greenbelting B) squatter settling C) the culture of poverty D) transportation
E) no one knows
46. The model in sketch B is the; A) Hoyt sector model B) Burgess model C) multiple nuclei model D) peripheral model
47. The model in sketch C is the; A) Hoyt sector model B) Burgess model C) multiple nuclei model D) peripheral model
48. Which of these models best describes what has happened in US cities in the last 40 years? A)

B)

C)

73

49.*** In the U.S. a city plus its contiguous built-up suburbs is known as an…A) urbanized area B) zoned area
C) census tract D) Squatter settlement E) none of these
50. Done mostly in Europe, these are areas where land is kept as parks, farms or other kinds of open space and urban
sprawl is not allowed. A) Smart growth
B) zoning
C) filtering
D) census tracts E) greenbelts
51. Which statement best describes the relationship between urbanization and the Industrial Revolution?
A) Urbanization promoted the Industrial Revolution. B) The Industrial Revolution promoted urbanization.
C) Urbanization preceded the Industrial Revolution by thousands of years. D) Urbanization and the Industrial
Revolution are no longer related.
52. The process whereby an increasing percentage of people live in an urban area is known as…
A) Demographic transition. B) rank-size rule. C) Urbanization. D) Central place theory.
53. The city (if it has 50,000 or more people) plus its contiguous built-up suburbs AND the county it is in as well as any
other counties it influences, is known as the ...A) central city B) urbanized area
C) metropolitan statistical area
D) consolidated metropolitan area E) micropolitan statistical area
54. ***Higher social heterogeneity in urban settlements means that …A) the people with whom you relax are probably
the same ones you see at work. B) you play a specialized role in the urban economy. C) you compete for limited
space. D) you may feel lonely and isolated in a crowd.

55. The process of change in the use of a house, from single-family owner occupancy to smaller dwellings for the poor
and then sometimes to abandonment, is…A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining. E) none of
these

74

Free Response #1:
The Bid Rent theory says that the closer you get to the
CBD the higher the cost for land, yet in most American
cities you find the poorest people living near the
expensive CBD and the richest living further away.
Explain:
A. Why neighborhoods near the CBD are often poor and
run down?
B. Why are there few grocery and other retail stores in
these neighborhoods?
C. Why is this not really true in European and Latin
American countries?

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75

FR #2:
Think of the map of your school, explain the
layout of your school using the Multiple Nuclei
Model
The main office is the CBD.
Completely explain your answer using specific
buildings and/or land areas in your explanation
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76

Answer Key:
1. B

14. A

27. C

40. D

53. C

2. B

15. B

28. A

41. D

54. D

3. C

16. B

29. A

42. B

55. B

4. A

17. A

30. D

43. D

5. B

18. B

31. A

44. A

6. A

19. A

32. D

45. D

7. B

20. C

33. B

46. A

8. D

21. D

34. B

47. C

9. D

22. B

35. A

48. C

10. B

23. C

36. E

49. A

11. C

24. C

37. E

50. E

12. A

25. D

38. B

51. B

13. A

26. C

39. A

52. C
77

FR. #1: ( 15 pts. for each section…total of 45 pts.)
A. In the US the move of the wealthy and middle class to the suburbs has left the older houses and apartments near the CBD empty.
This has lowered their value to the point where the poor can afford these dwellings and have made these neighborhoods their
homes. The poor can not pay for upkeep of these dwellings, or to pay high taxes. The lack of upkeep and tax money to repair the
roads and schools, adds to the downward spiral of the neighborhood. With little spending money for shopping, the poor do not
spend much in the stores. This causes many stores to close and move to the suburbs where the spending customers and money
went. The closing of the stores adds to the poverty of the area by taking away some of the jobs that were in the neighborhood. This
becomes a vicious cycle of poverty and deterioration. (15 points)

B. There are few retail stores and groceries is the area because the poor do not have money to shop. The lack of spending forces
many stores out of business or forces them to move to better locations. There also can be higher crime in these areas and the
crime often takes place at the stores. This is another reason for the stores to move out of the neighborhood. (15 points)
C. Neighborhoods in European and Latin American cities are different from those of US cities. In Europe and Latin America, the
wealthy and middle class still live near or in the CBD. The higher tax base and more spending ability of the upper and middle
classes, keeps the CBD area flourishing with jobs and in constant repair and upkeep of the cities’ physical condition. (15 points)

FR #2: (10 total points.)
You will need to judge how effectively you displayed you school
in the Multiple Nuclei Model. Refer to the model itself to help you
determine your success and grade.
School’s main office
78

Calculating your grade on test 13.
Add how many you got correct on the multiple choice part (55 possible) to how many
points you scored on the FR portion (55 possible)…110 total.
The following scale will show the approximate score if this test were the real AP exam. Remember that this
is an approximation. While 65-74% is normally the range for a 3 on the test, it is not definite. Over the
years I have seen scores as low as 60% be the low portion of a 3 score.

Out of 110 possible points:
72-83 is most likely a 3
84-94 is most likely a 4

95-110 is most likely a 5

Now lets start our review for the national exam by
reviewing the 33 key models and theories of the
course…the next PowerPoint.


Slide 27

Key topic/chapter 13…Urban Patterns
Key terms:
Annexation
Concentric zone model
Density gradient
Edge cities
Filtering
Galactic city
Gentrification
Greenbelts
Megalopolis
MSA
Multiple nuclei model
Peripheral model

Public housing
Redlining
Renovated housing
Scattered site
Squatter settlement
Sector model
Smart growth
Sprawl
Underclass
Urban renewal
Zone in transition
Zoning
1

Chapter 13…Urban Areas.
How are Cities planned?
Why

are cities where they are?
How are they organized?
Why are some areas of a city
different from
other areas of the same city?
What is the future of cities?
2

Settlement


Settlement - permanent collections of buildings,
where people live, work, and obtain services

3

ORIGINS OF SETTLEMENTS


Religious - graves, churches, temples



Cultural - schools, libraries



Political/Military - leader’s house, walls



Economic - stores, food
4

TYPES OF SETTLEMENTS


Rural Settlements - agriculture as the
predominant occupation.



Urban settlements - principal industries are
secondary and tertiary.

5

RURAL SETTLEMENTS
Clustered rural settlements –grouped
settlements in rural areas to minimize travel

Dispersed rural Settlements - isolated farms
with enclosed continuous fields (Found only in
N. America and Britain).

6

Urban Geographers want to know the global distribution of urban
settlements. MDC’s have a high percentage of people living in urban
areas because of the shift from agriculture-manufacturing-services.
Geographers are also interested in where people and activities are
distributed within urban spaces. What are the differences between the
inner-city and suburban areas and why?
As we saw in the last chapter, many downtowns are unique and can
often be recognized in photos where the suburbs often look very
much alike (Placelessness). Why? Suburbs offer the chance to avoid
some of the city problems (crime, tight living area, expensive
land/rent, noise, age of buildings) while still keeping a connection with
the goods and services of the city: jobs, sports teams, culture, shops,
recreation, etc.
7

Where is this place?

8

Today’s cities are evolving and changing. Although different internal
situations characterize urban areas in the US and elsewhere, the
problems arising from current spatial trends are quite similar in all cities.
Where have urban areas grown: in the early 1800’s only 3% of the earth’s
people lived in cities and only Beijing China had more than 1 million
people. Today over ½ of the world’s people live in cities and we have over
400 cities of at least 1 million people.

Urbanization: is the process by which city population grows.
Cities population growth is measured in 2 dimensions;
1. An increase in the number of people living in the cities.
2. An increase in the percentage of people living in the cities.
This distinction is important because they happen for different reason and
have different global distributions.
9

Increasing Percentage of People in Cities: a large percentage of people living in urban
areas is a measure of a country’s level of development. In MDC’s about ¾ of the people
live in urban areas compared to about 2/5 of people in LDC’s. (Except in Latin America
where the level is closer to MDC’s.)
The higher percentage of people in urban areas comes from the changes that have
occurred in the last 200 years as we went from agriculture (primary jobs) to industrial
(secondary jobs) and now service jobs, all created by the Industrial Revolution of the
1800’s.
People moved to the cities for industrial jobs, but in MDC’s this process has largely
ended because nearly everyone interested in moving to the cities from farms has already
done so.
In LDC’s the percentage of people living in urban areas is growing as people are pushed
off of their farms and replaced by machines and as people move to cities looking/hoping
for industrial jobs.
10

Increasing Number of People in Cities: MDC’s have a higher percentage of
people living in urban settlements but LDC’s have more of the very large urban
settlements (Primate cities). (Rank-size rule, primate cities, chapter 12.)

This is interesting because typically the large cities are created from the
improvements brought by the Industrial Revolution. This is not the case with the
large LDC cities. Migration to the primate city in LDC’s is happening even though
job opportunities may not be available. Increasing the population growth in LDC
cities is the fact that medical services are better in these cities, thus the child
mortality rate is lower.
Defining Urban Settlements: defining where urban areas end and rural areas
begin is not easy. Geographers have formulated definitions that distinguish
between urban and rural areas in two ways: Social differences and Physical
differences.
11

Percent Urban Population

Percent of the population living in urban areas is usually higher in MDCs
than in LDCs.

12

The most populated cities in the world

Of the top
20, only
Moscow,
Tokyo and
New York
are in MDC’s

Shanghai China has 14,608,512 people
13

14

15

Social Differences Between Urban and Rural Settlements: it is fair to say that rural
people and urban people follow different ways of life. A city can be defined as having 3
characteristics:
1. Large size. People in rural settlements know most of the other people in the
settlement. Not true in big cities. Social relationships are often described as “colder” in
urban areas because you only see some people at work instead of growing up with
them in the settlement.
2. High Density. Having lots of people in a tiny area creates social consequences. A
high density of people living in a small area can only be supported if the people
specialize (they can’t all be farmers). People are encouraged to compete for jobs, room,
and survival in a tightly limited space. Social groups compete to occupy the same space
(ethnic/ race problems). Rural settlements have very little of this problem.
3. Social Heterogeneity. The larger the settlement, the greater the variety of people.
Being “unusual” in a large settlement is more likely to be accepted than in a small rural
one. But despite the freedom to be different that large urban settlements give you,
people living there often feel alone because so many people are different from them.
There is a stronger feeling of belonging together in small rural settlements.
16

These 3 differences do not fully answer the question of where urban settlements
begin and rural ones end because in today’s MDC’s most everyone has access to
cars, telephones, televisions, and “urban type” jobs which reduce the differences
between urban and rural lifestyles. “City folk” and “Country folk” are more alike
today than they are different. To help distinguish between urban and rural areas we
need to add the physical definition of rural and urban to the equation.
Physical Definitions of Urban Settlements: In ancient time, cities had defensive
walls for protection which clearly defined the physical boundaries of the city. Today
the walls are gone but we can still define the physical boundaries in 3 ways:
1. Legal boundary. These are the official boundaries of a city as recognized by
the government of the country or state. These “city limits” have been officially given
to the city and are physically marked on official maps. The local government of the
city has authority to make laws and protect the people inside the city boundaries.
17

2. Urbanized area. This is the city plus its suburbs or urbanized area that
surrounds the city. About 70 percent of US residents live in urbanized areas with
40% being in the suburbs and 30% inside the city limits. The suburbs may have
their own city governments but the huge central city dominates what happens in
the entire area.
3. Metropolitan Statistical Area. Cities have an even bigger influence on people
than just those living in their city limits and surrounding urbanized areas. People
from far away come to shop, use the services, support the sports teams, read
the newspapers and watch the television broadcasts of the city. Thus the city
has a “functional area” which is its total zone of influence. The US Bureau of
Census has created a method of measuring the functional area of the city.
Known as the Metropolitan statistical area (MSA) this area includes:
•An urbanized area with a population of at least 50,000
•The county within which the city is located.
•Adjacent counties with a high population density and a large percentage of
residents working in the central city’s county.
18

Metropolitan Area of Philadelphia

City of
Philadelphia

Urbanized
area
(suburbs)
Metropolitan
Statistical
Area

The metropolitan area of Philadelphia is
spread over several counties and four states.
It is also a diversified trade center, given its
position on the Delaware river.

19

20

21

Micropolitan Statistical Areas: Smaller areas with between
10,000 and 50,000 people, the county where it is found, and
adjacent counties tied to the city. This would be a small town and
the area dominated by it.
Overlapping Metropolitan Areas: Some adjacent MSA’s overlap.
A county between two central cities may send a large number of
commuters to jobs in both cities. In some areas the cities are so
close that they form one continuous urban complex. This is
known as a Megalopolis (great city).
In a megalopolis, the downtown CBD often has its own
distinctive look and the urban areas are visually separated by
parks, open spaces, and dairy/truck farms. But at the periphery
of the urban areas, the boundaries overlap.
22

Colorado Springs, population 431,000

Ocala, Florida, population 56,000

Florala, Alabama, population 1,900

23

Megalopolis, from northern Va. To Maine.
This Illustrates the
difference between
strict city proper
definitions and broader
urban agglomerations.
To define urbanized
areas, the U.S. Census
Bureau uses the term
Metropolitan Statistical
Area (MSA) or
Consolidated MSA
(CMSA) if two or more of
them overlap.
24

Where are People Distributed within Urban Areas? People are not
just distributed at random in urban areas. For the most part they
concentrate in particular neighborhoods depending on their social
characteristics. Geographers want to see where people with
particular characteristics are likely to live and why.

Three models which try to explain the growth of a city:

The Burgess Model

The Hoyt Sector Model

The Harris and Ullman
multiple Nuclei Model
25

Burgess Concentric Zone Model

In the concentric zone model, a city grows in a series of rings surrounding the CBD.

Burgess Concentric Zone Model: This is the first used to explain the
distributions of different social groups within urban areas. It says that a
city grows outward from a central place in a series of concentric rings.
The precise size and width of the rings vary from one city to another, but
some basic types of rings appear in all cities in the same order (see chart
above).
26

•Hoyt Sector Model: In this model the city develops in a
series of sectors not rings. Certain areas of the city are
more attractive for various activities, originally because
of an environmental factor (or even pure chance). As the
city grows, activities extend outward in a wedge shape.
For example, once a wealthy neighborhood is built the
next wealthy neighborhood will extend from the first
neighborhood further outward from the center. In this
way, the best housing is found in a corridor extending
outward from the center to the outer edge (see chart on
the next page).
27

The Hoyt Sector Model

In the sector model, a city grows in a series of
wedges or corridors extending out from the
CBD.
28

•Harris and Ullman’s Multiple Nuclei Model: According
to this model, a city is a complex structure that includes
more than one center around which activities revolve.
Examples of these nodes include a port, parks,
stadium, neighborhood business center, university, and
airport (see chart). This theory states that some
activities are attracted to particular nodes, whereas
others try to avoid them. A university node may attract
well educated people and bookstores while the port will
attract hotels and warehouses. Heavy industry and
expensive houses rarely are found together. This
model shows the effect of the automobile more than
any other model.
29

The Harris and Ullman Multiple Nuclei model

The multiple nuclei model views a city as a
collection of individual centers, around which
different people and activities cluster.

30

Applications of the Models: The three models help explain where and in some
cases, why people live where they do. None of the models by themselves fully
explains why and where different types of people live, but combined they give
you as good a look as possible at the “Why” of “Where.” Effective use of the
models depends on getting good data on the areas. Most countries take a
census every 10 years to help determine useful data about the people and
places of the country. In our country we divide the census data into areas
known as census tracts of about 5,000 people. Each census tract has the data
that summarizes the characteristics of the people living within that tract. This
information includes things like the race, income, age, and education of the
people living in that tract.
Social Area Analysis: The data from the census tracts can all be plotted onto
maps to show the characteristics of the people living in that tract. This map is
known as a social area analysis.
31

Using Census tract information…Seattle, Washington
Each lined area is a
census tract of about 5000
people in Seattle
Washington. These maps
show average household
income for 1990 and
2000…note the changes in
income in some areas
between 1990 and 2000.
Using this information, a
business can make
decisions about where
they want to locate a new
store or the future of
existing stores.
You can find census tract
information on many topics
such as; age, education
level, race, ethnicity, crime
rate, and land ownership.
Note the areas with
incomes over
$63,000.

All can be very valuable
information to people
looking to open
businesses.

32

Examine the changes
between 1990 and
2000.

Oakland, California’s Ethnic neighborhoods
The small bordered areas are census tracks of 5000 people.

33

Use of the Models Outside of North America: The 3 models will also work in other
places in the world; however social groups in other countries may not have the
same reasons for selecting particular neighborhoods as Americans do.
European Cities: As in the US, wealthier people in European cities cluster along a
sector extending outward from the CBD, however unlike the US, wealthy and
middle class Europeans still live in the inner rings of the neighborhoods near the
CBD not out in the suburbs. In the past, poorer people lived in the center of the
city. Before electricity, social segregation was vertical: richer people lived on the
first or second floor of a building while the poorer people lived in the basement or
upper floors. In the Industrial Revolution, housing for the poor was constructed
near the factories and away from the rich.
Today poorer Europeans are less likely to live in the inner-city. Poor quality
housing has been renovated for the rich or turned into office buildings. Poorer
Europeans tend to live in the outskirts of the city. Vast suburbs with dozens of high
rise apartments house the poor. They face long commutes to reach their jobs in
the city.
34

European cities generally do not have the “suburban
sprawl” that US cities have. European cities tend to be
more pedestrian friendly with more parks downtown as
Europeans tend to still live downtown.
US cities have taller buildings as European cities tend to
be older and more historic.

American cities have more ethnic neighborhoods than
European cities. Ethnic neighborhoods that do exist in
European cities tend to be in the suburbs. WHY?
Because the established richer neighborhoods tend to be
downtown in European cities.
35

Less Developed Countries: Like Europe, most LDC’s accommodate their poor in the
suburbs with their middle class and rich living near the center of the city. LDC’s have
passed through 3 periods of city building: before the Europeans arrived, during the
period of European colonialism, and since independence from European control.

Pre-colonial Cities: Before the Europeans arrived few cities existed in Africa, Asia, and
Latin America and most people lived in small rural settlements. Those cities that existed
were mostly laid out surrounding a religious center; with the rest of the city laid out in a
hieratical concentric pattern (like the Burgess model) from government buildings,
homes of the wealthy, and businesses related to the religion out to other businesses
and shops.
Colonial cities: When the Europeans took over these lands, they changed the cities by
adding services to help the Europeans control the conquered people. Often a new
European style city would be build next to the existing native one. The new European
cities contained wider streets, a public square, larger houses and a much lower density.
The Spanish used the “Law of the Indies” which was a city plan designed specifically to
build cities in a “Spanish” style. (Gridiron pattern for streets centered on a church and
central plaza, walls around individual houses and neighborhoods centered around
smaller plazas and more churches.)
36

Early Mexico city was laid out in a grid pattern of streets. This followed
the Spanish “Law of the Indies.”

37

Central Plaza in Mexico City 1920 photo. Typical Colonial City plan.

Part of downtown Mexico city today still shows the
building plan of the “Law of the Indies.”

38

Cities since Independence: Following independence, cities have become
the focal point of the development of most LDC’s. Millions of people have
migrated to the cities (Primate cities) looking for jobs and services. Some
capitals have been moved to isolated areas in an attempt to help develop
that area of the country (Brasília) This is know as a forward capital. Latin
American cities have developed their own unique style.
Squatter settlements: The LDC’s are unable to house the rapidly growing
number of poor who are flowing into the cities. Because of the housing
shortages, the poor have constructed their own settlements around the city.
These settlements have few services because neither the city nor the
residents can afford them. Squatters have two basic choices for housing.
1. Illegally move into empty real houses located in the city or,
2. Rent slum housing.
(85% of the population of Addis Ababa in Ethiopia lives in squatter
settlements, slums or other illegal housing.)
39

Squatter shacks in Manila, the Philippines

40

Squatter settlement in Ethiopia

41

Zimbabwe, Africa

42

Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

43

Latin American City Model:
In many Latin
American cities,
the wealthy live in
the inner city and
in a sector
extending along a
commercial spine.
In situ accretion- businesses
and homes constantly under
construction/repair.
Zone of maturity-2nd best
housing in the city.
The poor live in squatter settlements on the
periphery of the city.

Disamenity- unpleasant area
used by the poor to get to the
market.

44

The City Outline of Rio de Janeiro
The rich tourist areas and expensive condo apartments are along the coast
and beach while the poor live in squatter shacks in the hills.

45

City problems:
Inner-City Physical Problems: Most US inner cities were constructed before the 1950’s
(people began to move to the suburbs in the 1950’s so new construction moved out of
the city).
Process of Deterioration (how a city deteriorates): A city doesn’t suddenly become old
and full of slummy areas. It happens over time. When a group of low-income people
inhabit an area of a city, nearby neighborhoods will often look to move out. They sell or
rent to more low-income occupants thus expanding the low-income area. Two processes
cause/speed up the devaluation of areas:
1. Filtering, 2. Redlining.
Filtering: Large houses and buildings that once housed rich downtown workers (who
moved to the suburbs) are taken over by landlords who don’t live in that area (they
moved to the suburbs too). Rents are low so the landlord doesn’t take as good care of
the property as they should and the property becomes run down or abandoned. Stores
close, or move, due to lack of sales. 100 years ago these neighborhoods would be used
by immigrants and ethnic businesses would succeed in those areas. Now, with a decline
in immigration, these neighborhoods have shrunk and so have schools, businesses and
other services. Thousands of vacant houses and buildings stand empty in inner cities
across America.

46

Redlining: Some banks refuse to give loans in what they consider
risky neighborhoods. They draw a red line on a map around areas
where they will not give loans. Without loans, these neighborhoods
have a hard time rebuilding/remodeling. Though illegal, this still
happens. Bankers just don’t put these “no-loan” areas on a map.

Urban Renewal: This is the series of projects to improve European
and N. American cities by buying up the blighted neighborhoods,
moving the people to new government built housing projects, and
building new roads, and other projects to make the inner city
attractive for business again. National and State government grants
help pay for these projects.
47

Public housing: Housing for the poor, built with government funding as part of
urban renewal. In the US this is only about 2% of the housing while in some
countries it may be more (Britain is 30%). Public housing built in the 50’s & 60’s
were largely high rise apartments, but those are seen as being unsatisfactory.
Problems arise from cramming large numbers of poor people into one area.
Today most public housing projects are one to three story buildings with many of
them being scattered around different parts of the city rather than clustered into
one area.
Because urban renewal has been criticized for destroying the social cohesion of
older neighborhoods, many governments (like the US) have stopped funding
most projects since the 1970’s. What do we do instead?
Renovated Housing: An alternative often used since the 70’s is to renovate a
building instead of urban renewal. The process where middle-class people
move into inner-city neighborhoods and renovate them is called gentrification.
Gentrified inner-city neighborhoods also attract middle-class people who work
downtown. Living close to work saves the hassle of commuting and rejuvenates
run down inner-city neighborhoods
48

Gentrified building downtown Harlem, NY. Note the supermarket.

49

Inner-City Social Problems: Inner-city residents are often referred to as the
permanent underclass because they are trapped in an unending cycle of
economic and social problems. High unemployment, alcoholism, drug
addiction, literacy, juvenile delinquency, and crime all exist at a higher rate
among those who live in the inner-city. Lack of jobs means lack of tax dollars
to pay for police and fire protection as well as good schools. Lack of job skills
and homelessness are also tremendous problems.
Culture of Poverty: Inner-city residents are trapped in a permanent underclass
culture that reproduces itself. In the US, unwed mothers give birth to 2/3 of the
babies in the inner-city. 90% of these children live with only one parent and it
is real hard for one parent to keep a job and take care of children. Both suffer
and a shortage of care and daily attention by the parent contributes to the kids
not learning the skills necessary to do well in school which leads to poor jobs
for their futures. Poverty leads to more poverty. Many families on welfare have
only one parent because it is financially better if one parent is gone, that way
the single parent gets food stamps and other services from the government
that they would not get if it was a 2 family household.
50

Crime: Trapped in a hopeless environment, some inner-city
residents turn to drugs. Drug use is a problem in inner-city
areas and the suburbs, but rates of drug use in inner-cities
are the highest.
Ethnic and Racial Segregation: As seen in chapter 7, many
neighborhoods in the US are segregated by ethnicity with
African Americans and Hispanics concentrated in one or two
continuous areas and whites living in the suburbs. Even small
cities display a strong distinction among neighborhoods. A
frequent division is between the east and west or north and
south side of town, or the railroad tracks. A family seeking a
new residence will seek the areas where the characteristics
of the people meet their own.

51

The exodus
from the
American city.
This has
happened in
many American
cities since the
1960’s.

52

Changes in Cities in the U.S.
U.S. population has been moving out of the city centers to the suburbs:
suburbanization and counter urbanization

Developed Countries: suburbanization

 wealthy move to suburbs
 automobiles and roads; ‘American
Dream’ of the home in the suburbs.
 better services
 wealthy move to suburbs
Counter urbanization

idyllic settings
cost of land for retirement
slow pace, yet high tech
connections to services and markets
53

U.S. intraregional migration during 1990s.

Inner city economic problems: the concentration of low income
residents in inner cities has caused economic problems. These
people require public services but can pay very little in taxes to
support the services. They need stores and jobs but have little
money to spend in the store and few skills for jobs (so the stores
close). To try to fight these problems many local and state
governments use tax monies to try to renovate these areas, but this
shifts tax money needed for other areas to the inner city (votes on
election day).
Annexation: Many cities could help their tax problem by adding the
new suburbs to be part of their city (annexation). After all, many of
these suburban people use the city for its’ jobs etc., so why not add
them into the city? Today, most people in the suburbs do not want
to be annexed into the city and so they do not vote to be annexed.
54

The Peripheral Model: According to this model, an urban area
consists of an inner city surrounded by large suburban residential
and business areas (MSA) tied together by a beltway or highway
that circles the city. Around the beltway are nodes of consumer
and business services called edge cities (see diagram of multiple
nuclei model). These edge cities sprang up to provide services
and jobs to the people in the suburbs.
Density Gradient: As you travel outward from the center of the
city, the density of people declines. Inner city has big apartments
of 250 of more people per acre. Suburbs have fewer people per
acre (but lots of acres) and finally you leave the cities periphery
you find few people. The number of houses per unit of land
diminishes as distance from the center of the city increases.
55

The Edge cities (bedroom communities) of Houston

The central city is surrounded by a ring road, around which are
suburban areas and edge cities, shopping malls, office parks,
industrial areas, and service complexes.

Known as
bedroom
communities
because
people live
there but
mostly don’t
work there.
They drive
into the city
for work.
56

As you move from the center of the city outward, the density of the population
changes. This is know as the density gradient. Two big changes have occurred in
the density gradient of today’s cities:
1. The number of people living in the center has decreased.
2. The density difference between the inner city and the suburbs is declining
because the inner city density is dropping and the suburban density is growing
due to more large apartments being built in the suburbs.
Cost of Suburban or Urban Sprawl: Urban Sprawl is the progressive spread of
development over the landscape. As long as we Americans want single-family
detached houses, land on the fringe of urban areas will be converted from open
space to residential use. The cost of this growth is more than the loss of land, it is
also the cost of new roads, utilities, building stores and offices and the cost of
automobiles to move these people over even longer distances. Lots of these new
developments are built on what was once farmland. Wonderful productive soil now
under concrete.

Greenbelts: are areas where, by law, the open space can not be used for any
construction. This is mostly found in Europe.

57

Once farmland that is being converted to suburbs and cities.

58

Tyson’s Corner Virginia in 1940

59

Washington, DC. MSA.

Tyson’s Corner Virginia
today.
Washington D.C. is off
In the distance.

60

Suburban Segregation: The “new” segregation.
Suburban segregation takes two forms:
1. Residents are separated from commercial and manufacturing activities
which are confined someplace else. (The whole neighborhood is
nothing but houses because they drive for services.)
2. The price of the house eliminates some from being able to live there. This
creates a homogeneous suburb of the same economic class of people.
This never existed before in history. Where we once had vertical
segregation of the classes we now we have horizontal segregation.
3. But this may be reversing as new statistics show that people are beginning
to move back to the city. Why? Cost of transportation.
Zoning Ordinances: This idea developed in Europe and later America in the
early decades of the 20th century. This means that businesses are allowed only
in certain areas of the settlement. (No all night taco stands inside your single
family neighborhood.)
Motor vehicles: The wide use of the automobile is largely responsible for the
American movement to the suburbs. Not only did people move out but 1/4 of
the land inside all American cities are now roads, streets, and parking lots.

61

Public Transportation: Because few US workers live within walking distance
of their jobs, urban areas are characterized by extensive commuting and the
problems that come with it. As much as 40% of all trips made into or out from
a city during the day takes place within just 4 hours. (2 in the morning and 2 in
the late afternoon). RUSH HOUR!!! In large cities, public transportation, like
subways and busses, are better suited to move people but Americans still
prefer their own cars. Public transportation is cheaper, cleaner, and more
energy efficient than personal cars, yet in the US only 5% of city travel is
done using public transit systems. American’s love their personal car too
much.
Local Government Fragmentation: Because of the large number of local
governments in the US (look at the settlements in Pinellas County) it is
difficult to solve some of the regional problems like garbage disposal, water
management, traffic and public housing.
62

Metropolitan government: This idea tries to put many local governments into a
larger unit that can better handle the urban problems. The 2 ways to do this
are:
1. Federations in which the individual settlements have their own police,
firemen, and tax collection but they all agree to be part of a second
government which handles transportation, water, sewage, parks and
welfare for all the communities.
2. Consolidations: In this method, several cities and the county may form one
government. Jacksonville’s government runs not only the town but the
county too, this makes Jacksonville the largest city, in land size, in the US.
Smart growth: A new movement by many states to curb suburban sprawl by
limiting where new construction can take place. Smart growth laws require that
land near cities be used up before any land further out can be developed. So
far, this is only being done an a few parts of our country.
63

The new
US as
some
people
see it.

64

Quiz Yourself:
1. The process where middle-class people move into inner city neighborhoods and
renovate them is called ____________
2. ____________ happens when banks refuse to give loans in what they consider
risky neighborhoods.
3. Because of the housing shortages, the poor have constructed their own settlements
around the city known as __________ _________

4. Businesses are allowed only in certain areas of the settlement because of
____________ ____________
5. Areas known as _____ _______ are areas of about 5,000 people. The data from
that area is used to help define needed services for that area.
6. When cities are so close that they form one continuous band of development this is
known as a ____________
65

7. Social relationships are often described as “colder” in urban areas because…
8. In this model the city develops in a series of sectors not rings. _______

9. ______ (LDC’s or MDC’s) have a higher percentage of people living in urban
settlements but ________ (LDC’s or MDC’s) have more of the very large urban
settlements.
10. _____________ was the first model developed to explain the distributions
of different social groups within urban areas.
11. New cities which develop around the beltway are nodes of consumer and
business services known as ________ _________.

12. When the Europeans took over lands around the world, they changed the
cities by adding services to help the Europeans control the conquered people.
These European planned cities are known as __________ cities.
66

Answer Key:
1.

Gentrification

2.

Redlining

3.

Squatter Settlements

4.

Zoning ordinances

5.

Census tracks

6.

Megalopolis

7. There is a stronger feeling of belonging together in small rural settlements.
8. Hoyt sector model
9. MDC, LDC
10. Burgess Concentric Zone model
11. Edge cities
12. Colonial cities
67

Test Key topic/chapter 13:
These questions come from a combination of our slides, your text book, and common knowledge you should
have discussed in your AP classroom. They are very typical of what you will see on the National Exam.
1) The multiple nuclei theory best explains why different neighborhoods of a city attract people of different… A) ages.
B) ethnic origin C) income D) marital status.
2) Sprawl is the… A) change in density within an urban area from the center to the periphery B) development of new
housing sites not contiguous to the existing built-up area. C) land maintained as open space surrounding an urban area.
D) period in the morning and evening with the heaviest volumes of traffic.
3) People are attracted to suburbs in part because suburbs are characterized by…A) heavy traffic. B) lower opportunity
for home ownership. C) private land surrounding the house. D) row houses and apartments.
4) Megalopolis refers to… A) adjacent, overlapping Metropolitan Statistical Areas. B) central cities. C) consolidated
Metropolitan Statistical Areas. D) central cities plus urbanized areas.
5) Which statement best describes the relationship between urbanization and the Industrial Revolution? A) Urbanization
promoted the Industrial Revolution. B) The Industrial Revolution promoted urbanization. C) Urbanization preceded the
Industrial Revolution by thousands of years. D) Urbanization and the Industrial Revolution are no longer related.
6) The process of legally adding land area to a city in the United States is… A) annexation. B) accreditation. C) an
application of eminent domain. D) defined by urbanized area.

68

7) The process of change in the use of a house, from single-family owner occupancy to abandonment, is… A) blockbusting.
B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining.
8) A process by which banks designate an area within which they refuse to lend money for improvements is… A) blockbusting.
B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining.
9) A recent change in the density gradient has been… A) the elimination of the gap traditionally found in the center. B) an
increase in the extremes between the inner and outer areas. C) an increase in the number of people living in the center.
D) a reduction in the differences in densities found within an urban area.
10) U.S. central cities face fiscal problems because… A) federal and state funds are available. B) low-income people are
concentrated there. C) middle-class families are attracted there. D) redlining is no longer legal.
11) A legal form of segregation in U.S. cities is achieved through...A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) zoning. D) greenbelts.
12) Factories have moved to suburban locations in part because of… A) access to main highways. B) adequate space to build
vertical structures. C) availability of large tracts of high-priced land. D) good rail connections.
13) According to the sector model, the best housing is located in…A) a corridor from downtown to the edge of the city.
B) an outer ring surrounding the city. C) nodes near universities and parks. D) renovated inner-city neighborhoods.
14) Ramshackle houses on the periphery of cities in less developed countries are known as… A) squatter settlements. B) council
estates. C) public housing. D) zone in transition.
15) Higher income people tend to live near the center of the city in all but which of the following regions? A) Latin America
B) North America C) South Asia D) Western Europe

16) The wide boulevards built in cities in less developed countries were most likely built during what era? A) pre-colonial
B) colonial C) independence D) all of the above equally

69

17) According to the multiple nuclei model, an airport is likely to attract nearby… A) industries. B) residences. C) shops.
D) universities.
18) The largest percentage of the U.S. population lives in…A) central cities. B) suburbs. C) non-metropolitan areas. D) all of the
above
19) In U.S. cities, the underclass is… A) clustered in inner-city neighborhoods. B) dispersed throughout the city. C) clustered in
suburbs. D) distributed uniformly in the city.

20) A process of converting a neighborhood from low-income to middle-class is…A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) gentrification.
D) redlining.
21) Higher social heterogeneity in urban settlements means that… A) the people with whom you relax are probably the same ones you
see at work. B) you play a specialized role in the urban economy. C) you compete for limited space. D) you may feel lonely and
isolated in a crowd.
22) The city plus its contiguous built-up suburbs is the… A) central city. B) urbanized area.
D) consolidated metropolitan statistical area

C) metropolitan statistical area.

23) The process whereby an increasing percentage of people live in an urban area is known as… A) demographic transition.
B) rank-size rule. C) urbanization. D) central place theory.
24) Of the ten largest urban areas in the world, how many are in More Developed Countries today? A) 1 B) 4 C) 7 D) 10 E) 2
25) Public housing is…A) conversion of low-income housing to middle-class housing. B) illegally established low-income housing.
C) housing that has changed from single-family owner occupancy to abandonment. D) low-income government-owned housing.
26) According to the concentric zone model, a city develops in a series of… A) corridors. B) nodes. C) rings. D) all of the above

70

27) Chicago is a good location in which to develop urban models because it is located… A) at the hub of the nation's transportation
system. B) in the center of the country. C) on a flat prairie. D) on the shore of Lake Michigan.
28) According to the sector model, the best housing is located in… A) a corridor from downtown to the edge of the city. B) an outer
ring surrounding the city. C) nodes near universities and parks. D) renovated inner-city neighborhoods.
29) The zone of transition in US cities generally contain…A) warehouses B) wealthy neighborhoods C) transportation hubs
D) universities and hospitals E) suburban homes
30) The attractions of shopping malls include all but which of the following? A) frequent concerts and exhibitions B) generous
parking lots C) place to meet friends D) walking distance from homes
The following questions are written at the high school level. You will find some questions from part one often rewritten
here. This is all designed to help you transition to the college/AP style of written questions. Any question preceded with ***
are questions that have been on the national exam before.
31. Most Latin American cities are focused on a…A) central plaza B) government housing project C) zone of heavy industry
D) skyscraper office building E) squatter settlement
32. The multiple-nuclei model of a city structure tends to be most applicable to…A) small cities B) traditional C) Latin American
cities D) newer, fast growing cities E) cities with homogeneous land use
33. ***Locational advantages important to the development of the earliest cities include…A) availability of good harbors for large
ships B) productive agricultural land and defensible sites C) temperate climate and proximity to coal mines D) good
connections by road and canal E) proximity to manufacturing areas

34. In cities, the CBD’s often show uniqueness while the suburbs usually show…A) a large hinterland. B) placelessness C) more
than one node. D) newer zones of transition.

71

35. Many LDC’s have tried to help a previously under-developed part of their country develop by moving their capital
city to that area. This new capital is known as a…A) forward capital B) new development zone C) enterprise zone
D) neocolonial city
36. Today the greatest number of urban dwellers is found in…A) North America
D) Europe E) Asia

B) South America C) Africa

37. ***All of the following have helped create ghettos in North American cities except…A)blockbusting and racial
steering B) redlining by financial institutions C) concentration of public housing and social services D) fixed school
districts E) Economic Enterprise Zones

38. Which of the following is NOT as reason for rapid suburbanization in the US after WW2? A) Mass production of
the automobile B) Reduction of long distance commuting C) Expansion of home construction D) Expansion of the
interstate highway system E) Availability of low down payment terms and long-term mortgages.
39. New cities which developed in the hinterland of large urban areas because of the automobile, are known as…
A) edge cities B) census tracts C) suburban sprawl D) squatter settlements. E) none of these
40. Gentrification refers to… A) moving the homeless into inner city shelters B) The “White Flight” from the urban city
C) losing tax revenue because of stores closing in downtown areas D) middle-class people moving into and renovating
inner city neighborhoods E) the creation of “beltway cities” around the city.

72

4
7
3

5

1
6

2

41-48 all use the sketch above.
41. The sketch in box A above represents which model of the inner structure of urban areas?
C) multiple nuclei model D) Burgess concentric zone model E) peripheral model
42. The models in boxes B and C represent A) Concentric zone and multiple nuclei
concentric zone D) peripheral and concentric zone E) Von Thunen and peripheral

A) Hoyt sector model B) VonThunen’s model

B) Multiple nuclei and Hoyt sector C) Hoyt sector and

43. In which ring (1, 2, etc.) of sketch A above would high-status households in North American cities likely live? A) 1 B) 2 C) 3 D) 4&5
44. In which ring (1, 2, etc.) of sketch A above would high status households in a European city likely live? A) 1

B) 2

C) 3

D) 4&5

45. In model B, zone # 2 is where it is likely because of: A) greenbelting B) squatter settling C) the culture of poverty D) transportation
E) no one knows
46. The model in sketch B is the; A) Hoyt sector model B) Burgess model C) multiple nuclei model D) peripheral model
47. The model in sketch C is the; A) Hoyt sector model B) Burgess model C) multiple nuclei model D) peripheral model
48. Which of these models best describes what has happened in US cities in the last 40 years? A)

B)

C)

73

49.*** In the U.S. a city plus its contiguous built-up suburbs is known as an…A) urbanized area B) zoned area
C) census tract D) Squatter settlement E) none of these
50. Done mostly in Europe, these are areas where land is kept as parks, farms or other kinds of open space and urban
sprawl is not allowed. A) Smart growth
B) zoning
C) filtering
D) census tracts E) greenbelts
51. Which statement best describes the relationship between urbanization and the Industrial Revolution?
A) Urbanization promoted the Industrial Revolution. B) The Industrial Revolution promoted urbanization.
C) Urbanization preceded the Industrial Revolution by thousands of years. D) Urbanization and the Industrial
Revolution are no longer related.
52. The process whereby an increasing percentage of people live in an urban area is known as…
A) Demographic transition. B) rank-size rule. C) Urbanization. D) Central place theory.
53. The city (if it has 50,000 or more people) plus its contiguous built-up suburbs AND the county it is in as well as any
other counties it influences, is known as the ...A) central city B) urbanized area
C) metropolitan statistical area
D) consolidated metropolitan area E) micropolitan statistical area
54. ***Higher social heterogeneity in urban settlements means that …A) the people with whom you relax are probably
the same ones you see at work. B) you play a specialized role in the urban economy. C) you compete for limited
space. D) you may feel lonely and isolated in a crowd.

55. The process of change in the use of a house, from single-family owner occupancy to smaller dwellings for the poor
and then sometimes to abandonment, is…A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining. E) none of
these

74

Free Response #1:
The Bid Rent theory says that the closer you get to the
CBD the higher the cost for land, yet in most American
cities you find the poorest people living near the
expensive CBD and the richest living further away.
Explain:
A. Why neighborhoods near the CBD are often poor and
run down?
B. Why are there few grocery and other retail stores in
these neighborhoods?
C. Why is this not really true in European and Latin
American countries?

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75

FR #2:
Think of the map of your school, explain the
layout of your school using the Multiple Nuclei
Model
The main office is the CBD.
Completely explain your answer using specific
buildings and/or land areas in your explanation
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76

Answer Key:
1. B

14. A

27. C

40. D

53. C

2. B

15. B

28. A

41. D

54. D

3. C

16. B

29. A

42. B

55. B

4. A

17. A

30. D

43. D

5. B

18. B

31. A

44. A

6. A

19. A

32. D

45. D

7. B

20. C

33. B

46. A

8. D

21. D

34. B

47. C

9. D

22. B

35. A

48. C

10. B

23. C

36. E

49. A

11. C

24. C

37. E

50. E

12. A

25. D

38. B

51. B

13. A

26. C

39. A

52. C
77

FR. #1: ( 15 pts. for each section…total of 45 pts.)
A. In the US the move of the wealthy and middle class to the suburbs has left the older houses and apartments near the CBD empty.
This has lowered their value to the point where the poor can afford these dwellings and have made these neighborhoods their
homes. The poor can not pay for upkeep of these dwellings, or to pay high taxes. The lack of upkeep and tax money to repair the
roads and schools, adds to the downward spiral of the neighborhood. With little spending money for shopping, the poor do not
spend much in the stores. This causes many stores to close and move to the suburbs where the spending customers and money
went. The closing of the stores adds to the poverty of the area by taking away some of the jobs that were in the neighborhood. This
becomes a vicious cycle of poverty and deterioration. (15 points)

B. There are few retail stores and groceries is the area because the poor do not have money to shop. The lack of spending forces
many stores out of business or forces them to move to better locations. There also can be higher crime in these areas and the
crime often takes place at the stores. This is another reason for the stores to move out of the neighborhood. (15 points)
C. Neighborhoods in European and Latin American cities are different from those of US cities. In Europe and Latin America, the
wealthy and middle class still live near or in the CBD. The higher tax base and more spending ability of the upper and middle
classes, keeps the CBD area flourishing with jobs and in constant repair and upkeep of the cities’ physical condition. (15 points)

FR #2: (10 total points.)
You will need to judge how effectively you displayed you school
in the Multiple Nuclei Model. Refer to the model itself to help you
determine your success and grade.
School’s main office
78

Calculating your grade on test 13.
Add how many you got correct on the multiple choice part (55 possible) to how many
points you scored on the FR portion (55 possible)…110 total.
The following scale will show the approximate score if this test were the real AP exam. Remember that this
is an approximation. While 65-74% is normally the range for a 3 on the test, it is not definite. Over the
years I have seen scores as low as 60% be the low portion of a 3 score.

Out of 110 possible points:
72-83 is most likely a 3
84-94 is most likely a 4

95-110 is most likely a 5

Now lets start our review for the national exam by
reviewing the 33 key models and theories of the
course…the next PowerPoint.


Slide 28

Key topic/chapter 13…Urban Patterns
Key terms:
Annexation
Concentric zone model
Density gradient
Edge cities
Filtering
Galactic city
Gentrification
Greenbelts
Megalopolis
MSA
Multiple nuclei model
Peripheral model

Public housing
Redlining
Renovated housing
Scattered site
Squatter settlement
Sector model
Smart growth
Sprawl
Underclass
Urban renewal
Zone in transition
Zoning
1

Chapter 13…Urban Areas.
How are Cities planned?
Why

are cities where they are?
How are they organized?
Why are some areas of a city
different from
other areas of the same city?
What is the future of cities?
2

Settlement


Settlement - permanent collections of buildings,
where people live, work, and obtain services

3

ORIGINS OF SETTLEMENTS


Religious - graves, churches, temples



Cultural - schools, libraries



Political/Military - leader’s house, walls



Economic - stores, food
4

TYPES OF SETTLEMENTS


Rural Settlements - agriculture as the
predominant occupation.



Urban settlements - principal industries are
secondary and tertiary.

5

RURAL SETTLEMENTS
Clustered rural settlements –grouped
settlements in rural areas to minimize travel

Dispersed rural Settlements - isolated farms
with enclosed continuous fields (Found only in
N. America and Britain).

6

Urban Geographers want to know the global distribution of urban
settlements. MDC’s have a high percentage of people living in urban
areas because of the shift from agriculture-manufacturing-services.
Geographers are also interested in where people and activities are
distributed within urban spaces. What are the differences between the
inner-city and suburban areas and why?
As we saw in the last chapter, many downtowns are unique and can
often be recognized in photos where the suburbs often look very
much alike (Placelessness). Why? Suburbs offer the chance to avoid
some of the city problems (crime, tight living area, expensive
land/rent, noise, age of buildings) while still keeping a connection with
the goods and services of the city: jobs, sports teams, culture, shops,
recreation, etc.
7

Where is this place?

8

Today’s cities are evolving and changing. Although different internal
situations characterize urban areas in the US and elsewhere, the
problems arising from current spatial trends are quite similar in all cities.
Where have urban areas grown: in the early 1800’s only 3% of the earth’s
people lived in cities and only Beijing China had more than 1 million
people. Today over ½ of the world’s people live in cities and we have over
400 cities of at least 1 million people.

Urbanization: is the process by which city population grows.
Cities population growth is measured in 2 dimensions;
1. An increase in the number of people living in the cities.
2. An increase in the percentage of people living in the cities.
This distinction is important because they happen for different reason and
have different global distributions.
9

Increasing Percentage of People in Cities: a large percentage of people living in urban
areas is a measure of a country’s level of development. In MDC’s about ¾ of the people
live in urban areas compared to about 2/5 of people in LDC’s. (Except in Latin America
where the level is closer to MDC’s.)
The higher percentage of people in urban areas comes from the changes that have
occurred in the last 200 years as we went from agriculture (primary jobs) to industrial
(secondary jobs) and now service jobs, all created by the Industrial Revolution of the
1800’s.
People moved to the cities for industrial jobs, but in MDC’s this process has largely
ended because nearly everyone interested in moving to the cities from farms has already
done so.
In LDC’s the percentage of people living in urban areas is growing as people are pushed
off of their farms and replaced by machines and as people move to cities looking/hoping
for industrial jobs.
10

Increasing Number of People in Cities: MDC’s have a higher percentage of
people living in urban settlements but LDC’s have more of the very large urban
settlements (Primate cities). (Rank-size rule, primate cities, chapter 12.)

This is interesting because typically the large cities are created from the
improvements brought by the Industrial Revolution. This is not the case with the
large LDC cities. Migration to the primate city in LDC’s is happening even though
job opportunities may not be available. Increasing the population growth in LDC
cities is the fact that medical services are better in these cities, thus the child
mortality rate is lower.
Defining Urban Settlements: defining where urban areas end and rural areas
begin is not easy. Geographers have formulated definitions that distinguish
between urban and rural areas in two ways: Social differences and Physical
differences.
11

Percent Urban Population

Percent of the population living in urban areas is usually higher in MDCs
than in LDCs.

12

The most populated cities in the world

Of the top
20, only
Moscow,
Tokyo and
New York
are in MDC’s

Shanghai China has 14,608,512 people
13

14

15

Social Differences Between Urban and Rural Settlements: it is fair to say that rural
people and urban people follow different ways of life. A city can be defined as having 3
characteristics:
1. Large size. People in rural settlements know most of the other people in the
settlement. Not true in big cities. Social relationships are often described as “colder” in
urban areas because you only see some people at work instead of growing up with
them in the settlement.
2. High Density. Having lots of people in a tiny area creates social consequences. A
high density of people living in a small area can only be supported if the people
specialize (they can’t all be farmers). People are encouraged to compete for jobs, room,
and survival in a tightly limited space. Social groups compete to occupy the same space
(ethnic/ race problems). Rural settlements have very little of this problem.
3. Social Heterogeneity. The larger the settlement, the greater the variety of people.
Being “unusual” in a large settlement is more likely to be accepted than in a small rural
one. But despite the freedom to be different that large urban settlements give you,
people living there often feel alone because so many people are different from them.
There is a stronger feeling of belonging together in small rural settlements.
16

These 3 differences do not fully answer the question of where urban settlements
begin and rural ones end because in today’s MDC’s most everyone has access to
cars, telephones, televisions, and “urban type” jobs which reduce the differences
between urban and rural lifestyles. “City folk” and “Country folk” are more alike
today than they are different. To help distinguish between urban and rural areas we
need to add the physical definition of rural and urban to the equation.
Physical Definitions of Urban Settlements: In ancient time, cities had defensive
walls for protection which clearly defined the physical boundaries of the city. Today
the walls are gone but we can still define the physical boundaries in 3 ways:
1. Legal boundary. These are the official boundaries of a city as recognized by
the government of the country or state. These “city limits” have been officially given
to the city and are physically marked on official maps. The local government of the
city has authority to make laws and protect the people inside the city boundaries.
17

2. Urbanized area. This is the city plus its suburbs or urbanized area that
surrounds the city. About 70 percent of US residents live in urbanized areas with
40% being in the suburbs and 30% inside the city limits. The suburbs may have
their own city governments but the huge central city dominates what happens in
the entire area.
3. Metropolitan Statistical Area. Cities have an even bigger influence on people
than just those living in their city limits and surrounding urbanized areas. People
from far away come to shop, use the services, support the sports teams, read
the newspapers and watch the television broadcasts of the city. Thus the city
has a “functional area” which is its total zone of influence. The US Bureau of
Census has created a method of measuring the functional area of the city.
Known as the Metropolitan statistical area (MSA) this area includes:
•An urbanized area with a population of at least 50,000
•The county within which the city is located.
•Adjacent counties with a high population density and a large percentage of
residents working in the central city’s county.
18

Metropolitan Area of Philadelphia

City of
Philadelphia

Urbanized
area
(suburbs)
Metropolitan
Statistical
Area

The metropolitan area of Philadelphia is
spread over several counties and four states.
It is also a diversified trade center, given its
position on the Delaware river.

19

20

21

Micropolitan Statistical Areas: Smaller areas with between
10,000 and 50,000 people, the county where it is found, and
adjacent counties tied to the city. This would be a small town and
the area dominated by it.
Overlapping Metropolitan Areas: Some adjacent MSA’s overlap.
A county between two central cities may send a large number of
commuters to jobs in both cities. In some areas the cities are so
close that they form one continuous urban complex. This is
known as a Megalopolis (great city).
In a megalopolis, the downtown CBD often has its own
distinctive look and the urban areas are visually separated by
parks, open spaces, and dairy/truck farms. But at the periphery
of the urban areas, the boundaries overlap.
22

Colorado Springs, population 431,000

Ocala, Florida, population 56,000

Florala, Alabama, population 1,900

23

Megalopolis, from northern Va. To Maine.
This Illustrates the
difference between
strict city proper
definitions and broader
urban agglomerations.
To define urbanized
areas, the U.S. Census
Bureau uses the term
Metropolitan Statistical
Area (MSA) or
Consolidated MSA
(CMSA) if two or more of
them overlap.
24

Where are People Distributed within Urban Areas? People are not
just distributed at random in urban areas. For the most part they
concentrate in particular neighborhoods depending on their social
characteristics. Geographers want to see where people with
particular characteristics are likely to live and why.

Three models which try to explain the growth of a city:

The Burgess Model

The Hoyt Sector Model

The Harris and Ullman
multiple Nuclei Model
25

Burgess Concentric Zone Model

In the concentric zone model, a city grows in a series of rings surrounding the CBD.

Burgess Concentric Zone Model: This is the first used to explain the
distributions of different social groups within urban areas. It says that a
city grows outward from a central place in a series of concentric rings.
The precise size and width of the rings vary from one city to another, but
some basic types of rings appear in all cities in the same order (see chart
above).
26

•Hoyt Sector Model: In this model the city develops in a
series of sectors not rings. Certain areas of the city are
more attractive for various activities, originally because
of an environmental factor (or even pure chance). As the
city grows, activities extend outward in a wedge shape.
For example, once a wealthy neighborhood is built the
next wealthy neighborhood will extend from the first
neighborhood further outward from the center. In this
way, the best housing is found in a corridor extending
outward from the center to the outer edge (see chart on
the next page).
27

The Hoyt Sector Model

In the sector model, a city grows in a series of
wedges or corridors extending out from the
CBD.
28

•Harris and Ullman’s Multiple Nuclei Model: According
to this model, a city is a complex structure that includes
more than one center around which activities revolve.
Examples of these nodes include a port, parks,
stadium, neighborhood business center, university, and
airport (see chart). This theory states that some
activities are attracted to particular nodes, whereas
others try to avoid them. A university node may attract
well educated people and bookstores while the port will
attract hotels and warehouses. Heavy industry and
expensive houses rarely are found together. This
model shows the effect of the automobile more than
any other model.
29

The Harris and Ullman Multiple Nuclei model

The multiple nuclei model views a city as a
collection of individual centers, around which
different people and activities cluster.

30

Applications of the Models: The three models help explain where and in some
cases, why people live where they do. None of the models by themselves fully
explains why and where different types of people live, but combined they give
you as good a look as possible at the “Why” of “Where.” Effective use of the
models depends on getting good data on the areas. Most countries take a
census every 10 years to help determine useful data about the people and
places of the country. In our country we divide the census data into areas
known as census tracts of about 5,000 people. Each census tract has the data
that summarizes the characteristics of the people living within that tract. This
information includes things like the race, income, age, and education of the
people living in that tract.
Social Area Analysis: The data from the census tracts can all be plotted onto
maps to show the characteristics of the people living in that tract. This map is
known as a social area analysis.
31

Using Census tract information…Seattle, Washington
Each lined area is a
census tract of about 5000
people in Seattle
Washington. These maps
show average household
income for 1990 and
2000…note the changes in
income in some areas
between 1990 and 2000.
Using this information, a
business can make
decisions about where
they want to locate a new
store or the future of
existing stores.
You can find census tract
information on many topics
such as; age, education
level, race, ethnicity, crime
rate, and land ownership.
Note the areas with
incomes over
$63,000.

All can be very valuable
information to people
looking to open
businesses.

32

Examine the changes
between 1990 and
2000.

Oakland, California’s Ethnic neighborhoods
The small bordered areas are census tracks of 5000 people.

33

Use of the Models Outside of North America: The 3 models will also work in other
places in the world; however social groups in other countries may not have the
same reasons for selecting particular neighborhoods as Americans do.
European Cities: As in the US, wealthier people in European cities cluster along a
sector extending outward from the CBD, however unlike the US, wealthy and
middle class Europeans still live in the inner rings of the neighborhoods near the
CBD not out in the suburbs. In the past, poorer people lived in the center of the
city. Before electricity, social segregation was vertical: richer people lived on the
first or second floor of a building while the poorer people lived in the basement or
upper floors. In the Industrial Revolution, housing for the poor was constructed
near the factories and away from the rich.
Today poorer Europeans are less likely to live in the inner-city. Poor quality
housing has been renovated for the rich or turned into office buildings. Poorer
Europeans tend to live in the outskirts of the city. Vast suburbs with dozens of high
rise apartments house the poor. They face long commutes to reach their jobs in
the city.
34

European cities generally do not have the “suburban
sprawl” that US cities have. European cities tend to be
more pedestrian friendly with more parks downtown as
Europeans tend to still live downtown.
US cities have taller buildings as European cities tend to
be older and more historic.

American cities have more ethnic neighborhoods than
European cities. Ethnic neighborhoods that do exist in
European cities tend to be in the suburbs. WHY?
Because the established richer neighborhoods tend to be
downtown in European cities.
35

Less Developed Countries: Like Europe, most LDC’s accommodate their poor in the
suburbs with their middle class and rich living near the center of the city. LDC’s have
passed through 3 periods of city building: before the Europeans arrived, during the
period of European colonialism, and since independence from European control.

Pre-colonial Cities: Before the Europeans arrived few cities existed in Africa, Asia, and
Latin America and most people lived in small rural settlements. Those cities that existed
were mostly laid out surrounding a religious center; with the rest of the city laid out in a
hieratical concentric pattern (like the Burgess model) from government buildings,
homes of the wealthy, and businesses related to the religion out to other businesses
and shops.
Colonial cities: When the Europeans took over these lands, they changed the cities by
adding services to help the Europeans control the conquered people. Often a new
European style city would be build next to the existing native one. The new European
cities contained wider streets, a public square, larger houses and a much lower density.
The Spanish used the “Law of the Indies” which was a city plan designed specifically to
build cities in a “Spanish” style. (Gridiron pattern for streets centered on a church and
central plaza, walls around individual houses and neighborhoods centered around
smaller plazas and more churches.)
36

Early Mexico city was laid out in a grid pattern of streets. This followed
the Spanish “Law of the Indies.”

37

Central Plaza in Mexico City 1920 photo. Typical Colonial City plan.

Part of downtown Mexico city today still shows the
building plan of the “Law of the Indies.”

38

Cities since Independence: Following independence, cities have become
the focal point of the development of most LDC’s. Millions of people have
migrated to the cities (Primate cities) looking for jobs and services. Some
capitals have been moved to isolated areas in an attempt to help develop
that area of the country (Brasília) This is know as a forward capital. Latin
American cities have developed their own unique style.
Squatter settlements: The LDC’s are unable to house the rapidly growing
number of poor who are flowing into the cities. Because of the housing
shortages, the poor have constructed their own settlements around the city.
These settlements have few services because neither the city nor the
residents can afford them. Squatters have two basic choices for housing.
1. Illegally move into empty real houses located in the city or,
2. Rent slum housing.
(85% of the population of Addis Ababa in Ethiopia lives in squatter
settlements, slums or other illegal housing.)
39

Squatter shacks in Manila, the Philippines

40

Squatter settlement in Ethiopia

41

Zimbabwe, Africa

42

Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

43

Latin American City Model:
In many Latin
American cities,
the wealthy live in
the inner city and
in a sector
extending along a
commercial spine.
In situ accretion- businesses
and homes constantly under
construction/repair.
Zone of maturity-2nd best
housing in the city.
The poor live in squatter settlements on the
periphery of the city.

Disamenity- unpleasant area
used by the poor to get to the
market.

44

The City Outline of Rio de Janeiro
The rich tourist areas and expensive condo apartments are along the coast
and beach while the poor live in squatter shacks in the hills.

45

City problems:
Inner-City Physical Problems: Most US inner cities were constructed before the 1950’s
(people began to move to the suburbs in the 1950’s so new construction moved out of
the city).
Process of Deterioration (how a city deteriorates): A city doesn’t suddenly become old
and full of slummy areas. It happens over time. When a group of low-income people
inhabit an area of a city, nearby neighborhoods will often look to move out. They sell or
rent to more low-income occupants thus expanding the low-income area. Two processes
cause/speed up the devaluation of areas:
1. Filtering, 2. Redlining.
Filtering: Large houses and buildings that once housed rich downtown workers (who
moved to the suburbs) are taken over by landlords who don’t live in that area (they
moved to the suburbs too). Rents are low so the landlord doesn’t take as good care of
the property as they should and the property becomes run down or abandoned. Stores
close, or move, due to lack of sales. 100 years ago these neighborhoods would be used
by immigrants and ethnic businesses would succeed in those areas. Now, with a decline
in immigration, these neighborhoods have shrunk and so have schools, businesses and
other services. Thousands of vacant houses and buildings stand empty in inner cities
across America.

46

Redlining: Some banks refuse to give loans in what they consider
risky neighborhoods. They draw a red line on a map around areas
where they will not give loans. Without loans, these neighborhoods
have a hard time rebuilding/remodeling. Though illegal, this still
happens. Bankers just don’t put these “no-loan” areas on a map.

Urban Renewal: This is the series of projects to improve European
and N. American cities by buying up the blighted neighborhoods,
moving the people to new government built housing projects, and
building new roads, and other projects to make the inner city
attractive for business again. National and State government grants
help pay for these projects.
47

Public housing: Housing for the poor, built with government funding as part of
urban renewal. In the US this is only about 2% of the housing while in some
countries it may be more (Britain is 30%). Public housing built in the 50’s & 60’s
were largely high rise apartments, but those are seen as being unsatisfactory.
Problems arise from cramming large numbers of poor people into one area.
Today most public housing projects are one to three story buildings with many of
them being scattered around different parts of the city rather than clustered into
one area.
Because urban renewal has been criticized for destroying the social cohesion of
older neighborhoods, many governments (like the US) have stopped funding
most projects since the 1970’s. What do we do instead?
Renovated Housing: An alternative often used since the 70’s is to renovate a
building instead of urban renewal. The process where middle-class people
move into inner-city neighborhoods and renovate them is called gentrification.
Gentrified inner-city neighborhoods also attract middle-class people who work
downtown. Living close to work saves the hassle of commuting and rejuvenates
run down inner-city neighborhoods
48

Gentrified building downtown Harlem, NY. Note the supermarket.

49

Inner-City Social Problems: Inner-city residents are often referred to as the
permanent underclass because they are trapped in an unending cycle of
economic and social problems. High unemployment, alcoholism, drug
addiction, literacy, juvenile delinquency, and crime all exist at a higher rate
among those who live in the inner-city. Lack of jobs means lack of tax dollars
to pay for police and fire protection as well as good schools. Lack of job skills
and homelessness are also tremendous problems.
Culture of Poverty: Inner-city residents are trapped in a permanent underclass
culture that reproduces itself. In the US, unwed mothers give birth to 2/3 of the
babies in the inner-city. 90% of these children live with only one parent and it
is real hard for one parent to keep a job and take care of children. Both suffer
and a shortage of care and daily attention by the parent contributes to the kids
not learning the skills necessary to do well in school which leads to poor jobs
for their futures. Poverty leads to more poverty. Many families on welfare have
only one parent because it is financially better if one parent is gone, that way
the single parent gets food stamps and other services from the government
that they would not get if it was a 2 family household.
50

Crime: Trapped in a hopeless environment, some inner-city
residents turn to drugs. Drug use is a problem in inner-city
areas and the suburbs, but rates of drug use in inner-cities
are the highest.
Ethnic and Racial Segregation: As seen in chapter 7, many
neighborhoods in the US are segregated by ethnicity with
African Americans and Hispanics concentrated in one or two
continuous areas and whites living in the suburbs. Even small
cities display a strong distinction among neighborhoods. A
frequent division is between the east and west or north and
south side of town, or the railroad tracks. A family seeking a
new residence will seek the areas where the characteristics
of the people meet their own.

51

The exodus
from the
American city.
This has
happened in
many American
cities since the
1960’s.

52

Changes in Cities in the U.S.
U.S. population has been moving out of the city centers to the suburbs:
suburbanization and counter urbanization

Developed Countries: suburbanization

 wealthy move to suburbs
 automobiles and roads; ‘American
Dream’ of the home in the suburbs.
 better services
 wealthy move to suburbs
Counter urbanization

idyllic settings
cost of land for retirement
slow pace, yet high tech
connections to services and markets
53

U.S. intraregional migration during 1990s.

Inner city economic problems: the concentration of low income
residents in inner cities has caused economic problems. These
people require public services but can pay very little in taxes to
support the services. They need stores and jobs but have little
money to spend in the store and few skills for jobs (so the stores
close). To try to fight these problems many local and state
governments use tax monies to try to renovate these areas, but this
shifts tax money needed for other areas to the inner city (votes on
election day).
Annexation: Many cities could help their tax problem by adding the
new suburbs to be part of their city (annexation). After all, many of
these suburban people use the city for its’ jobs etc., so why not add
them into the city? Today, most people in the suburbs do not want
to be annexed into the city and so they do not vote to be annexed.
54

The Peripheral Model: According to this model, an urban area
consists of an inner city surrounded by large suburban residential
and business areas (MSA) tied together by a beltway or highway
that circles the city. Around the beltway are nodes of consumer
and business services called edge cities (see diagram of multiple
nuclei model). These edge cities sprang up to provide services
and jobs to the people in the suburbs.
Density Gradient: As you travel outward from the center of the
city, the density of people declines. Inner city has big apartments
of 250 of more people per acre. Suburbs have fewer people per
acre (but lots of acres) and finally you leave the cities periphery
you find few people. The number of houses per unit of land
diminishes as distance from the center of the city increases.
55

The Edge cities (bedroom communities) of Houston

The central city is surrounded by a ring road, around which are
suburban areas and edge cities, shopping malls, office parks,
industrial areas, and service complexes.

Known as
bedroom
communities
because
people live
there but
mostly don’t
work there.
They drive
into the city
for work.
56

As you move from the center of the city outward, the density of the population
changes. This is know as the density gradient. Two big changes have occurred in
the density gradient of today’s cities:
1. The number of people living in the center has decreased.
2. The density difference between the inner city and the suburbs is declining
because the inner city density is dropping and the suburban density is growing
due to more large apartments being built in the suburbs.
Cost of Suburban or Urban Sprawl: Urban Sprawl is the progressive spread of
development over the landscape. As long as we Americans want single-family
detached houses, land on the fringe of urban areas will be converted from open
space to residential use. The cost of this growth is more than the loss of land, it is
also the cost of new roads, utilities, building stores and offices and the cost of
automobiles to move these people over even longer distances. Lots of these new
developments are built on what was once farmland. Wonderful productive soil now
under concrete.

Greenbelts: are areas where, by law, the open space can not be used for any
construction. This is mostly found in Europe.

57

Once farmland that is being converted to suburbs and cities.

58

Tyson’s Corner Virginia in 1940

59

Washington, DC. MSA.

Tyson’s Corner Virginia
today.
Washington D.C. is off
In the distance.

60

Suburban Segregation: The “new” segregation.
Suburban segregation takes two forms:
1. Residents are separated from commercial and manufacturing activities
which are confined someplace else. (The whole neighborhood is
nothing but houses because they drive for services.)
2. The price of the house eliminates some from being able to live there. This
creates a homogeneous suburb of the same economic class of people.
This never existed before in history. Where we once had vertical
segregation of the classes we now we have horizontal segregation.
3. But this may be reversing as new statistics show that people are beginning
to move back to the city. Why? Cost of transportation.
Zoning Ordinances: This idea developed in Europe and later America in the
early decades of the 20th century. This means that businesses are allowed only
in certain areas of the settlement. (No all night taco stands inside your single
family neighborhood.)
Motor vehicles: The wide use of the automobile is largely responsible for the
American movement to the suburbs. Not only did people move out but 1/4 of
the land inside all American cities are now roads, streets, and parking lots.

61

Public Transportation: Because few US workers live within walking distance
of their jobs, urban areas are characterized by extensive commuting and the
problems that come with it. As much as 40% of all trips made into or out from
a city during the day takes place within just 4 hours. (2 in the morning and 2 in
the late afternoon). RUSH HOUR!!! In large cities, public transportation, like
subways and busses, are better suited to move people but Americans still
prefer their own cars. Public transportation is cheaper, cleaner, and more
energy efficient than personal cars, yet in the US only 5% of city travel is
done using public transit systems. American’s love their personal car too
much.
Local Government Fragmentation: Because of the large number of local
governments in the US (look at the settlements in Pinellas County) it is
difficult to solve some of the regional problems like garbage disposal, water
management, traffic and public housing.
62

Metropolitan government: This idea tries to put many local governments into a
larger unit that can better handle the urban problems. The 2 ways to do this
are:
1. Federations in which the individual settlements have their own police,
firemen, and tax collection but they all agree to be part of a second
government which handles transportation, water, sewage, parks and
welfare for all the communities.
2. Consolidations: In this method, several cities and the county may form one
government. Jacksonville’s government runs not only the town but the
county too, this makes Jacksonville the largest city, in land size, in the US.
Smart growth: A new movement by many states to curb suburban sprawl by
limiting where new construction can take place. Smart growth laws require that
land near cities be used up before any land further out can be developed. So
far, this is only being done an a few parts of our country.
63

The new
US as
some
people
see it.

64

Quiz Yourself:
1. The process where middle-class people move into inner city neighborhoods and
renovate them is called ____________
2. ____________ happens when banks refuse to give loans in what they consider
risky neighborhoods.
3. Because of the housing shortages, the poor have constructed their own settlements
around the city known as __________ _________

4. Businesses are allowed only in certain areas of the settlement because of
____________ ____________
5. Areas known as _____ _______ are areas of about 5,000 people. The data from
that area is used to help define needed services for that area.
6. When cities are so close that they form one continuous band of development this is
known as a ____________
65

7. Social relationships are often described as “colder” in urban areas because…
8. In this model the city develops in a series of sectors not rings. _______

9. ______ (LDC’s or MDC’s) have a higher percentage of people living in urban
settlements but ________ (LDC’s or MDC’s) have more of the very large urban
settlements.
10. _____________ was the first model developed to explain the distributions
of different social groups within urban areas.
11. New cities which develop around the beltway are nodes of consumer and
business services known as ________ _________.

12. When the Europeans took over lands around the world, they changed the
cities by adding services to help the Europeans control the conquered people.
These European planned cities are known as __________ cities.
66

Answer Key:
1.

Gentrification

2.

Redlining

3.

Squatter Settlements

4.

Zoning ordinances

5.

Census tracks

6.

Megalopolis

7. There is a stronger feeling of belonging together in small rural settlements.
8. Hoyt sector model
9. MDC, LDC
10. Burgess Concentric Zone model
11. Edge cities
12. Colonial cities
67

Test Key topic/chapter 13:
These questions come from a combination of our slides, your text book, and common knowledge you should
have discussed in your AP classroom. They are very typical of what you will see on the National Exam.
1) The multiple nuclei theory best explains why different neighborhoods of a city attract people of different… A) ages.
B) ethnic origin C) income D) marital status.
2) Sprawl is the… A) change in density within an urban area from the center to the periphery B) development of new
housing sites not contiguous to the existing built-up area. C) land maintained as open space surrounding an urban area.
D) period in the morning and evening with the heaviest volumes of traffic.
3) People are attracted to suburbs in part because suburbs are characterized by…A) heavy traffic. B) lower opportunity
for home ownership. C) private land surrounding the house. D) row houses and apartments.
4) Megalopolis refers to… A) adjacent, overlapping Metropolitan Statistical Areas. B) central cities. C) consolidated
Metropolitan Statistical Areas. D) central cities plus urbanized areas.
5) Which statement best describes the relationship between urbanization and the Industrial Revolution? A) Urbanization
promoted the Industrial Revolution. B) The Industrial Revolution promoted urbanization. C) Urbanization preceded the
Industrial Revolution by thousands of years. D) Urbanization and the Industrial Revolution are no longer related.
6) The process of legally adding land area to a city in the United States is… A) annexation. B) accreditation. C) an
application of eminent domain. D) defined by urbanized area.

68

7) The process of change in the use of a house, from single-family owner occupancy to abandonment, is… A) blockbusting.
B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining.
8) A process by which banks designate an area within which they refuse to lend money for improvements is… A) blockbusting.
B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining.
9) A recent change in the density gradient has been… A) the elimination of the gap traditionally found in the center. B) an
increase in the extremes between the inner and outer areas. C) an increase in the number of people living in the center.
D) a reduction in the differences in densities found within an urban area.
10) U.S. central cities face fiscal problems because… A) federal and state funds are available. B) low-income people are
concentrated there. C) middle-class families are attracted there. D) redlining is no longer legal.
11) A legal form of segregation in U.S. cities is achieved through...A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) zoning. D) greenbelts.
12) Factories have moved to suburban locations in part because of… A) access to main highways. B) adequate space to build
vertical structures. C) availability of large tracts of high-priced land. D) good rail connections.
13) According to the sector model, the best housing is located in…A) a corridor from downtown to the edge of the city.
B) an outer ring surrounding the city. C) nodes near universities and parks. D) renovated inner-city neighborhoods.
14) Ramshackle houses on the periphery of cities in less developed countries are known as… A) squatter settlements. B) council
estates. C) public housing. D) zone in transition.
15) Higher income people tend to live near the center of the city in all but which of the following regions? A) Latin America
B) North America C) South Asia D) Western Europe

16) The wide boulevards built in cities in less developed countries were most likely built during what era? A) pre-colonial
B) colonial C) independence D) all of the above equally

69

17) According to the multiple nuclei model, an airport is likely to attract nearby… A) industries. B) residences. C) shops.
D) universities.
18) The largest percentage of the U.S. population lives in…A) central cities. B) suburbs. C) non-metropolitan areas. D) all of the
above
19) In U.S. cities, the underclass is… A) clustered in inner-city neighborhoods. B) dispersed throughout the city. C) clustered in
suburbs. D) distributed uniformly in the city.

20) A process of converting a neighborhood from low-income to middle-class is…A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) gentrification.
D) redlining.
21) Higher social heterogeneity in urban settlements means that… A) the people with whom you relax are probably the same ones you
see at work. B) you play a specialized role in the urban economy. C) you compete for limited space. D) you may feel lonely and
isolated in a crowd.
22) The city plus its contiguous built-up suburbs is the… A) central city. B) urbanized area.
D) consolidated metropolitan statistical area

C) metropolitan statistical area.

23) The process whereby an increasing percentage of people live in an urban area is known as… A) demographic transition.
B) rank-size rule. C) urbanization. D) central place theory.
24) Of the ten largest urban areas in the world, how many are in More Developed Countries today? A) 1 B) 4 C) 7 D) 10 E) 2
25) Public housing is…A) conversion of low-income housing to middle-class housing. B) illegally established low-income housing.
C) housing that has changed from single-family owner occupancy to abandonment. D) low-income government-owned housing.
26) According to the concentric zone model, a city develops in a series of… A) corridors. B) nodes. C) rings. D) all of the above

70

27) Chicago is a good location in which to develop urban models because it is located… A) at the hub of the nation's transportation
system. B) in the center of the country. C) on a flat prairie. D) on the shore of Lake Michigan.
28) According to the sector model, the best housing is located in… A) a corridor from downtown to the edge of the city. B) an outer
ring surrounding the city. C) nodes near universities and parks. D) renovated inner-city neighborhoods.
29) The zone of transition in US cities generally contain…A) warehouses B) wealthy neighborhoods C) transportation hubs
D) universities and hospitals E) suburban homes
30) The attractions of shopping malls include all but which of the following? A) frequent concerts and exhibitions B) generous
parking lots C) place to meet friends D) walking distance from homes
The following questions are written at the high school level. You will find some questions from part one often rewritten
here. This is all designed to help you transition to the college/AP style of written questions. Any question preceded with ***
are questions that have been on the national exam before.
31. Most Latin American cities are focused on a…A) central plaza B) government housing project C) zone of heavy industry
D) skyscraper office building E) squatter settlement
32. The multiple-nuclei model of a city structure tends to be most applicable to…A) small cities B) traditional C) Latin American
cities D) newer, fast growing cities E) cities with homogeneous land use
33. ***Locational advantages important to the development of the earliest cities include…A) availability of good harbors for large
ships B) productive agricultural land and defensible sites C) temperate climate and proximity to coal mines D) good
connections by road and canal E) proximity to manufacturing areas

34. In cities, the CBD’s often show uniqueness while the suburbs usually show…A) a large hinterland. B) placelessness C) more
than one node. D) newer zones of transition.

71

35. Many LDC’s have tried to help a previously under-developed part of their country develop by moving their capital
city to that area. This new capital is known as a…A) forward capital B) new development zone C) enterprise zone
D) neocolonial city
36. Today the greatest number of urban dwellers is found in…A) North America
D) Europe E) Asia

B) South America C) Africa

37. ***All of the following have helped create ghettos in North American cities except…A)blockbusting and racial
steering B) redlining by financial institutions C) concentration of public housing and social services D) fixed school
districts E) Economic Enterprise Zones

38. Which of the following is NOT as reason for rapid suburbanization in the US after WW2? A) Mass production of
the automobile B) Reduction of long distance commuting C) Expansion of home construction D) Expansion of the
interstate highway system E) Availability of low down payment terms and long-term mortgages.
39. New cities which developed in the hinterland of large urban areas because of the automobile, are known as…
A) edge cities B) census tracts C) suburban sprawl D) squatter settlements. E) none of these
40. Gentrification refers to… A) moving the homeless into inner city shelters B) The “White Flight” from the urban city
C) losing tax revenue because of stores closing in downtown areas D) middle-class people moving into and renovating
inner city neighborhoods E) the creation of “beltway cities” around the city.

72

4
7
3

5

1
6

2

41-48 all use the sketch above.
41. The sketch in box A above represents which model of the inner structure of urban areas?
C) multiple nuclei model D) Burgess concentric zone model E) peripheral model
42. The models in boxes B and C represent A) Concentric zone and multiple nuclei
concentric zone D) peripheral and concentric zone E) Von Thunen and peripheral

A) Hoyt sector model B) VonThunen’s model

B) Multiple nuclei and Hoyt sector C) Hoyt sector and

43. In which ring (1, 2, etc.) of sketch A above would high-status households in North American cities likely live? A) 1 B) 2 C) 3 D) 4&5
44. In which ring (1, 2, etc.) of sketch A above would high status households in a European city likely live? A) 1

B) 2

C) 3

D) 4&5

45. In model B, zone # 2 is where it is likely because of: A) greenbelting B) squatter settling C) the culture of poverty D) transportation
E) no one knows
46. The model in sketch B is the; A) Hoyt sector model B) Burgess model C) multiple nuclei model D) peripheral model
47. The model in sketch C is the; A) Hoyt sector model B) Burgess model C) multiple nuclei model D) peripheral model
48. Which of these models best describes what has happened in US cities in the last 40 years? A)

B)

C)

73

49.*** In the U.S. a city plus its contiguous built-up suburbs is known as an…A) urbanized area B) zoned area
C) census tract D) Squatter settlement E) none of these
50. Done mostly in Europe, these are areas where land is kept as parks, farms or other kinds of open space and urban
sprawl is not allowed. A) Smart growth
B) zoning
C) filtering
D) census tracts E) greenbelts
51. Which statement best describes the relationship between urbanization and the Industrial Revolution?
A) Urbanization promoted the Industrial Revolution. B) The Industrial Revolution promoted urbanization.
C) Urbanization preceded the Industrial Revolution by thousands of years. D) Urbanization and the Industrial
Revolution are no longer related.
52. The process whereby an increasing percentage of people live in an urban area is known as…
A) Demographic transition. B) rank-size rule. C) Urbanization. D) Central place theory.
53. The city (if it has 50,000 or more people) plus its contiguous built-up suburbs AND the county it is in as well as any
other counties it influences, is known as the ...A) central city B) urbanized area
C) metropolitan statistical area
D) consolidated metropolitan area E) micropolitan statistical area
54. ***Higher social heterogeneity in urban settlements means that …A) the people with whom you relax are probably
the same ones you see at work. B) you play a specialized role in the urban economy. C) you compete for limited
space. D) you may feel lonely and isolated in a crowd.

55. The process of change in the use of a house, from single-family owner occupancy to smaller dwellings for the poor
and then sometimes to abandonment, is…A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining. E) none of
these

74

Free Response #1:
The Bid Rent theory says that the closer you get to the
CBD the higher the cost for land, yet in most American
cities you find the poorest people living near the
expensive CBD and the richest living further away.
Explain:
A. Why neighborhoods near the CBD are often poor and
run down?
B. Why are there few grocery and other retail stores in
these neighborhoods?
C. Why is this not really true in European and Latin
American countries?

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75

FR #2:
Think of the map of your school, explain the
layout of your school using the Multiple Nuclei
Model
The main office is the CBD.
Completely explain your answer using specific
buildings and/or land areas in your explanation
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76

Answer Key:
1. B

14. A

27. C

40. D

53. C

2. B

15. B

28. A

41. D

54. D

3. C

16. B

29. A

42. B

55. B

4. A

17. A

30. D

43. D

5. B

18. B

31. A

44. A

6. A

19. A

32. D

45. D

7. B

20. C

33. B

46. A

8. D

21. D

34. B

47. C

9. D

22. B

35. A

48. C

10. B

23. C

36. E

49. A

11. C

24. C

37. E

50. E

12. A

25. D

38. B

51. B

13. A

26. C

39. A

52. C
77

FR. #1: ( 15 pts. for each section…total of 45 pts.)
A. In the US the move of the wealthy and middle class to the suburbs has left the older houses and apartments near the CBD empty.
This has lowered their value to the point where the poor can afford these dwellings and have made these neighborhoods their
homes. The poor can not pay for upkeep of these dwellings, or to pay high taxes. The lack of upkeep and tax money to repair the
roads and schools, adds to the downward spiral of the neighborhood. With little spending money for shopping, the poor do not
spend much in the stores. This causes many stores to close and move to the suburbs where the spending customers and money
went. The closing of the stores adds to the poverty of the area by taking away some of the jobs that were in the neighborhood. This
becomes a vicious cycle of poverty and deterioration. (15 points)

B. There are few retail stores and groceries is the area because the poor do not have money to shop. The lack of spending forces
many stores out of business or forces them to move to better locations. There also can be higher crime in these areas and the
crime often takes place at the stores. This is another reason for the stores to move out of the neighborhood. (15 points)
C. Neighborhoods in European and Latin American cities are different from those of US cities. In Europe and Latin America, the
wealthy and middle class still live near or in the CBD. The higher tax base and more spending ability of the upper and middle
classes, keeps the CBD area flourishing with jobs and in constant repair and upkeep of the cities’ physical condition. (15 points)

FR #2: (10 total points.)
You will need to judge how effectively you displayed you school
in the Multiple Nuclei Model. Refer to the model itself to help you
determine your success and grade.
School’s main office
78

Calculating your grade on test 13.
Add how many you got correct on the multiple choice part (55 possible) to how many
points you scored on the FR portion (55 possible)…110 total.
The following scale will show the approximate score if this test were the real AP exam. Remember that this
is an approximation. While 65-74% is normally the range for a 3 on the test, it is not definite. Over the
years I have seen scores as low as 60% be the low portion of a 3 score.

Out of 110 possible points:
72-83 is most likely a 3
84-94 is most likely a 4

95-110 is most likely a 5

Now lets start our review for the national exam by
reviewing the 33 key models and theories of the
course…the next PowerPoint.


Slide 29

Key topic/chapter 13…Urban Patterns
Key terms:
Annexation
Concentric zone model
Density gradient
Edge cities
Filtering
Galactic city
Gentrification
Greenbelts
Megalopolis
MSA
Multiple nuclei model
Peripheral model

Public housing
Redlining
Renovated housing
Scattered site
Squatter settlement
Sector model
Smart growth
Sprawl
Underclass
Urban renewal
Zone in transition
Zoning
1

Chapter 13…Urban Areas.
How are Cities planned?
Why

are cities where they are?
How are they organized?
Why are some areas of a city
different from
other areas of the same city?
What is the future of cities?
2

Settlement


Settlement - permanent collections of buildings,
where people live, work, and obtain services

3

ORIGINS OF SETTLEMENTS


Religious - graves, churches, temples



Cultural - schools, libraries



Political/Military - leader’s house, walls



Economic - stores, food
4

TYPES OF SETTLEMENTS


Rural Settlements - agriculture as the
predominant occupation.



Urban settlements - principal industries are
secondary and tertiary.

5

RURAL SETTLEMENTS
Clustered rural settlements –grouped
settlements in rural areas to minimize travel

Dispersed rural Settlements - isolated farms
with enclosed continuous fields (Found only in
N. America and Britain).

6

Urban Geographers want to know the global distribution of urban
settlements. MDC’s have a high percentage of people living in urban
areas because of the shift from agriculture-manufacturing-services.
Geographers are also interested in where people and activities are
distributed within urban spaces. What are the differences between the
inner-city and suburban areas and why?
As we saw in the last chapter, many downtowns are unique and can
often be recognized in photos where the suburbs often look very
much alike (Placelessness). Why? Suburbs offer the chance to avoid
some of the city problems (crime, tight living area, expensive
land/rent, noise, age of buildings) while still keeping a connection with
the goods and services of the city: jobs, sports teams, culture, shops,
recreation, etc.
7

Where is this place?

8

Today’s cities are evolving and changing. Although different internal
situations characterize urban areas in the US and elsewhere, the
problems arising from current spatial trends are quite similar in all cities.
Where have urban areas grown: in the early 1800’s only 3% of the earth’s
people lived in cities and only Beijing China had more than 1 million
people. Today over ½ of the world’s people live in cities and we have over
400 cities of at least 1 million people.

Urbanization: is the process by which city population grows.
Cities population growth is measured in 2 dimensions;
1. An increase in the number of people living in the cities.
2. An increase in the percentage of people living in the cities.
This distinction is important because they happen for different reason and
have different global distributions.
9

Increasing Percentage of People in Cities: a large percentage of people living in urban
areas is a measure of a country’s level of development. In MDC’s about ¾ of the people
live in urban areas compared to about 2/5 of people in LDC’s. (Except in Latin America
where the level is closer to MDC’s.)
The higher percentage of people in urban areas comes from the changes that have
occurred in the last 200 years as we went from agriculture (primary jobs) to industrial
(secondary jobs) and now service jobs, all created by the Industrial Revolution of the
1800’s.
People moved to the cities for industrial jobs, but in MDC’s this process has largely
ended because nearly everyone interested in moving to the cities from farms has already
done so.
In LDC’s the percentage of people living in urban areas is growing as people are pushed
off of their farms and replaced by machines and as people move to cities looking/hoping
for industrial jobs.
10

Increasing Number of People in Cities: MDC’s have a higher percentage of
people living in urban settlements but LDC’s have more of the very large urban
settlements (Primate cities). (Rank-size rule, primate cities, chapter 12.)

This is interesting because typically the large cities are created from the
improvements brought by the Industrial Revolution. This is not the case with the
large LDC cities. Migration to the primate city in LDC’s is happening even though
job opportunities may not be available. Increasing the population growth in LDC
cities is the fact that medical services are better in these cities, thus the child
mortality rate is lower.
Defining Urban Settlements: defining where urban areas end and rural areas
begin is not easy. Geographers have formulated definitions that distinguish
between urban and rural areas in two ways: Social differences and Physical
differences.
11

Percent Urban Population

Percent of the population living in urban areas is usually higher in MDCs
than in LDCs.

12

The most populated cities in the world

Of the top
20, only
Moscow,
Tokyo and
New York
are in MDC’s

Shanghai China has 14,608,512 people
13

14

15

Social Differences Between Urban and Rural Settlements: it is fair to say that rural
people and urban people follow different ways of life. A city can be defined as having 3
characteristics:
1. Large size. People in rural settlements know most of the other people in the
settlement. Not true in big cities. Social relationships are often described as “colder” in
urban areas because you only see some people at work instead of growing up with
them in the settlement.
2. High Density. Having lots of people in a tiny area creates social consequences. A
high density of people living in a small area can only be supported if the people
specialize (they can’t all be farmers). People are encouraged to compete for jobs, room,
and survival in a tightly limited space. Social groups compete to occupy the same space
(ethnic/ race problems). Rural settlements have very little of this problem.
3. Social Heterogeneity. The larger the settlement, the greater the variety of people.
Being “unusual” in a large settlement is more likely to be accepted than in a small rural
one. But despite the freedom to be different that large urban settlements give you,
people living there often feel alone because so many people are different from them.
There is a stronger feeling of belonging together in small rural settlements.
16

These 3 differences do not fully answer the question of where urban settlements
begin and rural ones end because in today’s MDC’s most everyone has access to
cars, telephones, televisions, and “urban type” jobs which reduce the differences
between urban and rural lifestyles. “City folk” and “Country folk” are more alike
today than they are different. To help distinguish between urban and rural areas we
need to add the physical definition of rural and urban to the equation.
Physical Definitions of Urban Settlements: In ancient time, cities had defensive
walls for protection which clearly defined the physical boundaries of the city. Today
the walls are gone but we can still define the physical boundaries in 3 ways:
1. Legal boundary. These are the official boundaries of a city as recognized by
the government of the country or state. These “city limits” have been officially given
to the city and are physically marked on official maps. The local government of the
city has authority to make laws and protect the people inside the city boundaries.
17

2. Urbanized area. This is the city plus its suburbs or urbanized area that
surrounds the city. About 70 percent of US residents live in urbanized areas with
40% being in the suburbs and 30% inside the city limits. The suburbs may have
their own city governments but the huge central city dominates what happens in
the entire area.
3. Metropolitan Statistical Area. Cities have an even bigger influence on people
than just those living in their city limits and surrounding urbanized areas. People
from far away come to shop, use the services, support the sports teams, read
the newspapers and watch the television broadcasts of the city. Thus the city
has a “functional area” which is its total zone of influence. The US Bureau of
Census has created a method of measuring the functional area of the city.
Known as the Metropolitan statistical area (MSA) this area includes:
•An urbanized area with a population of at least 50,000
•The county within which the city is located.
•Adjacent counties with a high population density and a large percentage of
residents working in the central city’s county.
18

Metropolitan Area of Philadelphia

City of
Philadelphia

Urbanized
area
(suburbs)
Metropolitan
Statistical
Area

The metropolitan area of Philadelphia is
spread over several counties and four states.
It is also a diversified trade center, given its
position on the Delaware river.

19

20

21

Micropolitan Statistical Areas: Smaller areas with between
10,000 and 50,000 people, the county where it is found, and
adjacent counties tied to the city. This would be a small town and
the area dominated by it.
Overlapping Metropolitan Areas: Some adjacent MSA’s overlap.
A county between two central cities may send a large number of
commuters to jobs in both cities. In some areas the cities are so
close that they form one continuous urban complex. This is
known as a Megalopolis (great city).
In a megalopolis, the downtown CBD often has its own
distinctive look and the urban areas are visually separated by
parks, open spaces, and dairy/truck farms. But at the periphery
of the urban areas, the boundaries overlap.
22

Colorado Springs, population 431,000

Ocala, Florida, population 56,000

Florala, Alabama, population 1,900

23

Megalopolis, from northern Va. To Maine.
This Illustrates the
difference between
strict city proper
definitions and broader
urban agglomerations.
To define urbanized
areas, the U.S. Census
Bureau uses the term
Metropolitan Statistical
Area (MSA) or
Consolidated MSA
(CMSA) if two or more of
them overlap.
24

Where are People Distributed within Urban Areas? People are not
just distributed at random in urban areas. For the most part they
concentrate in particular neighborhoods depending on their social
characteristics. Geographers want to see where people with
particular characteristics are likely to live and why.

Three models which try to explain the growth of a city:

The Burgess Model

The Hoyt Sector Model

The Harris and Ullman
multiple Nuclei Model
25

Burgess Concentric Zone Model

In the concentric zone model, a city grows in a series of rings surrounding the CBD.

Burgess Concentric Zone Model: This is the first used to explain the
distributions of different social groups within urban areas. It says that a
city grows outward from a central place in a series of concentric rings.
The precise size and width of the rings vary from one city to another, but
some basic types of rings appear in all cities in the same order (see chart
above).
26

•Hoyt Sector Model: In this model the city develops in a
series of sectors not rings. Certain areas of the city are
more attractive for various activities, originally because
of an environmental factor (or even pure chance). As the
city grows, activities extend outward in a wedge shape.
For example, once a wealthy neighborhood is built the
next wealthy neighborhood will extend from the first
neighborhood further outward from the center. In this
way, the best housing is found in a corridor extending
outward from the center to the outer edge (see chart on
the next page).
27

The Hoyt Sector Model

In the sector model, a city grows in a series of
wedges or corridors extending out from the
CBD.
28

•Harris and Ullman’s Multiple Nuclei Model: According
to this model, a city is a complex structure that includes
more than one center around which activities revolve.
Examples of these nodes include a port, parks,
stadium, neighborhood business center, university, and
airport (see chart). This theory states that some
activities are attracted to particular nodes, whereas
others try to avoid them. A university node may attract
well educated people and bookstores while the port will
attract hotels and warehouses. Heavy industry and
expensive houses rarely are found together. This
model shows the effect of the automobile more than
any other model.
29

The Harris and Ullman Multiple Nuclei model

The multiple nuclei model views a city as a
collection of individual centers, around which
different people and activities cluster.

30

Applications of the Models: The three models help explain where and in some
cases, why people live where they do. None of the models by themselves fully
explains why and where different types of people live, but combined they give
you as good a look as possible at the “Why” of “Where.” Effective use of the
models depends on getting good data on the areas. Most countries take a
census every 10 years to help determine useful data about the people and
places of the country. In our country we divide the census data into areas
known as census tracts of about 5,000 people. Each census tract has the data
that summarizes the characteristics of the people living within that tract. This
information includes things like the race, income, age, and education of the
people living in that tract.
Social Area Analysis: The data from the census tracts can all be plotted onto
maps to show the characteristics of the people living in that tract. This map is
known as a social area analysis.
31

Using Census tract information…Seattle, Washington
Each lined area is a
census tract of about 5000
people in Seattle
Washington. These maps
show average household
income for 1990 and
2000…note the changes in
income in some areas
between 1990 and 2000.
Using this information, a
business can make
decisions about where
they want to locate a new
store or the future of
existing stores.
You can find census tract
information on many topics
such as; age, education
level, race, ethnicity, crime
rate, and land ownership.
Note the areas with
incomes over
$63,000.

All can be very valuable
information to people
looking to open
businesses.

32

Examine the changes
between 1990 and
2000.

Oakland, California’s Ethnic neighborhoods
The small bordered areas are census tracks of 5000 people.

33

Use of the Models Outside of North America: The 3 models will also work in other
places in the world; however social groups in other countries may not have the
same reasons for selecting particular neighborhoods as Americans do.
European Cities: As in the US, wealthier people in European cities cluster along a
sector extending outward from the CBD, however unlike the US, wealthy and
middle class Europeans still live in the inner rings of the neighborhoods near the
CBD not out in the suburbs. In the past, poorer people lived in the center of the
city. Before electricity, social segregation was vertical: richer people lived on the
first or second floor of a building while the poorer people lived in the basement or
upper floors. In the Industrial Revolution, housing for the poor was constructed
near the factories and away from the rich.
Today poorer Europeans are less likely to live in the inner-city. Poor quality
housing has been renovated for the rich or turned into office buildings. Poorer
Europeans tend to live in the outskirts of the city. Vast suburbs with dozens of high
rise apartments house the poor. They face long commutes to reach their jobs in
the city.
34

European cities generally do not have the “suburban
sprawl” that US cities have. European cities tend to be
more pedestrian friendly with more parks downtown as
Europeans tend to still live downtown.
US cities have taller buildings as European cities tend to
be older and more historic.

American cities have more ethnic neighborhoods than
European cities. Ethnic neighborhoods that do exist in
European cities tend to be in the suburbs. WHY?
Because the established richer neighborhoods tend to be
downtown in European cities.
35

Less Developed Countries: Like Europe, most LDC’s accommodate their poor in the
suburbs with their middle class and rich living near the center of the city. LDC’s have
passed through 3 periods of city building: before the Europeans arrived, during the
period of European colonialism, and since independence from European control.

Pre-colonial Cities: Before the Europeans arrived few cities existed in Africa, Asia, and
Latin America and most people lived in small rural settlements. Those cities that existed
were mostly laid out surrounding a religious center; with the rest of the city laid out in a
hieratical concentric pattern (like the Burgess model) from government buildings,
homes of the wealthy, and businesses related to the religion out to other businesses
and shops.
Colonial cities: When the Europeans took over these lands, they changed the cities by
adding services to help the Europeans control the conquered people. Often a new
European style city would be build next to the existing native one. The new European
cities contained wider streets, a public square, larger houses and a much lower density.
The Spanish used the “Law of the Indies” which was a city plan designed specifically to
build cities in a “Spanish” style. (Gridiron pattern for streets centered on a church and
central plaza, walls around individual houses and neighborhoods centered around
smaller plazas and more churches.)
36

Early Mexico city was laid out in a grid pattern of streets. This followed
the Spanish “Law of the Indies.”

37

Central Plaza in Mexico City 1920 photo. Typical Colonial City plan.

Part of downtown Mexico city today still shows the
building plan of the “Law of the Indies.”

38

Cities since Independence: Following independence, cities have become
the focal point of the development of most LDC’s. Millions of people have
migrated to the cities (Primate cities) looking for jobs and services. Some
capitals have been moved to isolated areas in an attempt to help develop
that area of the country (Brasília) This is know as a forward capital. Latin
American cities have developed their own unique style.
Squatter settlements: The LDC’s are unable to house the rapidly growing
number of poor who are flowing into the cities. Because of the housing
shortages, the poor have constructed their own settlements around the city.
These settlements have few services because neither the city nor the
residents can afford them. Squatters have two basic choices for housing.
1. Illegally move into empty real houses located in the city or,
2. Rent slum housing.
(85% of the population of Addis Ababa in Ethiopia lives in squatter
settlements, slums or other illegal housing.)
39

Squatter shacks in Manila, the Philippines

40

Squatter settlement in Ethiopia

41

Zimbabwe, Africa

42

Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

43

Latin American City Model:
In many Latin
American cities,
the wealthy live in
the inner city and
in a sector
extending along a
commercial spine.
In situ accretion- businesses
and homes constantly under
construction/repair.
Zone of maturity-2nd best
housing in the city.
The poor live in squatter settlements on the
periphery of the city.

Disamenity- unpleasant area
used by the poor to get to the
market.

44

The City Outline of Rio de Janeiro
The rich tourist areas and expensive condo apartments are along the coast
and beach while the poor live in squatter shacks in the hills.

45

City problems:
Inner-City Physical Problems: Most US inner cities were constructed before the 1950’s
(people began to move to the suburbs in the 1950’s so new construction moved out of
the city).
Process of Deterioration (how a city deteriorates): A city doesn’t suddenly become old
and full of slummy areas. It happens over time. When a group of low-income people
inhabit an area of a city, nearby neighborhoods will often look to move out. They sell or
rent to more low-income occupants thus expanding the low-income area. Two processes
cause/speed up the devaluation of areas:
1. Filtering, 2. Redlining.
Filtering: Large houses and buildings that once housed rich downtown workers (who
moved to the suburbs) are taken over by landlords who don’t live in that area (they
moved to the suburbs too). Rents are low so the landlord doesn’t take as good care of
the property as they should and the property becomes run down or abandoned. Stores
close, or move, due to lack of sales. 100 years ago these neighborhoods would be used
by immigrants and ethnic businesses would succeed in those areas. Now, with a decline
in immigration, these neighborhoods have shrunk and so have schools, businesses and
other services. Thousands of vacant houses and buildings stand empty in inner cities
across America.

46

Redlining: Some banks refuse to give loans in what they consider
risky neighborhoods. They draw a red line on a map around areas
where they will not give loans. Without loans, these neighborhoods
have a hard time rebuilding/remodeling. Though illegal, this still
happens. Bankers just don’t put these “no-loan” areas on a map.

Urban Renewal: This is the series of projects to improve European
and N. American cities by buying up the blighted neighborhoods,
moving the people to new government built housing projects, and
building new roads, and other projects to make the inner city
attractive for business again. National and State government grants
help pay for these projects.
47

Public housing: Housing for the poor, built with government funding as part of
urban renewal. In the US this is only about 2% of the housing while in some
countries it may be more (Britain is 30%). Public housing built in the 50’s & 60’s
were largely high rise apartments, but those are seen as being unsatisfactory.
Problems arise from cramming large numbers of poor people into one area.
Today most public housing projects are one to three story buildings with many of
them being scattered around different parts of the city rather than clustered into
one area.
Because urban renewal has been criticized for destroying the social cohesion of
older neighborhoods, many governments (like the US) have stopped funding
most projects since the 1970’s. What do we do instead?
Renovated Housing: An alternative often used since the 70’s is to renovate a
building instead of urban renewal. The process where middle-class people
move into inner-city neighborhoods and renovate them is called gentrification.
Gentrified inner-city neighborhoods also attract middle-class people who work
downtown. Living close to work saves the hassle of commuting and rejuvenates
run down inner-city neighborhoods
48

Gentrified building downtown Harlem, NY. Note the supermarket.

49

Inner-City Social Problems: Inner-city residents are often referred to as the
permanent underclass because they are trapped in an unending cycle of
economic and social problems. High unemployment, alcoholism, drug
addiction, literacy, juvenile delinquency, and crime all exist at a higher rate
among those who live in the inner-city. Lack of jobs means lack of tax dollars
to pay for police and fire protection as well as good schools. Lack of job skills
and homelessness are also tremendous problems.
Culture of Poverty: Inner-city residents are trapped in a permanent underclass
culture that reproduces itself. In the US, unwed mothers give birth to 2/3 of the
babies in the inner-city. 90% of these children live with only one parent and it
is real hard for one parent to keep a job and take care of children. Both suffer
and a shortage of care and daily attention by the parent contributes to the kids
not learning the skills necessary to do well in school which leads to poor jobs
for their futures. Poverty leads to more poverty. Many families on welfare have
only one parent because it is financially better if one parent is gone, that way
the single parent gets food stamps and other services from the government
that they would not get if it was a 2 family household.
50

Crime: Trapped in a hopeless environment, some inner-city
residents turn to drugs. Drug use is a problem in inner-city
areas and the suburbs, but rates of drug use in inner-cities
are the highest.
Ethnic and Racial Segregation: As seen in chapter 7, many
neighborhoods in the US are segregated by ethnicity with
African Americans and Hispanics concentrated in one or two
continuous areas and whites living in the suburbs. Even small
cities display a strong distinction among neighborhoods. A
frequent division is between the east and west or north and
south side of town, or the railroad tracks. A family seeking a
new residence will seek the areas where the characteristics
of the people meet their own.

51

The exodus
from the
American city.
This has
happened in
many American
cities since the
1960’s.

52

Changes in Cities in the U.S.
U.S. population has been moving out of the city centers to the suburbs:
suburbanization and counter urbanization

Developed Countries: suburbanization

 wealthy move to suburbs
 automobiles and roads; ‘American
Dream’ of the home in the suburbs.
 better services
 wealthy move to suburbs
Counter urbanization

idyllic settings
cost of land for retirement
slow pace, yet high tech
connections to services and markets
53

U.S. intraregional migration during 1990s.

Inner city economic problems: the concentration of low income
residents in inner cities has caused economic problems. These
people require public services but can pay very little in taxes to
support the services. They need stores and jobs but have little
money to spend in the store and few skills for jobs (so the stores
close). To try to fight these problems many local and state
governments use tax monies to try to renovate these areas, but this
shifts tax money needed for other areas to the inner city (votes on
election day).
Annexation: Many cities could help their tax problem by adding the
new suburbs to be part of their city (annexation). After all, many of
these suburban people use the city for its’ jobs etc., so why not add
them into the city? Today, most people in the suburbs do not want
to be annexed into the city and so they do not vote to be annexed.
54

The Peripheral Model: According to this model, an urban area
consists of an inner city surrounded by large suburban residential
and business areas (MSA) tied together by a beltway or highway
that circles the city. Around the beltway are nodes of consumer
and business services called edge cities (see diagram of multiple
nuclei model). These edge cities sprang up to provide services
and jobs to the people in the suburbs.
Density Gradient: As you travel outward from the center of the
city, the density of people declines. Inner city has big apartments
of 250 of more people per acre. Suburbs have fewer people per
acre (but lots of acres) and finally you leave the cities periphery
you find few people. The number of houses per unit of land
diminishes as distance from the center of the city increases.
55

The Edge cities (bedroom communities) of Houston

The central city is surrounded by a ring road, around which are
suburban areas and edge cities, shopping malls, office parks,
industrial areas, and service complexes.

Known as
bedroom
communities
because
people live
there but
mostly don’t
work there.
They drive
into the city
for work.
56

As you move from the center of the city outward, the density of the population
changes. This is know as the density gradient. Two big changes have occurred in
the density gradient of today’s cities:
1. The number of people living in the center has decreased.
2. The density difference between the inner city and the suburbs is declining
because the inner city density is dropping and the suburban density is growing
due to more large apartments being built in the suburbs.
Cost of Suburban or Urban Sprawl: Urban Sprawl is the progressive spread of
development over the landscape. As long as we Americans want single-family
detached houses, land on the fringe of urban areas will be converted from open
space to residential use. The cost of this growth is more than the loss of land, it is
also the cost of new roads, utilities, building stores and offices and the cost of
automobiles to move these people over even longer distances. Lots of these new
developments are built on what was once farmland. Wonderful productive soil now
under concrete.

Greenbelts: are areas where, by law, the open space can not be used for any
construction. This is mostly found in Europe.

57

Once farmland that is being converted to suburbs and cities.

58

Tyson’s Corner Virginia in 1940

59

Washington, DC. MSA.

Tyson’s Corner Virginia
today.
Washington D.C. is off
In the distance.

60

Suburban Segregation: The “new” segregation.
Suburban segregation takes two forms:
1. Residents are separated from commercial and manufacturing activities
which are confined someplace else. (The whole neighborhood is
nothing but houses because they drive for services.)
2. The price of the house eliminates some from being able to live there. This
creates a homogeneous suburb of the same economic class of people.
This never existed before in history. Where we once had vertical
segregation of the classes we now we have horizontal segregation.
3. But this may be reversing as new statistics show that people are beginning
to move back to the city. Why? Cost of transportation.
Zoning Ordinances: This idea developed in Europe and later America in the
early decades of the 20th century. This means that businesses are allowed only
in certain areas of the settlement. (No all night taco stands inside your single
family neighborhood.)
Motor vehicles: The wide use of the automobile is largely responsible for the
American movement to the suburbs. Not only did people move out but 1/4 of
the land inside all American cities are now roads, streets, and parking lots.

61

Public Transportation: Because few US workers live within walking distance
of their jobs, urban areas are characterized by extensive commuting and the
problems that come with it. As much as 40% of all trips made into or out from
a city during the day takes place within just 4 hours. (2 in the morning and 2 in
the late afternoon). RUSH HOUR!!! In large cities, public transportation, like
subways and busses, are better suited to move people but Americans still
prefer their own cars. Public transportation is cheaper, cleaner, and more
energy efficient than personal cars, yet in the US only 5% of city travel is
done using public transit systems. American’s love their personal car too
much.
Local Government Fragmentation: Because of the large number of local
governments in the US (look at the settlements in Pinellas County) it is
difficult to solve some of the regional problems like garbage disposal, water
management, traffic and public housing.
62

Metropolitan government: This idea tries to put many local governments into a
larger unit that can better handle the urban problems. The 2 ways to do this
are:
1. Federations in which the individual settlements have their own police,
firemen, and tax collection but they all agree to be part of a second
government which handles transportation, water, sewage, parks and
welfare for all the communities.
2. Consolidations: In this method, several cities and the county may form one
government. Jacksonville’s government runs not only the town but the
county too, this makes Jacksonville the largest city, in land size, in the US.
Smart growth: A new movement by many states to curb suburban sprawl by
limiting where new construction can take place. Smart growth laws require that
land near cities be used up before any land further out can be developed. So
far, this is only being done an a few parts of our country.
63

The new
US as
some
people
see it.

64

Quiz Yourself:
1. The process where middle-class people move into inner city neighborhoods and
renovate them is called ____________
2. ____________ happens when banks refuse to give loans in what they consider
risky neighborhoods.
3. Because of the housing shortages, the poor have constructed their own settlements
around the city known as __________ _________

4. Businesses are allowed only in certain areas of the settlement because of
____________ ____________
5. Areas known as _____ _______ are areas of about 5,000 people. The data from
that area is used to help define needed services for that area.
6. When cities are so close that they form one continuous band of development this is
known as a ____________
65

7. Social relationships are often described as “colder” in urban areas because…
8. In this model the city develops in a series of sectors not rings. _______

9. ______ (LDC’s or MDC’s) have a higher percentage of people living in urban
settlements but ________ (LDC’s or MDC’s) have more of the very large urban
settlements.
10. _____________ was the first model developed to explain the distributions
of different social groups within urban areas.
11. New cities which develop around the beltway are nodes of consumer and
business services known as ________ _________.

12. When the Europeans took over lands around the world, they changed the
cities by adding services to help the Europeans control the conquered people.
These European planned cities are known as __________ cities.
66

Answer Key:
1.

Gentrification

2.

Redlining

3.

Squatter Settlements

4.

Zoning ordinances

5.

Census tracks

6.

Megalopolis

7. There is a stronger feeling of belonging together in small rural settlements.
8. Hoyt sector model
9. MDC, LDC
10. Burgess Concentric Zone model
11. Edge cities
12. Colonial cities
67

Test Key topic/chapter 13:
These questions come from a combination of our slides, your text book, and common knowledge you should
have discussed in your AP classroom. They are very typical of what you will see on the National Exam.
1) The multiple nuclei theory best explains why different neighborhoods of a city attract people of different… A) ages.
B) ethnic origin C) income D) marital status.
2) Sprawl is the… A) change in density within an urban area from the center to the periphery B) development of new
housing sites not contiguous to the existing built-up area. C) land maintained as open space surrounding an urban area.
D) period in the morning and evening with the heaviest volumes of traffic.
3) People are attracted to suburbs in part because suburbs are characterized by…A) heavy traffic. B) lower opportunity
for home ownership. C) private land surrounding the house. D) row houses and apartments.
4) Megalopolis refers to… A) adjacent, overlapping Metropolitan Statistical Areas. B) central cities. C) consolidated
Metropolitan Statistical Areas. D) central cities plus urbanized areas.
5) Which statement best describes the relationship between urbanization and the Industrial Revolution? A) Urbanization
promoted the Industrial Revolution. B) The Industrial Revolution promoted urbanization. C) Urbanization preceded the
Industrial Revolution by thousands of years. D) Urbanization and the Industrial Revolution are no longer related.
6) The process of legally adding land area to a city in the United States is… A) annexation. B) accreditation. C) an
application of eminent domain. D) defined by urbanized area.

68

7) The process of change in the use of a house, from single-family owner occupancy to abandonment, is… A) blockbusting.
B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining.
8) A process by which banks designate an area within which they refuse to lend money for improvements is… A) blockbusting.
B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining.
9) A recent change in the density gradient has been… A) the elimination of the gap traditionally found in the center. B) an
increase in the extremes between the inner and outer areas. C) an increase in the number of people living in the center.
D) a reduction in the differences in densities found within an urban area.
10) U.S. central cities face fiscal problems because… A) federal and state funds are available. B) low-income people are
concentrated there. C) middle-class families are attracted there. D) redlining is no longer legal.
11) A legal form of segregation in U.S. cities is achieved through...A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) zoning. D) greenbelts.
12) Factories have moved to suburban locations in part because of… A) access to main highways. B) adequate space to build
vertical structures. C) availability of large tracts of high-priced land. D) good rail connections.
13) According to the sector model, the best housing is located in…A) a corridor from downtown to the edge of the city.
B) an outer ring surrounding the city. C) nodes near universities and parks. D) renovated inner-city neighborhoods.
14) Ramshackle houses on the periphery of cities in less developed countries are known as… A) squatter settlements. B) council
estates. C) public housing. D) zone in transition.
15) Higher income people tend to live near the center of the city in all but which of the following regions? A) Latin America
B) North America C) South Asia D) Western Europe

16) The wide boulevards built in cities in less developed countries were most likely built during what era? A) pre-colonial
B) colonial C) independence D) all of the above equally

69

17) According to the multiple nuclei model, an airport is likely to attract nearby… A) industries. B) residences. C) shops.
D) universities.
18) The largest percentage of the U.S. population lives in…A) central cities. B) suburbs. C) non-metropolitan areas. D) all of the
above
19) In U.S. cities, the underclass is… A) clustered in inner-city neighborhoods. B) dispersed throughout the city. C) clustered in
suburbs. D) distributed uniformly in the city.

20) A process of converting a neighborhood from low-income to middle-class is…A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) gentrification.
D) redlining.
21) Higher social heterogeneity in urban settlements means that… A) the people with whom you relax are probably the same ones you
see at work. B) you play a specialized role in the urban economy. C) you compete for limited space. D) you may feel lonely and
isolated in a crowd.
22) The city plus its contiguous built-up suburbs is the… A) central city. B) urbanized area.
D) consolidated metropolitan statistical area

C) metropolitan statistical area.

23) The process whereby an increasing percentage of people live in an urban area is known as… A) demographic transition.
B) rank-size rule. C) urbanization. D) central place theory.
24) Of the ten largest urban areas in the world, how many are in More Developed Countries today? A) 1 B) 4 C) 7 D) 10 E) 2
25) Public housing is…A) conversion of low-income housing to middle-class housing. B) illegally established low-income housing.
C) housing that has changed from single-family owner occupancy to abandonment. D) low-income government-owned housing.
26) According to the concentric zone model, a city develops in a series of… A) corridors. B) nodes. C) rings. D) all of the above

70

27) Chicago is a good location in which to develop urban models because it is located… A) at the hub of the nation's transportation
system. B) in the center of the country. C) on a flat prairie. D) on the shore of Lake Michigan.
28) According to the sector model, the best housing is located in… A) a corridor from downtown to the edge of the city. B) an outer
ring surrounding the city. C) nodes near universities and parks. D) renovated inner-city neighborhoods.
29) The zone of transition in US cities generally contain…A) warehouses B) wealthy neighborhoods C) transportation hubs
D) universities and hospitals E) suburban homes
30) The attractions of shopping malls include all but which of the following? A) frequent concerts and exhibitions B) generous
parking lots C) place to meet friends D) walking distance from homes
The following questions are written at the high school level. You will find some questions from part one often rewritten
here. This is all designed to help you transition to the college/AP style of written questions. Any question preceded with ***
are questions that have been on the national exam before.
31. Most Latin American cities are focused on a…A) central plaza B) government housing project C) zone of heavy industry
D) skyscraper office building E) squatter settlement
32. The multiple-nuclei model of a city structure tends to be most applicable to…A) small cities B) traditional C) Latin American
cities D) newer, fast growing cities E) cities with homogeneous land use
33. ***Locational advantages important to the development of the earliest cities include…A) availability of good harbors for large
ships B) productive agricultural land and defensible sites C) temperate climate and proximity to coal mines D) good
connections by road and canal E) proximity to manufacturing areas

34. In cities, the CBD’s often show uniqueness while the suburbs usually show…A) a large hinterland. B) placelessness C) more
than one node. D) newer zones of transition.

71

35. Many LDC’s have tried to help a previously under-developed part of their country develop by moving their capital
city to that area. This new capital is known as a…A) forward capital B) new development zone C) enterprise zone
D) neocolonial city
36. Today the greatest number of urban dwellers is found in…A) North America
D) Europe E) Asia

B) South America C) Africa

37. ***All of the following have helped create ghettos in North American cities except…A)blockbusting and racial
steering B) redlining by financial institutions C) concentration of public housing and social services D) fixed school
districts E) Economic Enterprise Zones

38. Which of the following is NOT as reason for rapid suburbanization in the US after WW2? A) Mass production of
the automobile B) Reduction of long distance commuting C) Expansion of home construction D) Expansion of the
interstate highway system E) Availability of low down payment terms and long-term mortgages.
39. New cities which developed in the hinterland of large urban areas because of the automobile, are known as…
A) edge cities B) census tracts C) suburban sprawl D) squatter settlements. E) none of these
40. Gentrification refers to… A) moving the homeless into inner city shelters B) The “White Flight” from the urban city
C) losing tax revenue because of stores closing in downtown areas D) middle-class people moving into and renovating
inner city neighborhoods E) the creation of “beltway cities” around the city.

72

4
7
3

5

1
6

2

41-48 all use the sketch above.
41. The sketch in box A above represents which model of the inner structure of urban areas?
C) multiple nuclei model D) Burgess concentric zone model E) peripheral model
42. The models in boxes B and C represent A) Concentric zone and multiple nuclei
concentric zone D) peripheral and concentric zone E) Von Thunen and peripheral

A) Hoyt sector model B) VonThunen’s model

B) Multiple nuclei and Hoyt sector C) Hoyt sector and

43. In which ring (1, 2, etc.) of sketch A above would high-status households in North American cities likely live? A) 1 B) 2 C) 3 D) 4&5
44. In which ring (1, 2, etc.) of sketch A above would high status households in a European city likely live? A) 1

B) 2

C) 3

D) 4&5

45. In model B, zone # 2 is where it is likely because of: A) greenbelting B) squatter settling C) the culture of poverty D) transportation
E) no one knows
46. The model in sketch B is the; A) Hoyt sector model B) Burgess model C) multiple nuclei model D) peripheral model
47. The model in sketch C is the; A) Hoyt sector model B) Burgess model C) multiple nuclei model D) peripheral model
48. Which of these models best describes what has happened in US cities in the last 40 years? A)

B)

C)

73

49.*** In the U.S. a city plus its contiguous built-up suburbs is known as an…A) urbanized area B) zoned area
C) census tract D) Squatter settlement E) none of these
50. Done mostly in Europe, these are areas where land is kept as parks, farms or other kinds of open space and urban
sprawl is not allowed. A) Smart growth
B) zoning
C) filtering
D) census tracts E) greenbelts
51. Which statement best describes the relationship between urbanization and the Industrial Revolution?
A) Urbanization promoted the Industrial Revolution. B) The Industrial Revolution promoted urbanization.
C) Urbanization preceded the Industrial Revolution by thousands of years. D) Urbanization and the Industrial
Revolution are no longer related.
52. The process whereby an increasing percentage of people live in an urban area is known as…
A) Demographic transition. B) rank-size rule. C) Urbanization. D) Central place theory.
53. The city (if it has 50,000 or more people) plus its contiguous built-up suburbs AND the county it is in as well as any
other counties it influences, is known as the ...A) central city B) urbanized area
C) metropolitan statistical area
D) consolidated metropolitan area E) micropolitan statistical area
54. ***Higher social heterogeneity in urban settlements means that …A) the people with whom you relax are probably
the same ones you see at work. B) you play a specialized role in the urban economy. C) you compete for limited
space. D) you may feel lonely and isolated in a crowd.

55. The process of change in the use of a house, from single-family owner occupancy to smaller dwellings for the poor
and then sometimes to abandonment, is…A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining. E) none of
these

74

Free Response #1:
The Bid Rent theory says that the closer you get to the
CBD the higher the cost for land, yet in most American
cities you find the poorest people living near the
expensive CBD and the richest living further away.
Explain:
A. Why neighborhoods near the CBD are often poor and
run down?
B. Why are there few grocery and other retail stores in
these neighborhoods?
C. Why is this not really true in European and Latin
American countries?

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75

FR #2:
Think of the map of your school, explain the
layout of your school using the Multiple Nuclei
Model
The main office is the CBD.
Completely explain your answer using specific
buildings and/or land areas in your explanation
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76

Answer Key:
1. B

14. A

27. C

40. D

53. C

2. B

15. B

28. A

41. D

54. D

3. C

16. B

29. A

42. B

55. B

4. A

17. A

30. D

43. D

5. B

18. B

31. A

44. A

6. A

19. A

32. D

45. D

7. B

20. C

33. B

46. A

8. D

21. D

34. B

47. C

9. D

22. B

35. A

48. C

10. B

23. C

36. E

49. A

11. C

24. C

37. E

50. E

12. A

25. D

38. B

51. B

13. A

26. C

39. A

52. C
77

FR. #1: ( 15 pts. for each section…total of 45 pts.)
A. In the US the move of the wealthy and middle class to the suburbs has left the older houses and apartments near the CBD empty.
This has lowered their value to the point where the poor can afford these dwellings and have made these neighborhoods their
homes. The poor can not pay for upkeep of these dwellings, or to pay high taxes. The lack of upkeep and tax money to repair the
roads and schools, adds to the downward spiral of the neighborhood. With little spending money for shopping, the poor do not
spend much in the stores. This causes many stores to close and move to the suburbs where the spending customers and money
went. The closing of the stores adds to the poverty of the area by taking away some of the jobs that were in the neighborhood. This
becomes a vicious cycle of poverty and deterioration. (15 points)

B. There are few retail stores and groceries is the area because the poor do not have money to shop. The lack of spending forces
many stores out of business or forces them to move to better locations. There also can be higher crime in these areas and the
crime often takes place at the stores. This is another reason for the stores to move out of the neighborhood. (15 points)
C. Neighborhoods in European and Latin American cities are different from those of US cities. In Europe and Latin America, the
wealthy and middle class still live near or in the CBD. The higher tax base and more spending ability of the upper and middle
classes, keeps the CBD area flourishing with jobs and in constant repair and upkeep of the cities’ physical condition. (15 points)

FR #2: (10 total points.)
You will need to judge how effectively you displayed you school
in the Multiple Nuclei Model. Refer to the model itself to help you
determine your success and grade.
School’s main office
78

Calculating your grade on test 13.
Add how many you got correct on the multiple choice part (55 possible) to how many
points you scored on the FR portion (55 possible)…110 total.
The following scale will show the approximate score if this test were the real AP exam. Remember that this
is an approximation. While 65-74% is normally the range for a 3 on the test, it is not definite. Over the
years I have seen scores as low as 60% be the low portion of a 3 score.

Out of 110 possible points:
72-83 is most likely a 3
84-94 is most likely a 4

95-110 is most likely a 5

Now lets start our review for the national exam by
reviewing the 33 key models and theories of the
course…the next PowerPoint.


Slide 30

Key topic/chapter 13…Urban Patterns
Key terms:
Annexation
Concentric zone model
Density gradient
Edge cities
Filtering
Galactic city
Gentrification
Greenbelts
Megalopolis
MSA
Multiple nuclei model
Peripheral model

Public housing
Redlining
Renovated housing
Scattered site
Squatter settlement
Sector model
Smart growth
Sprawl
Underclass
Urban renewal
Zone in transition
Zoning
1

Chapter 13…Urban Areas.
How are Cities planned?
Why

are cities where they are?
How are they organized?
Why are some areas of a city
different from
other areas of the same city?
What is the future of cities?
2

Settlement


Settlement - permanent collections of buildings,
where people live, work, and obtain services

3

ORIGINS OF SETTLEMENTS


Religious - graves, churches, temples



Cultural - schools, libraries



Political/Military - leader’s house, walls



Economic - stores, food
4

TYPES OF SETTLEMENTS


Rural Settlements - agriculture as the
predominant occupation.



Urban settlements - principal industries are
secondary and tertiary.

5

RURAL SETTLEMENTS
Clustered rural settlements –grouped
settlements in rural areas to minimize travel

Dispersed rural Settlements - isolated farms
with enclosed continuous fields (Found only in
N. America and Britain).

6

Urban Geographers want to know the global distribution of urban
settlements. MDC’s have a high percentage of people living in urban
areas because of the shift from agriculture-manufacturing-services.
Geographers are also interested in where people and activities are
distributed within urban spaces. What are the differences between the
inner-city and suburban areas and why?
As we saw in the last chapter, many downtowns are unique and can
often be recognized in photos where the suburbs often look very
much alike (Placelessness). Why? Suburbs offer the chance to avoid
some of the city problems (crime, tight living area, expensive
land/rent, noise, age of buildings) while still keeping a connection with
the goods and services of the city: jobs, sports teams, culture, shops,
recreation, etc.
7

Where is this place?

8

Today’s cities are evolving and changing. Although different internal
situations characterize urban areas in the US and elsewhere, the
problems arising from current spatial trends are quite similar in all cities.
Where have urban areas grown: in the early 1800’s only 3% of the earth’s
people lived in cities and only Beijing China had more than 1 million
people. Today over ½ of the world’s people live in cities and we have over
400 cities of at least 1 million people.

Urbanization: is the process by which city population grows.
Cities population growth is measured in 2 dimensions;
1. An increase in the number of people living in the cities.
2. An increase in the percentage of people living in the cities.
This distinction is important because they happen for different reason and
have different global distributions.
9

Increasing Percentage of People in Cities: a large percentage of people living in urban
areas is a measure of a country’s level of development. In MDC’s about ¾ of the people
live in urban areas compared to about 2/5 of people in LDC’s. (Except in Latin America
where the level is closer to MDC’s.)
The higher percentage of people in urban areas comes from the changes that have
occurred in the last 200 years as we went from agriculture (primary jobs) to industrial
(secondary jobs) and now service jobs, all created by the Industrial Revolution of the
1800’s.
People moved to the cities for industrial jobs, but in MDC’s this process has largely
ended because nearly everyone interested in moving to the cities from farms has already
done so.
In LDC’s the percentage of people living in urban areas is growing as people are pushed
off of their farms and replaced by machines and as people move to cities looking/hoping
for industrial jobs.
10

Increasing Number of People in Cities: MDC’s have a higher percentage of
people living in urban settlements but LDC’s have more of the very large urban
settlements (Primate cities). (Rank-size rule, primate cities, chapter 12.)

This is interesting because typically the large cities are created from the
improvements brought by the Industrial Revolution. This is not the case with the
large LDC cities. Migration to the primate city in LDC’s is happening even though
job opportunities may not be available. Increasing the population growth in LDC
cities is the fact that medical services are better in these cities, thus the child
mortality rate is lower.
Defining Urban Settlements: defining where urban areas end and rural areas
begin is not easy. Geographers have formulated definitions that distinguish
between urban and rural areas in two ways: Social differences and Physical
differences.
11

Percent Urban Population

Percent of the population living in urban areas is usually higher in MDCs
than in LDCs.

12

The most populated cities in the world

Of the top
20, only
Moscow,
Tokyo and
New York
are in MDC’s

Shanghai China has 14,608,512 people
13

14

15

Social Differences Between Urban and Rural Settlements: it is fair to say that rural
people and urban people follow different ways of life. A city can be defined as having 3
characteristics:
1. Large size. People in rural settlements know most of the other people in the
settlement. Not true in big cities. Social relationships are often described as “colder” in
urban areas because you only see some people at work instead of growing up with
them in the settlement.
2. High Density. Having lots of people in a tiny area creates social consequences. A
high density of people living in a small area can only be supported if the people
specialize (they can’t all be farmers). People are encouraged to compete for jobs, room,
and survival in a tightly limited space. Social groups compete to occupy the same space
(ethnic/ race problems). Rural settlements have very little of this problem.
3. Social Heterogeneity. The larger the settlement, the greater the variety of people.
Being “unusual” in a large settlement is more likely to be accepted than in a small rural
one. But despite the freedom to be different that large urban settlements give you,
people living there often feel alone because so many people are different from them.
There is a stronger feeling of belonging together in small rural settlements.
16

These 3 differences do not fully answer the question of where urban settlements
begin and rural ones end because in today’s MDC’s most everyone has access to
cars, telephones, televisions, and “urban type” jobs which reduce the differences
between urban and rural lifestyles. “City folk” and “Country folk” are more alike
today than they are different. To help distinguish between urban and rural areas we
need to add the physical definition of rural and urban to the equation.
Physical Definitions of Urban Settlements: In ancient time, cities had defensive
walls for protection which clearly defined the physical boundaries of the city. Today
the walls are gone but we can still define the physical boundaries in 3 ways:
1. Legal boundary. These are the official boundaries of a city as recognized by
the government of the country or state. These “city limits” have been officially given
to the city and are physically marked on official maps. The local government of the
city has authority to make laws and protect the people inside the city boundaries.
17

2. Urbanized area. This is the city plus its suburbs or urbanized area that
surrounds the city. About 70 percent of US residents live in urbanized areas with
40% being in the suburbs and 30% inside the city limits. The suburbs may have
their own city governments but the huge central city dominates what happens in
the entire area.
3. Metropolitan Statistical Area. Cities have an even bigger influence on people
than just those living in their city limits and surrounding urbanized areas. People
from far away come to shop, use the services, support the sports teams, read
the newspapers and watch the television broadcasts of the city. Thus the city
has a “functional area” which is its total zone of influence. The US Bureau of
Census has created a method of measuring the functional area of the city.
Known as the Metropolitan statistical area (MSA) this area includes:
•An urbanized area with a population of at least 50,000
•The county within which the city is located.
•Adjacent counties with a high population density and a large percentage of
residents working in the central city’s county.
18

Metropolitan Area of Philadelphia

City of
Philadelphia

Urbanized
area
(suburbs)
Metropolitan
Statistical
Area

The metropolitan area of Philadelphia is
spread over several counties and four states.
It is also a diversified trade center, given its
position on the Delaware river.

19

20

21

Micropolitan Statistical Areas: Smaller areas with between
10,000 and 50,000 people, the county where it is found, and
adjacent counties tied to the city. This would be a small town and
the area dominated by it.
Overlapping Metropolitan Areas: Some adjacent MSA’s overlap.
A county between two central cities may send a large number of
commuters to jobs in both cities. In some areas the cities are so
close that they form one continuous urban complex. This is
known as a Megalopolis (great city).
In a megalopolis, the downtown CBD often has its own
distinctive look and the urban areas are visually separated by
parks, open spaces, and dairy/truck farms. But at the periphery
of the urban areas, the boundaries overlap.
22

Colorado Springs, population 431,000

Ocala, Florida, population 56,000

Florala, Alabama, population 1,900

23

Megalopolis, from northern Va. To Maine.
This Illustrates the
difference between
strict city proper
definitions and broader
urban agglomerations.
To define urbanized
areas, the U.S. Census
Bureau uses the term
Metropolitan Statistical
Area (MSA) or
Consolidated MSA
(CMSA) if two or more of
them overlap.
24

Where are People Distributed within Urban Areas? People are not
just distributed at random in urban areas. For the most part they
concentrate in particular neighborhoods depending on their social
characteristics. Geographers want to see where people with
particular characteristics are likely to live and why.

Three models which try to explain the growth of a city:

The Burgess Model

The Hoyt Sector Model

The Harris and Ullman
multiple Nuclei Model
25

Burgess Concentric Zone Model

In the concentric zone model, a city grows in a series of rings surrounding the CBD.

Burgess Concentric Zone Model: This is the first used to explain the
distributions of different social groups within urban areas. It says that a
city grows outward from a central place in a series of concentric rings.
The precise size and width of the rings vary from one city to another, but
some basic types of rings appear in all cities in the same order (see chart
above).
26

•Hoyt Sector Model: In this model the city develops in a
series of sectors not rings. Certain areas of the city are
more attractive for various activities, originally because
of an environmental factor (or even pure chance). As the
city grows, activities extend outward in a wedge shape.
For example, once a wealthy neighborhood is built the
next wealthy neighborhood will extend from the first
neighborhood further outward from the center. In this
way, the best housing is found in a corridor extending
outward from the center to the outer edge (see chart on
the next page).
27

The Hoyt Sector Model

In the sector model, a city grows in a series of
wedges or corridors extending out from the
CBD.
28

•Harris and Ullman’s Multiple Nuclei Model: According
to this model, a city is a complex structure that includes
more than one center around which activities revolve.
Examples of these nodes include a port, parks,
stadium, neighborhood business center, university, and
airport (see chart). This theory states that some
activities are attracted to particular nodes, whereas
others try to avoid them. A university node may attract
well educated people and bookstores while the port will
attract hotels and warehouses. Heavy industry and
expensive houses rarely are found together. This
model shows the effect of the automobile more than
any other model.
29

The Harris and Ullman Multiple Nuclei model

The multiple nuclei model views a city as a
collection of individual centers, around which
different people and activities cluster.

30

Applications of the Models: The three models help explain where and in some
cases, why people live where they do. None of the models by themselves fully
explains why and where different types of people live, but combined they give
you as good a look as possible at the “Why” of “Where.” Effective use of the
models depends on getting good data on the areas. Most countries take a
census every 10 years to help determine useful data about the people and
places of the country. In our country we divide the census data into areas
known as census tracts of about 5,000 people. Each census tract has the data
that summarizes the characteristics of the people living within that tract. This
information includes things like the race, income, age, and education of the
people living in that tract.
Social Area Analysis: The data from the census tracts can all be plotted onto
maps to show the characteristics of the people living in that tract. This map is
known as a social area analysis.
31

Using Census tract information…Seattle, Washington
Each lined area is a
census tract of about 5000
people in Seattle
Washington. These maps
show average household
income for 1990 and
2000…note the changes in
income in some areas
between 1990 and 2000.
Using this information, a
business can make
decisions about where
they want to locate a new
store or the future of
existing stores.
You can find census tract
information on many topics
such as; age, education
level, race, ethnicity, crime
rate, and land ownership.
Note the areas with
incomes over
$63,000.

All can be very valuable
information to people
looking to open
businesses.

32

Examine the changes
between 1990 and
2000.

Oakland, California’s Ethnic neighborhoods
The small bordered areas are census tracks of 5000 people.

33

Use of the Models Outside of North America: The 3 models will also work in other
places in the world; however social groups in other countries may not have the
same reasons for selecting particular neighborhoods as Americans do.
European Cities: As in the US, wealthier people in European cities cluster along a
sector extending outward from the CBD, however unlike the US, wealthy and
middle class Europeans still live in the inner rings of the neighborhoods near the
CBD not out in the suburbs. In the past, poorer people lived in the center of the
city. Before electricity, social segregation was vertical: richer people lived on the
first or second floor of a building while the poorer people lived in the basement or
upper floors. In the Industrial Revolution, housing for the poor was constructed
near the factories and away from the rich.
Today poorer Europeans are less likely to live in the inner-city. Poor quality
housing has been renovated for the rich or turned into office buildings. Poorer
Europeans tend to live in the outskirts of the city. Vast suburbs with dozens of high
rise apartments house the poor. They face long commutes to reach their jobs in
the city.
34

European cities generally do not have the “suburban
sprawl” that US cities have. European cities tend to be
more pedestrian friendly with more parks downtown as
Europeans tend to still live downtown.
US cities have taller buildings as European cities tend to
be older and more historic.

American cities have more ethnic neighborhoods than
European cities. Ethnic neighborhoods that do exist in
European cities tend to be in the suburbs. WHY?
Because the established richer neighborhoods tend to be
downtown in European cities.
35

Less Developed Countries: Like Europe, most LDC’s accommodate their poor in the
suburbs with their middle class and rich living near the center of the city. LDC’s have
passed through 3 periods of city building: before the Europeans arrived, during the
period of European colonialism, and since independence from European control.

Pre-colonial Cities: Before the Europeans arrived few cities existed in Africa, Asia, and
Latin America and most people lived in small rural settlements. Those cities that existed
were mostly laid out surrounding a religious center; with the rest of the city laid out in a
hieratical concentric pattern (like the Burgess model) from government buildings,
homes of the wealthy, and businesses related to the religion out to other businesses
and shops.
Colonial cities: When the Europeans took over these lands, they changed the cities by
adding services to help the Europeans control the conquered people. Often a new
European style city would be build next to the existing native one. The new European
cities contained wider streets, a public square, larger houses and a much lower density.
The Spanish used the “Law of the Indies” which was a city plan designed specifically to
build cities in a “Spanish” style. (Gridiron pattern for streets centered on a church and
central plaza, walls around individual houses and neighborhoods centered around
smaller plazas and more churches.)
36

Early Mexico city was laid out in a grid pattern of streets. This followed
the Spanish “Law of the Indies.”

37

Central Plaza in Mexico City 1920 photo. Typical Colonial City plan.

Part of downtown Mexico city today still shows the
building plan of the “Law of the Indies.”

38

Cities since Independence: Following independence, cities have become
the focal point of the development of most LDC’s. Millions of people have
migrated to the cities (Primate cities) looking for jobs and services. Some
capitals have been moved to isolated areas in an attempt to help develop
that area of the country (Brasília) This is know as a forward capital. Latin
American cities have developed their own unique style.
Squatter settlements: The LDC’s are unable to house the rapidly growing
number of poor who are flowing into the cities. Because of the housing
shortages, the poor have constructed their own settlements around the city.
These settlements have few services because neither the city nor the
residents can afford them. Squatters have two basic choices for housing.
1. Illegally move into empty real houses located in the city or,
2. Rent slum housing.
(85% of the population of Addis Ababa in Ethiopia lives in squatter
settlements, slums or other illegal housing.)
39

Squatter shacks in Manila, the Philippines

40

Squatter settlement in Ethiopia

41

Zimbabwe, Africa

42

Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

43

Latin American City Model:
In many Latin
American cities,
the wealthy live in
the inner city and
in a sector
extending along a
commercial spine.
In situ accretion- businesses
and homes constantly under
construction/repair.
Zone of maturity-2nd best
housing in the city.
The poor live in squatter settlements on the
periphery of the city.

Disamenity- unpleasant area
used by the poor to get to the
market.

44

The City Outline of Rio de Janeiro
The rich tourist areas and expensive condo apartments are along the coast
and beach while the poor live in squatter shacks in the hills.

45

City problems:
Inner-City Physical Problems: Most US inner cities were constructed before the 1950’s
(people began to move to the suburbs in the 1950’s so new construction moved out of
the city).
Process of Deterioration (how a city deteriorates): A city doesn’t suddenly become old
and full of slummy areas. It happens over time. When a group of low-income people
inhabit an area of a city, nearby neighborhoods will often look to move out. They sell or
rent to more low-income occupants thus expanding the low-income area. Two processes
cause/speed up the devaluation of areas:
1. Filtering, 2. Redlining.
Filtering: Large houses and buildings that once housed rich downtown workers (who
moved to the suburbs) are taken over by landlords who don’t live in that area (they
moved to the suburbs too). Rents are low so the landlord doesn’t take as good care of
the property as they should and the property becomes run down or abandoned. Stores
close, or move, due to lack of sales. 100 years ago these neighborhoods would be used
by immigrants and ethnic businesses would succeed in those areas. Now, with a decline
in immigration, these neighborhoods have shrunk and so have schools, businesses and
other services. Thousands of vacant houses and buildings stand empty in inner cities
across America.

46

Redlining: Some banks refuse to give loans in what they consider
risky neighborhoods. They draw a red line on a map around areas
where they will not give loans. Without loans, these neighborhoods
have a hard time rebuilding/remodeling. Though illegal, this still
happens. Bankers just don’t put these “no-loan” areas on a map.

Urban Renewal: This is the series of projects to improve European
and N. American cities by buying up the blighted neighborhoods,
moving the people to new government built housing projects, and
building new roads, and other projects to make the inner city
attractive for business again. National and State government grants
help pay for these projects.
47

Public housing: Housing for the poor, built with government funding as part of
urban renewal. In the US this is only about 2% of the housing while in some
countries it may be more (Britain is 30%). Public housing built in the 50’s & 60’s
were largely high rise apartments, but those are seen as being unsatisfactory.
Problems arise from cramming large numbers of poor people into one area.
Today most public housing projects are one to three story buildings with many of
them being scattered around different parts of the city rather than clustered into
one area.
Because urban renewal has been criticized for destroying the social cohesion of
older neighborhoods, many governments (like the US) have stopped funding
most projects since the 1970’s. What do we do instead?
Renovated Housing: An alternative often used since the 70’s is to renovate a
building instead of urban renewal. The process where middle-class people
move into inner-city neighborhoods and renovate them is called gentrification.
Gentrified inner-city neighborhoods also attract middle-class people who work
downtown. Living close to work saves the hassle of commuting and rejuvenates
run down inner-city neighborhoods
48

Gentrified building downtown Harlem, NY. Note the supermarket.

49

Inner-City Social Problems: Inner-city residents are often referred to as the
permanent underclass because they are trapped in an unending cycle of
economic and social problems. High unemployment, alcoholism, drug
addiction, literacy, juvenile delinquency, and crime all exist at a higher rate
among those who live in the inner-city. Lack of jobs means lack of tax dollars
to pay for police and fire protection as well as good schools. Lack of job skills
and homelessness are also tremendous problems.
Culture of Poverty: Inner-city residents are trapped in a permanent underclass
culture that reproduces itself. In the US, unwed mothers give birth to 2/3 of the
babies in the inner-city. 90% of these children live with only one parent and it
is real hard for one parent to keep a job and take care of children. Both suffer
and a shortage of care and daily attention by the parent contributes to the kids
not learning the skills necessary to do well in school which leads to poor jobs
for their futures. Poverty leads to more poverty. Many families on welfare have
only one parent because it is financially better if one parent is gone, that way
the single parent gets food stamps and other services from the government
that they would not get if it was a 2 family household.
50

Crime: Trapped in a hopeless environment, some inner-city
residents turn to drugs. Drug use is a problem in inner-city
areas and the suburbs, but rates of drug use in inner-cities
are the highest.
Ethnic and Racial Segregation: As seen in chapter 7, many
neighborhoods in the US are segregated by ethnicity with
African Americans and Hispanics concentrated in one or two
continuous areas and whites living in the suburbs. Even small
cities display a strong distinction among neighborhoods. A
frequent division is between the east and west or north and
south side of town, or the railroad tracks. A family seeking a
new residence will seek the areas where the characteristics
of the people meet their own.

51

The exodus
from the
American city.
This has
happened in
many American
cities since the
1960’s.

52

Changes in Cities in the U.S.
U.S. population has been moving out of the city centers to the suburbs:
suburbanization and counter urbanization

Developed Countries: suburbanization

 wealthy move to suburbs
 automobiles and roads; ‘American
Dream’ of the home in the suburbs.
 better services
 wealthy move to suburbs
Counter urbanization

idyllic settings
cost of land for retirement
slow pace, yet high tech
connections to services and markets
53

U.S. intraregional migration during 1990s.

Inner city economic problems: the concentration of low income
residents in inner cities has caused economic problems. These
people require public services but can pay very little in taxes to
support the services. They need stores and jobs but have little
money to spend in the store and few skills for jobs (so the stores
close). To try to fight these problems many local and state
governments use tax monies to try to renovate these areas, but this
shifts tax money needed for other areas to the inner city (votes on
election day).
Annexation: Many cities could help their tax problem by adding the
new suburbs to be part of their city (annexation). After all, many of
these suburban people use the city for its’ jobs etc., so why not add
them into the city? Today, most people in the suburbs do not want
to be annexed into the city and so they do not vote to be annexed.
54

The Peripheral Model: According to this model, an urban area
consists of an inner city surrounded by large suburban residential
and business areas (MSA) tied together by a beltway or highway
that circles the city. Around the beltway are nodes of consumer
and business services called edge cities (see diagram of multiple
nuclei model). These edge cities sprang up to provide services
and jobs to the people in the suburbs.
Density Gradient: As you travel outward from the center of the
city, the density of people declines. Inner city has big apartments
of 250 of more people per acre. Suburbs have fewer people per
acre (but lots of acres) and finally you leave the cities periphery
you find few people. The number of houses per unit of land
diminishes as distance from the center of the city increases.
55

The Edge cities (bedroom communities) of Houston

The central city is surrounded by a ring road, around which are
suburban areas and edge cities, shopping malls, office parks,
industrial areas, and service complexes.

Known as
bedroom
communities
because
people live
there but
mostly don’t
work there.
They drive
into the city
for work.
56

As you move from the center of the city outward, the density of the population
changes. This is know as the density gradient. Two big changes have occurred in
the density gradient of today’s cities:
1. The number of people living in the center has decreased.
2. The density difference between the inner city and the suburbs is declining
because the inner city density is dropping and the suburban density is growing
due to more large apartments being built in the suburbs.
Cost of Suburban or Urban Sprawl: Urban Sprawl is the progressive spread of
development over the landscape. As long as we Americans want single-family
detached houses, land on the fringe of urban areas will be converted from open
space to residential use. The cost of this growth is more than the loss of land, it is
also the cost of new roads, utilities, building stores and offices and the cost of
automobiles to move these people over even longer distances. Lots of these new
developments are built on what was once farmland. Wonderful productive soil now
under concrete.

Greenbelts: are areas where, by law, the open space can not be used for any
construction. This is mostly found in Europe.

57

Once farmland that is being converted to suburbs and cities.

58

Tyson’s Corner Virginia in 1940

59

Washington, DC. MSA.

Tyson’s Corner Virginia
today.
Washington D.C. is off
In the distance.

60

Suburban Segregation: The “new” segregation.
Suburban segregation takes two forms:
1. Residents are separated from commercial and manufacturing activities
which are confined someplace else. (The whole neighborhood is
nothing but houses because they drive for services.)
2. The price of the house eliminates some from being able to live there. This
creates a homogeneous suburb of the same economic class of people.
This never existed before in history. Where we once had vertical
segregation of the classes we now we have horizontal segregation.
3. But this may be reversing as new statistics show that people are beginning
to move back to the city. Why? Cost of transportation.
Zoning Ordinances: This idea developed in Europe and later America in the
early decades of the 20th century. This means that businesses are allowed only
in certain areas of the settlement. (No all night taco stands inside your single
family neighborhood.)
Motor vehicles: The wide use of the automobile is largely responsible for the
American movement to the suburbs. Not only did people move out but 1/4 of
the land inside all American cities are now roads, streets, and parking lots.

61

Public Transportation: Because few US workers live within walking distance
of their jobs, urban areas are characterized by extensive commuting and the
problems that come with it. As much as 40% of all trips made into or out from
a city during the day takes place within just 4 hours. (2 in the morning and 2 in
the late afternoon). RUSH HOUR!!! In large cities, public transportation, like
subways and busses, are better suited to move people but Americans still
prefer their own cars. Public transportation is cheaper, cleaner, and more
energy efficient than personal cars, yet in the US only 5% of city travel is
done using public transit systems. American’s love their personal car too
much.
Local Government Fragmentation: Because of the large number of local
governments in the US (look at the settlements in Pinellas County) it is
difficult to solve some of the regional problems like garbage disposal, water
management, traffic and public housing.
62

Metropolitan government: This idea tries to put many local governments into a
larger unit that can better handle the urban problems. The 2 ways to do this
are:
1. Federations in which the individual settlements have their own police,
firemen, and tax collection but they all agree to be part of a second
government which handles transportation, water, sewage, parks and
welfare for all the communities.
2. Consolidations: In this method, several cities and the county may form one
government. Jacksonville’s government runs not only the town but the
county too, this makes Jacksonville the largest city, in land size, in the US.
Smart growth: A new movement by many states to curb suburban sprawl by
limiting where new construction can take place. Smart growth laws require that
land near cities be used up before any land further out can be developed. So
far, this is only being done an a few parts of our country.
63

The new
US as
some
people
see it.

64

Quiz Yourself:
1. The process where middle-class people move into inner city neighborhoods and
renovate them is called ____________
2. ____________ happens when banks refuse to give loans in what they consider
risky neighborhoods.
3. Because of the housing shortages, the poor have constructed their own settlements
around the city known as __________ _________

4. Businesses are allowed only in certain areas of the settlement because of
____________ ____________
5. Areas known as _____ _______ are areas of about 5,000 people. The data from
that area is used to help define needed services for that area.
6. When cities are so close that they form one continuous band of development this is
known as a ____________
65

7. Social relationships are often described as “colder” in urban areas because…
8. In this model the city develops in a series of sectors not rings. _______

9. ______ (LDC’s or MDC’s) have a higher percentage of people living in urban
settlements but ________ (LDC’s or MDC’s) have more of the very large urban
settlements.
10. _____________ was the first model developed to explain the distributions
of different social groups within urban areas.
11. New cities which develop around the beltway are nodes of consumer and
business services known as ________ _________.

12. When the Europeans took over lands around the world, they changed the
cities by adding services to help the Europeans control the conquered people.
These European planned cities are known as __________ cities.
66

Answer Key:
1.

Gentrification

2.

Redlining

3.

Squatter Settlements

4.

Zoning ordinances

5.

Census tracks

6.

Megalopolis

7. There is a stronger feeling of belonging together in small rural settlements.
8. Hoyt sector model
9. MDC, LDC
10. Burgess Concentric Zone model
11. Edge cities
12. Colonial cities
67

Test Key topic/chapter 13:
These questions come from a combination of our slides, your text book, and common knowledge you should
have discussed in your AP classroom. They are very typical of what you will see on the National Exam.
1) The multiple nuclei theory best explains why different neighborhoods of a city attract people of different… A) ages.
B) ethnic origin C) income D) marital status.
2) Sprawl is the… A) change in density within an urban area from the center to the periphery B) development of new
housing sites not contiguous to the existing built-up area. C) land maintained as open space surrounding an urban area.
D) period in the morning and evening with the heaviest volumes of traffic.
3) People are attracted to suburbs in part because suburbs are characterized by…A) heavy traffic. B) lower opportunity
for home ownership. C) private land surrounding the house. D) row houses and apartments.
4) Megalopolis refers to… A) adjacent, overlapping Metropolitan Statistical Areas. B) central cities. C) consolidated
Metropolitan Statistical Areas. D) central cities plus urbanized areas.
5) Which statement best describes the relationship between urbanization and the Industrial Revolution? A) Urbanization
promoted the Industrial Revolution. B) The Industrial Revolution promoted urbanization. C) Urbanization preceded the
Industrial Revolution by thousands of years. D) Urbanization and the Industrial Revolution are no longer related.
6) The process of legally adding land area to a city in the United States is… A) annexation. B) accreditation. C) an
application of eminent domain. D) defined by urbanized area.

68

7) The process of change in the use of a house, from single-family owner occupancy to abandonment, is… A) blockbusting.
B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining.
8) A process by which banks designate an area within which they refuse to lend money for improvements is… A) blockbusting.
B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining.
9) A recent change in the density gradient has been… A) the elimination of the gap traditionally found in the center. B) an
increase in the extremes between the inner and outer areas. C) an increase in the number of people living in the center.
D) a reduction in the differences in densities found within an urban area.
10) U.S. central cities face fiscal problems because… A) federal and state funds are available. B) low-income people are
concentrated there. C) middle-class families are attracted there. D) redlining is no longer legal.
11) A legal form of segregation in U.S. cities is achieved through...A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) zoning. D) greenbelts.
12) Factories have moved to suburban locations in part because of… A) access to main highways. B) adequate space to build
vertical structures. C) availability of large tracts of high-priced land. D) good rail connections.
13) According to the sector model, the best housing is located in…A) a corridor from downtown to the edge of the city.
B) an outer ring surrounding the city. C) nodes near universities and parks. D) renovated inner-city neighborhoods.
14) Ramshackle houses on the periphery of cities in less developed countries are known as… A) squatter settlements. B) council
estates. C) public housing. D) zone in transition.
15) Higher income people tend to live near the center of the city in all but which of the following regions? A) Latin America
B) North America C) South Asia D) Western Europe

16) The wide boulevards built in cities in less developed countries were most likely built during what era? A) pre-colonial
B) colonial C) independence D) all of the above equally

69

17) According to the multiple nuclei model, an airport is likely to attract nearby… A) industries. B) residences. C) shops.
D) universities.
18) The largest percentage of the U.S. population lives in…A) central cities. B) suburbs. C) non-metropolitan areas. D) all of the
above
19) In U.S. cities, the underclass is… A) clustered in inner-city neighborhoods. B) dispersed throughout the city. C) clustered in
suburbs. D) distributed uniformly in the city.

20) A process of converting a neighborhood from low-income to middle-class is…A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) gentrification.
D) redlining.
21) Higher social heterogeneity in urban settlements means that… A) the people with whom you relax are probably the same ones you
see at work. B) you play a specialized role in the urban economy. C) you compete for limited space. D) you may feel lonely and
isolated in a crowd.
22) The city plus its contiguous built-up suburbs is the… A) central city. B) urbanized area.
D) consolidated metropolitan statistical area

C) metropolitan statistical area.

23) The process whereby an increasing percentage of people live in an urban area is known as… A) demographic transition.
B) rank-size rule. C) urbanization. D) central place theory.
24) Of the ten largest urban areas in the world, how many are in More Developed Countries today? A) 1 B) 4 C) 7 D) 10 E) 2
25) Public housing is…A) conversion of low-income housing to middle-class housing. B) illegally established low-income housing.
C) housing that has changed from single-family owner occupancy to abandonment. D) low-income government-owned housing.
26) According to the concentric zone model, a city develops in a series of… A) corridors. B) nodes. C) rings. D) all of the above

70

27) Chicago is a good location in which to develop urban models because it is located… A) at the hub of the nation's transportation
system. B) in the center of the country. C) on a flat prairie. D) on the shore of Lake Michigan.
28) According to the sector model, the best housing is located in… A) a corridor from downtown to the edge of the city. B) an outer
ring surrounding the city. C) nodes near universities and parks. D) renovated inner-city neighborhoods.
29) The zone of transition in US cities generally contain…A) warehouses B) wealthy neighborhoods C) transportation hubs
D) universities and hospitals E) suburban homes
30) The attractions of shopping malls include all but which of the following? A) frequent concerts and exhibitions B) generous
parking lots C) place to meet friends D) walking distance from homes
The following questions are written at the high school level. You will find some questions from part one often rewritten
here. This is all designed to help you transition to the college/AP style of written questions. Any question preceded with ***
are questions that have been on the national exam before.
31. Most Latin American cities are focused on a…A) central plaza B) government housing project C) zone of heavy industry
D) skyscraper office building E) squatter settlement
32. The multiple-nuclei model of a city structure tends to be most applicable to…A) small cities B) traditional C) Latin American
cities D) newer, fast growing cities E) cities with homogeneous land use
33. ***Locational advantages important to the development of the earliest cities include…A) availability of good harbors for large
ships B) productive agricultural land and defensible sites C) temperate climate and proximity to coal mines D) good
connections by road and canal E) proximity to manufacturing areas

34. In cities, the CBD’s often show uniqueness while the suburbs usually show…A) a large hinterland. B) placelessness C) more
than one node. D) newer zones of transition.

71

35. Many LDC’s have tried to help a previously under-developed part of their country develop by moving their capital
city to that area. This new capital is known as a…A) forward capital B) new development zone C) enterprise zone
D) neocolonial city
36. Today the greatest number of urban dwellers is found in…A) North America
D) Europe E) Asia

B) South America C) Africa

37. ***All of the following have helped create ghettos in North American cities except…A)blockbusting and racial
steering B) redlining by financial institutions C) concentration of public housing and social services D) fixed school
districts E) Economic Enterprise Zones

38. Which of the following is NOT as reason for rapid suburbanization in the US after WW2? A) Mass production of
the automobile B) Reduction of long distance commuting C) Expansion of home construction D) Expansion of the
interstate highway system E) Availability of low down payment terms and long-term mortgages.
39. New cities which developed in the hinterland of large urban areas because of the automobile, are known as…
A) edge cities B) census tracts C) suburban sprawl D) squatter settlements. E) none of these
40. Gentrification refers to… A) moving the homeless into inner city shelters B) The “White Flight” from the urban city
C) losing tax revenue because of stores closing in downtown areas D) middle-class people moving into and renovating
inner city neighborhoods E) the creation of “beltway cities” around the city.

72

4
7
3

5

1
6

2

41-48 all use the sketch above.
41. The sketch in box A above represents which model of the inner structure of urban areas?
C) multiple nuclei model D) Burgess concentric zone model E) peripheral model
42. The models in boxes B and C represent A) Concentric zone and multiple nuclei
concentric zone D) peripheral and concentric zone E) Von Thunen and peripheral

A) Hoyt sector model B) VonThunen’s model

B) Multiple nuclei and Hoyt sector C) Hoyt sector and

43. In which ring (1, 2, etc.) of sketch A above would high-status households in North American cities likely live? A) 1 B) 2 C) 3 D) 4&5
44. In which ring (1, 2, etc.) of sketch A above would high status households in a European city likely live? A) 1

B) 2

C) 3

D) 4&5

45. In model B, zone # 2 is where it is likely because of: A) greenbelting B) squatter settling C) the culture of poverty D) transportation
E) no one knows
46. The model in sketch B is the; A) Hoyt sector model B) Burgess model C) multiple nuclei model D) peripheral model
47. The model in sketch C is the; A) Hoyt sector model B) Burgess model C) multiple nuclei model D) peripheral model
48. Which of these models best describes what has happened in US cities in the last 40 years? A)

B)

C)

73

49.*** In the U.S. a city plus its contiguous built-up suburbs is known as an…A) urbanized area B) zoned area
C) census tract D) Squatter settlement E) none of these
50. Done mostly in Europe, these are areas where land is kept as parks, farms or other kinds of open space and urban
sprawl is not allowed. A) Smart growth
B) zoning
C) filtering
D) census tracts E) greenbelts
51. Which statement best describes the relationship between urbanization and the Industrial Revolution?
A) Urbanization promoted the Industrial Revolution. B) The Industrial Revolution promoted urbanization.
C) Urbanization preceded the Industrial Revolution by thousands of years. D) Urbanization and the Industrial
Revolution are no longer related.
52. The process whereby an increasing percentage of people live in an urban area is known as…
A) Demographic transition. B) rank-size rule. C) Urbanization. D) Central place theory.
53. The city (if it has 50,000 or more people) plus its contiguous built-up suburbs AND the county it is in as well as any
other counties it influences, is known as the ...A) central city B) urbanized area
C) metropolitan statistical area
D) consolidated metropolitan area E) micropolitan statistical area
54. ***Higher social heterogeneity in urban settlements means that …A) the people with whom you relax are probably
the same ones you see at work. B) you play a specialized role in the urban economy. C) you compete for limited
space. D) you may feel lonely and isolated in a crowd.

55. The process of change in the use of a house, from single-family owner occupancy to smaller dwellings for the poor
and then sometimes to abandonment, is…A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining. E) none of
these

74

Free Response #1:
The Bid Rent theory says that the closer you get to the
CBD the higher the cost for land, yet in most American
cities you find the poorest people living near the
expensive CBD and the richest living further away.
Explain:
A. Why neighborhoods near the CBD are often poor and
run down?
B. Why are there few grocery and other retail stores in
these neighborhoods?
C. Why is this not really true in European and Latin
American countries?

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75

FR #2:
Think of the map of your school, explain the
layout of your school using the Multiple Nuclei
Model
The main office is the CBD.
Completely explain your answer using specific
buildings and/or land areas in your explanation
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76

Answer Key:
1. B

14. A

27. C

40. D

53. C

2. B

15. B

28. A

41. D

54. D

3. C

16. B

29. A

42. B

55. B

4. A

17. A

30. D

43. D

5. B

18. B

31. A

44. A

6. A

19. A

32. D

45. D

7. B

20. C

33. B

46. A

8. D

21. D

34. B

47. C

9. D

22. B

35. A

48. C

10. B

23. C

36. E

49. A

11. C

24. C

37. E

50. E

12. A

25. D

38. B

51. B

13. A

26. C

39. A

52. C
77

FR. #1: ( 15 pts. for each section…total of 45 pts.)
A. In the US the move of the wealthy and middle class to the suburbs has left the older houses and apartments near the CBD empty.
This has lowered their value to the point where the poor can afford these dwellings and have made these neighborhoods their
homes. The poor can not pay for upkeep of these dwellings, or to pay high taxes. The lack of upkeep and tax money to repair the
roads and schools, adds to the downward spiral of the neighborhood. With little spending money for shopping, the poor do not
spend much in the stores. This causes many stores to close and move to the suburbs where the spending customers and money
went. The closing of the stores adds to the poverty of the area by taking away some of the jobs that were in the neighborhood. This
becomes a vicious cycle of poverty and deterioration. (15 points)

B. There are few retail stores and groceries is the area because the poor do not have money to shop. The lack of spending forces
many stores out of business or forces them to move to better locations. There also can be higher crime in these areas and the
crime often takes place at the stores. This is another reason for the stores to move out of the neighborhood. (15 points)
C. Neighborhoods in European and Latin American cities are different from those of US cities. In Europe and Latin America, the
wealthy and middle class still live near or in the CBD. The higher tax base and more spending ability of the upper and middle
classes, keeps the CBD area flourishing with jobs and in constant repair and upkeep of the cities’ physical condition. (15 points)

FR #2: (10 total points.)
You will need to judge how effectively you displayed you school
in the Multiple Nuclei Model. Refer to the model itself to help you
determine your success and grade.
School’s main office
78

Calculating your grade on test 13.
Add how many you got correct on the multiple choice part (55 possible) to how many
points you scored on the FR portion (55 possible)…110 total.
The following scale will show the approximate score if this test were the real AP exam. Remember that this
is an approximation. While 65-74% is normally the range for a 3 on the test, it is not definite. Over the
years I have seen scores as low as 60% be the low portion of a 3 score.

Out of 110 possible points:
72-83 is most likely a 3
84-94 is most likely a 4

95-110 is most likely a 5

Now lets start our review for the national exam by
reviewing the 33 key models and theories of the
course…the next PowerPoint.


Slide 31

Key topic/chapter 13…Urban Patterns
Key terms:
Annexation
Concentric zone model
Density gradient
Edge cities
Filtering
Galactic city
Gentrification
Greenbelts
Megalopolis
MSA
Multiple nuclei model
Peripheral model

Public housing
Redlining
Renovated housing
Scattered site
Squatter settlement
Sector model
Smart growth
Sprawl
Underclass
Urban renewal
Zone in transition
Zoning
1

Chapter 13…Urban Areas.
How are Cities planned?
Why

are cities where they are?
How are they organized?
Why are some areas of a city
different from
other areas of the same city?
What is the future of cities?
2

Settlement


Settlement - permanent collections of buildings,
where people live, work, and obtain services

3

ORIGINS OF SETTLEMENTS


Religious - graves, churches, temples



Cultural - schools, libraries



Political/Military - leader’s house, walls



Economic - stores, food
4

TYPES OF SETTLEMENTS


Rural Settlements - agriculture as the
predominant occupation.



Urban settlements - principal industries are
secondary and tertiary.

5

RURAL SETTLEMENTS
Clustered rural settlements –grouped
settlements in rural areas to minimize travel

Dispersed rural Settlements - isolated farms
with enclosed continuous fields (Found only in
N. America and Britain).

6

Urban Geographers want to know the global distribution of urban
settlements. MDC’s have a high percentage of people living in urban
areas because of the shift from agriculture-manufacturing-services.
Geographers are also interested in where people and activities are
distributed within urban spaces. What are the differences between the
inner-city and suburban areas and why?
As we saw in the last chapter, many downtowns are unique and can
often be recognized in photos where the suburbs often look very
much alike (Placelessness). Why? Suburbs offer the chance to avoid
some of the city problems (crime, tight living area, expensive
land/rent, noise, age of buildings) while still keeping a connection with
the goods and services of the city: jobs, sports teams, culture, shops,
recreation, etc.
7

Where is this place?

8

Today’s cities are evolving and changing. Although different internal
situations characterize urban areas in the US and elsewhere, the
problems arising from current spatial trends are quite similar in all cities.
Where have urban areas grown: in the early 1800’s only 3% of the earth’s
people lived in cities and only Beijing China had more than 1 million
people. Today over ½ of the world’s people live in cities and we have over
400 cities of at least 1 million people.

Urbanization: is the process by which city population grows.
Cities population growth is measured in 2 dimensions;
1. An increase in the number of people living in the cities.
2. An increase in the percentage of people living in the cities.
This distinction is important because they happen for different reason and
have different global distributions.
9

Increasing Percentage of People in Cities: a large percentage of people living in urban
areas is a measure of a country’s level of development. In MDC’s about ¾ of the people
live in urban areas compared to about 2/5 of people in LDC’s. (Except in Latin America
where the level is closer to MDC’s.)
The higher percentage of people in urban areas comes from the changes that have
occurred in the last 200 years as we went from agriculture (primary jobs) to industrial
(secondary jobs) and now service jobs, all created by the Industrial Revolution of the
1800’s.
People moved to the cities for industrial jobs, but in MDC’s this process has largely
ended because nearly everyone interested in moving to the cities from farms has already
done so.
In LDC’s the percentage of people living in urban areas is growing as people are pushed
off of their farms and replaced by machines and as people move to cities looking/hoping
for industrial jobs.
10

Increasing Number of People in Cities: MDC’s have a higher percentage of
people living in urban settlements but LDC’s have more of the very large urban
settlements (Primate cities). (Rank-size rule, primate cities, chapter 12.)

This is interesting because typically the large cities are created from the
improvements brought by the Industrial Revolution. This is not the case with the
large LDC cities. Migration to the primate city in LDC’s is happening even though
job opportunities may not be available. Increasing the population growth in LDC
cities is the fact that medical services are better in these cities, thus the child
mortality rate is lower.
Defining Urban Settlements: defining where urban areas end and rural areas
begin is not easy. Geographers have formulated definitions that distinguish
between urban and rural areas in two ways: Social differences and Physical
differences.
11

Percent Urban Population

Percent of the population living in urban areas is usually higher in MDCs
than in LDCs.

12

The most populated cities in the world

Of the top
20, only
Moscow,
Tokyo and
New York
are in MDC’s

Shanghai China has 14,608,512 people
13

14

15

Social Differences Between Urban and Rural Settlements: it is fair to say that rural
people and urban people follow different ways of life. A city can be defined as having 3
characteristics:
1. Large size. People in rural settlements know most of the other people in the
settlement. Not true in big cities. Social relationships are often described as “colder” in
urban areas because you only see some people at work instead of growing up with
them in the settlement.
2. High Density. Having lots of people in a tiny area creates social consequences. A
high density of people living in a small area can only be supported if the people
specialize (they can’t all be farmers). People are encouraged to compete for jobs, room,
and survival in a tightly limited space. Social groups compete to occupy the same space
(ethnic/ race problems). Rural settlements have very little of this problem.
3. Social Heterogeneity. The larger the settlement, the greater the variety of people.
Being “unusual” in a large settlement is more likely to be accepted than in a small rural
one. But despite the freedom to be different that large urban settlements give you,
people living there often feel alone because so many people are different from them.
There is a stronger feeling of belonging together in small rural settlements.
16

These 3 differences do not fully answer the question of where urban settlements
begin and rural ones end because in today’s MDC’s most everyone has access to
cars, telephones, televisions, and “urban type” jobs which reduce the differences
between urban and rural lifestyles. “City folk” and “Country folk” are more alike
today than they are different. To help distinguish between urban and rural areas we
need to add the physical definition of rural and urban to the equation.
Physical Definitions of Urban Settlements: In ancient time, cities had defensive
walls for protection which clearly defined the physical boundaries of the city. Today
the walls are gone but we can still define the physical boundaries in 3 ways:
1. Legal boundary. These are the official boundaries of a city as recognized by
the government of the country or state. These “city limits” have been officially given
to the city and are physically marked on official maps. The local government of the
city has authority to make laws and protect the people inside the city boundaries.
17

2. Urbanized area. This is the city plus its suburbs or urbanized area that
surrounds the city. About 70 percent of US residents live in urbanized areas with
40% being in the suburbs and 30% inside the city limits. The suburbs may have
their own city governments but the huge central city dominates what happens in
the entire area.
3. Metropolitan Statistical Area. Cities have an even bigger influence on people
than just those living in their city limits and surrounding urbanized areas. People
from far away come to shop, use the services, support the sports teams, read
the newspapers and watch the television broadcasts of the city. Thus the city
has a “functional area” which is its total zone of influence. The US Bureau of
Census has created a method of measuring the functional area of the city.
Known as the Metropolitan statistical area (MSA) this area includes:
•An urbanized area with a population of at least 50,000
•The county within which the city is located.
•Adjacent counties with a high population density and a large percentage of
residents working in the central city’s county.
18

Metropolitan Area of Philadelphia

City of
Philadelphia

Urbanized
area
(suburbs)
Metropolitan
Statistical
Area

The metropolitan area of Philadelphia is
spread over several counties and four states.
It is also a diversified trade center, given its
position on the Delaware river.

19

20

21

Micropolitan Statistical Areas: Smaller areas with between
10,000 and 50,000 people, the county where it is found, and
adjacent counties tied to the city. This would be a small town and
the area dominated by it.
Overlapping Metropolitan Areas: Some adjacent MSA’s overlap.
A county between two central cities may send a large number of
commuters to jobs in both cities. In some areas the cities are so
close that they form one continuous urban complex. This is
known as a Megalopolis (great city).
In a megalopolis, the downtown CBD often has its own
distinctive look and the urban areas are visually separated by
parks, open spaces, and dairy/truck farms. But at the periphery
of the urban areas, the boundaries overlap.
22

Colorado Springs, population 431,000

Ocala, Florida, population 56,000

Florala, Alabama, population 1,900

23

Megalopolis, from northern Va. To Maine.
This Illustrates the
difference between
strict city proper
definitions and broader
urban agglomerations.
To define urbanized
areas, the U.S. Census
Bureau uses the term
Metropolitan Statistical
Area (MSA) or
Consolidated MSA
(CMSA) if two or more of
them overlap.
24

Where are People Distributed within Urban Areas? People are not
just distributed at random in urban areas. For the most part they
concentrate in particular neighborhoods depending on their social
characteristics. Geographers want to see where people with
particular characteristics are likely to live and why.

Three models which try to explain the growth of a city:

The Burgess Model

The Hoyt Sector Model

The Harris and Ullman
multiple Nuclei Model
25

Burgess Concentric Zone Model

In the concentric zone model, a city grows in a series of rings surrounding the CBD.

Burgess Concentric Zone Model: This is the first used to explain the
distributions of different social groups within urban areas. It says that a
city grows outward from a central place in a series of concentric rings.
The precise size and width of the rings vary from one city to another, but
some basic types of rings appear in all cities in the same order (see chart
above).
26

•Hoyt Sector Model: In this model the city develops in a
series of sectors not rings. Certain areas of the city are
more attractive for various activities, originally because
of an environmental factor (or even pure chance). As the
city grows, activities extend outward in a wedge shape.
For example, once a wealthy neighborhood is built the
next wealthy neighborhood will extend from the first
neighborhood further outward from the center. In this
way, the best housing is found in a corridor extending
outward from the center to the outer edge (see chart on
the next page).
27

The Hoyt Sector Model

In the sector model, a city grows in a series of
wedges or corridors extending out from the
CBD.
28

•Harris and Ullman’s Multiple Nuclei Model: According
to this model, a city is a complex structure that includes
more than one center around which activities revolve.
Examples of these nodes include a port, parks,
stadium, neighborhood business center, university, and
airport (see chart). This theory states that some
activities are attracted to particular nodes, whereas
others try to avoid them. A university node may attract
well educated people and bookstores while the port will
attract hotels and warehouses. Heavy industry and
expensive houses rarely are found together. This
model shows the effect of the automobile more than
any other model.
29

The Harris and Ullman Multiple Nuclei model

The multiple nuclei model views a city as a
collection of individual centers, around which
different people and activities cluster.

30

Applications of the Models: The three models help explain where and in some
cases, why people live where they do. None of the models by themselves fully
explains why and where different types of people live, but combined they give
you as good a look as possible at the “Why” of “Where.” Effective use of the
models depends on getting good data on the areas. Most countries take a
census every 10 years to help determine useful data about the people and
places of the country. In our country we divide the census data into areas
known as census tracts of about 5,000 people. Each census tract has the data
that summarizes the characteristics of the people living within that tract. This
information includes things like the race, income, age, and education of the
people living in that tract.
Social Area Analysis: The data from the census tracts can all be plotted onto
maps to show the characteristics of the people living in that tract. This map is
known as a social area analysis.
31

Using Census tract information…Seattle, Washington
Each lined area is a
census tract of about 5000
people in Seattle
Washington. These maps
show average household
income for 1990 and
2000…note the changes in
income in some areas
between 1990 and 2000.
Using this information, a
business can make
decisions about where
they want to locate a new
store or the future of
existing stores.
You can find census tract
information on many topics
such as; age, education
level, race, ethnicity, crime
rate, and land ownership.
Note the areas with
incomes over
$63,000.

All can be very valuable
information to people
looking to open
businesses.

32

Examine the changes
between 1990 and
2000.

Oakland, California’s Ethnic neighborhoods
The small bordered areas are census tracks of 5000 people.

33

Use of the Models Outside of North America: The 3 models will also work in other
places in the world; however social groups in other countries may not have the
same reasons for selecting particular neighborhoods as Americans do.
European Cities: As in the US, wealthier people in European cities cluster along a
sector extending outward from the CBD, however unlike the US, wealthy and
middle class Europeans still live in the inner rings of the neighborhoods near the
CBD not out in the suburbs. In the past, poorer people lived in the center of the
city. Before electricity, social segregation was vertical: richer people lived on the
first or second floor of a building while the poorer people lived in the basement or
upper floors. In the Industrial Revolution, housing for the poor was constructed
near the factories and away from the rich.
Today poorer Europeans are less likely to live in the inner-city. Poor quality
housing has been renovated for the rich or turned into office buildings. Poorer
Europeans tend to live in the outskirts of the city. Vast suburbs with dozens of high
rise apartments house the poor. They face long commutes to reach their jobs in
the city.
34

European cities generally do not have the “suburban
sprawl” that US cities have. European cities tend to be
more pedestrian friendly with more parks downtown as
Europeans tend to still live downtown.
US cities have taller buildings as European cities tend to
be older and more historic.

American cities have more ethnic neighborhoods than
European cities. Ethnic neighborhoods that do exist in
European cities tend to be in the suburbs. WHY?
Because the established richer neighborhoods tend to be
downtown in European cities.
35

Less Developed Countries: Like Europe, most LDC’s accommodate their poor in the
suburbs with their middle class and rich living near the center of the city. LDC’s have
passed through 3 periods of city building: before the Europeans arrived, during the
period of European colonialism, and since independence from European control.

Pre-colonial Cities: Before the Europeans arrived few cities existed in Africa, Asia, and
Latin America and most people lived in small rural settlements. Those cities that existed
were mostly laid out surrounding a religious center; with the rest of the city laid out in a
hieratical concentric pattern (like the Burgess model) from government buildings,
homes of the wealthy, and businesses related to the religion out to other businesses
and shops.
Colonial cities: When the Europeans took over these lands, they changed the cities by
adding services to help the Europeans control the conquered people. Often a new
European style city would be build next to the existing native one. The new European
cities contained wider streets, a public square, larger houses and a much lower density.
The Spanish used the “Law of the Indies” which was a city plan designed specifically to
build cities in a “Spanish” style. (Gridiron pattern for streets centered on a church and
central plaza, walls around individual houses and neighborhoods centered around
smaller plazas and more churches.)
36

Early Mexico city was laid out in a grid pattern of streets. This followed
the Spanish “Law of the Indies.”

37

Central Plaza in Mexico City 1920 photo. Typical Colonial City plan.

Part of downtown Mexico city today still shows the
building plan of the “Law of the Indies.”

38

Cities since Independence: Following independence, cities have become
the focal point of the development of most LDC’s. Millions of people have
migrated to the cities (Primate cities) looking for jobs and services. Some
capitals have been moved to isolated areas in an attempt to help develop
that area of the country (Brasília) This is know as a forward capital. Latin
American cities have developed their own unique style.
Squatter settlements: The LDC’s are unable to house the rapidly growing
number of poor who are flowing into the cities. Because of the housing
shortages, the poor have constructed their own settlements around the city.
These settlements have few services because neither the city nor the
residents can afford them. Squatters have two basic choices for housing.
1. Illegally move into empty real houses located in the city or,
2. Rent slum housing.
(85% of the population of Addis Ababa in Ethiopia lives in squatter
settlements, slums or other illegal housing.)
39

Squatter shacks in Manila, the Philippines

40

Squatter settlement in Ethiopia

41

Zimbabwe, Africa

42

Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

43

Latin American City Model:
In many Latin
American cities,
the wealthy live in
the inner city and
in a sector
extending along a
commercial spine.
In situ accretion- businesses
and homes constantly under
construction/repair.
Zone of maturity-2nd best
housing in the city.
The poor live in squatter settlements on the
periphery of the city.

Disamenity- unpleasant area
used by the poor to get to the
market.

44

The City Outline of Rio de Janeiro
The rich tourist areas and expensive condo apartments are along the coast
and beach while the poor live in squatter shacks in the hills.

45

City problems:
Inner-City Physical Problems: Most US inner cities were constructed before the 1950’s
(people began to move to the suburbs in the 1950’s so new construction moved out of
the city).
Process of Deterioration (how a city deteriorates): A city doesn’t suddenly become old
and full of slummy areas. It happens over time. When a group of low-income people
inhabit an area of a city, nearby neighborhoods will often look to move out. They sell or
rent to more low-income occupants thus expanding the low-income area. Two processes
cause/speed up the devaluation of areas:
1. Filtering, 2. Redlining.
Filtering: Large houses and buildings that once housed rich downtown workers (who
moved to the suburbs) are taken over by landlords who don’t live in that area (they
moved to the suburbs too). Rents are low so the landlord doesn’t take as good care of
the property as they should and the property becomes run down or abandoned. Stores
close, or move, due to lack of sales. 100 years ago these neighborhoods would be used
by immigrants and ethnic businesses would succeed in those areas. Now, with a decline
in immigration, these neighborhoods have shrunk and so have schools, businesses and
other services. Thousands of vacant houses and buildings stand empty in inner cities
across America.

46

Redlining: Some banks refuse to give loans in what they consider
risky neighborhoods. They draw a red line on a map around areas
where they will not give loans. Without loans, these neighborhoods
have a hard time rebuilding/remodeling. Though illegal, this still
happens. Bankers just don’t put these “no-loan” areas on a map.

Urban Renewal: This is the series of projects to improve European
and N. American cities by buying up the blighted neighborhoods,
moving the people to new government built housing projects, and
building new roads, and other projects to make the inner city
attractive for business again. National and State government grants
help pay for these projects.
47

Public housing: Housing for the poor, built with government funding as part of
urban renewal. In the US this is only about 2% of the housing while in some
countries it may be more (Britain is 30%). Public housing built in the 50’s & 60’s
were largely high rise apartments, but those are seen as being unsatisfactory.
Problems arise from cramming large numbers of poor people into one area.
Today most public housing projects are one to three story buildings with many of
them being scattered around different parts of the city rather than clustered into
one area.
Because urban renewal has been criticized for destroying the social cohesion of
older neighborhoods, many governments (like the US) have stopped funding
most projects since the 1970’s. What do we do instead?
Renovated Housing: An alternative often used since the 70’s is to renovate a
building instead of urban renewal. The process where middle-class people
move into inner-city neighborhoods and renovate them is called gentrification.
Gentrified inner-city neighborhoods also attract middle-class people who work
downtown. Living close to work saves the hassle of commuting and rejuvenates
run down inner-city neighborhoods
48

Gentrified building downtown Harlem, NY. Note the supermarket.

49

Inner-City Social Problems: Inner-city residents are often referred to as the
permanent underclass because they are trapped in an unending cycle of
economic and social problems. High unemployment, alcoholism, drug
addiction, literacy, juvenile delinquency, and crime all exist at a higher rate
among those who live in the inner-city. Lack of jobs means lack of tax dollars
to pay for police and fire protection as well as good schools. Lack of job skills
and homelessness are also tremendous problems.
Culture of Poverty: Inner-city residents are trapped in a permanent underclass
culture that reproduces itself. In the US, unwed mothers give birth to 2/3 of the
babies in the inner-city. 90% of these children live with only one parent and it
is real hard for one parent to keep a job and take care of children. Both suffer
and a shortage of care and daily attention by the parent contributes to the kids
not learning the skills necessary to do well in school which leads to poor jobs
for their futures. Poverty leads to more poverty. Many families on welfare have
only one parent because it is financially better if one parent is gone, that way
the single parent gets food stamps and other services from the government
that they would not get if it was a 2 family household.
50

Crime: Trapped in a hopeless environment, some inner-city
residents turn to drugs. Drug use is a problem in inner-city
areas and the suburbs, but rates of drug use in inner-cities
are the highest.
Ethnic and Racial Segregation: As seen in chapter 7, many
neighborhoods in the US are segregated by ethnicity with
African Americans and Hispanics concentrated in one or two
continuous areas and whites living in the suburbs. Even small
cities display a strong distinction among neighborhoods. A
frequent division is between the east and west or north and
south side of town, or the railroad tracks. A family seeking a
new residence will seek the areas where the characteristics
of the people meet their own.

51

The exodus
from the
American city.
This has
happened in
many American
cities since the
1960’s.

52

Changes in Cities in the U.S.
U.S. population has been moving out of the city centers to the suburbs:
suburbanization and counter urbanization

Developed Countries: suburbanization

 wealthy move to suburbs
 automobiles and roads; ‘American
Dream’ of the home in the suburbs.
 better services
 wealthy move to suburbs
Counter urbanization

idyllic settings
cost of land for retirement
slow pace, yet high tech
connections to services and markets
53

U.S. intraregional migration during 1990s.

Inner city economic problems: the concentration of low income
residents in inner cities has caused economic problems. These
people require public services but can pay very little in taxes to
support the services. They need stores and jobs but have little
money to spend in the store and few skills for jobs (so the stores
close). To try to fight these problems many local and state
governments use tax monies to try to renovate these areas, but this
shifts tax money needed for other areas to the inner city (votes on
election day).
Annexation: Many cities could help their tax problem by adding the
new suburbs to be part of their city (annexation). After all, many of
these suburban people use the city for its’ jobs etc., so why not add
them into the city? Today, most people in the suburbs do not want
to be annexed into the city and so they do not vote to be annexed.
54

The Peripheral Model: According to this model, an urban area
consists of an inner city surrounded by large suburban residential
and business areas (MSA) tied together by a beltway or highway
that circles the city. Around the beltway are nodes of consumer
and business services called edge cities (see diagram of multiple
nuclei model). These edge cities sprang up to provide services
and jobs to the people in the suburbs.
Density Gradient: As you travel outward from the center of the
city, the density of people declines. Inner city has big apartments
of 250 of more people per acre. Suburbs have fewer people per
acre (but lots of acres) and finally you leave the cities periphery
you find few people. The number of houses per unit of land
diminishes as distance from the center of the city increases.
55

The Edge cities (bedroom communities) of Houston

The central city is surrounded by a ring road, around which are
suburban areas and edge cities, shopping malls, office parks,
industrial areas, and service complexes.

Known as
bedroom
communities
because
people live
there but
mostly don’t
work there.
They drive
into the city
for work.
56

As you move from the center of the city outward, the density of the population
changes. This is know as the density gradient. Two big changes have occurred in
the density gradient of today’s cities:
1. The number of people living in the center has decreased.
2. The density difference between the inner city and the suburbs is declining
because the inner city density is dropping and the suburban density is growing
due to more large apartments being built in the suburbs.
Cost of Suburban or Urban Sprawl: Urban Sprawl is the progressive spread of
development over the landscape. As long as we Americans want single-family
detached houses, land on the fringe of urban areas will be converted from open
space to residential use. The cost of this growth is more than the loss of land, it is
also the cost of new roads, utilities, building stores and offices and the cost of
automobiles to move these people over even longer distances. Lots of these new
developments are built on what was once farmland. Wonderful productive soil now
under concrete.

Greenbelts: are areas where, by law, the open space can not be used for any
construction. This is mostly found in Europe.

57

Once farmland that is being converted to suburbs and cities.

58

Tyson’s Corner Virginia in 1940

59

Washington, DC. MSA.

Tyson’s Corner Virginia
today.
Washington D.C. is off
In the distance.

60

Suburban Segregation: The “new” segregation.
Suburban segregation takes two forms:
1. Residents are separated from commercial and manufacturing activities
which are confined someplace else. (The whole neighborhood is
nothing but houses because they drive for services.)
2. The price of the house eliminates some from being able to live there. This
creates a homogeneous suburb of the same economic class of people.
This never existed before in history. Where we once had vertical
segregation of the classes we now we have horizontal segregation.
3. But this may be reversing as new statistics show that people are beginning
to move back to the city. Why? Cost of transportation.
Zoning Ordinances: This idea developed in Europe and later America in the
early decades of the 20th century. This means that businesses are allowed only
in certain areas of the settlement. (No all night taco stands inside your single
family neighborhood.)
Motor vehicles: The wide use of the automobile is largely responsible for the
American movement to the suburbs. Not only did people move out but 1/4 of
the land inside all American cities are now roads, streets, and parking lots.

61

Public Transportation: Because few US workers live within walking distance
of their jobs, urban areas are characterized by extensive commuting and the
problems that come with it. As much as 40% of all trips made into or out from
a city during the day takes place within just 4 hours. (2 in the morning and 2 in
the late afternoon). RUSH HOUR!!! In large cities, public transportation, like
subways and busses, are better suited to move people but Americans still
prefer their own cars. Public transportation is cheaper, cleaner, and more
energy efficient than personal cars, yet in the US only 5% of city travel is
done using public transit systems. American’s love their personal car too
much.
Local Government Fragmentation: Because of the large number of local
governments in the US (look at the settlements in Pinellas County) it is
difficult to solve some of the regional problems like garbage disposal, water
management, traffic and public housing.
62

Metropolitan government: This idea tries to put many local governments into a
larger unit that can better handle the urban problems. The 2 ways to do this
are:
1. Federations in which the individual settlements have their own police,
firemen, and tax collection but they all agree to be part of a second
government which handles transportation, water, sewage, parks and
welfare for all the communities.
2. Consolidations: In this method, several cities and the county may form one
government. Jacksonville’s government runs not only the town but the
county too, this makes Jacksonville the largest city, in land size, in the US.
Smart growth: A new movement by many states to curb suburban sprawl by
limiting where new construction can take place. Smart growth laws require that
land near cities be used up before any land further out can be developed. So
far, this is only being done an a few parts of our country.
63

The new
US as
some
people
see it.

64

Quiz Yourself:
1. The process where middle-class people move into inner city neighborhoods and
renovate them is called ____________
2. ____________ happens when banks refuse to give loans in what they consider
risky neighborhoods.
3. Because of the housing shortages, the poor have constructed their own settlements
around the city known as __________ _________

4. Businesses are allowed only in certain areas of the settlement because of
____________ ____________
5. Areas known as _____ _______ are areas of about 5,000 people. The data from
that area is used to help define needed services for that area.
6. When cities are so close that they form one continuous band of development this is
known as a ____________
65

7. Social relationships are often described as “colder” in urban areas because…
8. In this model the city develops in a series of sectors not rings. _______

9. ______ (LDC’s or MDC’s) have a higher percentage of people living in urban
settlements but ________ (LDC’s or MDC’s) have more of the very large urban
settlements.
10. _____________ was the first model developed to explain the distributions
of different social groups within urban areas.
11. New cities which develop around the beltway are nodes of consumer and
business services known as ________ _________.

12. When the Europeans took over lands around the world, they changed the
cities by adding services to help the Europeans control the conquered people.
These European planned cities are known as __________ cities.
66

Answer Key:
1.

Gentrification

2.

Redlining

3.

Squatter Settlements

4.

Zoning ordinances

5.

Census tracks

6.

Megalopolis

7. There is a stronger feeling of belonging together in small rural settlements.
8. Hoyt sector model
9. MDC, LDC
10. Burgess Concentric Zone model
11. Edge cities
12. Colonial cities
67

Test Key topic/chapter 13:
These questions come from a combination of our slides, your text book, and common knowledge you should
have discussed in your AP classroom. They are very typical of what you will see on the National Exam.
1) The multiple nuclei theory best explains why different neighborhoods of a city attract people of different… A) ages.
B) ethnic origin C) income D) marital status.
2) Sprawl is the… A) change in density within an urban area from the center to the periphery B) development of new
housing sites not contiguous to the existing built-up area. C) land maintained as open space surrounding an urban area.
D) period in the morning and evening with the heaviest volumes of traffic.
3) People are attracted to suburbs in part because suburbs are characterized by…A) heavy traffic. B) lower opportunity
for home ownership. C) private land surrounding the house. D) row houses and apartments.
4) Megalopolis refers to… A) adjacent, overlapping Metropolitan Statistical Areas. B) central cities. C) consolidated
Metropolitan Statistical Areas. D) central cities plus urbanized areas.
5) Which statement best describes the relationship between urbanization and the Industrial Revolution? A) Urbanization
promoted the Industrial Revolution. B) The Industrial Revolution promoted urbanization. C) Urbanization preceded the
Industrial Revolution by thousands of years. D) Urbanization and the Industrial Revolution are no longer related.
6) The process of legally adding land area to a city in the United States is… A) annexation. B) accreditation. C) an
application of eminent domain. D) defined by urbanized area.

68

7) The process of change in the use of a house, from single-family owner occupancy to abandonment, is… A) blockbusting.
B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining.
8) A process by which banks designate an area within which they refuse to lend money for improvements is… A) blockbusting.
B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining.
9) A recent change in the density gradient has been… A) the elimination of the gap traditionally found in the center. B) an
increase in the extremes between the inner and outer areas. C) an increase in the number of people living in the center.
D) a reduction in the differences in densities found within an urban area.
10) U.S. central cities face fiscal problems because… A) federal and state funds are available. B) low-income people are
concentrated there. C) middle-class families are attracted there. D) redlining is no longer legal.
11) A legal form of segregation in U.S. cities is achieved through...A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) zoning. D) greenbelts.
12) Factories have moved to suburban locations in part because of… A) access to main highways. B) adequate space to build
vertical structures. C) availability of large tracts of high-priced land. D) good rail connections.
13) According to the sector model, the best housing is located in…A) a corridor from downtown to the edge of the city.
B) an outer ring surrounding the city. C) nodes near universities and parks. D) renovated inner-city neighborhoods.
14) Ramshackle houses on the periphery of cities in less developed countries are known as… A) squatter settlements. B) council
estates. C) public housing. D) zone in transition.
15) Higher income people tend to live near the center of the city in all but which of the following regions? A) Latin America
B) North America C) South Asia D) Western Europe

16) The wide boulevards built in cities in less developed countries were most likely built during what era? A) pre-colonial
B) colonial C) independence D) all of the above equally

69

17) According to the multiple nuclei model, an airport is likely to attract nearby… A) industries. B) residences. C) shops.
D) universities.
18) The largest percentage of the U.S. population lives in…A) central cities. B) suburbs. C) non-metropolitan areas. D) all of the
above
19) In U.S. cities, the underclass is… A) clustered in inner-city neighborhoods. B) dispersed throughout the city. C) clustered in
suburbs. D) distributed uniformly in the city.

20) A process of converting a neighborhood from low-income to middle-class is…A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) gentrification.
D) redlining.
21) Higher social heterogeneity in urban settlements means that… A) the people with whom you relax are probably the same ones you
see at work. B) you play a specialized role in the urban economy. C) you compete for limited space. D) you may feel lonely and
isolated in a crowd.
22) The city plus its contiguous built-up suburbs is the… A) central city. B) urbanized area.
D) consolidated metropolitan statistical area

C) metropolitan statistical area.

23) The process whereby an increasing percentage of people live in an urban area is known as… A) demographic transition.
B) rank-size rule. C) urbanization. D) central place theory.
24) Of the ten largest urban areas in the world, how many are in More Developed Countries today? A) 1 B) 4 C) 7 D) 10 E) 2
25) Public housing is…A) conversion of low-income housing to middle-class housing. B) illegally established low-income housing.
C) housing that has changed from single-family owner occupancy to abandonment. D) low-income government-owned housing.
26) According to the concentric zone model, a city develops in a series of… A) corridors. B) nodes. C) rings. D) all of the above

70

27) Chicago is a good location in which to develop urban models because it is located… A) at the hub of the nation's transportation
system. B) in the center of the country. C) on a flat prairie. D) on the shore of Lake Michigan.
28) According to the sector model, the best housing is located in… A) a corridor from downtown to the edge of the city. B) an outer
ring surrounding the city. C) nodes near universities and parks. D) renovated inner-city neighborhoods.
29) The zone of transition in US cities generally contain…A) warehouses B) wealthy neighborhoods C) transportation hubs
D) universities and hospitals E) suburban homes
30) The attractions of shopping malls include all but which of the following? A) frequent concerts and exhibitions B) generous
parking lots C) place to meet friends D) walking distance from homes
The following questions are written at the high school level. You will find some questions from part one often rewritten
here. This is all designed to help you transition to the college/AP style of written questions. Any question preceded with ***
are questions that have been on the national exam before.
31. Most Latin American cities are focused on a…A) central plaza B) government housing project C) zone of heavy industry
D) skyscraper office building E) squatter settlement
32. The multiple-nuclei model of a city structure tends to be most applicable to…A) small cities B) traditional C) Latin American
cities D) newer, fast growing cities E) cities with homogeneous land use
33. ***Locational advantages important to the development of the earliest cities include…A) availability of good harbors for large
ships B) productive agricultural land and defensible sites C) temperate climate and proximity to coal mines D) good
connections by road and canal E) proximity to manufacturing areas

34. In cities, the CBD’s often show uniqueness while the suburbs usually show…A) a large hinterland. B) placelessness C) more
than one node. D) newer zones of transition.

71

35. Many LDC’s have tried to help a previously under-developed part of their country develop by moving their capital
city to that area. This new capital is known as a…A) forward capital B) new development zone C) enterprise zone
D) neocolonial city
36. Today the greatest number of urban dwellers is found in…A) North America
D) Europe E) Asia

B) South America C) Africa

37. ***All of the following have helped create ghettos in North American cities except…A)blockbusting and racial
steering B) redlining by financial institutions C) concentration of public housing and social services D) fixed school
districts E) Economic Enterprise Zones

38. Which of the following is NOT as reason for rapid suburbanization in the US after WW2? A) Mass production of
the automobile B) Reduction of long distance commuting C) Expansion of home construction D) Expansion of the
interstate highway system E) Availability of low down payment terms and long-term mortgages.
39. New cities which developed in the hinterland of large urban areas because of the automobile, are known as…
A) edge cities B) census tracts C) suburban sprawl D) squatter settlements. E) none of these
40. Gentrification refers to… A) moving the homeless into inner city shelters B) The “White Flight” from the urban city
C) losing tax revenue because of stores closing in downtown areas D) middle-class people moving into and renovating
inner city neighborhoods E) the creation of “beltway cities” around the city.

72

4
7
3

5

1
6

2

41-48 all use the sketch above.
41. The sketch in box A above represents which model of the inner structure of urban areas?
C) multiple nuclei model D) Burgess concentric zone model E) peripheral model
42. The models in boxes B and C represent A) Concentric zone and multiple nuclei
concentric zone D) peripheral and concentric zone E) Von Thunen and peripheral

A) Hoyt sector model B) VonThunen’s model

B) Multiple nuclei and Hoyt sector C) Hoyt sector and

43. In which ring (1, 2, etc.) of sketch A above would high-status households in North American cities likely live? A) 1 B) 2 C) 3 D) 4&5
44. In which ring (1, 2, etc.) of sketch A above would high status households in a European city likely live? A) 1

B) 2

C) 3

D) 4&5

45. In model B, zone # 2 is where it is likely because of: A) greenbelting B) squatter settling C) the culture of poverty D) transportation
E) no one knows
46. The model in sketch B is the; A) Hoyt sector model B) Burgess model C) multiple nuclei model D) peripheral model
47. The model in sketch C is the; A) Hoyt sector model B) Burgess model C) multiple nuclei model D) peripheral model
48. Which of these models best describes what has happened in US cities in the last 40 years? A)

B)

C)

73

49.*** In the U.S. a city plus its contiguous built-up suburbs is known as an…A) urbanized area B) zoned area
C) census tract D) Squatter settlement E) none of these
50. Done mostly in Europe, these are areas where land is kept as parks, farms or other kinds of open space and urban
sprawl is not allowed. A) Smart growth
B) zoning
C) filtering
D) census tracts E) greenbelts
51. Which statement best describes the relationship between urbanization and the Industrial Revolution?
A) Urbanization promoted the Industrial Revolution. B) The Industrial Revolution promoted urbanization.
C) Urbanization preceded the Industrial Revolution by thousands of years. D) Urbanization and the Industrial
Revolution are no longer related.
52. The process whereby an increasing percentage of people live in an urban area is known as…
A) Demographic transition. B) rank-size rule. C) Urbanization. D) Central place theory.
53. The city (if it has 50,000 or more people) plus its contiguous built-up suburbs AND the county it is in as well as any
other counties it influences, is known as the ...A) central city B) urbanized area
C) metropolitan statistical area
D) consolidated metropolitan area E) micropolitan statistical area
54. ***Higher social heterogeneity in urban settlements means that …A) the people with whom you relax are probably
the same ones you see at work. B) you play a specialized role in the urban economy. C) you compete for limited
space. D) you may feel lonely and isolated in a crowd.

55. The process of change in the use of a house, from single-family owner occupancy to smaller dwellings for the poor
and then sometimes to abandonment, is…A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining. E) none of
these

74

Free Response #1:
The Bid Rent theory says that the closer you get to the
CBD the higher the cost for land, yet in most American
cities you find the poorest people living near the
expensive CBD and the richest living further away.
Explain:
A. Why neighborhoods near the CBD are often poor and
run down?
B. Why are there few grocery and other retail stores in
these neighborhoods?
C. Why is this not really true in European and Latin
American countries?

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75

FR #2:
Think of the map of your school, explain the
layout of your school using the Multiple Nuclei
Model
The main office is the CBD.
Completely explain your answer using specific
buildings and/or land areas in your explanation
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76

Answer Key:
1. B

14. A

27. C

40. D

53. C

2. B

15. B

28. A

41. D

54. D

3. C

16. B

29. A

42. B

55. B

4. A

17. A

30. D

43. D

5. B

18. B

31. A

44. A

6. A

19. A

32. D

45. D

7. B

20. C

33. B

46. A

8. D

21. D

34. B

47. C

9. D

22. B

35. A

48. C

10. B

23. C

36. E

49. A

11. C

24. C

37. E

50. E

12. A

25. D

38. B

51. B

13. A

26. C

39. A

52. C
77

FR. #1: ( 15 pts. for each section…total of 45 pts.)
A. In the US the move of the wealthy and middle class to the suburbs has left the older houses and apartments near the CBD empty.
This has lowered their value to the point where the poor can afford these dwellings and have made these neighborhoods their
homes. The poor can not pay for upkeep of these dwellings, or to pay high taxes. The lack of upkeep and tax money to repair the
roads and schools, adds to the downward spiral of the neighborhood. With little spending money for shopping, the poor do not
spend much in the stores. This causes many stores to close and move to the suburbs where the spending customers and money
went. The closing of the stores adds to the poverty of the area by taking away some of the jobs that were in the neighborhood. This
becomes a vicious cycle of poverty and deterioration. (15 points)

B. There are few retail stores and groceries is the area because the poor do not have money to shop. The lack of spending forces
many stores out of business or forces them to move to better locations. There also can be higher crime in these areas and the
crime often takes place at the stores. This is another reason for the stores to move out of the neighborhood. (15 points)
C. Neighborhoods in European and Latin American cities are different from those of US cities. In Europe and Latin America, the
wealthy and middle class still live near or in the CBD. The higher tax base and more spending ability of the upper and middle
classes, keeps the CBD area flourishing with jobs and in constant repair and upkeep of the cities’ physical condition. (15 points)

FR #2: (10 total points.)
You will need to judge how effectively you displayed you school
in the Multiple Nuclei Model. Refer to the model itself to help you
determine your success and grade.
School’s main office
78

Calculating your grade on test 13.
Add how many you got correct on the multiple choice part (55 possible) to how many
points you scored on the FR portion (55 possible)…110 total.
The following scale will show the approximate score if this test were the real AP exam. Remember that this
is an approximation. While 65-74% is normally the range for a 3 on the test, it is not definite. Over the
years I have seen scores as low as 60% be the low portion of a 3 score.

Out of 110 possible points:
72-83 is most likely a 3
84-94 is most likely a 4

95-110 is most likely a 5

Now lets start our review for the national exam by
reviewing the 33 key models and theories of the
course…the next PowerPoint.


Slide 32

Key topic/chapter 13…Urban Patterns
Key terms:
Annexation
Concentric zone model
Density gradient
Edge cities
Filtering
Galactic city
Gentrification
Greenbelts
Megalopolis
MSA
Multiple nuclei model
Peripheral model

Public housing
Redlining
Renovated housing
Scattered site
Squatter settlement
Sector model
Smart growth
Sprawl
Underclass
Urban renewal
Zone in transition
Zoning
1

Chapter 13…Urban Areas.
How are Cities planned?
Why

are cities where they are?
How are they organized?
Why are some areas of a city
different from
other areas of the same city?
What is the future of cities?
2

Settlement


Settlement - permanent collections of buildings,
where people live, work, and obtain services

3

ORIGINS OF SETTLEMENTS


Religious - graves, churches, temples



Cultural - schools, libraries



Political/Military - leader’s house, walls



Economic - stores, food
4

TYPES OF SETTLEMENTS


Rural Settlements - agriculture as the
predominant occupation.



Urban settlements - principal industries are
secondary and tertiary.

5

RURAL SETTLEMENTS
Clustered rural settlements –grouped
settlements in rural areas to minimize travel

Dispersed rural Settlements - isolated farms
with enclosed continuous fields (Found only in
N. America and Britain).

6

Urban Geographers want to know the global distribution of urban
settlements. MDC’s have a high percentage of people living in urban
areas because of the shift from agriculture-manufacturing-services.
Geographers are also interested in where people and activities are
distributed within urban spaces. What are the differences between the
inner-city and suburban areas and why?
As we saw in the last chapter, many downtowns are unique and can
often be recognized in photos where the suburbs often look very
much alike (Placelessness). Why? Suburbs offer the chance to avoid
some of the city problems (crime, tight living area, expensive
land/rent, noise, age of buildings) while still keeping a connection with
the goods and services of the city: jobs, sports teams, culture, shops,
recreation, etc.
7

Where is this place?

8

Today’s cities are evolving and changing. Although different internal
situations characterize urban areas in the US and elsewhere, the
problems arising from current spatial trends are quite similar in all cities.
Where have urban areas grown: in the early 1800’s only 3% of the earth’s
people lived in cities and only Beijing China had more than 1 million
people. Today over ½ of the world’s people live in cities and we have over
400 cities of at least 1 million people.

Urbanization: is the process by which city population grows.
Cities population growth is measured in 2 dimensions;
1. An increase in the number of people living in the cities.
2. An increase in the percentage of people living in the cities.
This distinction is important because they happen for different reason and
have different global distributions.
9

Increasing Percentage of People in Cities: a large percentage of people living in urban
areas is a measure of a country’s level of development. In MDC’s about ¾ of the people
live in urban areas compared to about 2/5 of people in LDC’s. (Except in Latin America
where the level is closer to MDC’s.)
The higher percentage of people in urban areas comes from the changes that have
occurred in the last 200 years as we went from agriculture (primary jobs) to industrial
(secondary jobs) and now service jobs, all created by the Industrial Revolution of the
1800’s.
People moved to the cities for industrial jobs, but in MDC’s this process has largely
ended because nearly everyone interested in moving to the cities from farms has already
done so.
In LDC’s the percentage of people living in urban areas is growing as people are pushed
off of their farms and replaced by machines and as people move to cities looking/hoping
for industrial jobs.
10

Increasing Number of People in Cities: MDC’s have a higher percentage of
people living in urban settlements but LDC’s have more of the very large urban
settlements (Primate cities). (Rank-size rule, primate cities, chapter 12.)

This is interesting because typically the large cities are created from the
improvements brought by the Industrial Revolution. This is not the case with the
large LDC cities. Migration to the primate city in LDC’s is happening even though
job opportunities may not be available. Increasing the population growth in LDC
cities is the fact that medical services are better in these cities, thus the child
mortality rate is lower.
Defining Urban Settlements: defining where urban areas end and rural areas
begin is not easy. Geographers have formulated definitions that distinguish
between urban and rural areas in two ways: Social differences and Physical
differences.
11

Percent Urban Population

Percent of the population living in urban areas is usually higher in MDCs
than in LDCs.

12

The most populated cities in the world

Of the top
20, only
Moscow,
Tokyo and
New York
are in MDC’s

Shanghai China has 14,608,512 people
13

14

15

Social Differences Between Urban and Rural Settlements: it is fair to say that rural
people and urban people follow different ways of life. A city can be defined as having 3
characteristics:
1. Large size. People in rural settlements know most of the other people in the
settlement. Not true in big cities. Social relationships are often described as “colder” in
urban areas because you only see some people at work instead of growing up with
them in the settlement.
2. High Density. Having lots of people in a tiny area creates social consequences. A
high density of people living in a small area can only be supported if the people
specialize (they can’t all be farmers). People are encouraged to compete for jobs, room,
and survival in a tightly limited space. Social groups compete to occupy the same space
(ethnic/ race problems). Rural settlements have very little of this problem.
3. Social Heterogeneity. The larger the settlement, the greater the variety of people.
Being “unusual” in a large settlement is more likely to be accepted than in a small rural
one. But despite the freedom to be different that large urban settlements give you,
people living there often feel alone because so many people are different from them.
There is a stronger feeling of belonging together in small rural settlements.
16

These 3 differences do not fully answer the question of where urban settlements
begin and rural ones end because in today’s MDC’s most everyone has access to
cars, telephones, televisions, and “urban type” jobs which reduce the differences
between urban and rural lifestyles. “City folk” and “Country folk” are more alike
today than they are different. To help distinguish between urban and rural areas we
need to add the physical definition of rural and urban to the equation.
Physical Definitions of Urban Settlements: In ancient time, cities had defensive
walls for protection which clearly defined the physical boundaries of the city. Today
the walls are gone but we can still define the physical boundaries in 3 ways:
1. Legal boundary. These are the official boundaries of a city as recognized by
the government of the country or state. These “city limits” have been officially given
to the city and are physically marked on official maps. The local government of the
city has authority to make laws and protect the people inside the city boundaries.
17

2. Urbanized area. This is the city plus its suburbs or urbanized area that
surrounds the city. About 70 percent of US residents live in urbanized areas with
40% being in the suburbs and 30% inside the city limits. The suburbs may have
their own city governments but the huge central city dominates what happens in
the entire area.
3. Metropolitan Statistical Area. Cities have an even bigger influence on people
than just those living in their city limits and surrounding urbanized areas. People
from far away come to shop, use the services, support the sports teams, read
the newspapers and watch the television broadcasts of the city. Thus the city
has a “functional area” which is its total zone of influence. The US Bureau of
Census has created a method of measuring the functional area of the city.
Known as the Metropolitan statistical area (MSA) this area includes:
•An urbanized area with a population of at least 50,000
•The county within which the city is located.
•Adjacent counties with a high population density and a large percentage of
residents working in the central city’s county.
18

Metropolitan Area of Philadelphia

City of
Philadelphia

Urbanized
area
(suburbs)
Metropolitan
Statistical
Area

The metropolitan area of Philadelphia is
spread over several counties and four states.
It is also a diversified trade center, given its
position on the Delaware river.

19

20

21

Micropolitan Statistical Areas: Smaller areas with between
10,000 and 50,000 people, the county where it is found, and
adjacent counties tied to the city. This would be a small town and
the area dominated by it.
Overlapping Metropolitan Areas: Some adjacent MSA’s overlap.
A county between two central cities may send a large number of
commuters to jobs in both cities. In some areas the cities are so
close that they form one continuous urban complex. This is
known as a Megalopolis (great city).
In a megalopolis, the downtown CBD often has its own
distinctive look and the urban areas are visually separated by
parks, open spaces, and dairy/truck farms. But at the periphery
of the urban areas, the boundaries overlap.
22

Colorado Springs, population 431,000

Ocala, Florida, population 56,000

Florala, Alabama, population 1,900

23

Megalopolis, from northern Va. To Maine.
This Illustrates the
difference between
strict city proper
definitions and broader
urban agglomerations.
To define urbanized
areas, the U.S. Census
Bureau uses the term
Metropolitan Statistical
Area (MSA) or
Consolidated MSA
(CMSA) if two or more of
them overlap.
24

Where are People Distributed within Urban Areas? People are not
just distributed at random in urban areas. For the most part they
concentrate in particular neighborhoods depending on their social
characteristics. Geographers want to see where people with
particular characteristics are likely to live and why.

Three models which try to explain the growth of a city:

The Burgess Model

The Hoyt Sector Model

The Harris and Ullman
multiple Nuclei Model
25

Burgess Concentric Zone Model

In the concentric zone model, a city grows in a series of rings surrounding the CBD.

Burgess Concentric Zone Model: This is the first used to explain the
distributions of different social groups within urban areas. It says that a
city grows outward from a central place in a series of concentric rings.
The precise size and width of the rings vary from one city to another, but
some basic types of rings appear in all cities in the same order (see chart
above).
26

•Hoyt Sector Model: In this model the city develops in a
series of sectors not rings. Certain areas of the city are
more attractive for various activities, originally because
of an environmental factor (or even pure chance). As the
city grows, activities extend outward in a wedge shape.
For example, once a wealthy neighborhood is built the
next wealthy neighborhood will extend from the first
neighborhood further outward from the center. In this
way, the best housing is found in a corridor extending
outward from the center to the outer edge (see chart on
the next page).
27

The Hoyt Sector Model

In the sector model, a city grows in a series of
wedges or corridors extending out from the
CBD.
28

•Harris and Ullman’s Multiple Nuclei Model: According
to this model, a city is a complex structure that includes
more than one center around which activities revolve.
Examples of these nodes include a port, parks,
stadium, neighborhood business center, university, and
airport (see chart). This theory states that some
activities are attracted to particular nodes, whereas
others try to avoid them. A university node may attract
well educated people and bookstores while the port will
attract hotels and warehouses. Heavy industry and
expensive houses rarely are found together. This
model shows the effect of the automobile more than
any other model.
29

The Harris and Ullman Multiple Nuclei model

The multiple nuclei model views a city as a
collection of individual centers, around which
different people and activities cluster.

30

Applications of the Models: The three models help explain where and in some
cases, why people live where they do. None of the models by themselves fully
explains why and where different types of people live, but combined they give
you as good a look as possible at the “Why” of “Where.” Effective use of the
models depends on getting good data on the areas. Most countries take a
census every 10 years to help determine useful data about the people and
places of the country. In our country we divide the census data into areas
known as census tracts of about 5,000 people. Each census tract has the data
that summarizes the characteristics of the people living within that tract. This
information includes things like the race, income, age, and education of the
people living in that tract.
Social Area Analysis: The data from the census tracts can all be plotted onto
maps to show the characteristics of the people living in that tract. This map is
known as a social area analysis.
31

Using Census tract information…Seattle, Washington
Each lined area is a
census tract of about 5000
people in Seattle
Washington. These maps
show average household
income for 1990 and
2000…note the changes in
income in some areas
between 1990 and 2000.
Using this information, a
business can make
decisions about where
they want to locate a new
store or the future of
existing stores.
You can find census tract
information on many topics
such as; age, education
level, race, ethnicity, crime
rate, and land ownership.
Note the areas with
incomes over
$63,000.

All can be very valuable
information to people
looking to open
businesses.

32

Examine the changes
between 1990 and
2000.

Oakland, California’s Ethnic neighborhoods
The small bordered areas are census tracks of 5000 people.

33

Use of the Models Outside of North America: The 3 models will also work in other
places in the world; however social groups in other countries may not have the
same reasons for selecting particular neighborhoods as Americans do.
European Cities: As in the US, wealthier people in European cities cluster along a
sector extending outward from the CBD, however unlike the US, wealthy and
middle class Europeans still live in the inner rings of the neighborhoods near the
CBD not out in the suburbs. In the past, poorer people lived in the center of the
city. Before electricity, social segregation was vertical: richer people lived on the
first or second floor of a building while the poorer people lived in the basement or
upper floors. In the Industrial Revolution, housing for the poor was constructed
near the factories and away from the rich.
Today poorer Europeans are less likely to live in the inner-city. Poor quality
housing has been renovated for the rich or turned into office buildings. Poorer
Europeans tend to live in the outskirts of the city. Vast suburbs with dozens of high
rise apartments house the poor. They face long commutes to reach their jobs in
the city.
34

European cities generally do not have the “suburban
sprawl” that US cities have. European cities tend to be
more pedestrian friendly with more parks downtown as
Europeans tend to still live downtown.
US cities have taller buildings as European cities tend to
be older and more historic.

American cities have more ethnic neighborhoods than
European cities. Ethnic neighborhoods that do exist in
European cities tend to be in the suburbs. WHY?
Because the established richer neighborhoods tend to be
downtown in European cities.
35

Less Developed Countries: Like Europe, most LDC’s accommodate their poor in the
suburbs with their middle class and rich living near the center of the city. LDC’s have
passed through 3 periods of city building: before the Europeans arrived, during the
period of European colonialism, and since independence from European control.

Pre-colonial Cities: Before the Europeans arrived few cities existed in Africa, Asia, and
Latin America and most people lived in small rural settlements. Those cities that existed
were mostly laid out surrounding a religious center; with the rest of the city laid out in a
hieratical concentric pattern (like the Burgess model) from government buildings,
homes of the wealthy, and businesses related to the religion out to other businesses
and shops.
Colonial cities: When the Europeans took over these lands, they changed the cities by
adding services to help the Europeans control the conquered people. Often a new
European style city would be build next to the existing native one. The new European
cities contained wider streets, a public square, larger houses and a much lower density.
The Spanish used the “Law of the Indies” which was a city plan designed specifically to
build cities in a “Spanish” style. (Gridiron pattern for streets centered on a church and
central plaza, walls around individual houses and neighborhoods centered around
smaller plazas and more churches.)
36

Early Mexico city was laid out in a grid pattern of streets. This followed
the Spanish “Law of the Indies.”

37

Central Plaza in Mexico City 1920 photo. Typical Colonial City plan.

Part of downtown Mexico city today still shows the
building plan of the “Law of the Indies.”

38

Cities since Independence: Following independence, cities have become
the focal point of the development of most LDC’s. Millions of people have
migrated to the cities (Primate cities) looking for jobs and services. Some
capitals have been moved to isolated areas in an attempt to help develop
that area of the country (Brasília) This is know as a forward capital. Latin
American cities have developed their own unique style.
Squatter settlements: The LDC’s are unable to house the rapidly growing
number of poor who are flowing into the cities. Because of the housing
shortages, the poor have constructed their own settlements around the city.
These settlements have few services because neither the city nor the
residents can afford them. Squatters have two basic choices for housing.
1. Illegally move into empty real houses located in the city or,
2. Rent slum housing.
(85% of the population of Addis Ababa in Ethiopia lives in squatter
settlements, slums or other illegal housing.)
39

Squatter shacks in Manila, the Philippines

40

Squatter settlement in Ethiopia

41

Zimbabwe, Africa

42

Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

43

Latin American City Model:
In many Latin
American cities,
the wealthy live in
the inner city and
in a sector
extending along a
commercial spine.
In situ accretion- businesses
and homes constantly under
construction/repair.
Zone of maturity-2nd best
housing in the city.
The poor live in squatter settlements on the
periphery of the city.

Disamenity- unpleasant area
used by the poor to get to the
market.

44

The City Outline of Rio de Janeiro
The rich tourist areas and expensive condo apartments are along the coast
and beach while the poor live in squatter shacks in the hills.

45

City problems:
Inner-City Physical Problems: Most US inner cities were constructed before the 1950’s
(people began to move to the suburbs in the 1950’s so new construction moved out of
the city).
Process of Deterioration (how a city deteriorates): A city doesn’t suddenly become old
and full of slummy areas. It happens over time. When a group of low-income people
inhabit an area of a city, nearby neighborhoods will often look to move out. They sell or
rent to more low-income occupants thus expanding the low-income area. Two processes
cause/speed up the devaluation of areas:
1. Filtering, 2. Redlining.
Filtering: Large houses and buildings that once housed rich downtown workers (who
moved to the suburbs) are taken over by landlords who don’t live in that area (they
moved to the suburbs too). Rents are low so the landlord doesn’t take as good care of
the property as they should and the property becomes run down or abandoned. Stores
close, or move, due to lack of sales. 100 years ago these neighborhoods would be used
by immigrants and ethnic businesses would succeed in those areas. Now, with a decline
in immigration, these neighborhoods have shrunk and so have schools, businesses and
other services. Thousands of vacant houses and buildings stand empty in inner cities
across America.

46

Redlining: Some banks refuse to give loans in what they consider
risky neighborhoods. They draw a red line on a map around areas
where they will not give loans. Without loans, these neighborhoods
have a hard time rebuilding/remodeling. Though illegal, this still
happens. Bankers just don’t put these “no-loan” areas on a map.

Urban Renewal: This is the series of projects to improve European
and N. American cities by buying up the blighted neighborhoods,
moving the people to new government built housing projects, and
building new roads, and other projects to make the inner city
attractive for business again. National and State government grants
help pay for these projects.
47

Public housing: Housing for the poor, built with government funding as part of
urban renewal. In the US this is only about 2% of the housing while in some
countries it may be more (Britain is 30%). Public housing built in the 50’s & 60’s
were largely high rise apartments, but those are seen as being unsatisfactory.
Problems arise from cramming large numbers of poor people into one area.
Today most public housing projects are one to three story buildings with many of
them being scattered around different parts of the city rather than clustered into
one area.
Because urban renewal has been criticized for destroying the social cohesion of
older neighborhoods, many governments (like the US) have stopped funding
most projects since the 1970’s. What do we do instead?
Renovated Housing: An alternative often used since the 70’s is to renovate a
building instead of urban renewal. The process where middle-class people
move into inner-city neighborhoods and renovate them is called gentrification.
Gentrified inner-city neighborhoods also attract middle-class people who work
downtown. Living close to work saves the hassle of commuting and rejuvenates
run down inner-city neighborhoods
48

Gentrified building downtown Harlem, NY. Note the supermarket.

49

Inner-City Social Problems: Inner-city residents are often referred to as the
permanent underclass because they are trapped in an unending cycle of
economic and social problems. High unemployment, alcoholism, drug
addiction, literacy, juvenile delinquency, and crime all exist at a higher rate
among those who live in the inner-city. Lack of jobs means lack of tax dollars
to pay for police and fire protection as well as good schools. Lack of job skills
and homelessness are also tremendous problems.
Culture of Poverty: Inner-city residents are trapped in a permanent underclass
culture that reproduces itself. In the US, unwed mothers give birth to 2/3 of the
babies in the inner-city. 90% of these children live with only one parent and it
is real hard for one parent to keep a job and take care of children. Both suffer
and a shortage of care and daily attention by the parent contributes to the kids
not learning the skills necessary to do well in school which leads to poor jobs
for their futures. Poverty leads to more poverty. Many families on welfare have
only one parent because it is financially better if one parent is gone, that way
the single parent gets food stamps and other services from the government
that they would not get if it was a 2 family household.
50

Crime: Trapped in a hopeless environment, some inner-city
residents turn to drugs. Drug use is a problem in inner-city
areas and the suburbs, but rates of drug use in inner-cities
are the highest.
Ethnic and Racial Segregation: As seen in chapter 7, many
neighborhoods in the US are segregated by ethnicity with
African Americans and Hispanics concentrated in one or two
continuous areas and whites living in the suburbs. Even small
cities display a strong distinction among neighborhoods. A
frequent division is between the east and west or north and
south side of town, or the railroad tracks. A family seeking a
new residence will seek the areas where the characteristics
of the people meet their own.

51

The exodus
from the
American city.
This has
happened in
many American
cities since the
1960’s.

52

Changes in Cities in the U.S.
U.S. population has been moving out of the city centers to the suburbs:
suburbanization and counter urbanization

Developed Countries: suburbanization

 wealthy move to suburbs
 automobiles and roads; ‘American
Dream’ of the home in the suburbs.
 better services
 wealthy move to suburbs
Counter urbanization

idyllic settings
cost of land for retirement
slow pace, yet high tech
connections to services and markets
53

U.S. intraregional migration during 1990s.

Inner city economic problems: the concentration of low income
residents in inner cities has caused economic problems. These
people require public services but can pay very little in taxes to
support the services. They need stores and jobs but have little
money to spend in the store and few skills for jobs (so the stores
close). To try to fight these problems many local and state
governments use tax monies to try to renovate these areas, but this
shifts tax money needed for other areas to the inner city (votes on
election day).
Annexation: Many cities could help their tax problem by adding the
new suburbs to be part of their city (annexation). After all, many of
these suburban people use the city for its’ jobs etc., so why not add
them into the city? Today, most people in the suburbs do not want
to be annexed into the city and so they do not vote to be annexed.
54

The Peripheral Model: According to this model, an urban area
consists of an inner city surrounded by large suburban residential
and business areas (MSA) tied together by a beltway or highway
that circles the city. Around the beltway are nodes of consumer
and business services called edge cities (see diagram of multiple
nuclei model). These edge cities sprang up to provide services
and jobs to the people in the suburbs.
Density Gradient: As you travel outward from the center of the
city, the density of people declines. Inner city has big apartments
of 250 of more people per acre. Suburbs have fewer people per
acre (but lots of acres) and finally you leave the cities periphery
you find few people. The number of houses per unit of land
diminishes as distance from the center of the city increases.
55

The Edge cities (bedroom communities) of Houston

The central city is surrounded by a ring road, around which are
suburban areas and edge cities, shopping malls, office parks,
industrial areas, and service complexes.

Known as
bedroom
communities
because
people live
there but
mostly don’t
work there.
They drive
into the city
for work.
56

As you move from the center of the city outward, the density of the population
changes. This is know as the density gradient. Two big changes have occurred in
the density gradient of today’s cities:
1. The number of people living in the center has decreased.
2. The density difference between the inner city and the suburbs is declining
because the inner city density is dropping and the suburban density is growing
due to more large apartments being built in the suburbs.
Cost of Suburban or Urban Sprawl: Urban Sprawl is the progressive spread of
development over the landscape. As long as we Americans want single-family
detached houses, land on the fringe of urban areas will be converted from open
space to residential use. The cost of this growth is more than the loss of land, it is
also the cost of new roads, utilities, building stores and offices and the cost of
automobiles to move these people over even longer distances. Lots of these new
developments are built on what was once farmland. Wonderful productive soil now
under concrete.

Greenbelts: are areas where, by law, the open space can not be used for any
construction. This is mostly found in Europe.

57

Once farmland that is being converted to suburbs and cities.

58

Tyson’s Corner Virginia in 1940

59

Washington, DC. MSA.

Tyson’s Corner Virginia
today.
Washington D.C. is off
In the distance.

60

Suburban Segregation: The “new” segregation.
Suburban segregation takes two forms:
1. Residents are separated from commercial and manufacturing activities
which are confined someplace else. (The whole neighborhood is
nothing but houses because they drive for services.)
2. The price of the house eliminates some from being able to live there. This
creates a homogeneous suburb of the same economic class of people.
This never existed before in history. Where we once had vertical
segregation of the classes we now we have horizontal segregation.
3. But this may be reversing as new statistics show that people are beginning
to move back to the city. Why? Cost of transportation.
Zoning Ordinances: This idea developed in Europe and later America in the
early decades of the 20th century. This means that businesses are allowed only
in certain areas of the settlement. (No all night taco stands inside your single
family neighborhood.)
Motor vehicles: The wide use of the automobile is largely responsible for the
American movement to the suburbs. Not only did people move out but 1/4 of
the land inside all American cities are now roads, streets, and parking lots.

61

Public Transportation: Because few US workers live within walking distance
of their jobs, urban areas are characterized by extensive commuting and the
problems that come with it. As much as 40% of all trips made into or out from
a city during the day takes place within just 4 hours. (2 in the morning and 2 in
the late afternoon). RUSH HOUR!!! In large cities, public transportation, like
subways and busses, are better suited to move people but Americans still
prefer their own cars. Public transportation is cheaper, cleaner, and more
energy efficient than personal cars, yet in the US only 5% of city travel is
done using public transit systems. American’s love their personal car too
much.
Local Government Fragmentation: Because of the large number of local
governments in the US (look at the settlements in Pinellas County) it is
difficult to solve some of the regional problems like garbage disposal, water
management, traffic and public housing.
62

Metropolitan government: This idea tries to put many local governments into a
larger unit that can better handle the urban problems. The 2 ways to do this
are:
1. Federations in which the individual settlements have their own police,
firemen, and tax collection but they all agree to be part of a second
government which handles transportation, water, sewage, parks and
welfare for all the communities.
2. Consolidations: In this method, several cities and the county may form one
government. Jacksonville’s government runs not only the town but the
county too, this makes Jacksonville the largest city, in land size, in the US.
Smart growth: A new movement by many states to curb suburban sprawl by
limiting where new construction can take place. Smart growth laws require that
land near cities be used up before any land further out can be developed. So
far, this is only being done an a few parts of our country.
63

The new
US as
some
people
see it.

64

Quiz Yourself:
1. The process where middle-class people move into inner city neighborhoods and
renovate them is called ____________
2. ____________ happens when banks refuse to give loans in what they consider
risky neighborhoods.
3. Because of the housing shortages, the poor have constructed their own settlements
around the city known as __________ _________

4. Businesses are allowed only in certain areas of the settlement because of
____________ ____________
5. Areas known as _____ _______ are areas of about 5,000 people. The data from
that area is used to help define needed services for that area.
6. When cities are so close that they form one continuous band of development this is
known as a ____________
65

7. Social relationships are often described as “colder” in urban areas because…
8. In this model the city develops in a series of sectors not rings. _______

9. ______ (LDC’s or MDC’s) have a higher percentage of people living in urban
settlements but ________ (LDC’s or MDC’s) have more of the very large urban
settlements.
10. _____________ was the first model developed to explain the distributions
of different social groups within urban areas.
11. New cities which develop around the beltway are nodes of consumer and
business services known as ________ _________.

12. When the Europeans took over lands around the world, they changed the
cities by adding services to help the Europeans control the conquered people.
These European planned cities are known as __________ cities.
66

Answer Key:
1.

Gentrification

2.

Redlining

3.

Squatter Settlements

4.

Zoning ordinances

5.

Census tracks

6.

Megalopolis

7. There is a stronger feeling of belonging together in small rural settlements.
8. Hoyt sector model
9. MDC, LDC
10. Burgess Concentric Zone model
11. Edge cities
12. Colonial cities
67

Test Key topic/chapter 13:
These questions come from a combination of our slides, your text book, and common knowledge you should
have discussed in your AP classroom. They are very typical of what you will see on the National Exam.
1) The multiple nuclei theory best explains why different neighborhoods of a city attract people of different… A) ages.
B) ethnic origin C) income D) marital status.
2) Sprawl is the… A) change in density within an urban area from the center to the periphery B) development of new
housing sites not contiguous to the existing built-up area. C) land maintained as open space surrounding an urban area.
D) period in the morning and evening with the heaviest volumes of traffic.
3) People are attracted to suburbs in part because suburbs are characterized by…A) heavy traffic. B) lower opportunity
for home ownership. C) private land surrounding the house. D) row houses and apartments.
4) Megalopolis refers to… A) adjacent, overlapping Metropolitan Statistical Areas. B) central cities. C) consolidated
Metropolitan Statistical Areas. D) central cities plus urbanized areas.
5) Which statement best describes the relationship between urbanization and the Industrial Revolution? A) Urbanization
promoted the Industrial Revolution. B) The Industrial Revolution promoted urbanization. C) Urbanization preceded the
Industrial Revolution by thousands of years. D) Urbanization and the Industrial Revolution are no longer related.
6) The process of legally adding land area to a city in the United States is… A) annexation. B) accreditation. C) an
application of eminent domain. D) defined by urbanized area.

68

7) The process of change in the use of a house, from single-family owner occupancy to abandonment, is… A) blockbusting.
B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining.
8) A process by which banks designate an area within which they refuse to lend money for improvements is… A) blockbusting.
B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining.
9) A recent change in the density gradient has been… A) the elimination of the gap traditionally found in the center. B) an
increase in the extremes between the inner and outer areas. C) an increase in the number of people living in the center.
D) a reduction in the differences in densities found within an urban area.
10) U.S. central cities face fiscal problems because… A) federal and state funds are available. B) low-income people are
concentrated there. C) middle-class families are attracted there. D) redlining is no longer legal.
11) A legal form of segregation in U.S. cities is achieved through...A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) zoning. D) greenbelts.
12) Factories have moved to suburban locations in part because of… A) access to main highways. B) adequate space to build
vertical structures. C) availability of large tracts of high-priced land. D) good rail connections.
13) According to the sector model, the best housing is located in…A) a corridor from downtown to the edge of the city.
B) an outer ring surrounding the city. C) nodes near universities and parks. D) renovated inner-city neighborhoods.
14) Ramshackle houses on the periphery of cities in less developed countries are known as… A) squatter settlements. B) council
estates. C) public housing. D) zone in transition.
15) Higher income people tend to live near the center of the city in all but which of the following regions? A) Latin America
B) North America C) South Asia D) Western Europe

16) The wide boulevards built in cities in less developed countries were most likely built during what era? A) pre-colonial
B) colonial C) independence D) all of the above equally

69

17) According to the multiple nuclei model, an airport is likely to attract nearby… A) industries. B) residences. C) shops.
D) universities.
18) The largest percentage of the U.S. population lives in…A) central cities. B) suburbs. C) non-metropolitan areas. D) all of the
above
19) In U.S. cities, the underclass is… A) clustered in inner-city neighborhoods. B) dispersed throughout the city. C) clustered in
suburbs. D) distributed uniformly in the city.

20) A process of converting a neighborhood from low-income to middle-class is…A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) gentrification.
D) redlining.
21) Higher social heterogeneity in urban settlements means that… A) the people with whom you relax are probably the same ones you
see at work. B) you play a specialized role in the urban economy. C) you compete for limited space. D) you may feel lonely and
isolated in a crowd.
22) The city plus its contiguous built-up suburbs is the… A) central city. B) urbanized area.
D) consolidated metropolitan statistical area

C) metropolitan statistical area.

23) The process whereby an increasing percentage of people live in an urban area is known as… A) demographic transition.
B) rank-size rule. C) urbanization. D) central place theory.
24) Of the ten largest urban areas in the world, how many are in More Developed Countries today? A) 1 B) 4 C) 7 D) 10 E) 2
25) Public housing is…A) conversion of low-income housing to middle-class housing. B) illegally established low-income housing.
C) housing that has changed from single-family owner occupancy to abandonment. D) low-income government-owned housing.
26) According to the concentric zone model, a city develops in a series of… A) corridors. B) nodes. C) rings. D) all of the above

70

27) Chicago is a good location in which to develop urban models because it is located… A) at the hub of the nation's transportation
system. B) in the center of the country. C) on a flat prairie. D) on the shore of Lake Michigan.
28) According to the sector model, the best housing is located in… A) a corridor from downtown to the edge of the city. B) an outer
ring surrounding the city. C) nodes near universities and parks. D) renovated inner-city neighborhoods.
29) The zone of transition in US cities generally contain…A) warehouses B) wealthy neighborhoods C) transportation hubs
D) universities and hospitals E) suburban homes
30) The attractions of shopping malls include all but which of the following? A) frequent concerts and exhibitions B) generous
parking lots C) place to meet friends D) walking distance from homes
The following questions are written at the high school level. You will find some questions from part one often rewritten
here. This is all designed to help you transition to the college/AP style of written questions. Any question preceded with ***
are questions that have been on the national exam before.
31. Most Latin American cities are focused on a…A) central plaza B) government housing project C) zone of heavy industry
D) skyscraper office building E) squatter settlement
32. The multiple-nuclei model of a city structure tends to be most applicable to…A) small cities B) traditional C) Latin American
cities D) newer, fast growing cities E) cities with homogeneous land use
33. ***Locational advantages important to the development of the earliest cities include…A) availability of good harbors for large
ships B) productive agricultural land and defensible sites C) temperate climate and proximity to coal mines D) good
connections by road and canal E) proximity to manufacturing areas

34. In cities, the CBD’s often show uniqueness while the suburbs usually show…A) a large hinterland. B) placelessness C) more
than one node. D) newer zones of transition.

71

35. Many LDC’s have tried to help a previously under-developed part of their country develop by moving their capital
city to that area. This new capital is known as a…A) forward capital B) new development zone C) enterprise zone
D) neocolonial city
36. Today the greatest number of urban dwellers is found in…A) North America
D) Europe E) Asia

B) South America C) Africa

37. ***All of the following have helped create ghettos in North American cities except…A)blockbusting and racial
steering B) redlining by financial institutions C) concentration of public housing and social services D) fixed school
districts E) Economic Enterprise Zones

38. Which of the following is NOT as reason for rapid suburbanization in the US after WW2? A) Mass production of
the automobile B) Reduction of long distance commuting C) Expansion of home construction D) Expansion of the
interstate highway system E) Availability of low down payment terms and long-term mortgages.
39. New cities which developed in the hinterland of large urban areas because of the automobile, are known as…
A) edge cities B) census tracts C) suburban sprawl D) squatter settlements. E) none of these
40. Gentrification refers to… A) moving the homeless into inner city shelters B) The “White Flight” from the urban city
C) losing tax revenue because of stores closing in downtown areas D) middle-class people moving into and renovating
inner city neighborhoods E) the creation of “beltway cities” around the city.

72

4
7
3

5

1
6

2

41-48 all use the sketch above.
41. The sketch in box A above represents which model of the inner structure of urban areas?
C) multiple nuclei model D) Burgess concentric zone model E) peripheral model
42. The models in boxes B and C represent A) Concentric zone and multiple nuclei
concentric zone D) peripheral and concentric zone E) Von Thunen and peripheral

A) Hoyt sector model B) VonThunen’s model

B) Multiple nuclei and Hoyt sector C) Hoyt sector and

43. In which ring (1, 2, etc.) of sketch A above would high-status households in North American cities likely live? A) 1 B) 2 C) 3 D) 4&5
44. In which ring (1, 2, etc.) of sketch A above would high status households in a European city likely live? A) 1

B) 2

C) 3

D) 4&5

45. In model B, zone # 2 is where it is likely because of: A) greenbelting B) squatter settling C) the culture of poverty D) transportation
E) no one knows
46. The model in sketch B is the; A) Hoyt sector model B) Burgess model C) multiple nuclei model D) peripheral model
47. The model in sketch C is the; A) Hoyt sector model B) Burgess model C) multiple nuclei model D) peripheral model
48. Which of these models best describes what has happened in US cities in the last 40 years? A)

B)

C)

73

49.*** In the U.S. a city plus its contiguous built-up suburbs is known as an…A) urbanized area B) zoned area
C) census tract D) Squatter settlement E) none of these
50. Done mostly in Europe, these are areas where land is kept as parks, farms or other kinds of open space and urban
sprawl is not allowed. A) Smart growth
B) zoning
C) filtering
D) census tracts E) greenbelts
51. Which statement best describes the relationship between urbanization and the Industrial Revolution?
A) Urbanization promoted the Industrial Revolution. B) The Industrial Revolution promoted urbanization.
C) Urbanization preceded the Industrial Revolution by thousands of years. D) Urbanization and the Industrial
Revolution are no longer related.
52. The process whereby an increasing percentage of people live in an urban area is known as…
A) Demographic transition. B) rank-size rule. C) Urbanization. D) Central place theory.
53. The city (if it has 50,000 or more people) plus its contiguous built-up suburbs AND the county it is in as well as any
other counties it influences, is known as the ...A) central city B) urbanized area
C) metropolitan statistical area
D) consolidated metropolitan area E) micropolitan statistical area
54. ***Higher social heterogeneity in urban settlements means that …A) the people with whom you relax are probably
the same ones you see at work. B) you play a specialized role in the urban economy. C) you compete for limited
space. D) you may feel lonely and isolated in a crowd.

55. The process of change in the use of a house, from single-family owner occupancy to smaller dwellings for the poor
and then sometimes to abandonment, is…A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining. E) none of
these

74

Free Response #1:
The Bid Rent theory says that the closer you get to the
CBD the higher the cost for land, yet in most American
cities you find the poorest people living near the
expensive CBD and the richest living further away.
Explain:
A. Why neighborhoods near the CBD are often poor and
run down?
B. Why are there few grocery and other retail stores in
these neighborhoods?
C. Why is this not really true in European and Latin
American countries?

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75

FR #2:
Think of the map of your school, explain the
layout of your school using the Multiple Nuclei
Model
The main office is the CBD.
Completely explain your answer using specific
buildings and/or land areas in your explanation
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76

Answer Key:
1. B

14. A

27. C

40. D

53. C

2. B

15. B

28. A

41. D

54. D

3. C

16. B

29. A

42. B

55. B

4. A

17. A

30. D

43. D

5. B

18. B

31. A

44. A

6. A

19. A

32. D

45. D

7. B

20. C

33. B

46. A

8. D

21. D

34. B

47. C

9. D

22. B

35. A

48. C

10. B

23. C

36. E

49. A

11. C

24. C

37. E

50. E

12. A

25. D

38. B

51. B

13. A

26. C

39. A

52. C
77

FR. #1: ( 15 pts. for each section…total of 45 pts.)
A. In the US the move of the wealthy and middle class to the suburbs has left the older houses and apartments near the CBD empty.
This has lowered their value to the point where the poor can afford these dwellings and have made these neighborhoods their
homes. The poor can not pay for upkeep of these dwellings, or to pay high taxes. The lack of upkeep and tax money to repair the
roads and schools, adds to the downward spiral of the neighborhood. With little spending money for shopping, the poor do not
spend much in the stores. This causes many stores to close and move to the suburbs where the spending customers and money
went. The closing of the stores adds to the poverty of the area by taking away some of the jobs that were in the neighborhood. This
becomes a vicious cycle of poverty and deterioration. (15 points)

B. There are few retail stores and groceries is the area because the poor do not have money to shop. The lack of spending forces
many stores out of business or forces them to move to better locations. There also can be higher crime in these areas and the
crime often takes place at the stores. This is another reason for the stores to move out of the neighborhood. (15 points)
C. Neighborhoods in European and Latin American cities are different from those of US cities. In Europe and Latin America, the
wealthy and middle class still live near or in the CBD. The higher tax base and more spending ability of the upper and middle
classes, keeps the CBD area flourishing with jobs and in constant repair and upkeep of the cities’ physical condition. (15 points)

FR #2: (10 total points.)
You will need to judge how effectively you displayed you school
in the Multiple Nuclei Model. Refer to the model itself to help you
determine your success and grade.
School’s main office
78

Calculating your grade on test 13.
Add how many you got correct on the multiple choice part (55 possible) to how many
points you scored on the FR portion (55 possible)…110 total.
The following scale will show the approximate score if this test were the real AP exam. Remember that this
is an approximation. While 65-74% is normally the range for a 3 on the test, it is not definite. Over the
years I have seen scores as low as 60% be the low portion of a 3 score.

Out of 110 possible points:
72-83 is most likely a 3
84-94 is most likely a 4

95-110 is most likely a 5

Now lets start our review for the national exam by
reviewing the 33 key models and theories of the
course…the next PowerPoint.


Slide 33

Key topic/chapter 13…Urban Patterns
Key terms:
Annexation
Concentric zone model
Density gradient
Edge cities
Filtering
Galactic city
Gentrification
Greenbelts
Megalopolis
MSA
Multiple nuclei model
Peripheral model

Public housing
Redlining
Renovated housing
Scattered site
Squatter settlement
Sector model
Smart growth
Sprawl
Underclass
Urban renewal
Zone in transition
Zoning
1

Chapter 13…Urban Areas.
How are Cities planned?
Why

are cities where they are?
How are they organized?
Why are some areas of a city
different from
other areas of the same city?
What is the future of cities?
2

Settlement


Settlement - permanent collections of buildings,
where people live, work, and obtain services

3

ORIGINS OF SETTLEMENTS


Religious - graves, churches, temples



Cultural - schools, libraries



Political/Military - leader’s house, walls



Economic - stores, food
4

TYPES OF SETTLEMENTS


Rural Settlements - agriculture as the
predominant occupation.



Urban settlements - principal industries are
secondary and tertiary.

5

RURAL SETTLEMENTS
Clustered rural settlements –grouped
settlements in rural areas to minimize travel

Dispersed rural Settlements - isolated farms
with enclosed continuous fields (Found only in
N. America and Britain).

6

Urban Geographers want to know the global distribution of urban
settlements. MDC’s have a high percentage of people living in urban
areas because of the shift from agriculture-manufacturing-services.
Geographers are also interested in where people and activities are
distributed within urban spaces. What are the differences between the
inner-city and suburban areas and why?
As we saw in the last chapter, many downtowns are unique and can
often be recognized in photos where the suburbs often look very
much alike (Placelessness). Why? Suburbs offer the chance to avoid
some of the city problems (crime, tight living area, expensive
land/rent, noise, age of buildings) while still keeping a connection with
the goods and services of the city: jobs, sports teams, culture, shops,
recreation, etc.
7

Where is this place?

8

Today’s cities are evolving and changing. Although different internal
situations characterize urban areas in the US and elsewhere, the
problems arising from current spatial trends are quite similar in all cities.
Where have urban areas grown: in the early 1800’s only 3% of the earth’s
people lived in cities and only Beijing China had more than 1 million
people. Today over ½ of the world’s people live in cities and we have over
400 cities of at least 1 million people.

Urbanization: is the process by which city population grows.
Cities population growth is measured in 2 dimensions;
1. An increase in the number of people living in the cities.
2. An increase in the percentage of people living in the cities.
This distinction is important because they happen for different reason and
have different global distributions.
9

Increasing Percentage of People in Cities: a large percentage of people living in urban
areas is a measure of a country’s level of development. In MDC’s about ¾ of the people
live in urban areas compared to about 2/5 of people in LDC’s. (Except in Latin America
where the level is closer to MDC’s.)
The higher percentage of people in urban areas comes from the changes that have
occurred in the last 200 years as we went from agriculture (primary jobs) to industrial
(secondary jobs) and now service jobs, all created by the Industrial Revolution of the
1800’s.
People moved to the cities for industrial jobs, but in MDC’s this process has largely
ended because nearly everyone interested in moving to the cities from farms has already
done so.
In LDC’s the percentage of people living in urban areas is growing as people are pushed
off of their farms and replaced by machines and as people move to cities looking/hoping
for industrial jobs.
10

Increasing Number of People in Cities: MDC’s have a higher percentage of
people living in urban settlements but LDC’s have more of the very large urban
settlements (Primate cities). (Rank-size rule, primate cities, chapter 12.)

This is interesting because typically the large cities are created from the
improvements brought by the Industrial Revolution. This is not the case with the
large LDC cities. Migration to the primate city in LDC’s is happening even though
job opportunities may not be available. Increasing the population growth in LDC
cities is the fact that medical services are better in these cities, thus the child
mortality rate is lower.
Defining Urban Settlements: defining where urban areas end and rural areas
begin is not easy. Geographers have formulated definitions that distinguish
between urban and rural areas in two ways: Social differences and Physical
differences.
11

Percent Urban Population

Percent of the population living in urban areas is usually higher in MDCs
than in LDCs.

12

The most populated cities in the world

Of the top
20, only
Moscow,
Tokyo and
New York
are in MDC’s

Shanghai China has 14,608,512 people
13

14

15

Social Differences Between Urban and Rural Settlements: it is fair to say that rural
people and urban people follow different ways of life. A city can be defined as having 3
characteristics:
1. Large size. People in rural settlements know most of the other people in the
settlement. Not true in big cities. Social relationships are often described as “colder” in
urban areas because you only see some people at work instead of growing up with
them in the settlement.
2. High Density. Having lots of people in a tiny area creates social consequences. A
high density of people living in a small area can only be supported if the people
specialize (they can’t all be farmers). People are encouraged to compete for jobs, room,
and survival in a tightly limited space. Social groups compete to occupy the same space
(ethnic/ race problems). Rural settlements have very little of this problem.
3. Social Heterogeneity. The larger the settlement, the greater the variety of people.
Being “unusual” in a large settlement is more likely to be accepted than in a small rural
one. But despite the freedom to be different that large urban settlements give you,
people living there often feel alone because so many people are different from them.
There is a stronger feeling of belonging together in small rural settlements.
16

These 3 differences do not fully answer the question of where urban settlements
begin and rural ones end because in today’s MDC’s most everyone has access to
cars, telephones, televisions, and “urban type” jobs which reduce the differences
between urban and rural lifestyles. “City folk” and “Country folk” are more alike
today than they are different. To help distinguish between urban and rural areas we
need to add the physical definition of rural and urban to the equation.
Physical Definitions of Urban Settlements: In ancient time, cities had defensive
walls for protection which clearly defined the physical boundaries of the city. Today
the walls are gone but we can still define the physical boundaries in 3 ways:
1. Legal boundary. These are the official boundaries of a city as recognized by
the government of the country or state. These “city limits” have been officially given
to the city and are physically marked on official maps. The local government of the
city has authority to make laws and protect the people inside the city boundaries.
17

2. Urbanized area. This is the city plus its suburbs or urbanized area that
surrounds the city. About 70 percent of US residents live in urbanized areas with
40% being in the suburbs and 30% inside the city limits. The suburbs may have
their own city governments but the huge central city dominates what happens in
the entire area.
3. Metropolitan Statistical Area. Cities have an even bigger influence on people
than just those living in their city limits and surrounding urbanized areas. People
from far away come to shop, use the services, support the sports teams, read
the newspapers and watch the television broadcasts of the city. Thus the city
has a “functional area” which is its total zone of influence. The US Bureau of
Census has created a method of measuring the functional area of the city.
Known as the Metropolitan statistical area (MSA) this area includes:
•An urbanized area with a population of at least 50,000
•The county within which the city is located.
•Adjacent counties with a high population density and a large percentage of
residents working in the central city’s county.
18

Metropolitan Area of Philadelphia

City of
Philadelphia

Urbanized
area
(suburbs)
Metropolitan
Statistical
Area

The metropolitan area of Philadelphia is
spread over several counties and four states.
It is also a diversified trade center, given its
position on the Delaware river.

19

20

21

Micropolitan Statistical Areas: Smaller areas with between
10,000 and 50,000 people, the county where it is found, and
adjacent counties tied to the city. This would be a small town and
the area dominated by it.
Overlapping Metropolitan Areas: Some adjacent MSA’s overlap.
A county between two central cities may send a large number of
commuters to jobs in both cities. In some areas the cities are so
close that they form one continuous urban complex. This is
known as a Megalopolis (great city).
In a megalopolis, the downtown CBD often has its own
distinctive look and the urban areas are visually separated by
parks, open spaces, and dairy/truck farms. But at the periphery
of the urban areas, the boundaries overlap.
22

Colorado Springs, population 431,000

Ocala, Florida, population 56,000

Florala, Alabama, population 1,900

23

Megalopolis, from northern Va. To Maine.
This Illustrates the
difference between
strict city proper
definitions and broader
urban agglomerations.
To define urbanized
areas, the U.S. Census
Bureau uses the term
Metropolitan Statistical
Area (MSA) or
Consolidated MSA
(CMSA) if two or more of
them overlap.
24

Where are People Distributed within Urban Areas? People are not
just distributed at random in urban areas. For the most part they
concentrate in particular neighborhoods depending on their social
characteristics. Geographers want to see where people with
particular characteristics are likely to live and why.

Three models which try to explain the growth of a city:

The Burgess Model

The Hoyt Sector Model

The Harris and Ullman
multiple Nuclei Model
25

Burgess Concentric Zone Model

In the concentric zone model, a city grows in a series of rings surrounding the CBD.

Burgess Concentric Zone Model: This is the first used to explain the
distributions of different social groups within urban areas. It says that a
city grows outward from a central place in a series of concentric rings.
The precise size and width of the rings vary from one city to another, but
some basic types of rings appear in all cities in the same order (see chart
above).
26

•Hoyt Sector Model: In this model the city develops in a
series of sectors not rings. Certain areas of the city are
more attractive for various activities, originally because
of an environmental factor (or even pure chance). As the
city grows, activities extend outward in a wedge shape.
For example, once a wealthy neighborhood is built the
next wealthy neighborhood will extend from the first
neighborhood further outward from the center. In this
way, the best housing is found in a corridor extending
outward from the center to the outer edge (see chart on
the next page).
27

The Hoyt Sector Model

In the sector model, a city grows in a series of
wedges or corridors extending out from the
CBD.
28

•Harris and Ullman’s Multiple Nuclei Model: According
to this model, a city is a complex structure that includes
more than one center around which activities revolve.
Examples of these nodes include a port, parks,
stadium, neighborhood business center, university, and
airport (see chart). This theory states that some
activities are attracted to particular nodes, whereas
others try to avoid them. A university node may attract
well educated people and bookstores while the port will
attract hotels and warehouses. Heavy industry and
expensive houses rarely are found together. This
model shows the effect of the automobile more than
any other model.
29

The Harris and Ullman Multiple Nuclei model

The multiple nuclei model views a city as a
collection of individual centers, around which
different people and activities cluster.

30

Applications of the Models: The three models help explain where and in some
cases, why people live where they do. None of the models by themselves fully
explains why and where different types of people live, but combined they give
you as good a look as possible at the “Why” of “Where.” Effective use of the
models depends on getting good data on the areas. Most countries take a
census every 10 years to help determine useful data about the people and
places of the country. In our country we divide the census data into areas
known as census tracts of about 5,000 people. Each census tract has the data
that summarizes the characteristics of the people living within that tract. This
information includes things like the race, income, age, and education of the
people living in that tract.
Social Area Analysis: The data from the census tracts can all be plotted onto
maps to show the characteristics of the people living in that tract. This map is
known as a social area analysis.
31

Using Census tract information…Seattle, Washington
Each lined area is a
census tract of about 5000
people in Seattle
Washington. These maps
show average household
income for 1990 and
2000…note the changes in
income in some areas
between 1990 and 2000.
Using this information, a
business can make
decisions about where
they want to locate a new
store or the future of
existing stores.
You can find census tract
information on many topics
such as; age, education
level, race, ethnicity, crime
rate, and land ownership.
Note the areas with
incomes over
$63,000.

All can be very valuable
information to people
looking to open
businesses.

32

Examine the changes
between 1990 and
2000.

Oakland, California’s Ethnic neighborhoods
The small bordered areas are census tracks of 5000 people.

33

Use of the Models Outside of North America: The 3 models will also work in other
places in the world; however social groups in other countries may not have the
same reasons for selecting particular neighborhoods as Americans do.
European Cities: As in the US, wealthier people in European cities cluster along a
sector extending outward from the CBD, however unlike the US, wealthy and
middle class Europeans still live in the inner rings of the neighborhoods near the
CBD not out in the suburbs. In the past, poorer people lived in the center of the
city. Before electricity, social segregation was vertical: richer people lived on the
first or second floor of a building while the poorer people lived in the basement or
upper floors. In the Industrial Revolution, housing for the poor was constructed
near the factories and away from the rich.
Today poorer Europeans are less likely to live in the inner-city. Poor quality
housing has been renovated for the rich or turned into office buildings. Poorer
Europeans tend to live in the outskirts of the city. Vast suburbs with dozens of high
rise apartments house the poor. They face long commutes to reach their jobs in
the city.
34

European cities generally do not have the “suburban
sprawl” that US cities have. European cities tend to be
more pedestrian friendly with more parks downtown as
Europeans tend to still live downtown.
US cities have taller buildings as European cities tend to
be older and more historic.

American cities have more ethnic neighborhoods than
European cities. Ethnic neighborhoods that do exist in
European cities tend to be in the suburbs. WHY?
Because the established richer neighborhoods tend to be
downtown in European cities.
35

Less Developed Countries: Like Europe, most LDC’s accommodate their poor in the
suburbs with their middle class and rich living near the center of the city. LDC’s have
passed through 3 periods of city building: before the Europeans arrived, during the
period of European colonialism, and since independence from European control.

Pre-colonial Cities: Before the Europeans arrived few cities existed in Africa, Asia, and
Latin America and most people lived in small rural settlements. Those cities that existed
were mostly laid out surrounding a religious center; with the rest of the city laid out in a
hieratical concentric pattern (like the Burgess model) from government buildings,
homes of the wealthy, and businesses related to the religion out to other businesses
and shops.
Colonial cities: When the Europeans took over these lands, they changed the cities by
adding services to help the Europeans control the conquered people. Often a new
European style city would be build next to the existing native one. The new European
cities contained wider streets, a public square, larger houses and a much lower density.
The Spanish used the “Law of the Indies” which was a city plan designed specifically to
build cities in a “Spanish” style. (Gridiron pattern for streets centered on a church and
central plaza, walls around individual houses and neighborhoods centered around
smaller plazas and more churches.)
36

Early Mexico city was laid out in a grid pattern of streets. This followed
the Spanish “Law of the Indies.”

37

Central Plaza in Mexico City 1920 photo. Typical Colonial City plan.

Part of downtown Mexico city today still shows the
building plan of the “Law of the Indies.”

38

Cities since Independence: Following independence, cities have become
the focal point of the development of most LDC’s. Millions of people have
migrated to the cities (Primate cities) looking for jobs and services. Some
capitals have been moved to isolated areas in an attempt to help develop
that area of the country (Brasília) This is know as a forward capital. Latin
American cities have developed their own unique style.
Squatter settlements: The LDC’s are unable to house the rapidly growing
number of poor who are flowing into the cities. Because of the housing
shortages, the poor have constructed their own settlements around the city.
These settlements have few services because neither the city nor the
residents can afford them. Squatters have two basic choices for housing.
1. Illegally move into empty real houses located in the city or,
2. Rent slum housing.
(85% of the population of Addis Ababa in Ethiopia lives in squatter
settlements, slums or other illegal housing.)
39

Squatter shacks in Manila, the Philippines

40

Squatter settlement in Ethiopia

41

Zimbabwe, Africa

42

Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

43

Latin American City Model:
In many Latin
American cities,
the wealthy live in
the inner city and
in a sector
extending along a
commercial spine.
In situ accretion- businesses
and homes constantly under
construction/repair.
Zone of maturity-2nd best
housing in the city.
The poor live in squatter settlements on the
periphery of the city.

Disamenity- unpleasant area
used by the poor to get to the
market.

44

The City Outline of Rio de Janeiro
The rich tourist areas and expensive condo apartments are along the coast
and beach while the poor live in squatter shacks in the hills.

45

City problems:
Inner-City Physical Problems: Most US inner cities were constructed before the 1950’s
(people began to move to the suburbs in the 1950’s so new construction moved out of
the city).
Process of Deterioration (how a city deteriorates): A city doesn’t suddenly become old
and full of slummy areas. It happens over time. When a group of low-income people
inhabit an area of a city, nearby neighborhoods will often look to move out. They sell or
rent to more low-income occupants thus expanding the low-income area. Two processes
cause/speed up the devaluation of areas:
1. Filtering, 2. Redlining.
Filtering: Large houses and buildings that once housed rich downtown workers (who
moved to the suburbs) are taken over by landlords who don’t live in that area (they
moved to the suburbs too). Rents are low so the landlord doesn’t take as good care of
the property as they should and the property becomes run down or abandoned. Stores
close, or move, due to lack of sales. 100 years ago these neighborhoods would be used
by immigrants and ethnic businesses would succeed in those areas. Now, with a decline
in immigration, these neighborhoods have shrunk and so have schools, businesses and
other services. Thousands of vacant houses and buildings stand empty in inner cities
across America.

46

Redlining: Some banks refuse to give loans in what they consider
risky neighborhoods. They draw a red line on a map around areas
where they will not give loans. Without loans, these neighborhoods
have a hard time rebuilding/remodeling. Though illegal, this still
happens. Bankers just don’t put these “no-loan” areas on a map.

Urban Renewal: This is the series of projects to improve European
and N. American cities by buying up the blighted neighborhoods,
moving the people to new government built housing projects, and
building new roads, and other projects to make the inner city
attractive for business again. National and State government grants
help pay for these projects.
47

Public housing: Housing for the poor, built with government funding as part of
urban renewal. In the US this is only about 2% of the housing while in some
countries it may be more (Britain is 30%). Public housing built in the 50’s & 60’s
were largely high rise apartments, but those are seen as being unsatisfactory.
Problems arise from cramming large numbers of poor people into one area.
Today most public housing projects are one to three story buildings with many of
them being scattered around different parts of the city rather than clustered into
one area.
Because urban renewal has been criticized for destroying the social cohesion of
older neighborhoods, many governments (like the US) have stopped funding
most projects since the 1970’s. What do we do instead?
Renovated Housing: An alternative often used since the 70’s is to renovate a
building instead of urban renewal. The process where middle-class people
move into inner-city neighborhoods and renovate them is called gentrification.
Gentrified inner-city neighborhoods also attract middle-class people who work
downtown. Living close to work saves the hassle of commuting and rejuvenates
run down inner-city neighborhoods
48

Gentrified building downtown Harlem, NY. Note the supermarket.

49

Inner-City Social Problems: Inner-city residents are often referred to as the
permanent underclass because they are trapped in an unending cycle of
economic and social problems. High unemployment, alcoholism, drug
addiction, literacy, juvenile delinquency, and crime all exist at a higher rate
among those who live in the inner-city. Lack of jobs means lack of tax dollars
to pay for police and fire protection as well as good schools. Lack of job skills
and homelessness are also tremendous problems.
Culture of Poverty: Inner-city residents are trapped in a permanent underclass
culture that reproduces itself. In the US, unwed mothers give birth to 2/3 of the
babies in the inner-city. 90% of these children live with only one parent and it
is real hard for one parent to keep a job and take care of children. Both suffer
and a shortage of care and daily attention by the parent contributes to the kids
not learning the skills necessary to do well in school which leads to poor jobs
for their futures. Poverty leads to more poverty. Many families on welfare have
only one parent because it is financially better if one parent is gone, that way
the single parent gets food stamps and other services from the government
that they would not get if it was a 2 family household.
50

Crime: Trapped in a hopeless environment, some inner-city
residents turn to drugs. Drug use is a problem in inner-city
areas and the suburbs, but rates of drug use in inner-cities
are the highest.
Ethnic and Racial Segregation: As seen in chapter 7, many
neighborhoods in the US are segregated by ethnicity with
African Americans and Hispanics concentrated in one or two
continuous areas and whites living in the suburbs. Even small
cities display a strong distinction among neighborhoods. A
frequent division is between the east and west or north and
south side of town, or the railroad tracks. A family seeking a
new residence will seek the areas where the characteristics
of the people meet their own.

51

The exodus
from the
American city.
This has
happened in
many American
cities since the
1960’s.

52

Changes in Cities in the U.S.
U.S. population has been moving out of the city centers to the suburbs:
suburbanization and counter urbanization

Developed Countries: suburbanization

 wealthy move to suburbs
 automobiles and roads; ‘American
Dream’ of the home in the suburbs.
 better services
 wealthy move to suburbs
Counter urbanization

idyllic settings
cost of land for retirement
slow pace, yet high tech
connections to services and markets
53

U.S. intraregional migration during 1990s.

Inner city economic problems: the concentration of low income
residents in inner cities has caused economic problems. These
people require public services but can pay very little in taxes to
support the services. They need stores and jobs but have little
money to spend in the store and few skills for jobs (so the stores
close). To try to fight these problems many local and state
governments use tax monies to try to renovate these areas, but this
shifts tax money needed for other areas to the inner city (votes on
election day).
Annexation: Many cities could help their tax problem by adding the
new suburbs to be part of their city (annexation). After all, many of
these suburban people use the city for its’ jobs etc., so why not add
them into the city? Today, most people in the suburbs do not want
to be annexed into the city and so they do not vote to be annexed.
54

The Peripheral Model: According to this model, an urban area
consists of an inner city surrounded by large suburban residential
and business areas (MSA) tied together by a beltway or highway
that circles the city. Around the beltway are nodes of consumer
and business services called edge cities (see diagram of multiple
nuclei model). These edge cities sprang up to provide services
and jobs to the people in the suburbs.
Density Gradient: As you travel outward from the center of the
city, the density of people declines. Inner city has big apartments
of 250 of more people per acre. Suburbs have fewer people per
acre (but lots of acres) and finally you leave the cities periphery
you find few people. The number of houses per unit of land
diminishes as distance from the center of the city increases.
55

The Edge cities (bedroom communities) of Houston

The central city is surrounded by a ring road, around which are
suburban areas and edge cities, shopping malls, office parks,
industrial areas, and service complexes.

Known as
bedroom
communities
because
people live
there but
mostly don’t
work there.
They drive
into the city
for work.
56

As you move from the center of the city outward, the density of the population
changes. This is know as the density gradient. Two big changes have occurred in
the density gradient of today’s cities:
1. The number of people living in the center has decreased.
2. The density difference between the inner city and the suburbs is declining
because the inner city density is dropping and the suburban density is growing
due to more large apartments being built in the suburbs.
Cost of Suburban or Urban Sprawl: Urban Sprawl is the progressive spread of
development over the landscape. As long as we Americans want single-family
detached houses, land on the fringe of urban areas will be converted from open
space to residential use. The cost of this growth is more than the loss of land, it is
also the cost of new roads, utilities, building stores and offices and the cost of
automobiles to move these people over even longer distances. Lots of these new
developments are built on what was once farmland. Wonderful productive soil now
under concrete.

Greenbelts: are areas where, by law, the open space can not be used for any
construction. This is mostly found in Europe.

57

Once farmland that is being converted to suburbs and cities.

58

Tyson’s Corner Virginia in 1940

59

Washington, DC. MSA.

Tyson’s Corner Virginia
today.
Washington D.C. is off
In the distance.

60

Suburban Segregation: The “new” segregation.
Suburban segregation takes two forms:
1. Residents are separated from commercial and manufacturing activities
which are confined someplace else. (The whole neighborhood is
nothing but houses because they drive for services.)
2. The price of the house eliminates some from being able to live there. This
creates a homogeneous suburb of the same economic class of people.
This never existed before in history. Where we once had vertical
segregation of the classes we now we have horizontal segregation.
3. But this may be reversing as new statistics show that people are beginning
to move back to the city. Why? Cost of transportation.
Zoning Ordinances: This idea developed in Europe and later America in the
early decades of the 20th century. This means that businesses are allowed only
in certain areas of the settlement. (No all night taco stands inside your single
family neighborhood.)
Motor vehicles: The wide use of the automobile is largely responsible for the
American movement to the suburbs. Not only did people move out but 1/4 of
the land inside all American cities are now roads, streets, and parking lots.

61

Public Transportation: Because few US workers live within walking distance
of their jobs, urban areas are characterized by extensive commuting and the
problems that come with it. As much as 40% of all trips made into or out from
a city during the day takes place within just 4 hours. (2 in the morning and 2 in
the late afternoon). RUSH HOUR!!! In large cities, public transportation, like
subways and busses, are better suited to move people but Americans still
prefer their own cars. Public transportation is cheaper, cleaner, and more
energy efficient than personal cars, yet in the US only 5% of city travel is
done using public transit systems. American’s love their personal car too
much.
Local Government Fragmentation: Because of the large number of local
governments in the US (look at the settlements in Pinellas County) it is
difficult to solve some of the regional problems like garbage disposal, water
management, traffic and public housing.
62

Metropolitan government: This idea tries to put many local governments into a
larger unit that can better handle the urban problems. The 2 ways to do this
are:
1. Federations in which the individual settlements have their own police,
firemen, and tax collection but they all agree to be part of a second
government which handles transportation, water, sewage, parks and
welfare for all the communities.
2. Consolidations: In this method, several cities and the county may form one
government. Jacksonville’s government runs not only the town but the
county too, this makes Jacksonville the largest city, in land size, in the US.
Smart growth: A new movement by many states to curb suburban sprawl by
limiting where new construction can take place. Smart growth laws require that
land near cities be used up before any land further out can be developed. So
far, this is only being done an a few parts of our country.
63

The new
US as
some
people
see it.

64

Quiz Yourself:
1. The process where middle-class people move into inner city neighborhoods and
renovate them is called ____________
2. ____________ happens when banks refuse to give loans in what they consider
risky neighborhoods.
3. Because of the housing shortages, the poor have constructed their own settlements
around the city known as __________ _________

4. Businesses are allowed only in certain areas of the settlement because of
____________ ____________
5. Areas known as _____ _______ are areas of about 5,000 people. The data from
that area is used to help define needed services for that area.
6. When cities are so close that they form one continuous band of development this is
known as a ____________
65

7. Social relationships are often described as “colder” in urban areas because…
8. In this model the city develops in a series of sectors not rings. _______

9. ______ (LDC’s or MDC’s) have a higher percentage of people living in urban
settlements but ________ (LDC’s or MDC’s) have more of the very large urban
settlements.
10. _____________ was the first model developed to explain the distributions
of different social groups within urban areas.
11. New cities which develop around the beltway are nodes of consumer and
business services known as ________ _________.

12. When the Europeans took over lands around the world, they changed the
cities by adding services to help the Europeans control the conquered people.
These European planned cities are known as __________ cities.
66

Answer Key:
1.

Gentrification

2.

Redlining

3.

Squatter Settlements

4.

Zoning ordinances

5.

Census tracks

6.

Megalopolis

7. There is a stronger feeling of belonging together in small rural settlements.
8. Hoyt sector model
9. MDC, LDC
10. Burgess Concentric Zone model
11. Edge cities
12. Colonial cities
67

Test Key topic/chapter 13:
These questions come from a combination of our slides, your text book, and common knowledge you should
have discussed in your AP classroom. They are very typical of what you will see on the National Exam.
1) The multiple nuclei theory best explains why different neighborhoods of a city attract people of different… A) ages.
B) ethnic origin C) income D) marital status.
2) Sprawl is the… A) change in density within an urban area from the center to the periphery B) development of new
housing sites not contiguous to the existing built-up area. C) land maintained as open space surrounding an urban area.
D) period in the morning and evening with the heaviest volumes of traffic.
3) People are attracted to suburbs in part because suburbs are characterized by…A) heavy traffic. B) lower opportunity
for home ownership. C) private land surrounding the house. D) row houses and apartments.
4) Megalopolis refers to… A) adjacent, overlapping Metropolitan Statistical Areas. B) central cities. C) consolidated
Metropolitan Statistical Areas. D) central cities plus urbanized areas.
5) Which statement best describes the relationship between urbanization and the Industrial Revolution? A) Urbanization
promoted the Industrial Revolution. B) The Industrial Revolution promoted urbanization. C) Urbanization preceded the
Industrial Revolution by thousands of years. D) Urbanization and the Industrial Revolution are no longer related.
6) The process of legally adding land area to a city in the United States is… A) annexation. B) accreditation. C) an
application of eminent domain. D) defined by urbanized area.

68

7) The process of change in the use of a house, from single-family owner occupancy to abandonment, is… A) blockbusting.
B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining.
8) A process by which banks designate an area within which they refuse to lend money for improvements is… A) blockbusting.
B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining.
9) A recent change in the density gradient has been… A) the elimination of the gap traditionally found in the center. B) an
increase in the extremes between the inner and outer areas. C) an increase in the number of people living in the center.
D) a reduction in the differences in densities found within an urban area.
10) U.S. central cities face fiscal problems because… A) federal and state funds are available. B) low-income people are
concentrated there. C) middle-class families are attracted there. D) redlining is no longer legal.
11) A legal form of segregation in U.S. cities is achieved through...A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) zoning. D) greenbelts.
12) Factories have moved to suburban locations in part because of… A) access to main highways. B) adequate space to build
vertical structures. C) availability of large tracts of high-priced land. D) good rail connections.
13) According to the sector model, the best housing is located in…A) a corridor from downtown to the edge of the city.
B) an outer ring surrounding the city. C) nodes near universities and parks. D) renovated inner-city neighborhoods.
14) Ramshackle houses on the periphery of cities in less developed countries are known as… A) squatter settlements. B) council
estates. C) public housing. D) zone in transition.
15) Higher income people tend to live near the center of the city in all but which of the following regions? A) Latin America
B) North America C) South Asia D) Western Europe

16) The wide boulevards built in cities in less developed countries were most likely built during what era? A) pre-colonial
B) colonial C) independence D) all of the above equally

69

17) According to the multiple nuclei model, an airport is likely to attract nearby… A) industries. B) residences. C) shops.
D) universities.
18) The largest percentage of the U.S. population lives in…A) central cities. B) suburbs. C) non-metropolitan areas. D) all of the
above
19) In U.S. cities, the underclass is… A) clustered in inner-city neighborhoods. B) dispersed throughout the city. C) clustered in
suburbs. D) distributed uniformly in the city.

20) A process of converting a neighborhood from low-income to middle-class is…A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) gentrification.
D) redlining.
21) Higher social heterogeneity in urban settlements means that… A) the people with whom you relax are probably the same ones you
see at work. B) you play a specialized role in the urban economy. C) you compete for limited space. D) you may feel lonely and
isolated in a crowd.
22) The city plus its contiguous built-up suburbs is the… A) central city. B) urbanized area.
D) consolidated metropolitan statistical area

C) metropolitan statistical area.

23) The process whereby an increasing percentage of people live in an urban area is known as… A) demographic transition.
B) rank-size rule. C) urbanization. D) central place theory.
24) Of the ten largest urban areas in the world, how many are in More Developed Countries today? A) 1 B) 4 C) 7 D) 10 E) 2
25) Public housing is…A) conversion of low-income housing to middle-class housing. B) illegally established low-income housing.
C) housing that has changed from single-family owner occupancy to abandonment. D) low-income government-owned housing.
26) According to the concentric zone model, a city develops in a series of… A) corridors. B) nodes. C) rings. D) all of the above

70

27) Chicago is a good location in which to develop urban models because it is located… A) at the hub of the nation's transportation
system. B) in the center of the country. C) on a flat prairie. D) on the shore of Lake Michigan.
28) According to the sector model, the best housing is located in… A) a corridor from downtown to the edge of the city. B) an outer
ring surrounding the city. C) nodes near universities and parks. D) renovated inner-city neighborhoods.
29) The zone of transition in US cities generally contain…A) warehouses B) wealthy neighborhoods C) transportation hubs
D) universities and hospitals E) suburban homes
30) The attractions of shopping malls include all but which of the following? A) frequent concerts and exhibitions B) generous
parking lots C) place to meet friends D) walking distance from homes
The following questions are written at the high school level. You will find some questions from part one often rewritten
here. This is all designed to help you transition to the college/AP style of written questions. Any question preceded with ***
are questions that have been on the national exam before.
31. Most Latin American cities are focused on a…A) central plaza B) government housing project C) zone of heavy industry
D) skyscraper office building E) squatter settlement
32. The multiple-nuclei model of a city structure tends to be most applicable to…A) small cities B) traditional C) Latin American
cities D) newer, fast growing cities E) cities with homogeneous land use
33. ***Locational advantages important to the development of the earliest cities include…A) availability of good harbors for large
ships B) productive agricultural land and defensible sites C) temperate climate and proximity to coal mines D) good
connections by road and canal E) proximity to manufacturing areas

34. In cities, the CBD’s often show uniqueness while the suburbs usually show…A) a large hinterland. B) placelessness C) more
than one node. D) newer zones of transition.

71

35. Many LDC’s have tried to help a previously under-developed part of their country develop by moving their capital
city to that area. This new capital is known as a…A) forward capital B) new development zone C) enterprise zone
D) neocolonial city
36. Today the greatest number of urban dwellers is found in…A) North America
D) Europe E) Asia

B) South America C) Africa

37. ***All of the following have helped create ghettos in North American cities except…A)blockbusting and racial
steering B) redlining by financial institutions C) concentration of public housing and social services D) fixed school
districts E) Economic Enterprise Zones

38. Which of the following is NOT as reason for rapid suburbanization in the US after WW2? A) Mass production of
the automobile B) Reduction of long distance commuting C) Expansion of home construction D) Expansion of the
interstate highway system E) Availability of low down payment terms and long-term mortgages.
39. New cities which developed in the hinterland of large urban areas because of the automobile, are known as…
A) edge cities B) census tracts C) suburban sprawl D) squatter settlements. E) none of these
40. Gentrification refers to… A) moving the homeless into inner city shelters B) The “White Flight” from the urban city
C) losing tax revenue because of stores closing in downtown areas D) middle-class people moving into and renovating
inner city neighborhoods E) the creation of “beltway cities” around the city.

72

4
7
3

5

1
6

2

41-48 all use the sketch above.
41. The sketch in box A above represents which model of the inner structure of urban areas?
C) multiple nuclei model D) Burgess concentric zone model E) peripheral model
42. The models in boxes B and C represent A) Concentric zone and multiple nuclei
concentric zone D) peripheral and concentric zone E) Von Thunen and peripheral

A) Hoyt sector model B) VonThunen’s model

B) Multiple nuclei and Hoyt sector C) Hoyt sector and

43. In which ring (1, 2, etc.) of sketch A above would high-status households in North American cities likely live? A) 1 B) 2 C) 3 D) 4&5
44. In which ring (1, 2, etc.) of sketch A above would high status households in a European city likely live? A) 1

B) 2

C) 3

D) 4&5

45. In model B, zone # 2 is where it is likely because of: A) greenbelting B) squatter settling C) the culture of poverty D) transportation
E) no one knows
46. The model in sketch B is the; A) Hoyt sector model B) Burgess model C) multiple nuclei model D) peripheral model
47. The model in sketch C is the; A) Hoyt sector model B) Burgess model C) multiple nuclei model D) peripheral model
48. Which of these models best describes what has happened in US cities in the last 40 years? A)

B)

C)

73

49.*** In the U.S. a city plus its contiguous built-up suburbs is known as an…A) urbanized area B) zoned area
C) census tract D) Squatter settlement E) none of these
50. Done mostly in Europe, these are areas where land is kept as parks, farms or other kinds of open space and urban
sprawl is not allowed. A) Smart growth
B) zoning
C) filtering
D) census tracts E) greenbelts
51. Which statement best describes the relationship between urbanization and the Industrial Revolution?
A) Urbanization promoted the Industrial Revolution. B) The Industrial Revolution promoted urbanization.
C) Urbanization preceded the Industrial Revolution by thousands of years. D) Urbanization and the Industrial
Revolution are no longer related.
52. The process whereby an increasing percentage of people live in an urban area is known as…
A) Demographic transition. B) rank-size rule. C) Urbanization. D) Central place theory.
53. The city (if it has 50,000 or more people) plus its contiguous built-up suburbs AND the county it is in as well as any
other counties it influences, is known as the ...A) central city B) urbanized area
C) metropolitan statistical area
D) consolidated metropolitan area E) micropolitan statistical area
54. ***Higher social heterogeneity in urban settlements means that …A) the people with whom you relax are probably
the same ones you see at work. B) you play a specialized role in the urban economy. C) you compete for limited
space. D) you may feel lonely and isolated in a crowd.

55. The process of change in the use of a house, from single-family owner occupancy to smaller dwellings for the poor
and then sometimes to abandonment, is…A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining. E) none of
these

74

Free Response #1:
The Bid Rent theory says that the closer you get to the
CBD the higher the cost for land, yet in most American
cities you find the poorest people living near the
expensive CBD and the richest living further away.
Explain:
A. Why neighborhoods near the CBD are often poor and
run down?
B. Why are there few grocery and other retail stores in
these neighborhoods?
C. Why is this not really true in European and Latin
American countries?

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75

FR #2:
Think of the map of your school, explain the
layout of your school using the Multiple Nuclei
Model
The main office is the CBD.
Completely explain your answer using specific
buildings and/or land areas in your explanation
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76

Answer Key:
1. B

14. A

27. C

40. D

53. C

2. B

15. B

28. A

41. D

54. D

3. C

16. B

29. A

42. B

55. B

4. A

17. A

30. D

43. D

5. B

18. B

31. A

44. A

6. A

19. A

32. D

45. D

7. B

20. C

33. B

46. A

8. D

21. D

34. B

47. C

9. D

22. B

35. A

48. C

10. B

23. C

36. E

49. A

11. C

24. C

37. E

50. E

12. A

25. D

38. B

51. B

13. A

26. C

39. A

52. C
77

FR. #1: ( 15 pts. for each section…total of 45 pts.)
A. In the US the move of the wealthy and middle class to the suburbs has left the older houses and apartments near the CBD empty.
This has lowered their value to the point where the poor can afford these dwellings and have made these neighborhoods their
homes. The poor can not pay for upkeep of these dwellings, or to pay high taxes. The lack of upkeep and tax money to repair the
roads and schools, adds to the downward spiral of the neighborhood. With little spending money for shopping, the poor do not
spend much in the stores. This causes many stores to close and move to the suburbs where the spending customers and money
went. The closing of the stores adds to the poverty of the area by taking away some of the jobs that were in the neighborhood. This
becomes a vicious cycle of poverty and deterioration. (15 points)

B. There are few retail stores and groceries is the area because the poor do not have money to shop. The lack of spending forces
many stores out of business or forces them to move to better locations. There also can be higher crime in these areas and the
crime often takes place at the stores. This is another reason for the stores to move out of the neighborhood. (15 points)
C. Neighborhoods in European and Latin American cities are different from those of US cities. In Europe and Latin America, the
wealthy and middle class still live near or in the CBD. The higher tax base and more spending ability of the upper and middle
classes, keeps the CBD area flourishing with jobs and in constant repair and upkeep of the cities’ physical condition. (15 points)

FR #2: (10 total points.)
You will need to judge how effectively you displayed you school
in the Multiple Nuclei Model. Refer to the model itself to help you
determine your success and grade.
School’s main office
78

Calculating your grade on test 13.
Add how many you got correct on the multiple choice part (55 possible) to how many
points you scored on the FR portion (55 possible)…110 total.
The following scale will show the approximate score if this test were the real AP exam. Remember that this
is an approximation. While 65-74% is normally the range for a 3 on the test, it is not definite. Over the
years I have seen scores as low as 60% be the low portion of a 3 score.

Out of 110 possible points:
72-83 is most likely a 3
84-94 is most likely a 4

95-110 is most likely a 5

Now lets start our review for the national exam by
reviewing the 33 key models and theories of the
course…the next PowerPoint.


Slide 34

Key topic/chapter 13…Urban Patterns
Key terms:
Annexation
Concentric zone model
Density gradient
Edge cities
Filtering
Galactic city
Gentrification
Greenbelts
Megalopolis
MSA
Multiple nuclei model
Peripheral model

Public housing
Redlining
Renovated housing
Scattered site
Squatter settlement
Sector model
Smart growth
Sprawl
Underclass
Urban renewal
Zone in transition
Zoning
1

Chapter 13…Urban Areas.
How are Cities planned?
Why

are cities where they are?
How are they organized?
Why are some areas of a city
different from
other areas of the same city?
What is the future of cities?
2

Settlement


Settlement - permanent collections of buildings,
where people live, work, and obtain services

3

ORIGINS OF SETTLEMENTS


Religious - graves, churches, temples



Cultural - schools, libraries



Political/Military - leader’s house, walls



Economic - stores, food
4

TYPES OF SETTLEMENTS


Rural Settlements - agriculture as the
predominant occupation.



Urban settlements - principal industries are
secondary and tertiary.

5

RURAL SETTLEMENTS
Clustered rural settlements –grouped
settlements in rural areas to minimize travel

Dispersed rural Settlements - isolated farms
with enclosed continuous fields (Found only in
N. America and Britain).

6

Urban Geographers want to know the global distribution of urban
settlements. MDC’s have a high percentage of people living in urban
areas because of the shift from agriculture-manufacturing-services.
Geographers are also interested in where people and activities are
distributed within urban spaces. What are the differences between the
inner-city and suburban areas and why?
As we saw in the last chapter, many downtowns are unique and can
often be recognized in photos where the suburbs often look very
much alike (Placelessness). Why? Suburbs offer the chance to avoid
some of the city problems (crime, tight living area, expensive
land/rent, noise, age of buildings) while still keeping a connection with
the goods and services of the city: jobs, sports teams, culture, shops,
recreation, etc.
7

Where is this place?

8

Today’s cities are evolving and changing. Although different internal
situations characterize urban areas in the US and elsewhere, the
problems arising from current spatial trends are quite similar in all cities.
Where have urban areas grown: in the early 1800’s only 3% of the earth’s
people lived in cities and only Beijing China had more than 1 million
people. Today over ½ of the world’s people live in cities and we have over
400 cities of at least 1 million people.

Urbanization: is the process by which city population grows.
Cities population growth is measured in 2 dimensions;
1. An increase in the number of people living in the cities.
2. An increase in the percentage of people living in the cities.
This distinction is important because they happen for different reason and
have different global distributions.
9

Increasing Percentage of People in Cities: a large percentage of people living in urban
areas is a measure of a country’s level of development. In MDC’s about ¾ of the people
live in urban areas compared to about 2/5 of people in LDC’s. (Except in Latin America
where the level is closer to MDC’s.)
The higher percentage of people in urban areas comes from the changes that have
occurred in the last 200 years as we went from agriculture (primary jobs) to industrial
(secondary jobs) and now service jobs, all created by the Industrial Revolution of the
1800’s.
People moved to the cities for industrial jobs, but in MDC’s this process has largely
ended because nearly everyone interested in moving to the cities from farms has already
done so.
In LDC’s the percentage of people living in urban areas is growing as people are pushed
off of their farms and replaced by machines and as people move to cities looking/hoping
for industrial jobs.
10

Increasing Number of People in Cities: MDC’s have a higher percentage of
people living in urban settlements but LDC’s have more of the very large urban
settlements (Primate cities). (Rank-size rule, primate cities, chapter 12.)

This is interesting because typically the large cities are created from the
improvements brought by the Industrial Revolution. This is not the case with the
large LDC cities. Migration to the primate city in LDC’s is happening even though
job opportunities may not be available. Increasing the population growth in LDC
cities is the fact that medical services are better in these cities, thus the child
mortality rate is lower.
Defining Urban Settlements: defining where urban areas end and rural areas
begin is not easy. Geographers have formulated definitions that distinguish
between urban and rural areas in two ways: Social differences and Physical
differences.
11

Percent Urban Population

Percent of the population living in urban areas is usually higher in MDCs
than in LDCs.

12

The most populated cities in the world

Of the top
20, only
Moscow,
Tokyo and
New York
are in MDC’s

Shanghai China has 14,608,512 people
13

14

15

Social Differences Between Urban and Rural Settlements: it is fair to say that rural
people and urban people follow different ways of life. A city can be defined as having 3
characteristics:
1. Large size. People in rural settlements know most of the other people in the
settlement. Not true in big cities. Social relationships are often described as “colder” in
urban areas because you only see some people at work instead of growing up with
them in the settlement.
2. High Density. Having lots of people in a tiny area creates social consequences. A
high density of people living in a small area can only be supported if the people
specialize (they can’t all be farmers). People are encouraged to compete for jobs, room,
and survival in a tightly limited space. Social groups compete to occupy the same space
(ethnic/ race problems). Rural settlements have very little of this problem.
3. Social Heterogeneity. The larger the settlement, the greater the variety of people.
Being “unusual” in a large settlement is more likely to be accepted than in a small rural
one. But despite the freedom to be different that large urban settlements give you,
people living there often feel alone because so many people are different from them.
There is a stronger feeling of belonging together in small rural settlements.
16

These 3 differences do not fully answer the question of where urban settlements
begin and rural ones end because in today’s MDC’s most everyone has access to
cars, telephones, televisions, and “urban type” jobs which reduce the differences
between urban and rural lifestyles. “City folk” and “Country folk” are more alike
today than they are different. To help distinguish between urban and rural areas we
need to add the physical definition of rural and urban to the equation.
Physical Definitions of Urban Settlements: In ancient time, cities had defensive
walls for protection which clearly defined the physical boundaries of the city. Today
the walls are gone but we can still define the physical boundaries in 3 ways:
1. Legal boundary. These are the official boundaries of a city as recognized by
the government of the country or state. These “city limits” have been officially given
to the city and are physically marked on official maps. The local government of the
city has authority to make laws and protect the people inside the city boundaries.
17

2. Urbanized area. This is the city plus its suburbs or urbanized area that
surrounds the city. About 70 percent of US residents live in urbanized areas with
40% being in the suburbs and 30% inside the city limits. The suburbs may have
their own city governments but the huge central city dominates what happens in
the entire area.
3. Metropolitan Statistical Area. Cities have an even bigger influence on people
than just those living in their city limits and surrounding urbanized areas. People
from far away come to shop, use the services, support the sports teams, read
the newspapers and watch the television broadcasts of the city. Thus the city
has a “functional area” which is its total zone of influence. The US Bureau of
Census has created a method of measuring the functional area of the city.
Known as the Metropolitan statistical area (MSA) this area includes:
•An urbanized area with a population of at least 50,000
•The county within which the city is located.
•Adjacent counties with a high population density and a large percentage of
residents working in the central city’s county.
18

Metropolitan Area of Philadelphia

City of
Philadelphia

Urbanized
area
(suburbs)
Metropolitan
Statistical
Area

The metropolitan area of Philadelphia is
spread over several counties and four states.
It is also a diversified trade center, given its
position on the Delaware river.

19

20

21

Micropolitan Statistical Areas: Smaller areas with between
10,000 and 50,000 people, the county where it is found, and
adjacent counties tied to the city. This would be a small town and
the area dominated by it.
Overlapping Metropolitan Areas: Some adjacent MSA’s overlap.
A county between two central cities may send a large number of
commuters to jobs in both cities. In some areas the cities are so
close that they form one continuous urban complex. This is
known as a Megalopolis (great city).
In a megalopolis, the downtown CBD often has its own
distinctive look and the urban areas are visually separated by
parks, open spaces, and dairy/truck farms. But at the periphery
of the urban areas, the boundaries overlap.
22

Colorado Springs, population 431,000

Ocala, Florida, population 56,000

Florala, Alabama, population 1,900

23

Megalopolis, from northern Va. To Maine.
This Illustrates the
difference between
strict city proper
definitions and broader
urban agglomerations.
To define urbanized
areas, the U.S. Census
Bureau uses the term
Metropolitan Statistical
Area (MSA) or
Consolidated MSA
(CMSA) if two or more of
them overlap.
24

Where are People Distributed within Urban Areas? People are not
just distributed at random in urban areas. For the most part they
concentrate in particular neighborhoods depending on their social
characteristics. Geographers want to see where people with
particular characteristics are likely to live and why.

Three models which try to explain the growth of a city:

The Burgess Model

The Hoyt Sector Model

The Harris and Ullman
multiple Nuclei Model
25

Burgess Concentric Zone Model

In the concentric zone model, a city grows in a series of rings surrounding the CBD.

Burgess Concentric Zone Model: This is the first used to explain the
distributions of different social groups within urban areas. It says that a
city grows outward from a central place in a series of concentric rings.
The precise size and width of the rings vary from one city to another, but
some basic types of rings appear in all cities in the same order (see chart
above).
26

•Hoyt Sector Model: In this model the city develops in a
series of sectors not rings. Certain areas of the city are
more attractive for various activities, originally because
of an environmental factor (or even pure chance). As the
city grows, activities extend outward in a wedge shape.
For example, once a wealthy neighborhood is built the
next wealthy neighborhood will extend from the first
neighborhood further outward from the center. In this
way, the best housing is found in a corridor extending
outward from the center to the outer edge (see chart on
the next page).
27

The Hoyt Sector Model

In the sector model, a city grows in a series of
wedges or corridors extending out from the
CBD.
28

•Harris and Ullman’s Multiple Nuclei Model: According
to this model, a city is a complex structure that includes
more than one center around which activities revolve.
Examples of these nodes include a port, parks,
stadium, neighborhood business center, university, and
airport (see chart). This theory states that some
activities are attracted to particular nodes, whereas
others try to avoid them. A university node may attract
well educated people and bookstores while the port will
attract hotels and warehouses. Heavy industry and
expensive houses rarely are found together. This
model shows the effect of the automobile more than
any other model.
29

The Harris and Ullman Multiple Nuclei model

The multiple nuclei model views a city as a
collection of individual centers, around which
different people and activities cluster.

30

Applications of the Models: The three models help explain where and in some
cases, why people live where they do. None of the models by themselves fully
explains why and where different types of people live, but combined they give
you as good a look as possible at the “Why” of “Where.” Effective use of the
models depends on getting good data on the areas. Most countries take a
census every 10 years to help determine useful data about the people and
places of the country. In our country we divide the census data into areas
known as census tracts of about 5,000 people. Each census tract has the data
that summarizes the characteristics of the people living within that tract. This
information includes things like the race, income, age, and education of the
people living in that tract.
Social Area Analysis: The data from the census tracts can all be plotted onto
maps to show the characteristics of the people living in that tract. This map is
known as a social area analysis.
31

Using Census tract information…Seattle, Washington
Each lined area is a
census tract of about 5000
people in Seattle
Washington. These maps
show average household
income for 1990 and
2000…note the changes in
income in some areas
between 1990 and 2000.
Using this information, a
business can make
decisions about where
they want to locate a new
store or the future of
existing stores.
You can find census tract
information on many topics
such as; age, education
level, race, ethnicity, crime
rate, and land ownership.
Note the areas with
incomes over
$63,000.

All can be very valuable
information to people
looking to open
businesses.

32

Examine the changes
between 1990 and
2000.

Oakland, California’s Ethnic neighborhoods
The small bordered areas are census tracks of 5000 people.

33

Use of the Models Outside of North America: The 3 models will also work in other
places in the world; however social groups in other countries may not have the
same reasons for selecting particular neighborhoods as Americans do.
European Cities: As in the US, wealthier people in European cities cluster along a
sector extending outward from the CBD, however unlike the US, wealthy and
middle class Europeans still live in the inner rings of the neighborhoods near the
CBD not out in the suburbs. In the past, poorer people lived in the center of the
city. Before electricity, social segregation was vertical: richer people lived on the
first or second floor of a building while the poorer people lived in the basement or
upper floors. In the Industrial Revolution, housing for the poor was constructed
near the factories and away from the rich.
Today poorer Europeans are less likely to live in the inner-city. Poor quality
housing has been renovated for the rich or turned into office buildings. Poorer
Europeans tend to live in the outskirts of the city. Vast suburbs with dozens of high
rise apartments house the poor. They face long commutes to reach their jobs in
the city.
34

European cities generally do not have the “suburban
sprawl” that US cities have. European cities tend to be
more pedestrian friendly with more parks downtown as
Europeans tend to still live downtown.
US cities have taller buildings as European cities tend to
be older and more historic.

American cities have more ethnic neighborhoods than
European cities. Ethnic neighborhoods that do exist in
European cities tend to be in the suburbs. WHY?
Because the established richer neighborhoods tend to be
downtown in European cities.
35

Less Developed Countries: Like Europe, most LDC’s accommodate their poor in the
suburbs with their middle class and rich living near the center of the city. LDC’s have
passed through 3 periods of city building: before the Europeans arrived, during the
period of European colonialism, and since independence from European control.

Pre-colonial Cities: Before the Europeans arrived few cities existed in Africa, Asia, and
Latin America and most people lived in small rural settlements. Those cities that existed
were mostly laid out surrounding a religious center; with the rest of the city laid out in a
hieratical concentric pattern (like the Burgess model) from government buildings,
homes of the wealthy, and businesses related to the religion out to other businesses
and shops.
Colonial cities: When the Europeans took over these lands, they changed the cities by
adding services to help the Europeans control the conquered people. Often a new
European style city would be build next to the existing native one. The new European
cities contained wider streets, a public square, larger houses and a much lower density.
The Spanish used the “Law of the Indies” which was a city plan designed specifically to
build cities in a “Spanish” style. (Gridiron pattern for streets centered on a church and
central plaza, walls around individual houses and neighborhoods centered around
smaller plazas and more churches.)
36

Early Mexico city was laid out in a grid pattern of streets. This followed
the Spanish “Law of the Indies.”

37

Central Plaza in Mexico City 1920 photo. Typical Colonial City plan.

Part of downtown Mexico city today still shows the
building plan of the “Law of the Indies.”

38

Cities since Independence: Following independence, cities have become
the focal point of the development of most LDC’s. Millions of people have
migrated to the cities (Primate cities) looking for jobs and services. Some
capitals have been moved to isolated areas in an attempt to help develop
that area of the country (Brasília) This is know as a forward capital. Latin
American cities have developed their own unique style.
Squatter settlements: The LDC’s are unable to house the rapidly growing
number of poor who are flowing into the cities. Because of the housing
shortages, the poor have constructed their own settlements around the city.
These settlements have few services because neither the city nor the
residents can afford them. Squatters have two basic choices for housing.
1. Illegally move into empty real houses located in the city or,
2. Rent slum housing.
(85% of the population of Addis Ababa in Ethiopia lives in squatter
settlements, slums or other illegal housing.)
39

Squatter shacks in Manila, the Philippines

40

Squatter settlement in Ethiopia

41

Zimbabwe, Africa

42

Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

43

Latin American City Model:
In many Latin
American cities,
the wealthy live in
the inner city and
in a sector
extending along a
commercial spine.
In situ accretion- businesses
and homes constantly under
construction/repair.
Zone of maturity-2nd best
housing in the city.
The poor live in squatter settlements on the
periphery of the city.

Disamenity- unpleasant area
used by the poor to get to the
market.

44

The City Outline of Rio de Janeiro
The rich tourist areas and expensive condo apartments are along the coast
and beach while the poor live in squatter shacks in the hills.

45

City problems:
Inner-City Physical Problems: Most US inner cities were constructed before the 1950’s
(people began to move to the suburbs in the 1950’s so new construction moved out of
the city).
Process of Deterioration (how a city deteriorates): A city doesn’t suddenly become old
and full of slummy areas. It happens over time. When a group of low-income people
inhabit an area of a city, nearby neighborhoods will often look to move out. They sell or
rent to more low-income occupants thus expanding the low-income area. Two processes
cause/speed up the devaluation of areas:
1. Filtering, 2. Redlining.
Filtering: Large houses and buildings that once housed rich downtown workers (who
moved to the suburbs) are taken over by landlords who don’t live in that area (they
moved to the suburbs too). Rents are low so the landlord doesn’t take as good care of
the property as they should and the property becomes run down or abandoned. Stores
close, or move, due to lack of sales. 100 years ago these neighborhoods would be used
by immigrants and ethnic businesses would succeed in those areas. Now, with a decline
in immigration, these neighborhoods have shrunk and so have schools, businesses and
other services. Thousands of vacant houses and buildings stand empty in inner cities
across America.

46

Redlining: Some banks refuse to give loans in what they consider
risky neighborhoods. They draw a red line on a map around areas
where they will not give loans. Without loans, these neighborhoods
have a hard time rebuilding/remodeling. Though illegal, this still
happens. Bankers just don’t put these “no-loan” areas on a map.

Urban Renewal: This is the series of projects to improve European
and N. American cities by buying up the blighted neighborhoods,
moving the people to new government built housing projects, and
building new roads, and other projects to make the inner city
attractive for business again. National and State government grants
help pay for these projects.
47

Public housing: Housing for the poor, built with government funding as part of
urban renewal. In the US this is only about 2% of the housing while in some
countries it may be more (Britain is 30%). Public housing built in the 50’s & 60’s
were largely high rise apartments, but those are seen as being unsatisfactory.
Problems arise from cramming large numbers of poor people into one area.
Today most public housing projects are one to three story buildings with many of
them being scattered around different parts of the city rather than clustered into
one area.
Because urban renewal has been criticized for destroying the social cohesion of
older neighborhoods, many governments (like the US) have stopped funding
most projects since the 1970’s. What do we do instead?
Renovated Housing: An alternative often used since the 70’s is to renovate a
building instead of urban renewal. The process where middle-class people
move into inner-city neighborhoods and renovate them is called gentrification.
Gentrified inner-city neighborhoods also attract middle-class people who work
downtown. Living close to work saves the hassle of commuting and rejuvenates
run down inner-city neighborhoods
48

Gentrified building downtown Harlem, NY. Note the supermarket.

49

Inner-City Social Problems: Inner-city residents are often referred to as the
permanent underclass because they are trapped in an unending cycle of
economic and social problems. High unemployment, alcoholism, drug
addiction, literacy, juvenile delinquency, and crime all exist at a higher rate
among those who live in the inner-city. Lack of jobs means lack of tax dollars
to pay for police and fire protection as well as good schools. Lack of job skills
and homelessness are also tremendous problems.
Culture of Poverty: Inner-city residents are trapped in a permanent underclass
culture that reproduces itself. In the US, unwed mothers give birth to 2/3 of the
babies in the inner-city. 90% of these children live with only one parent and it
is real hard for one parent to keep a job and take care of children. Both suffer
and a shortage of care and daily attention by the parent contributes to the kids
not learning the skills necessary to do well in school which leads to poor jobs
for their futures. Poverty leads to more poverty. Many families on welfare have
only one parent because it is financially better if one parent is gone, that way
the single parent gets food stamps and other services from the government
that they would not get if it was a 2 family household.
50

Crime: Trapped in a hopeless environment, some inner-city
residents turn to drugs. Drug use is a problem in inner-city
areas and the suburbs, but rates of drug use in inner-cities
are the highest.
Ethnic and Racial Segregation: As seen in chapter 7, many
neighborhoods in the US are segregated by ethnicity with
African Americans and Hispanics concentrated in one or two
continuous areas and whites living in the suburbs. Even small
cities display a strong distinction among neighborhoods. A
frequent division is between the east and west or north and
south side of town, or the railroad tracks. A family seeking a
new residence will seek the areas where the characteristics
of the people meet their own.

51

The exodus
from the
American city.
This has
happened in
many American
cities since the
1960’s.

52

Changes in Cities in the U.S.
U.S. population has been moving out of the city centers to the suburbs:
suburbanization and counter urbanization

Developed Countries: suburbanization

 wealthy move to suburbs
 automobiles and roads; ‘American
Dream’ of the home in the suburbs.
 better services
 wealthy move to suburbs
Counter urbanization

idyllic settings
cost of land for retirement
slow pace, yet high tech
connections to services and markets
53

U.S. intraregional migration during 1990s.

Inner city economic problems: the concentration of low income
residents in inner cities has caused economic problems. These
people require public services but can pay very little in taxes to
support the services. They need stores and jobs but have little
money to spend in the store and few skills for jobs (so the stores
close). To try to fight these problems many local and state
governments use tax monies to try to renovate these areas, but this
shifts tax money needed for other areas to the inner city (votes on
election day).
Annexation: Many cities could help their tax problem by adding the
new suburbs to be part of their city (annexation). After all, many of
these suburban people use the city for its’ jobs etc., so why not add
them into the city? Today, most people in the suburbs do not want
to be annexed into the city and so they do not vote to be annexed.
54

The Peripheral Model: According to this model, an urban area
consists of an inner city surrounded by large suburban residential
and business areas (MSA) tied together by a beltway or highway
that circles the city. Around the beltway are nodes of consumer
and business services called edge cities (see diagram of multiple
nuclei model). These edge cities sprang up to provide services
and jobs to the people in the suburbs.
Density Gradient: As you travel outward from the center of the
city, the density of people declines. Inner city has big apartments
of 250 of more people per acre. Suburbs have fewer people per
acre (but lots of acres) and finally you leave the cities periphery
you find few people. The number of houses per unit of land
diminishes as distance from the center of the city increases.
55

The Edge cities (bedroom communities) of Houston

The central city is surrounded by a ring road, around which are
suburban areas and edge cities, shopping malls, office parks,
industrial areas, and service complexes.

Known as
bedroom
communities
because
people live
there but
mostly don’t
work there.
They drive
into the city
for work.
56

As you move from the center of the city outward, the density of the population
changes. This is know as the density gradient. Two big changes have occurred in
the density gradient of today’s cities:
1. The number of people living in the center has decreased.
2. The density difference between the inner city and the suburbs is declining
because the inner city density is dropping and the suburban density is growing
due to more large apartments being built in the suburbs.
Cost of Suburban or Urban Sprawl: Urban Sprawl is the progressive spread of
development over the landscape. As long as we Americans want single-family
detached houses, land on the fringe of urban areas will be converted from open
space to residential use. The cost of this growth is more than the loss of land, it is
also the cost of new roads, utilities, building stores and offices and the cost of
automobiles to move these people over even longer distances. Lots of these new
developments are built on what was once farmland. Wonderful productive soil now
under concrete.

Greenbelts: are areas where, by law, the open space can not be used for any
construction. This is mostly found in Europe.

57

Once farmland that is being converted to suburbs and cities.

58

Tyson’s Corner Virginia in 1940

59

Washington, DC. MSA.

Tyson’s Corner Virginia
today.
Washington D.C. is off
In the distance.

60

Suburban Segregation: The “new” segregation.
Suburban segregation takes two forms:
1. Residents are separated from commercial and manufacturing activities
which are confined someplace else. (The whole neighborhood is
nothing but houses because they drive for services.)
2. The price of the house eliminates some from being able to live there. This
creates a homogeneous suburb of the same economic class of people.
This never existed before in history. Where we once had vertical
segregation of the classes we now we have horizontal segregation.
3. But this may be reversing as new statistics show that people are beginning
to move back to the city. Why? Cost of transportation.
Zoning Ordinances: This idea developed in Europe and later America in the
early decades of the 20th century. This means that businesses are allowed only
in certain areas of the settlement. (No all night taco stands inside your single
family neighborhood.)
Motor vehicles: The wide use of the automobile is largely responsible for the
American movement to the suburbs. Not only did people move out but 1/4 of
the land inside all American cities are now roads, streets, and parking lots.

61

Public Transportation: Because few US workers live within walking distance
of their jobs, urban areas are characterized by extensive commuting and the
problems that come with it. As much as 40% of all trips made into or out from
a city during the day takes place within just 4 hours. (2 in the morning and 2 in
the late afternoon). RUSH HOUR!!! In large cities, public transportation, like
subways and busses, are better suited to move people but Americans still
prefer their own cars. Public transportation is cheaper, cleaner, and more
energy efficient than personal cars, yet in the US only 5% of city travel is
done using public transit systems. American’s love their personal car too
much.
Local Government Fragmentation: Because of the large number of local
governments in the US (look at the settlements in Pinellas County) it is
difficult to solve some of the regional problems like garbage disposal, water
management, traffic and public housing.
62

Metropolitan government: This idea tries to put many local governments into a
larger unit that can better handle the urban problems. The 2 ways to do this
are:
1. Federations in which the individual settlements have their own police,
firemen, and tax collection but they all agree to be part of a second
government which handles transportation, water, sewage, parks and
welfare for all the communities.
2. Consolidations: In this method, several cities and the county may form one
government. Jacksonville’s government runs not only the town but the
county too, this makes Jacksonville the largest city, in land size, in the US.
Smart growth: A new movement by many states to curb suburban sprawl by
limiting where new construction can take place. Smart growth laws require that
land near cities be used up before any land further out can be developed. So
far, this is only being done an a few parts of our country.
63

The new
US as
some
people
see it.

64

Quiz Yourself:
1. The process where middle-class people move into inner city neighborhoods and
renovate them is called ____________
2. ____________ happens when banks refuse to give loans in what they consider
risky neighborhoods.
3. Because of the housing shortages, the poor have constructed their own settlements
around the city known as __________ _________

4. Businesses are allowed only in certain areas of the settlement because of
____________ ____________
5. Areas known as _____ _______ are areas of about 5,000 people. The data from
that area is used to help define needed services for that area.
6. When cities are so close that they form one continuous band of development this is
known as a ____________
65

7. Social relationships are often described as “colder” in urban areas because…
8. In this model the city develops in a series of sectors not rings. _______

9. ______ (LDC’s or MDC’s) have a higher percentage of people living in urban
settlements but ________ (LDC’s or MDC’s) have more of the very large urban
settlements.
10. _____________ was the first model developed to explain the distributions
of different social groups within urban areas.
11. New cities which develop around the beltway are nodes of consumer and
business services known as ________ _________.

12. When the Europeans took over lands around the world, they changed the
cities by adding services to help the Europeans control the conquered people.
These European planned cities are known as __________ cities.
66

Answer Key:
1.

Gentrification

2.

Redlining

3.

Squatter Settlements

4.

Zoning ordinances

5.

Census tracks

6.

Megalopolis

7. There is a stronger feeling of belonging together in small rural settlements.
8. Hoyt sector model
9. MDC, LDC
10. Burgess Concentric Zone model
11. Edge cities
12. Colonial cities
67

Test Key topic/chapter 13:
These questions come from a combination of our slides, your text book, and common knowledge you should
have discussed in your AP classroom. They are very typical of what you will see on the National Exam.
1) The multiple nuclei theory best explains why different neighborhoods of a city attract people of different… A) ages.
B) ethnic origin C) income D) marital status.
2) Sprawl is the… A) change in density within an urban area from the center to the periphery B) development of new
housing sites not contiguous to the existing built-up area. C) land maintained as open space surrounding an urban area.
D) period in the morning and evening with the heaviest volumes of traffic.
3) People are attracted to suburbs in part because suburbs are characterized by…A) heavy traffic. B) lower opportunity
for home ownership. C) private land surrounding the house. D) row houses and apartments.
4) Megalopolis refers to… A) adjacent, overlapping Metropolitan Statistical Areas. B) central cities. C) consolidated
Metropolitan Statistical Areas. D) central cities plus urbanized areas.
5) Which statement best describes the relationship between urbanization and the Industrial Revolution? A) Urbanization
promoted the Industrial Revolution. B) The Industrial Revolution promoted urbanization. C) Urbanization preceded the
Industrial Revolution by thousands of years. D) Urbanization and the Industrial Revolution are no longer related.
6) The process of legally adding land area to a city in the United States is… A) annexation. B) accreditation. C) an
application of eminent domain. D) defined by urbanized area.

68

7) The process of change in the use of a house, from single-family owner occupancy to abandonment, is… A) blockbusting.
B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining.
8) A process by which banks designate an area within which they refuse to lend money for improvements is… A) blockbusting.
B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining.
9) A recent change in the density gradient has been… A) the elimination of the gap traditionally found in the center. B) an
increase in the extremes between the inner and outer areas. C) an increase in the number of people living in the center.
D) a reduction in the differences in densities found within an urban area.
10) U.S. central cities face fiscal problems because… A) federal and state funds are available. B) low-income people are
concentrated there. C) middle-class families are attracted there. D) redlining is no longer legal.
11) A legal form of segregation in U.S. cities is achieved through...A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) zoning. D) greenbelts.
12) Factories have moved to suburban locations in part because of… A) access to main highways. B) adequate space to build
vertical structures. C) availability of large tracts of high-priced land. D) good rail connections.
13) According to the sector model, the best housing is located in…A) a corridor from downtown to the edge of the city.
B) an outer ring surrounding the city. C) nodes near universities and parks. D) renovated inner-city neighborhoods.
14) Ramshackle houses on the periphery of cities in less developed countries are known as… A) squatter settlements. B) council
estates. C) public housing. D) zone in transition.
15) Higher income people tend to live near the center of the city in all but which of the following regions? A) Latin America
B) North America C) South Asia D) Western Europe

16) The wide boulevards built in cities in less developed countries were most likely built during what era? A) pre-colonial
B) colonial C) independence D) all of the above equally

69

17) According to the multiple nuclei model, an airport is likely to attract nearby… A) industries. B) residences. C) shops.
D) universities.
18) The largest percentage of the U.S. population lives in…A) central cities. B) suburbs. C) non-metropolitan areas. D) all of the
above
19) In U.S. cities, the underclass is… A) clustered in inner-city neighborhoods. B) dispersed throughout the city. C) clustered in
suburbs. D) distributed uniformly in the city.

20) A process of converting a neighborhood from low-income to middle-class is…A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) gentrification.
D) redlining.
21) Higher social heterogeneity in urban settlements means that… A) the people with whom you relax are probably the same ones you
see at work. B) you play a specialized role in the urban economy. C) you compete for limited space. D) you may feel lonely and
isolated in a crowd.
22) The city plus its contiguous built-up suburbs is the… A) central city. B) urbanized area.
D) consolidated metropolitan statistical area

C) metropolitan statistical area.

23) The process whereby an increasing percentage of people live in an urban area is known as… A) demographic transition.
B) rank-size rule. C) urbanization. D) central place theory.
24) Of the ten largest urban areas in the world, how many are in More Developed Countries today? A) 1 B) 4 C) 7 D) 10 E) 2
25) Public housing is…A) conversion of low-income housing to middle-class housing. B) illegally established low-income housing.
C) housing that has changed from single-family owner occupancy to abandonment. D) low-income government-owned housing.
26) According to the concentric zone model, a city develops in a series of… A) corridors. B) nodes. C) rings. D) all of the above

70

27) Chicago is a good location in which to develop urban models because it is located… A) at the hub of the nation's transportation
system. B) in the center of the country. C) on a flat prairie. D) on the shore of Lake Michigan.
28) According to the sector model, the best housing is located in… A) a corridor from downtown to the edge of the city. B) an outer
ring surrounding the city. C) nodes near universities and parks. D) renovated inner-city neighborhoods.
29) The zone of transition in US cities generally contain…A) warehouses B) wealthy neighborhoods C) transportation hubs
D) universities and hospitals E) suburban homes
30) The attractions of shopping malls include all but which of the following? A) frequent concerts and exhibitions B) generous
parking lots C) place to meet friends D) walking distance from homes
The following questions are written at the high school level. You will find some questions from part one often rewritten
here. This is all designed to help you transition to the college/AP style of written questions. Any question preceded with ***
are questions that have been on the national exam before.
31. Most Latin American cities are focused on a…A) central plaza B) government housing project C) zone of heavy industry
D) skyscraper office building E) squatter settlement
32. The multiple-nuclei model of a city structure tends to be most applicable to…A) small cities B) traditional C) Latin American
cities D) newer, fast growing cities E) cities with homogeneous land use
33. ***Locational advantages important to the development of the earliest cities include…A) availability of good harbors for large
ships B) productive agricultural land and defensible sites C) temperate climate and proximity to coal mines D) good
connections by road and canal E) proximity to manufacturing areas

34. In cities, the CBD’s often show uniqueness while the suburbs usually show…A) a large hinterland. B) placelessness C) more
than one node. D) newer zones of transition.

71

35. Many LDC’s have tried to help a previously under-developed part of their country develop by moving their capital
city to that area. This new capital is known as a…A) forward capital B) new development zone C) enterprise zone
D) neocolonial city
36. Today the greatest number of urban dwellers is found in…A) North America
D) Europe E) Asia

B) South America C) Africa

37. ***All of the following have helped create ghettos in North American cities except…A)blockbusting and racial
steering B) redlining by financial institutions C) concentration of public housing and social services D) fixed school
districts E) Economic Enterprise Zones

38. Which of the following is NOT as reason for rapid suburbanization in the US after WW2? A) Mass production of
the automobile B) Reduction of long distance commuting C) Expansion of home construction D) Expansion of the
interstate highway system E) Availability of low down payment terms and long-term mortgages.
39. New cities which developed in the hinterland of large urban areas because of the automobile, are known as…
A) edge cities B) census tracts C) suburban sprawl D) squatter settlements. E) none of these
40. Gentrification refers to… A) moving the homeless into inner city shelters B) The “White Flight” from the urban city
C) losing tax revenue because of stores closing in downtown areas D) middle-class people moving into and renovating
inner city neighborhoods E) the creation of “beltway cities” around the city.

72

4
7
3

5

1
6

2

41-48 all use the sketch above.
41. The sketch in box A above represents which model of the inner structure of urban areas?
C) multiple nuclei model D) Burgess concentric zone model E) peripheral model
42. The models in boxes B and C represent A) Concentric zone and multiple nuclei
concentric zone D) peripheral and concentric zone E) Von Thunen and peripheral

A) Hoyt sector model B) VonThunen’s model

B) Multiple nuclei and Hoyt sector C) Hoyt sector and

43. In which ring (1, 2, etc.) of sketch A above would high-status households in North American cities likely live? A) 1 B) 2 C) 3 D) 4&5
44. In which ring (1, 2, etc.) of sketch A above would high status households in a European city likely live? A) 1

B) 2

C) 3

D) 4&5

45. In model B, zone # 2 is where it is likely because of: A) greenbelting B) squatter settling C) the culture of poverty D) transportation
E) no one knows
46. The model in sketch B is the; A) Hoyt sector model B) Burgess model C) multiple nuclei model D) peripheral model
47. The model in sketch C is the; A) Hoyt sector model B) Burgess model C) multiple nuclei model D) peripheral model
48. Which of these models best describes what has happened in US cities in the last 40 years? A)

B)

C)

73

49.*** In the U.S. a city plus its contiguous built-up suburbs is known as an…A) urbanized area B) zoned area
C) census tract D) Squatter settlement E) none of these
50. Done mostly in Europe, these are areas where land is kept as parks, farms or other kinds of open space and urban
sprawl is not allowed. A) Smart growth
B) zoning
C) filtering
D) census tracts E) greenbelts
51. Which statement best describes the relationship between urbanization and the Industrial Revolution?
A) Urbanization promoted the Industrial Revolution. B) The Industrial Revolution promoted urbanization.
C) Urbanization preceded the Industrial Revolution by thousands of years. D) Urbanization and the Industrial
Revolution are no longer related.
52. The process whereby an increasing percentage of people live in an urban area is known as…
A) Demographic transition. B) rank-size rule. C) Urbanization. D) Central place theory.
53. The city (if it has 50,000 or more people) plus its contiguous built-up suburbs AND the county it is in as well as any
other counties it influences, is known as the ...A) central city B) urbanized area
C) metropolitan statistical area
D) consolidated metropolitan area E) micropolitan statistical area
54. ***Higher social heterogeneity in urban settlements means that …A) the people with whom you relax are probably
the same ones you see at work. B) you play a specialized role in the urban economy. C) you compete for limited
space. D) you may feel lonely and isolated in a crowd.

55. The process of change in the use of a house, from single-family owner occupancy to smaller dwellings for the poor
and then sometimes to abandonment, is…A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining. E) none of
these

74

Free Response #1:
The Bid Rent theory says that the closer you get to the
CBD the higher the cost for land, yet in most American
cities you find the poorest people living near the
expensive CBD and the richest living further away.
Explain:
A. Why neighborhoods near the CBD are often poor and
run down?
B. Why are there few grocery and other retail stores in
these neighborhoods?
C. Why is this not really true in European and Latin
American countries?

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75

FR #2:
Think of the map of your school, explain the
layout of your school using the Multiple Nuclei
Model
The main office is the CBD.
Completely explain your answer using specific
buildings and/or land areas in your explanation
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76

Answer Key:
1. B

14. A

27. C

40. D

53. C

2. B

15. B

28. A

41. D

54. D

3. C

16. B

29. A

42. B

55. B

4. A

17. A

30. D

43. D

5. B

18. B

31. A

44. A

6. A

19. A

32. D

45. D

7. B

20. C

33. B

46. A

8. D

21. D

34. B

47. C

9. D

22. B

35. A

48. C

10. B

23. C

36. E

49. A

11. C

24. C

37. E

50. E

12. A

25. D

38. B

51. B

13. A

26. C

39. A

52. C
77

FR. #1: ( 15 pts. for each section…total of 45 pts.)
A. In the US the move of the wealthy and middle class to the suburbs has left the older houses and apartments near the CBD empty.
This has lowered their value to the point where the poor can afford these dwellings and have made these neighborhoods their
homes. The poor can not pay for upkeep of these dwellings, or to pay high taxes. The lack of upkeep and tax money to repair the
roads and schools, adds to the downward spiral of the neighborhood. With little spending money for shopping, the poor do not
spend much in the stores. This causes many stores to close and move to the suburbs where the spending customers and money
went. The closing of the stores adds to the poverty of the area by taking away some of the jobs that were in the neighborhood. This
becomes a vicious cycle of poverty and deterioration. (15 points)

B. There are few retail stores and groceries is the area because the poor do not have money to shop. The lack of spending forces
many stores out of business or forces them to move to better locations. There also can be higher crime in these areas and the
crime often takes place at the stores. This is another reason for the stores to move out of the neighborhood. (15 points)
C. Neighborhoods in European and Latin American cities are different from those of US cities. In Europe and Latin America, the
wealthy and middle class still live near or in the CBD. The higher tax base and more spending ability of the upper and middle
classes, keeps the CBD area flourishing with jobs and in constant repair and upkeep of the cities’ physical condition. (15 points)

FR #2: (10 total points.)
You will need to judge how effectively you displayed you school
in the Multiple Nuclei Model. Refer to the model itself to help you
determine your success and grade.
School’s main office
78

Calculating your grade on test 13.
Add how many you got correct on the multiple choice part (55 possible) to how many
points you scored on the FR portion (55 possible)…110 total.
The following scale will show the approximate score if this test were the real AP exam. Remember that this
is an approximation. While 65-74% is normally the range for a 3 on the test, it is not definite. Over the
years I have seen scores as low as 60% be the low portion of a 3 score.

Out of 110 possible points:
72-83 is most likely a 3
84-94 is most likely a 4

95-110 is most likely a 5

Now lets start our review for the national exam by
reviewing the 33 key models and theories of the
course…the next PowerPoint.


Slide 35

Key topic/chapter 13…Urban Patterns
Key terms:
Annexation
Concentric zone model
Density gradient
Edge cities
Filtering
Galactic city
Gentrification
Greenbelts
Megalopolis
MSA
Multiple nuclei model
Peripheral model

Public housing
Redlining
Renovated housing
Scattered site
Squatter settlement
Sector model
Smart growth
Sprawl
Underclass
Urban renewal
Zone in transition
Zoning
1

Chapter 13…Urban Areas.
How are Cities planned?
Why

are cities where they are?
How are they organized?
Why are some areas of a city
different from
other areas of the same city?
What is the future of cities?
2

Settlement


Settlement - permanent collections of buildings,
where people live, work, and obtain services

3

ORIGINS OF SETTLEMENTS


Religious - graves, churches, temples



Cultural - schools, libraries



Political/Military - leader’s house, walls



Economic - stores, food
4

TYPES OF SETTLEMENTS


Rural Settlements - agriculture as the
predominant occupation.



Urban settlements - principal industries are
secondary and tertiary.

5

RURAL SETTLEMENTS
Clustered rural settlements –grouped
settlements in rural areas to minimize travel

Dispersed rural Settlements - isolated farms
with enclosed continuous fields (Found only in
N. America and Britain).

6

Urban Geographers want to know the global distribution of urban
settlements. MDC’s have a high percentage of people living in urban
areas because of the shift from agriculture-manufacturing-services.
Geographers are also interested in where people and activities are
distributed within urban spaces. What are the differences between the
inner-city and suburban areas and why?
As we saw in the last chapter, many downtowns are unique and can
often be recognized in photos where the suburbs often look very
much alike (Placelessness). Why? Suburbs offer the chance to avoid
some of the city problems (crime, tight living area, expensive
land/rent, noise, age of buildings) while still keeping a connection with
the goods and services of the city: jobs, sports teams, culture, shops,
recreation, etc.
7

Where is this place?

8

Today’s cities are evolving and changing. Although different internal
situations characterize urban areas in the US and elsewhere, the
problems arising from current spatial trends are quite similar in all cities.
Where have urban areas grown: in the early 1800’s only 3% of the earth’s
people lived in cities and only Beijing China had more than 1 million
people. Today over ½ of the world’s people live in cities and we have over
400 cities of at least 1 million people.

Urbanization: is the process by which city population grows.
Cities population growth is measured in 2 dimensions;
1. An increase in the number of people living in the cities.
2. An increase in the percentage of people living in the cities.
This distinction is important because they happen for different reason and
have different global distributions.
9

Increasing Percentage of People in Cities: a large percentage of people living in urban
areas is a measure of a country’s level of development. In MDC’s about ¾ of the people
live in urban areas compared to about 2/5 of people in LDC’s. (Except in Latin America
where the level is closer to MDC’s.)
The higher percentage of people in urban areas comes from the changes that have
occurred in the last 200 years as we went from agriculture (primary jobs) to industrial
(secondary jobs) and now service jobs, all created by the Industrial Revolution of the
1800’s.
People moved to the cities for industrial jobs, but in MDC’s this process has largely
ended because nearly everyone interested in moving to the cities from farms has already
done so.
In LDC’s the percentage of people living in urban areas is growing as people are pushed
off of their farms and replaced by machines and as people move to cities looking/hoping
for industrial jobs.
10

Increasing Number of People in Cities: MDC’s have a higher percentage of
people living in urban settlements but LDC’s have more of the very large urban
settlements (Primate cities). (Rank-size rule, primate cities, chapter 12.)

This is interesting because typically the large cities are created from the
improvements brought by the Industrial Revolution. This is not the case with the
large LDC cities. Migration to the primate city in LDC’s is happening even though
job opportunities may not be available. Increasing the population growth in LDC
cities is the fact that medical services are better in these cities, thus the child
mortality rate is lower.
Defining Urban Settlements: defining where urban areas end and rural areas
begin is not easy. Geographers have formulated definitions that distinguish
between urban and rural areas in two ways: Social differences and Physical
differences.
11

Percent Urban Population

Percent of the population living in urban areas is usually higher in MDCs
than in LDCs.

12

The most populated cities in the world

Of the top
20, only
Moscow,
Tokyo and
New York
are in MDC’s

Shanghai China has 14,608,512 people
13

14

15

Social Differences Between Urban and Rural Settlements: it is fair to say that rural
people and urban people follow different ways of life. A city can be defined as having 3
characteristics:
1. Large size. People in rural settlements know most of the other people in the
settlement. Not true in big cities. Social relationships are often described as “colder” in
urban areas because you only see some people at work instead of growing up with
them in the settlement.
2. High Density. Having lots of people in a tiny area creates social consequences. A
high density of people living in a small area can only be supported if the people
specialize (they can’t all be farmers). People are encouraged to compete for jobs, room,
and survival in a tightly limited space. Social groups compete to occupy the same space
(ethnic/ race problems). Rural settlements have very little of this problem.
3. Social Heterogeneity. The larger the settlement, the greater the variety of people.
Being “unusual” in a large settlement is more likely to be accepted than in a small rural
one. But despite the freedom to be different that large urban settlements give you,
people living there often feel alone because so many people are different from them.
There is a stronger feeling of belonging together in small rural settlements.
16

These 3 differences do not fully answer the question of where urban settlements
begin and rural ones end because in today’s MDC’s most everyone has access to
cars, telephones, televisions, and “urban type” jobs which reduce the differences
between urban and rural lifestyles. “City folk” and “Country folk” are more alike
today than they are different. To help distinguish between urban and rural areas we
need to add the physical definition of rural and urban to the equation.
Physical Definitions of Urban Settlements: In ancient time, cities had defensive
walls for protection which clearly defined the physical boundaries of the city. Today
the walls are gone but we can still define the physical boundaries in 3 ways:
1. Legal boundary. These are the official boundaries of a city as recognized by
the government of the country or state. These “city limits” have been officially given
to the city and are physically marked on official maps. The local government of the
city has authority to make laws and protect the people inside the city boundaries.
17

2. Urbanized area. This is the city plus its suburbs or urbanized area that
surrounds the city. About 70 percent of US residents live in urbanized areas with
40% being in the suburbs and 30% inside the city limits. The suburbs may have
their own city governments but the huge central city dominates what happens in
the entire area.
3. Metropolitan Statistical Area. Cities have an even bigger influence on people
than just those living in their city limits and surrounding urbanized areas. People
from far away come to shop, use the services, support the sports teams, read
the newspapers and watch the television broadcasts of the city. Thus the city
has a “functional area” which is its total zone of influence. The US Bureau of
Census has created a method of measuring the functional area of the city.
Known as the Metropolitan statistical area (MSA) this area includes:
•An urbanized area with a population of at least 50,000
•The county within which the city is located.
•Adjacent counties with a high population density and a large percentage of
residents working in the central city’s county.
18

Metropolitan Area of Philadelphia

City of
Philadelphia

Urbanized
area
(suburbs)
Metropolitan
Statistical
Area

The metropolitan area of Philadelphia is
spread over several counties and four states.
It is also a diversified trade center, given its
position on the Delaware river.

19

20

21

Micropolitan Statistical Areas: Smaller areas with between
10,000 and 50,000 people, the county where it is found, and
adjacent counties tied to the city. This would be a small town and
the area dominated by it.
Overlapping Metropolitan Areas: Some adjacent MSA’s overlap.
A county between two central cities may send a large number of
commuters to jobs in both cities. In some areas the cities are so
close that they form one continuous urban complex. This is
known as a Megalopolis (great city).
In a megalopolis, the downtown CBD often has its own
distinctive look and the urban areas are visually separated by
parks, open spaces, and dairy/truck farms. But at the periphery
of the urban areas, the boundaries overlap.
22

Colorado Springs, population 431,000

Ocala, Florida, population 56,000

Florala, Alabama, population 1,900

23

Megalopolis, from northern Va. To Maine.
This Illustrates the
difference between
strict city proper
definitions and broader
urban agglomerations.
To define urbanized
areas, the U.S. Census
Bureau uses the term
Metropolitan Statistical
Area (MSA) or
Consolidated MSA
(CMSA) if two or more of
them overlap.
24

Where are People Distributed within Urban Areas? People are not
just distributed at random in urban areas. For the most part they
concentrate in particular neighborhoods depending on their social
characteristics. Geographers want to see where people with
particular characteristics are likely to live and why.

Three models which try to explain the growth of a city:

The Burgess Model

The Hoyt Sector Model

The Harris and Ullman
multiple Nuclei Model
25

Burgess Concentric Zone Model

In the concentric zone model, a city grows in a series of rings surrounding the CBD.

Burgess Concentric Zone Model: This is the first used to explain the
distributions of different social groups within urban areas. It says that a
city grows outward from a central place in a series of concentric rings.
The precise size and width of the rings vary from one city to another, but
some basic types of rings appear in all cities in the same order (see chart
above).
26

•Hoyt Sector Model: In this model the city develops in a
series of sectors not rings. Certain areas of the city are
more attractive for various activities, originally because
of an environmental factor (or even pure chance). As the
city grows, activities extend outward in a wedge shape.
For example, once a wealthy neighborhood is built the
next wealthy neighborhood will extend from the first
neighborhood further outward from the center. In this
way, the best housing is found in a corridor extending
outward from the center to the outer edge (see chart on
the next page).
27

The Hoyt Sector Model

In the sector model, a city grows in a series of
wedges or corridors extending out from the
CBD.
28

•Harris and Ullman’s Multiple Nuclei Model: According
to this model, a city is a complex structure that includes
more than one center around which activities revolve.
Examples of these nodes include a port, parks,
stadium, neighborhood business center, university, and
airport (see chart). This theory states that some
activities are attracted to particular nodes, whereas
others try to avoid them. A university node may attract
well educated people and bookstores while the port will
attract hotels and warehouses. Heavy industry and
expensive houses rarely are found together. This
model shows the effect of the automobile more than
any other model.
29

The Harris and Ullman Multiple Nuclei model

The multiple nuclei model views a city as a
collection of individual centers, around which
different people and activities cluster.

30

Applications of the Models: The three models help explain where and in some
cases, why people live where they do. None of the models by themselves fully
explains why and where different types of people live, but combined they give
you as good a look as possible at the “Why” of “Where.” Effective use of the
models depends on getting good data on the areas. Most countries take a
census every 10 years to help determine useful data about the people and
places of the country. In our country we divide the census data into areas
known as census tracts of about 5,000 people. Each census tract has the data
that summarizes the characteristics of the people living within that tract. This
information includes things like the race, income, age, and education of the
people living in that tract.
Social Area Analysis: The data from the census tracts can all be plotted onto
maps to show the characteristics of the people living in that tract. This map is
known as a social area analysis.
31

Using Census tract information…Seattle, Washington
Each lined area is a
census tract of about 5000
people in Seattle
Washington. These maps
show average household
income for 1990 and
2000…note the changes in
income in some areas
between 1990 and 2000.
Using this information, a
business can make
decisions about where
they want to locate a new
store or the future of
existing stores.
You can find census tract
information on many topics
such as; age, education
level, race, ethnicity, crime
rate, and land ownership.
Note the areas with
incomes over
$63,000.

All can be very valuable
information to people
looking to open
businesses.

32

Examine the changes
between 1990 and
2000.

Oakland, California’s Ethnic neighborhoods
The small bordered areas are census tracks of 5000 people.

33

Use of the Models Outside of North America: The 3 models will also work in other
places in the world; however social groups in other countries may not have the
same reasons for selecting particular neighborhoods as Americans do.
European Cities: As in the US, wealthier people in European cities cluster along a
sector extending outward from the CBD, however unlike the US, wealthy and
middle class Europeans still live in the inner rings of the neighborhoods near the
CBD not out in the suburbs. In the past, poorer people lived in the center of the
city. Before electricity, social segregation was vertical: richer people lived on the
first or second floor of a building while the poorer people lived in the basement or
upper floors. In the Industrial Revolution, housing for the poor was constructed
near the factories and away from the rich.
Today poorer Europeans are less likely to live in the inner-city. Poor quality
housing has been renovated for the rich or turned into office buildings. Poorer
Europeans tend to live in the outskirts of the city. Vast suburbs with dozens of high
rise apartments house the poor. They face long commutes to reach their jobs in
the city.
34

European cities generally do not have the “suburban
sprawl” that US cities have. European cities tend to be
more pedestrian friendly with more parks downtown as
Europeans tend to still live downtown.
US cities have taller buildings as European cities tend to
be older and more historic.

American cities have more ethnic neighborhoods than
European cities. Ethnic neighborhoods that do exist in
European cities tend to be in the suburbs. WHY?
Because the established richer neighborhoods tend to be
downtown in European cities.
35

Less Developed Countries: Like Europe, most LDC’s accommodate their poor in the
suburbs with their middle class and rich living near the center of the city. LDC’s have
passed through 3 periods of city building: before the Europeans arrived, during the
period of European colonialism, and since independence from European control.

Pre-colonial Cities: Before the Europeans arrived few cities existed in Africa, Asia, and
Latin America and most people lived in small rural settlements. Those cities that existed
were mostly laid out surrounding a religious center; with the rest of the city laid out in a
hieratical concentric pattern (like the Burgess model) from government buildings,
homes of the wealthy, and businesses related to the religion out to other businesses
and shops.
Colonial cities: When the Europeans took over these lands, they changed the cities by
adding services to help the Europeans control the conquered people. Often a new
European style city would be build next to the existing native one. The new European
cities contained wider streets, a public square, larger houses and a much lower density.
The Spanish used the “Law of the Indies” which was a city plan designed specifically to
build cities in a “Spanish” style. (Gridiron pattern for streets centered on a church and
central plaza, walls around individual houses and neighborhoods centered around
smaller plazas and more churches.)
36

Early Mexico city was laid out in a grid pattern of streets. This followed
the Spanish “Law of the Indies.”

37

Central Plaza in Mexico City 1920 photo. Typical Colonial City plan.

Part of downtown Mexico city today still shows the
building plan of the “Law of the Indies.”

38

Cities since Independence: Following independence, cities have become
the focal point of the development of most LDC’s. Millions of people have
migrated to the cities (Primate cities) looking for jobs and services. Some
capitals have been moved to isolated areas in an attempt to help develop
that area of the country (Brasília) This is know as a forward capital. Latin
American cities have developed their own unique style.
Squatter settlements: The LDC’s are unable to house the rapidly growing
number of poor who are flowing into the cities. Because of the housing
shortages, the poor have constructed their own settlements around the city.
These settlements have few services because neither the city nor the
residents can afford them. Squatters have two basic choices for housing.
1. Illegally move into empty real houses located in the city or,
2. Rent slum housing.
(85% of the population of Addis Ababa in Ethiopia lives in squatter
settlements, slums or other illegal housing.)
39

Squatter shacks in Manila, the Philippines

40

Squatter settlement in Ethiopia

41

Zimbabwe, Africa

42

Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

43

Latin American City Model:
In many Latin
American cities,
the wealthy live in
the inner city and
in a sector
extending along a
commercial spine.
In situ accretion- businesses
and homes constantly under
construction/repair.
Zone of maturity-2nd best
housing in the city.
The poor live in squatter settlements on the
periphery of the city.

Disamenity- unpleasant area
used by the poor to get to the
market.

44

The City Outline of Rio de Janeiro
The rich tourist areas and expensive condo apartments are along the coast
and beach while the poor live in squatter shacks in the hills.

45

City problems:
Inner-City Physical Problems: Most US inner cities were constructed before the 1950’s
(people began to move to the suburbs in the 1950’s so new construction moved out of
the city).
Process of Deterioration (how a city deteriorates): A city doesn’t suddenly become old
and full of slummy areas. It happens over time. When a group of low-income people
inhabit an area of a city, nearby neighborhoods will often look to move out. They sell or
rent to more low-income occupants thus expanding the low-income area. Two processes
cause/speed up the devaluation of areas:
1. Filtering, 2. Redlining.
Filtering: Large houses and buildings that once housed rich downtown workers (who
moved to the suburbs) are taken over by landlords who don’t live in that area (they
moved to the suburbs too). Rents are low so the landlord doesn’t take as good care of
the property as they should and the property becomes run down or abandoned. Stores
close, or move, due to lack of sales. 100 years ago these neighborhoods would be used
by immigrants and ethnic businesses would succeed in those areas. Now, with a decline
in immigration, these neighborhoods have shrunk and so have schools, businesses and
other services. Thousands of vacant houses and buildings stand empty in inner cities
across America.

46

Redlining: Some banks refuse to give loans in what they consider
risky neighborhoods. They draw a red line on a map around areas
where they will not give loans. Without loans, these neighborhoods
have a hard time rebuilding/remodeling. Though illegal, this still
happens. Bankers just don’t put these “no-loan” areas on a map.

Urban Renewal: This is the series of projects to improve European
and N. American cities by buying up the blighted neighborhoods,
moving the people to new government built housing projects, and
building new roads, and other projects to make the inner city
attractive for business again. National and State government grants
help pay for these projects.
47

Public housing: Housing for the poor, built with government funding as part of
urban renewal. In the US this is only about 2% of the housing while in some
countries it may be more (Britain is 30%). Public housing built in the 50’s & 60’s
were largely high rise apartments, but those are seen as being unsatisfactory.
Problems arise from cramming large numbers of poor people into one area.
Today most public housing projects are one to three story buildings with many of
them being scattered around different parts of the city rather than clustered into
one area.
Because urban renewal has been criticized for destroying the social cohesion of
older neighborhoods, many governments (like the US) have stopped funding
most projects since the 1970’s. What do we do instead?
Renovated Housing: An alternative often used since the 70’s is to renovate a
building instead of urban renewal. The process where middle-class people
move into inner-city neighborhoods and renovate them is called gentrification.
Gentrified inner-city neighborhoods also attract middle-class people who work
downtown. Living close to work saves the hassle of commuting and rejuvenates
run down inner-city neighborhoods
48

Gentrified building downtown Harlem, NY. Note the supermarket.

49

Inner-City Social Problems: Inner-city residents are often referred to as the
permanent underclass because they are trapped in an unending cycle of
economic and social problems. High unemployment, alcoholism, drug
addiction, literacy, juvenile delinquency, and crime all exist at a higher rate
among those who live in the inner-city. Lack of jobs means lack of tax dollars
to pay for police and fire protection as well as good schools. Lack of job skills
and homelessness are also tremendous problems.
Culture of Poverty: Inner-city residents are trapped in a permanent underclass
culture that reproduces itself. In the US, unwed mothers give birth to 2/3 of the
babies in the inner-city. 90% of these children live with only one parent and it
is real hard for one parent to keep a job and take care of children. Both suffer
and a shortage of care and daily attention by the parent contributes to the kids
not learning the skills necessary to do well in school which leads to poor jobs
for their futures. Poverty leads to more poverty. Many families on welfare have
only one parent because it is financially better if one parent is gone, that way
the single parent gets food stamps and other services from the government
that they would not get if it was a 2 family household.
50

Crime: Trapped in a hopeless environment, some inner-city
residents turn to drugs. Drug use is a problem in inner-city
areas and the suburbs, but rates of drug use in inner-cities
are the highest.
Ethnic and Racial Segregation: As seen in chapter 7, many
neighborhoods in the US are segregated by ethnicity with
African Americans and Hispanics concentrated in one or two
continuous areas and whites living in the suburbs. Even small
cities display a strong distinction among neighborhoods. A
frequent division is between the east and west or north and
south side of town, or the railroad tracks. A family seeking a
new residence will seek the areas where the characteristics
of the people meet their own.

51

The exodus
from the
American city.
This has
happened in
many American
cities since the
1960’s.

52

Changes in Cities in the U.S.
U.S. population has been moving out of the city centers to the suburbs:
suburbanization and counter urbanization

Developed Countries: suburbanization

 wealthy move to suburbs
 automobiles and roads; ‘American
Dream’ of the home in the suburbs.
 better services
 wealthy move to suburbs
Counter urbanization

idyllic settings
cost of land for retirement
slow pace, yet high tech
connections to services and markets
53

U.S. intraregional migration during 1990s.

Inner city economic problems: the concentration of low income
residents in inner cities has caused economic problems. These
people require public services but can pay very little in taxes to
support the services. They need stores and jobs but have little
money to spend in the store and few skills for jobs (so the stores
close). To try to fight these problems many local and state
governments use tax monies to try to renovate these areas, but this
shifts tax money needed for other areas to the inner city (votes on
election day).
Annexation: Many cities could help their tax problem by adding the
new suburbs to be part of their city (annexation). After all, many of
these suburban people use the city for its’ jobs etc., so why not add
them into the city? Today, most people in the suburbs do not want
to be annexed into the city and so they do not vote to be annexed.
54

The Peripheral Model: According to this model, an urban area
consists of an inner city surrounded by large suburban residential
and business areas (MSA) tied together by a beltway or highway
that circles the city. Around the beltway are nodes of consumer
and business services called edge cities (see diagram of multiple
nuclei model). These edge cities sprang up to provide services
and jobs to the people in the suburbs.
Density Gradient: As you travel outward from the center of the
city, the density of people declines. Inner city has big apartments
of 250 of more people per acre. Suburbs have fewer people per
acre (but lots of acres) and finally you leave the cities periphery
you find few people. The number of houses per unit of land
diminishes as distance from the center of the city increases.
55

The Edge cities (bedroom communities) of Houston

The central city is surrounded by a ring road, around which are
suburban areas and edge cities, shopping malls, office parks,
industrial areas, and service complexes.

Known as
bedroom
communities
because
people live
there but
mostly don’t
work there.
They drive
into the city
for work.
56

As you move from the center of the city outward, the density of the population
changes. This is know as the density gradient. Two big changes have occurred in
the density gradient of today’s cities:
1. The number of people living in the center has decreased.
2. The density difference between the inner city and the suburbs is declining
because the inner city density is dropping and the suburban density is growing
due to more large apartments being built in the suburbs.
Cost of Suburban or Urban Sprawl: Urban Sprawl is the progressive spread of
development over the landscape. As long as we Americans want single-family
detached houses, land on the fringe of urban areas will be converted from open
space to residential use. The cost of this growth is more than the loss of land, it is
also the cost of new roads, utilities, building stores and offices and the cost of
automobiles to move these people over even longer distances. Lots of these new
developments are built on what was once farmland. Wonderful productive soil now
under concrete.

Greenbelts: are areas where, by law, the open space can not be used for any
construction. This is mostly found in Europe.

57

Once farmland that is being converted to suburbs and cities.

58

Tyson’s Corner Virginia in 1940

59

Washington, DC. MSA.

Tyson’s Corner Virginia
today.
Washington D.C. is off
In the distance.

60

Suburban Segregation: The “new” segregation.
Suburban segregation takes two forms:
1. Residents are separated from commercial and manufacturing activities
which are confined someplace else. (The whole neighborhood is
nothing but houses because they drive for services.)
2. The price of the house eliminates some from being able to live there. This
creates a homogeneous suburb of the same economic class of people.
This never existed before in history. Where we once had vertical
segregation of the classes we now we have horizontal segregation.
3. But this may be reversing as new statistics show that people are beginning
to move back to the city. Why? Cost of transportation.
Zoning Ordinances: This idea developed in Europe and later America in the
early decades of the 20th century. This means that businesses are allowed only
in certain areas of the settlement. (No all night taco stands inside your single
family neighborhood.)
Motor vehicles: The wide use of the automobile is largely responsible for the
American movement to the suburbs. Not only did people move out but 1/4 of
the land inside all American cities are now roads, streets, and parking lots.

61

Public Transportation: Because few US workers live within walking distance
of their jobs, urban areas are characterized by extensive commuting and the
problems that come with it. As much as 40% of all trips made into or out from
a city during the day takes place within just 4 hours. (2 in the morning and 2 in
the late afternoon). RUSH HOUR!!! In large cities, public transportation, like
subways and busses, are better suited to move people but Americans still
prefer their own cars. Public transportation is cheaper, cleaner, and more
energy efficient than personal cars, yet in the US only 5% of city travel is
done using public transit systems. American’s love their personal car too
much.
Local Government Fragmentation: Because of the large number of local
governments in the US (look at the settlements in Pinellas County) it is
difficult to solve some of the regional problems like garbage disposal, water
management, traffic and public housing.
62

Metropolitan government: This idea tries to put many local governments into a
larger unit that can better handle the urban problems. The 2 ways to do this
are:
1. Federations in which the individual settlements have their own police,
firemen, and tax collection but they all agree to be part of a second
government which handles transportation, water, sewage, parks and
welfare for all the communities.
2. Consolidations: In this method, several cities and the county may form one
government. Jacksonville’s government runs not only the town but the
county too, this makes Jacksonville the largest city, in land size, in the US.
Smart growth: A new movement by many states to curb suburban sprawl by
limiting where new construction can take place. Smart growth laws require that
land near cities be used up before any land further out can be developed. So
far, this is only being done an a few parts of our country.
63

The new
US as
some
people
see it.

64

Quiz Yourself:
1. The process where middle-class people move into inner city neighborhoods and
renovate them is called ____________
2. ____________ happens when banks refuse to give loans in what they consider
risky neighborhoods.
3. Because of the housing shortages, the poor have constructed their own settlements
around the city known as __________ _________

4. Businesses are allowed only in certain areas of the settlement because of
____________ ____________
5. Areas known as _____ _______ are areas of about 5,000 people. The data from
that area is used to help define needed services for that area.
6. When cities are so close that they form one continuous band of development this is
known as a ____________
65

7. Social relationships are often described as “colder” in urban areas because…
8. In this model the city develops in a series of sectors not rings. _______

9. ______ (LDC’s or MDC’s) have a higher percentage of people living in urban
settlements but ________ (LDC’s or MDC’s) have more of the very large urban
settlements.
10. _____________ was the first model developed to explain the distributions
of different social groups within urban areas.
11. New cities which develop around the beltway are nodes of consumer and
business services known as ________ _________.

12. When the Europeans took over lands around the world, they changed the
cities by adding services to help the Europeans control the conquered people.
These European planned cities are known as __________ cities.
66

Answer Key:
1.

Gentrification

2.

Redlining

3.

Squatter Settlements

4.

Zoning ordinances

5.

Census tracks

6.

Megalopolis

7. There is a stronger feeling of belonging together in small rural settlements.
8. Hoyt sector model
9. MDC, LDC
10. Burgess Concentric Zone model
11. Edge cities
12. Colonial cities
67

Test Key topic/chapter 13:
These questions come from a combination of our slides, your text book, and common knowledge you should
have discussed in your AP classroom. They are very typical of what you will see on the National Exam.
1) The multiple nuclei theory best explains why different neighborhoods of a city attract people of different… A) ages.
B) ethnic origin C) income D) marital status.
2) Sprawl is the… A) change in density within an urban area from the center to the periphery B) development of new
housing sites not contiguous to the existing built-up area. C) land maintained as open space surrounding an urban area.
D) period in the morning and evening with the heaviest volumes of traffic.
3) People are attracted to suburbs in part because suburbs are characterized by…A) heavy traffic. B) lower opportunity
for home ownership. C) private land surrounding the house. D) row houses and apartments.
4) Megalopolis refers to… A) adjacent, overlapping Metropolitan Statistical Areas. B) central cities. C) consolidated
Metropolitan Statistical Areas. D) central cities plus urbanized areas.
5) Which statement best describes the relationship between urbanization and the Industrial Revolution? A) Urbanization
promoted the Industrial Revolution. B) The Industrial Revolution promoted urbanization. C) Urbanization preceded the
Industrial Revolution by thousands of years. D) Urbanization and the Industrial Revolution are no longer related.
6) The process of legally adding land area to a city in the United States is… A) annexation. B) accreditation. C) an
application of eminent domain. D) defined by urbanized area.

68

7) The process of change in the use of a house, from single-family owner occupancy to abandonment, is… A) blockbusting.
B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining.
8) A process by which banks designate an area within which they refuse to lend money for improvements is… A) blockbusting.
B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining.
9) A recent change in the density gradient has been… A) the elimination of the gap traditionally found in the center. B) an
increase in the extremes between the inner and outer areas. C) an increase in the number of people living in the center.
D) a reduction in the differences in densities found within an urban area.
10) U.S. central cities face fiscal problems because… A) federal and state funds are available. B) low-income people are
concentrated there. C) middle-class families are attracted there. D) redlining is no longer legal.
11) A legal form of segregation in U.S. cities is achieved through...A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) zoning. D) greenbelts.
12) Factories have moved to suburban locations in part because of… A) access to main highways. B) adequate space to build
vertical structures. C) availability of large tracts of high-priced land. D) good rail connections.
13) According to the sector model, the best housing is located in…A) a corridor from downtown to the edge of the city.
B) an outer ring surrounding the city. C) nodes near universities and parks. D) renovated inner-city neighborhoods.
14) Ramshackle houses on the periphery of cities in less developed countries are known as… A) squatter settlements. B) council
estates. C) public housing. D) zone in transition.
15) Higher income people tend to live near the center of the city in all but which of the following regions? A) Latin America
B) North America C) South Asia D) Western Europe

16) The wide boulevards built in cities in less developed countries were most likely built during what era? A) pre-colonial
B) colonial C) independence D) all of the above equally

69

17) According to the multiple nuclei model, an airport is likely to attract nearby… A) industries. B) residences. C) shops.
D) universities.
18) The largest percentage of the U.S. population lives in…A) central cities. B) suburbs. C) non-metropolitan areas. D) all of the
above
19) In U.S. cities, the underclass is… A) clustered in inner-city neighborhoods. B) dispersed throughout the city. C) clustered in
suburbs. D) distributed uniformly in the city.

20) A process of converting a neighborhood from low-income to middle-class is…A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) gentrification.
D) redlining.
21) Higher social heterogeneity in urban settlements means that… A) the people with whom you relax are probably the same ones you
see at work. B) you play a specialized role in the urban economy. C) you compete for limited space. D) you may feel lonely and
isolated in a crowd.
22) The city plus its contiguous built-up suburbs is the… A) central city. B) urbanized area.
D) consolidated metropolitan statistical area

C) metropolitan statistical area.

23) The process whereby an increasing percentage of people live in an urban area is known as… A) demographic transition.
B) rank-size rule. C) urbanization. D) central place theory.
24) Of the ten largest urban areas in the world, how many are in More Developed Countries today? A) 1 B) 4 C) 7 D) 10 E) 2
25) Public housing is…A) conversion of low-income housing to middle-class housing. B) illegally established low-income housing.
C) housing that has changed from single-family owner occupancy to abandonment. D) low-income government-owned housing.
26) According to the concentric zone model, a city develops in a series of… A) corridors. B) nodes. C) rings. D) all of the above

70

27) Chicago is a good location in which to develop urban models because it is located… A) at the hub of the nation's transportation
system. B) in the center of the country. C) on a flat prairie. D) on the shore of Lake Michigan.
28) According to the sector model, the best housing is located in… A) a corridor from downtown to the edge of the city. B) an outer
ring surrounding the city. C) nodes near universities and parks. D) renovated inner-city neighborhoods.
29) The zone of transition in US cities generally contain…A) warehouses B) wealthy neighborhoods C) transportation hubs
D) universities and hospitals E) suburban homes
30) The attractions of shopping malls include all but which of the following? A) frequent concerts and exhibitions B) generous
parking lots C) place to meet friends D) walking distance from homes
The following questions are written at the high school level. You will find some questions from part one often rewritten
here. This is all designed to help you transition to the college/AP style of written questions. Any question preceded with ***
are questions that have been on the national exam before.
31. Most Latin American cities are focused on a…A) central plaza B) government housing project C) zone of heavy industry
D) skyscraper office building E) squatter settlement
32. The multiple-nuclei model of a city structure tends to be most applicable to…A) small cities B) traditional C) Latin American
cities D) newer, fast growing cities E) cities with homogeneous land use
33. ***Locational advantages important to the development of the earliest cities include…A) availability of good harbors for large
ships B) productive agricultural land and defensible sites C) temperate climate and proximity to coal mines D) good
connections by road and canal E) proximity to manufacturing areas

34. In cities, the CBD’s often show uniqueness while the suburbs usually show…A) a large hinterland. B) placelessness C) more
than one node. D) newer zones of transition.

71

35. Many LDC’s have tried to help a previously under-developed part of their country develop by moving their capital
city to that area. This new capital is known as a…A) forward capital B) new development zone C) enterprise zone
D) neocolonial city
36. Today the greatest number of urban dwellers is found in…A) North America
D) Europe E) Asia

B) South America C) Africa

37. ***All of the following have helped create ghettos in North American cities except…A)blockbusting and racial
steering B) redlining by financial institutions C) concentration of public housing and social services D) fixed school
districts E) Economic Enterprise Zones

38. Which of the following is NOT as reason for rapid suburbanization in the US after WW2? A) Mass production of
the automobile B) Reduction of long distance commuting C) Expansion of home construction D) Expansion of the
interstate highway system E) Availability of low down payment terms and long-term mortgages.
39. New cities which developed in the hinterland of large urban areas because of the automobile, are known as…
A) edge cities B) census tracts C) suburban sprawl D) squatter settlements. E) none of these
40. Gentrification refers to… A) moving the homeless into inner city shelters B) The “White Flight” from the urban city
C) losing tax revenue because of stores closing in downtown areas D) middle-class people moving into and renovating
inner city neighborhoods E) the creation of “beltway cities” around the city.

72

4
7
3

5

1
6

2

41-48 all use the sketch above.
41. The sketch in box A above represents which model of the inner structure of urban areas?
C) multiple nuclei model D) Burgess concentric zone model E) peripheral model
42. The models in boxes B and C represent A) Concentric zone and multiple nuclei
concentric zone D) peripheral and concentric zone E) Von Thunen and peripheral

A) Hoyt sector model B) VonThunen’s model

B) Multiple nuclei and Hoyt sector C) Hoyt sector and

43. In which ring (1, 2, etc.) of sketch A above would high-status households in North American cities likely live? A) 1 B) 2 C) 3 D) 4&5
44. In which ring (1, 2, etc.) of sketch A above would high status households in a European city likely live? A) 1

B) 2

C) 3

D) 4&5

45. In model B, zone # 2 is where it is likely because of: A) greenbelting B) squatter settling C) the culture of poverty D) transportation
E) no one knows
46. The model in sketch B is the; A) Hoyt sector model B) Burgess model C) multiple nuclei model D) peripheral model
47. The model in sketch C is the; A) Hoyt sector model B) Burgess model C) multiple nuclei model D) peripheral model
48. Which of these models best describes what has happened in US cities in the last 40 years? A)

B)

C)

73

49.*** In the U.S. a city plus its contiguous built-up suburbs is known as an…A) urbanized area B) zoned area
C) census tract D) Squatter settlement E) none of these
50. Done mostly in Europe, these are areas where land is kept as parks, farms or other kinds of open space and urban
sprawl is not allowed. A) Smart growth
B) zoning
C) filtering
D) census tracts E) greenbelts
51. Which statement best describes the relationship between urbanization and the Industrial Revolution?
A) Urbanization promoted the Industrial Revolution. B) The Industrial Revolution promoted urbanization.
C) Urbanization preceded the Industrial Revolution by thousands of years. D) Urbanization and the Industrial
Revolution are no longer related.
52. The process whereby an increasing percentage of people live in an urban area is known as…
A) Demographic transition. B) rank-size rule. C) Urbanization. D) Central place theory.
53. The city (if it has 50,000 or more people) plus its contiguous built-up suburbs AND the county it is in as well as any
other counties it influences, is known as the ...A) central city B) urbanized area
C) metropolitan statistical area
D) consolidated metropolitan area E) micropolitan statistical area
54. ***Higher social heterogeneity in urban settlements means that …A) the people with whom you relax are probably
the same ones you see at work. B) you play a specialized role in the urban economy. C) you compete for limited
space. D) you may feel lonely and isolated in a crowd.

55. The process of change in the use of a house, from single-family owner occupancy to smaller dwellings for the poor
and then sometimes to abandonment, is…A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining. E) none of
these

74

Free Response #1:
The Bid Rent theory says that the closer you get to the
CBD the higher the cost for land, yet in most American
cities you find the poorest people living near the
expensive CBD and the richest living further away.
Explain:
A. Why neighborhoods near the CBD are often poor and
run down?
B. Why are there few grocery and other retail stores in
these neighborhoods?
C. Why is this not really true in European and Latin
American countries?

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75

FR #2:
Think of the map of your school, explain the
layout of your school using the Multiple Nuclei
Model
The main office is the CBD.
Completely explain your answer using specific
buildings and/or land areas in your explanation
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76

Answer Key:
1. B

14. A

27. C

40. D

53. C

2. B

15. B

28. A

41. D

54. D

3. C

16. B

29. A

42. B

55. B

4. A

17. A

30. D

43. D

5. B

18. B

31. A

44. A

6. A

19. A

32. D

45. D

7. B

20. C

33. B

46. A

8. D

21. D

34. B

47. C

9. D

22. B

35. A

48. C

10. B

23. C

36. E

49. A

11. C

24. C

37. E

50. E

12. A

25. D

38. B

51. B

13. A

26. C

39. A

52. C
77

FR. #1: ( 15 pts. for each section…total of 45 pts.)
A. In the US the move of the wealthy and middle class to the suburbs has left the older houses and apartments near the CBD empty.
This has lowered their value to the point where the poor can afford these dwellings and have made these neighborhoods their
homes. The poor can not pay for upkeep of these dwellings, or to pay high taxes. The lack of upkeep and tax money to repair the
roads and schools, adds to the downward spiral of the neighborhood. With little spending money for shopping, the poor do not
spend much in the stores. This causes many stores to close and move to the suburbs where the spending customers and money
went. The closing of the stores adds to the poverty of the area by taking away some of the jobs that were in the neighborhood. This
becomes a vicious cycle of poverty and deterioration. (15 points)

B. There are few retail stores and groceries is the area because the poor do not have money to shop. The lack of spending forces
many stores out of business or forces them to move to better locations. There also can be higher crime in these areas and the
crime often takes place at the stores. This is another reason for the stores to move out of the neighborhood. (15 points)
C. Neighborhoods in European and Latin American cities are different from those of US cities. In Europe and Latin America, the
wealthy and middle class still live near or in the CBD. The higher tax base and more spending ability of the upper and middle
classes, keeps the CBD area flourishing with jobs and in constant repair and upkeep of the cities’ physical condition. (15 points)

FR #2: (10 total points.)
You will need to judge how effectively you displayed you school
in the Multiple Nuclei Model. Refer to the model itself to help you
determine your success and grade.
School’s main office
78

Calculating your grade on test 13.
Add how many you got correct on the multiple choice part (55 possible) to how many
points you scored on the FR portion (55 possible)…110 total.
The following scale will show the approximate score if this test were the real AP exam. Remember that this
is an approximation. While 65-74% is normally the range for a 3 on the test, it is not definite. Over the
years I have seen scores as low as 60% be the low portion of a 3 score.

Out of 110 possible points:
72-83 is most likely a 3
84-94 is most likely a 4

95-110 is most likely a 5

Now lets start our review for the national exam by
reviewing the 33 key models and theories of the
course…the next PowerPoint.


Slide 36

Key topic/chapter 13…Urban Patterns
Key terms:
Annexation
Concentric zone model
Density gradient
Edge cities
Filtering
Galactic city
Gentrification
Greenbelts
Megalopolis
MSA
Multiple nuclei model
Peripheral model

Public housing
Redlining
Renovated housing
Scattered site
Squatter settlement
Sector model
Smart growth
Sprawl
Underclass
Urban renewal
Zone in transition
Zoning
1

Chapter 13…Urban Areas.
How are Cities planned?
Why

are cities where they are?
How are they organized?
Why are some areas of a city
different from
other areas of the same city?
What is the future of cities?
2

Settlement


Settlement - permanent collections of buildings,
where people live, work, and obtain services

3

ORIGINS OF SETTLEMENTS


Religious - graves, churches, temples



Cultural - schools, libraries



Political/Military - leader’s house, walls



Economic - stores, food
4

TYPES OF SETTLEMENTS


Rural Settlements - agriculture as the
predominant occupation.



Urban settlements - principal industries are
secondary and tertiary.

5

RURAL SETTLEMENTS
Clustered rural settlements –grouped
settlements in rural areas to minimize travel

Dispersed rural Settlements - isolated farms
with enclosed continuous fields (Found only in
N. America and Britain).

6

Urban Geographers want to know the global distribution of urban
settlements. MDC’s have a high percentage of people living in urban
areas because of the shift from agriculture-manufacturing-services.
Geographers are also interested in where people and activities are
distributed within urban spaces. What are the differences between the
inner-city and suburban areas and why?
As we saw in the last chapter, many downtowns are unique and can
often be recognized in photos where the suburbs often look very
much alike (Placelessness). Why? Suburbs offer the chance to avoid
some of the city problems (crime, tight living area, expensive
land/rent, noise, age of buildings) while still keeping a connection with
the goods and services of the city: jobs, sports teams, culture, shops,
recreation, etc.
7

Where is this place?

8

Today’s cities are evolving and changing. Although different internal
situations characterize urban areas in the US and elsewhere, the
problems arising from current spatial trends are quite similar in all cities.
Where have urban areas grown: in the early 1800’s only 3% of the earth’s
people lived in cities and only Beijing China had more than 1 million
people. Today over ½ of the world’s people live in cities and we have over
400 cities of at least 1 million people.

Urbanization: is the process by which city population grows.
Cities population growth is measured in 2 dimensions;
1. An increase in the number of people living in the cities.
2. An increase in the percentage of people living in the cities.
This distinction is important because they happen for different reason and
have different global distributions.
9

Increasing Percentage of People in Cities: a large percentage of people living in urban
areas is a measure of a country’s level of development. In MDC’s about ¾ of the people
live in urban areas compared to about 2/5 of people in LDC’s. (Except in Latin America
where the level is closer to MDC’s.)
The higher percentage of people in urban areas comes from the changes that have
occurred in the last 200 years as we went from agriculture (primary jobs) to industrial
(secondary jobs) and now service jobs, all created by the Industrial Revolution of the
1800’s.
People moved to the cities for industrial jobs, but in MDC’s this process has largely
ended because nearly everyone interested in moving to the cities from farms has already
done so.
In LDC’s the percentage of people living in urban areas is growing as people are pushed
off of their farms and replaced by machines and as people move to cities looking/hoping
for industrial jobs.
10

Increasing Number of People in Cities: MDC’s have a higher percentage of
people living in urban settlements but LDC’s have more of the very large urban
settlements (Primate cities). (Rank-size rule, primate cities, chapter 12.)

This is interesting because typically the large cities are created from the
improvements brought by the Industrial Revolution. This is not the case with the
large LDC cities. Migration to the primate city in LDC’s is happening even though
job opportunities may not be available. Increasing the population growth in LDC
cities is the fact that medical services are better in these cities, thus the child
mortality rate is lower.
Defining Urban Settlements: defining where urban areas end and rural areas
begin is not easy. Geographers have formulated definitions that distinguish
between urban and rural areas in two ways: Social differences and Physical
differences.
11

Percent Urban Population

Percent of the population living in urban areas is usually higher in MDCs
than in LDCs.

12

The most populated cities in the world

Of the top
20, only
Moscow,
Tokyo and
New York
are in MDC’s

Shanghai China has 14,608,512 people
13

14

15

Social Differences Between Urban and Rural Settlements: it is fair to say that rural
people and urban people follow different ways of life. A city can be defined as having 3
characteristics:
1. Large size. People in rural settlements know most of the other people in the
settlement. Not true in big cities. Social relationships are often described as “colder” in
urban areas because you only see some people at work instead of growing up with
them in the settlement.
2. High Density. Having lots of people in a tiny area creates social consequences. A
high density of people living in a small area can only be supported if the people
specialize (they can’t all be farmers). People are encouraged to compete for jobs, room,
and survival in a tightly limited space. Social groups compete to occupy the same space
(ethnic/ race problems). Rural settlements have very little of this problem.
3. Social Heterogeneity. The larger the settlement, the greater the variety of people.
Being “unusual” in a large settlement is more likely to be accepted than in a small rural
one. But despite the freedom to be different that large urban settlements give you,
people living there often feel alone because so many people are different from them.
There is a stronger feeling of belonging together in small rural settlements.
16

These 3 differences do not fully answer the question of where urban settlements
begin and rural ones end because in today’s MDC’s most everyone has access to
cars, telephones, televisions, and “urban type” jobs which reduce the differences
between urban and rural lifestyles. “City folk” and “Country folk” are more alike
today than they are different. To help distinguish between urban and rural areas we
need to add the physical definition of rural and urban to the equation.
Physical Definitions of Urban Settlements: In ancient time, cities had defensive
walls for protection which clearly defined the physical boundaries of the city. Today
the walls are gone but we can still define the physical boundaries in 3 ways:
1. Legal boundary. These are the official boundaries of a city as recognized by
the government of the country or state. These “city limits” have been officially given
to the city and are physically marked on official maps. The local government of the
city has authority to make laws and protect the people inside the city boundaries.
17

2. Urbanized area. This is the city plus its suburbs or urbanized area that
surrounds the city. About 70 percent of US residents live in urbanized areas with
40% being in the suburbs and 30% inside the city limits. The suburbs may have
their own city governments but the huge central city dominates what happens in
the entire area.
3. Metropolitan Statistical Area. Cities have an even bigger influence on people
than just those living in their city limits and surrounding urbanized areas. People
from far away come to shop, use the services, support the sports teams, read
the newspapers and watch the television broadcasts of the city. Thus the city
has a “functional area” which is its total zone of influence. The US Bureau of
Census has created a method of measuring the functional area of the city.
Known as the Metropolitan statistical area (MSA) this area includes:
•An urbanized area with a population of at least 50,000
•The county within which the city is located.
•Adjacent counties with a high population density and a large percentage of
residents working in the central city’s county.
18

Metropolitan Area of Philadelphia

City of
Philadelphia

Urbanized
area
(suburbs)
Metropolitan
Statistical
Area

The metropolitan area of Philadelphia is
spread over several counties and four states.
It is also a diversified trade center, given its
position on the Delaware river.

19

20

21

Micropolitan Statistical Areas: Smaller areas with between
10,000 and 50,000 people, the county where it is found, and
adjacent counties tied to the city. This would be a small town and
the area dominated by it.
Overlapping Metropolitan Areas: Some adjacent MSA’s overlap.
A county between two central cities may send a large number of
commuters to jobs in both cities. In some areas the cities are so
close that they form one continuous urban complex. This is
known as a Megalopolis (great city).
In a megalopolis, the downtown CBD often has its own
distinctive look and the urban areas are visually separated by
parks, open spaces, and dairy/truck farms. But at the periphery
of the urban areas, the boundaries overlap.
22

Colorado Springs, population 431,000

Ocala, Florida, population 56,000

Florala, Alabama, population 1,900

23

Megalopolis, from northern Va. To Maine.
This Illustrates the
difference between
strict city proper
definitions and broader
urban agglomerations.
To define urbanized
areas, the U.S. Census
Bureau uses the term
Metropolitan Statistical
Area (MSA) or
Consolidated MSA
(CMSA) if two or more of
them overlap.
24

Where are People Distributed within Urban Areas? People are not
just distributed at random in urban areas. For the most part they
concentrate in particular neighborhoods depending on their social
characteristics. Geographers want to see where people with
particular characteristics are likely to live and why.

Three models which try to explain the growth of a city:

The Burgess Model

The Hoyt Sector Model

The Harris and Ullman
multiple Nuclei Model
25

Burgess Concentric Zone Model

In the concentric zone model, a city grows in a series of rings surrounding the CBD.

Burgess Concentric Zone Model: This is the first used to explain the
distributions of different social groups within urban areas. It says that a
city grows outward from a central place in a series of concentric rings.
The precise size and width of the rings vary from one city to another, but
some basic types of rings appear in all cities in the same order (see chart
above).
26

•Hoyt Sector Model: In this model the city develops in a
series of sectors not rings. Certain areas of the city are
more attractive for various activities, originally because
of an environmental factor (or even pure chance). As the
city grows, activities extend outward in a wedge shape.
For example, once a wealthy neighborhood is built the
next wealthy neighborhood will extend from the first
neighborhood further outward from the center. In this
way, the best housing is found in a corridor extending
outward from the center to the outer edge (see chart on
the next page).
27

The Hoyt Sector Model

In the sector model, a city grows in a series of
wedges or corridors extending out from the
CBD.
28

•Harris and Ullman’s Multiple Nuclei Model: According
to this model, a city is a complex structure that includes
more than one center around which activities revolve.
Examples of these nodes include a port, parks,
stadium, neighborhood business center, university, and
airport (see chart). This theory states that some
activities are attracted to particular nodes, whereas
others try to avoid them. A university node may attract
well educated people and bookstores while the port will
attract hotels and warehouses. Heavy industry and
expensive houses rarely are found together. This
model shows the effect of the automobile more than
any other model.
29

The Harris and Ullman Multiple Nuclei model

The multiple nuclei model views a city as a
collection of individual centers, around which
different people and activities cluster.

30

Applications of the Models: The three models help explain where and in some
cases, why people live where they do. None of the models by themselves fully
explains why and where different types of people live, but combined they give
you as good a look as possible at the “Why” of “Where.” Effective use of the
models depends on getting good data on the areas. Most countries take a
census every 10 years to help determine useful data about the people and
places of the country. In our country we divide the census data into areas
known as census tracts of about 5,000 people. Each census tract has the data
that summarizes the characteristics of the people living within that tract. This
information includes things like the race, income, age, and education of the
people living in that tract.
Social Area Analysis: The data from the census tracts can all be plotted onto
maps to show the characteristics of the people living in that tract. This map is
known as a social area analysis.
31

Using Census tract information…Seattle, Washington
Each lined area is a
census tract of about 5000
people in Seattle
Washington. These maps
show average household
income for 1990 and
2000…note the changes in
income in some areas
between 1990 and 2000.
Using this information, a
business can make
decisions about where
they want to locate a new
store or the future of
existing stores.
You can find census tract
information on many topics
such as; age, education
level, race, ethnicity, crime
rate, and land ownership.
Note the areas with
incomes over
$63,000.

All can be very valuable
information to people
looking to open
businesses.

32

Examine the changes
between 1990 and
2000.

Oakland, California’s Ethnic neighborhoods
The small bordered areas are census tracks of 5000 people.

33

Use of the Models Outside of North America: The 3 models will also work in other
places in the world; however social groups in other countries may not have the
same reasons for selecting particular neighborhoods as Americans do.
European Cities: As in the US, wealthier people in European cities cluster along a
sector extending outward from the CBD, however unlike the US, wealthy and
middle class Europeans still live in the inner rings of the neighborhoods near the
CBD not out in the suburbs. In the past, poorer people lived in the center of the
city. Before electricity, social segregation was vertical: richer people lived on the
first or second floor of a building while the poorer people lived in the basement or
upper floors. In the Industrial Revolution, housing for the poor was constructed
near the factories and away from the rich.
Today poorer Europeans are less likely to live in the inner-city. Poor quality
housing has been renovated for the rich or turned into office buildings. Poorer
Europeans tend to live in the outskirts of the city. Vast suburbs with dozens of high
rise apartments house the poor. They face long commutes to reach their jobs in
the city.
34

European cities generally do not have the “suburban
sprawl” that US cities have. European cities tend to be
more pedestrian friendly with more parks downtown as
Europeans tend to still live downtown.
US cities have taller buildings as European cities tend to
be older and more historic.

American cities have more ethnic neighborhoods than
European cities. Ethnic neighborhoods that do exist in
European cities tend to be in the suburbs. WHY?
Because the established richer neighborhoods tend to be
downtown in European cities.
35

Less Developed Countries: Like Europe, most LDC’s accommodate their poor in the
suburbs with their middle class and rich living near the center of the city. LDC’s have
passed through 3 periods of city building: before the Europeans arrived, during the
period of European colonialism, and since independence from European control.

Pre-colonial Cities: Before the Europeans arrived few cities existed in Africa, Asia, and
Latin America and most people lived in small rural settlements. Those cities that existed
were mostly laid out surrounding a religious center; with the rest of the city laid out in a
hieratical concentric pattern (like the Burgess model) from government buildings,
homes of the wealthy, and businesses related to the religion out to other businesses
and shops.
Colonial cities: When the Europeans took over these lands, they changed the cities by
adding services to help the Europeans control the conquered people. Often a new
European style city would be build next to the existing native one. The new European
cities contained wider streets, a public square, larger houses and a much lower density.
The Spanish used the “Law of the Indies” which was a city plan designed specifically to
build cities in a “Spanish” style. (Gridiron pattern for streets centered on a church and
central plaza, walls around individual houses and neighborhoods centered around
smaller plazas and more churches.)
36

Early Mexico city was laid out in a grid pattern of streets. This followed
the Spanish “Law of the Indies.”

37

Central Plaza in Mexico City 1920 photo. Typical Colonial City plan.

Part of downtown Mexico city today still shows the
building plan of the “Law of the Indies.”

38

Cities since Independence: Following independence, cities have become
the focal point of the development of most LDC’s. Millions of people have
migrated to the cities (Primate cities) looking for jobs and services. Some
capitals have been moved to isolated areas in an attempt to help develop
that area of the country (Brasília) This is know as a forward capital. Latin
American cities have developed their own unique style.
Squatter settlements: The LDC’s are unable to house the rapidly growing
number of poor who are flowing into the cities. Because of the housing
shortages, the poor have constructed their own settlements around the city.
These settlements have few services because neither the city nor the
residents can afford them. Squatters have two basic choices for housing.
1. Illegally move into empty real houses located in the city or,
2. Rent slum housing.
(85% of the population of Addis Ababa in Ethiopia lives in squatter
settlements, slums or other illegal housing.)
39

Squatter shacks in Manila, the Philippines

40

Squatter settlement in Ethiopia

41

Zimbabwe, Africa

42

Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

43

Latin American City Model:
In many Latin
American cities,
the wealthy live in
the inner city and
in a sector
extending along a
commercial spine.
In situ accretion- businesses
and homes constantly under
construction/repair.
Zone of maturity-2nd best
housing in the city.
The poor live in squatter settlements on the
periphery of the city.

Disamenity- unpleasant area
used by the poor to get to the
market.

44

The City Outline of Rio de Janeiro
The rich tourist areas and expensive condo apartments are along the coast
and beach while the poor live in squatter shacks in the hills.

45

City problems:
Inner-City Physical Problems: Most US inner cities were constructed before the 1950’s
(people began to move to the suburbs in the 1950’s so new construction moved out of
the city).
Process of Deterioration (how a city deteriorates): A city doesn’t suddenly become old
and full of slummy areas. It happens over time. When a group of low-income people
inhabit an area of a city, nearby neighborhoods will often look to move out. They sell or
rent to more low-income occupants thus expanding the low-income area. Two processes
cause/speed up the devaluation of areas:
1. Filtering, 2. Redlining.
Filtering: Large houses and buildings that once housed rich downtown workers (who
moved to the suburbs) are taken over by landlords who don’t live in that area (they
moved to the suburbs too). Rents are low so the landlord doesn’t take as good care of
the property as they should and the property becomes run down or abandoned. Stores
close, or move, due to lack of sales. 100 years ago these neighborhoods would be used
by immigrants and ethnic businesses would succeed in those areas. Now, with a decline
in immigration, these neighborhoods have shrunk and so have schools, businesses and
other services. Thousands of vacant houses and buildings stand empty in inner cities
across America.

46

Redlining: Some banks refuse to give loans in what they consider
risky neighborhoods. They draw a red line on a map around areas
where they will not give loans. Without loans, these neighborhoods
have a hard time rebuilding/remodeling. Though illegal, this still
happens. Bankers just don’t put these “no-loan” areas on a map.

Urban Renewal: This is the series of projects to improve European
and N. American cities by buying up the blighted neighborhoods,
moving the people to new government built housing projects, and
building new roads, and other projects to make the inner city
attractive for business again. National and State government grants
help pay for these projects.
47

Public housing: Housing for the poor, built with government funding as part of
urban renewal. In the US this is only about 2% of the housing while in some
countries it may be more (Britain is 30%). Public housing built in the 50’s & 60’s
were largely high rise apartments, but those are seen as being unsatisfactory.
Problems arise from cramming large numbers of poor people into one area.
Today most public housing projects are one to three story buildings with many of
them being scattered around different parts of the city rather than clustered into
one area.
Because urban renewal has been criticized for destroying the social cohesion of
older neighborhoods, many governments (like the US) have stopped funding
most projects since the 1970’s. What do we do instead?
Renovated Housing: An alternative often used since the 70’s is to renovate a
building instead of urban renewal. The process where middle-class people
move into inner-city neighborhoods and renovate them is called gentrification.
Gentrified inner-city neighborhoods also attract middle-class people who work
downtown. Living close to work saves the hassle of commuting and rejuvenates
run down inner-city neighborhoods
48

Gentrified building downtown Harlem, NY. Note the supermarket.

49

Inner-City Social Problems: Inner-city residents are often referred to as the
permanent underclass because they are trapped in an unending cycle of
economic and social problems. High unemployment, alcoholism, drug
addiction, literacy, juvenile delinquency, and crime all exist at a higher rate
among those who live in the inner-city. Lack of jobs means lack of tax dollars
to pay for police and fire protection as well as good schools. Lack of job skills
and homelessness are also tremendous problems.
Culture of Poverty: Inner-city residents are trapped in a permanent underclass
culture that reproduces itself. In the US, unwed mothers give birth to 2/3 of the
babies in the inner-city. 90% of these children live with only one parent and it
is real hard for one parent to keep a job and take care of children. Both suffer
and a shortage of care and daily attention by the parent contributes to the kids
not learning the skills necessary to do well in school which leads to poor jobs
for their futures. Poverty leads to more poverty. Many families on welfare have
only one parent because it is financially better if one parent is gone, that way
the single parent gets food stamps and other services from the government
that they would not get if it was a 2 family household.
50

Crime: Trapped in a hopeless environment, some inner-city
residents turn to drugs. Drug use is a problem in inner-city
areas and the suburbs, but rates of drug use in inner-cities
are the highest.
Ethnic and Racial Segregation: As seen in chapter 7, many
neighborhoods in the US are segregated by ethnicity with
African Americans and Hispanics concentrated in one or two
continuous areas and whites living in the suburbs. Even small
cities display a strong distinction among neighborhoods. A
frequent division is between the east and west or north and
south side of town, or the railroad tracks. A family seeking a
new residence will seek the areas where the characteristics
of the people meet their own.

51

The exodus
from the
American city.
This has
happened in
many American
cities since the
1960’s.

52

Changes in Cities in the U.S.
U.S. population has been moving out of the city centers to the suburbs:
suburbanization and counter urbanization

Developed Countries: suburbanization

 wealthy move to suburbs
 automobiles and roads; ‘American
Dream’ of the home in the suburbs.
 better services
 wealthy move to suburbs
Counter urbanization

idyllic settings
cost of land for retirement
slow pace, yet high tech
connections to services and markets
53

U.S. intraregional migration during 1990s.

Inner city economic problems: the concentration of low income
residents in inner cities has caused economic problems. These
people require public services but can pay very little in taxes to
support the services. They need stores and jobs but have little
money to spend in the store and few skills for jobs (so the stores
close). To try to fight these problems many local and state
governments use tax monies to try to renovate these areas, but this
shifts tax money needed for other areas to the inner city (votes on
election day).
Annexation: Many cities could help their tax problem by adding the
new suburbs to be part of their city (annexation). After all, many of
these suburban people use the city for its’ jobs etc., so why not add
them into the city? Today, most people in the suburbs do not want
to be annexed into the city and so they do not vote to be annexed.
54

The Peripheral Model: According to this model, an urban area
consists of an inner city surrounded by large suburban residential
and business areas (MSA) tied together by a beltway or highway
that circles the city. Around the beltway are nodes of consumer
and business services called edge cities (see diagram of multiple
nuclei model). These edge cities sprang up to provide services
and jobs to the people in the suburbs.
Density Gradient: As you travel outward from the center of the
city, the density of people declines. Inner city has big apartments
of 250 of more people per acre. Suburbs have fewer people per
acre (but lots of acres) and finally you leave the cities periphery
you find few people. The number of houses per unit of land
diminishes as distance from the center of the city increases.
55

The Edge cities (bedroom communities) of Houston

The central city is surrounded by a ring road, around which are
suburban areas and edge cities, shopping malls, office parks,
industrial areas, and service complexes.

Known as
bedroom
communities
because
people live
there but
mostly don’t
work there.
They drive
into the city
for work.
56

As you move from the center of the city outward, the density of the population
changes. This is know as the density gradient. Two big changes have occurred in
the density gradient of today’s cities:
1. The number of people living in the center has decreased.
2. The density difference between the inner city and the suburbs is declining
because the inner city density is dropping and the suburban density is growing
due to more large apartments being built in the suburbs.
Cost of Suburban or Urban Sprawl: Urban Sprawl is the progressive spread of
development over the landscape. As long as we Americans want single-family
detached houses, land on the fringe of urban areas will be converted from open
space to residential use. The cost of this growth is more than the loss of land, it is
also the cost of new roads, utilities, building stores and offices and the cost of
automobiles to move these people over even longer distances. Lots of these new
developments are built on what was once farmland. Wonderful productive soil now
under concrete.

Greenbelts: are areas where, by law, the open space can not be used for any
construction. This is mostly found in Europe.

57

Once farmland that is being converted to suburbs and cities.

58

Tyson’s Corner Virginia in 1940

59

Washington, DC. MSA.

Tyson’s Corner Virginia
today.
Washington D.C. is off
In the distance.

60

Suburban Segregation: The “new” segregation.
Suburban segregation takes two forms:
1. Residents are separated from commercial and manufacturing activities
which are confined someplace else. (The whole neighborhood is
nothing but houses because they drive for services.)
2. The price of the house eliminates some from being able to live there. This
creates a homogeneous suburb of the same economic class of people.
This never existed before in history. Where we once had vertical
segregation of the classes we now we have horizontal segregation.
3. But this may be reversing as new statistics show that people are beginning
to move back to the city. Why? Cost of transportation.
Zoning Ordinances: This idea developed in Europe and later America in the
early decades of the 20th century. This means that businesses are allowed only
in certain areas of the settlement. (No all night taco stands inside your single
family neighborhood.)
Motor vehicles: The wide use of the automobile is largely responsible for the
American movement to the suburbs. Not only did people move out but 1/4 of
the land inside all American cities are now roads, streets, and parking lots.

61

Public Transportation: Because few US workers live within walking distance
of their jobs, urban areas are characterized by extensive commuting and the
problems that come with it. As much as 40% of all trips made into or out from
a city during the day takes place within just 4 hours. (2 in the morning and 2 in
the late afternoon). RUSH HOUR!!! In large cities, public transportation, like
subways and busses, are better suited to move people but Americans still
prefer their own cars. Public transportation is cheaper, cleaner, and more
energy efficient than personal cars, yet in the US only 5% of city travel is
done using public transit systems. American’s love their personal car too
much.
Local Government Fragmentation: Because of the large number of local
governments in the US (look at the settlements in Pinellas County) it is
difficult to solve some of the regional problems like garbage disposal, water
management, traffic and public housing.
62

Metropolitan government: This idea tries to put many local governments into a
larger unit that can better handle the urban problems. The 2 ways to do this
are:
1. Federations in which the individual settlements have their own police,
firemen, and tax collection but they all agree to be part of a second
government which handles transportation, water, sewage, parks and
welfare for all the communities.
2. Consolidations: In this method, several cities and the county may form one
government. Jacksonville’s government runs not only the town but the
county too, this makes Jacksonville the largest city, in land size, in the US.
Smart growth: A new movement by many states to curb suburban sprawl by
limiting where new construction can take place. Smart growth laws require that
land near cities be used up before any land further out can be developed. So
far, this is only being done an a few parts of our country.
63

The new
US as
some
people
see it.

64

Quiz Yourself:
1. The process where middle-class people move into inner city neighborhoods and
renovate them is called ____________
2. ____________ happens when banks refuse to give loans in what they consider
risky neighborhoods.
3. Because of the housing shortages, the poor have constructed their own settlements
around the city known as __________ _________

4. Businesses are allowed only in certain areas of the settlement because of
____________ ____________
5. Areas known as _____ _______ are areas of about 5,000 people. The data from
that area is used to help define needed services for that area.
6. When cities are so close that they form one continuous band of development this is
known as a ____________
65

7. Social relationships are often described as “colder” in urban areas because…
8. In this model the city develops in a series of sectors not rings. _______

9. ______ (LDC’s or MDC’s) have a higher percentage of people living in urban
settlements but ________ (LDC’s or MDC’s) have more of the very large urban
settlements.
10. _____________ was the first model developed to explain the distributions
of different social groups within urban areas.
11. New cities which develop around the beltway are nodes of consumer and
business services known as ________ _________.

12. When the Europeans took over lands around the world, they changed the
cities by adding services to help the Europeans control the conquered people.
These European planned cities are known as __________ cities.
66

Answer Key:
1.

Gentrification

2.

Redlining

3.

Squatter Settlements

4.

Zoning ordinances

5.

Census tracks

6.

Megalopolis

7. There is a stronger feeling of belonging together in small rural settlements.
8. Hoyt sector model
9. MDC, LDC
10. Burgess Concentric Zone model
11. Edge cities
12. Colonial cities
67

Test Key topic/chapter 13:
These questions come from a combination of our slides, your text book, and common knowledge you should
have discussed in your AP classroom. They are very typical of what you will see on the National Exam.
1) The multiple nuclei theory best explains why different neighborhoods of a city attract people of different… A) ages.
B) ethnic origin C) income D) marital status.
2) Sprawl is the… A) change in density within an urban area from the center to the periphery B) development of new
housing sites not contiguous to the existing built-up area. C) land maintained as open space surrounding an urban area.
D) period in the morning and evening with the heaviest volumes of traffic.
3) People are attracted to suburbs in part because suburbs are characterized by…A) heavy traffic. B) lower opportunity
for home ownership. C) private land surrounding the house. D) row houses and apartments.
4) Megalopolis refers to… A) adjacent, overlapping Metropolitan Statistical Areas. B) central cities. C) consolidated
Metropolitan Statistical Areas. D) central cities plus urbanized areas.
5) Which statement best describes the relationship between urbanization and the Industrial Revolution? A) Urbanization
promoted the Industrial Revolution. B) The Industrial Revolution promoted urbanization. C) Urbanization preceded the
Industrial Revolution by thousands of years. D) Urbanization and the Industrial Revolution are no longer related.
6) The process of legally adding land area to a city in the United States is… A) annexation. B) accreditation. C) an
application of eminent domain. D) defined by urbanized area.

68

7) The process of change in the use of a house, from single-family owner occupancy to abandonment, is… A) blockbusting.
B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining.
8) A process by which banks designate an area within which they refuse to lend money for improvements is… A) blockbusting.
B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining.
9) A recent change in the density gradient has been… A) the elimination of the gap traditionally found in the center. B) an
increase in the extremes between the inner and outer areas. C) an increase in the number of people living in the center.
D) a reduction in the differences in densities found within an urban area.
10) U.S. central cities face fiscal problems because… A) federal and state funds are available. B) low-income people are
concentrated there. C) middle-class families are attracted there. D) redlining is no longer legal.
11) A legal form of segregation in U.S. cities is achieved through...A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) zoning. D) greenbelts.
12) Factories have moved to suburban locations in part because of… A) access to main highways. B) adequate space to build
vertical structures. C) availability of large tracts of high-priced land. D) good rail connections.
13) According to the sector model, the best housing is located in…A) a corridor from downtown to the edge of the city.
B) an outer ring surrounding the city. C) nodes near universities and parks. D) renovated inner-city neighborhoods.
14) Ramshackle houses on the periphery of cities in less developed countries are known as… A) squatter settlements. B) council
estates. C) public housing. D) zone in transition.
15) Higher income people tend to live near the center of the city in all but which of the following regions? A) Latin America
B) North America C) South Asia D) Western Europe

16) The wide boulevards built in cities in less developed countries were most likely built during what era? A) pre-colonial
B) colonial C) independence D) all of the above equally

69

17) According to the multiple nuclei model, an airport is likely to attract nearby… A) industries. B) residences. C) shops.
D) universities.
18) The largest percentage of the U.S. population lives in…A) central cities. B) suburbs. C) non-metropolitan areas. D) all of the
above
19) In U.S. cities, the underclass is… A) clustered in inner-city neighborhoods. B) dispersed throughout the city. C) clustered in
suburbs. D) distributed uniformly in the city.

20) A process of converting a neighborhood from low-income to middle-class is…A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) gentrification.
D) redlining.
21) Higher social heterogeneity in urban settlements means that… A) the people with whom you relax are probably the same ones you
see at work. B) you play a specialized role in the urban economy. C) you compete for limited space. D) you may feel lonely and
isolated in a crowd.
22) The city plus its contiguous built-up suburbs is the… A) central city. B) urbanized area.
D) consolidated metropolitan statistical area

C) metropolitan statistical area.

23) The process whereby an increasing percentage of people live in an urban area is known as… A) demographic transition.
B) rank-size rule. C) urbanization. D) central place theory.
24) Of the ten largest urban areas in the world, how many are in More Developed Countries today? A) 1 B) 4 C) 7 D) 10 E) 2
25) Public housing is…A) conversion of low-income housing to middle-class housing. B) illegally established low-income housing.
C) housing that has changed from single-family owner occupancy to abandonment. D) low-income government-owned housing.
26) According to the concentric zone model, a city develops in a series of… A) corridors. B) nodes. C) rings. D) all of the above

70

27) Chicago is a good location in which to develop urban models because it is located… A) at the hub of the nation's transportation
system. B) in the center of the country. C) on a flat prairie. D) on the shore of Lake Michigan.
28) According to the sector model, the best housing is located in… A) a corridor from downtown to the edge of the city. B) an outer
ring surrounding the city. C) nodes near universities and parks. D) renovated inner-city neighborhoods.
29) The zone of transition in US cities generally contain…A) warehouses B) wealthy neighborhoods C) transportation hubs
D) universities and hospitals E) suburban homes
30) The attractions of shopping malls include all but which of the following? A) frequent concerts and exhibitions B) generous
parking lots C) place to meet friends D) walking distance from homes
The following questions are written at the high school level. You will find some questions from part one often rewritten
here. This is all designed to help you transition to the college/AP style of written questions. Any question preceded with ***
are questions that have been on the national exam before.
31. Most Latin American cities are focused on a…A) central plaza B) government housing project C) zone of heavy industry
D) skyscraper office building E) squatter settlement
32. The multiple-nuclei model of a city structure tends to be most applicable to…A) small cities B) traditional C) Latin American
cities D) newer, fast growing cities E) cities with homogeneous land use
33. ***Locational advantages important to the development of the earliest cities include…A) availability of good harbors for large
ships B) productive agricultural land and defensible sites C) temperate climate and proximity to coal mines D) good
connections by road and canal E) proximity to manufacturing areas

34. In cities, the CBD’s often show uniqueness while the suburbs usually show…A) a large hinterland. B) placelessness C) more
than one node. D) newer zones of transition.

71

35. Many LDC’s have tried to help a previously under-developed part of their country develop by moving their capital
city to that area. This new capital is known as a…A) forward capital B) new development zone C) enterprise zone
D) neocolonial city
36. Today the greatest number of urban dwellers is found in…A) North America
D) Europe E) Asia

B) South America C) Africa

37. ***All of the following have helped create ghettos in North American cities except…A)blockbusting and racial
steering B) redlining by financial institutions C) concentration of public housing and social services D) fixed school
districts E) Economic Enterprise Zones

38. Which of the following is NOT as reason for rapid suburbanization in the US after WW2? A) Mass production of
the automobile B) Reduction of long distance commuting C) Expansion of home construction D) Expansion of the
interstate highway system E) Availability of low down payment terms and long-term mortgages.
39. New cities which developed in the hinterland of large urban areas because of the automobile, are known as…
A) edge cities B) census tracts C) suburban sprawl D) squatter settlements. E) none of these
40. Gentrification refers to… A) moving the homeless into inner city shelters B) The “White Flight” from the urban city
C) losing tax revenue because of stores closing in downtown areas D) middle-class people moving into and renovating
inner city neighborhoods E) the creation of “beltway cities” around the city.

72

4
7
3

5

1
6

2

41-48 all use the sketch above.
41. The sketch in box A above represents which model of the inner structure of urban areas?
C) multiple nuclei model D) Burgess concentric zone model E) peripheral model
42. The models in boxes B and C represent A) Concentric zone and multiple nuclei
concentric zone D) peripheral and concentric zone E) Von Thunen and peripheral

A) Hoyt sector model B) VonThunen’s model

B) Multiple nuclei and Hoyt sector C) Hoyt sector and

43. In which ring (1, 2, etc.) of sketch A above would high-status households in North American cities likely live? A) 1 B) 2 C) 3 D) 4&5
44. In which ring (1, 2, etc.) of sketch A above would high status households in a European city likely live? A) 1

B) 2

C) 3

D) 4&5

45. In model B, zone # 2 is where it is likely because of: A) greenbelting B) squatter settling C) the culture of poverty D) transportation
E) no one knows
46. The model in sketch B is the; A) Hoyt sector model B) Burgess model C) multiple nuclei model D) peripheral model
47. The model in sketch C is the; A) Hoyt sector model B) Burgess model C) multiple nuclei model D) peripheral model
48. Which of these models best describes what has happened in US cities in the last 40 years? A)

B)

C)

73

49.*** In the U.S. a city plus its contiguous built-up suburbs is known as an…A) urbanized area B) zoned area
C) census tract D) Squatter settlement E) none of these
50. Done mostly in Europe, these are areas where land is kept as parks, farms or other kinds of open space and urban
sprawl is not allowed. A) Smart growth
B) zoning
C) filtering
D) census tracts E) greenbelts
51. Which statement best describes the relationship between urbanization and the Industrial Revolution?
A) Urbanization promoted the Industrial Revolution. B) The Industrial Revolution promoted urbanization.
C) Urbanization preceded the Industrial Revolution by thousands of years. D) Urbanization and the Industrial
Revolution are no longer related.
52. The process whereby an increasing percentage of people live in an urban area is known as…
A) Demographic transition. B) rank-size rule. C) Urbanization. D) Central place theory.
53. The city (if it has 50,000 or more people) plus its contiguous built-up suburbs AND the county it is in as well as any
other counties it influences, is known as the ...A) central city B) urbanized area
C) metropolitan statistical area
D) consolidated metropolitan area E) micropolitan statistical area
54. ***Higher social heterogeneity in urban settlements means that …A) the people with whom you relax are probably
the same ones you see at work. B) you play a specialized role in the urban economy. C) you compete for limited
space. D) you may feel lonely and isolated in a crowd.

55. The process of change in the use of a house, from single-family owner occupancy to smaller dwellings for the poor
and then sometimes to abandonment, is…A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining. E) none of
these

74

Free Response #1:
The Bid Rent theory says that the closer you get to the
CBD the higher the cost for land, yet in most American
cities you find the poorest people living near the
expensive CBD and the richest living further away.
Explain:
A. Why neighborhoods near the CBD are often poor and
run down?
B. Why are there few grocery and other retail stores in
these neighborhoods?
C. Why is this not really true in European and Latin
American countries?

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75

FR #2:
Think of the map of your school, explain the
layout of your school using the Multiple Nuclei
Model
The main office is the CBD.
Completely explain your answer using specific
buildings and/or land areas in your explanation
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76

Answer Key:
1. B

14. A

27. C

40. D

53. C

2. B

15. B

28. A

41. D

54. D

3. C

16. B

29. A

42. B

55. B

4. A

17. A

30. D

43. D

5. B

18. B

31. A

44. A

6. A

19. A

32. D

45. D

7. B

20. C

33. B

46. A

8. D

21. D

34. B

47. C

9. D

22. B

35. A

48. C

10. B

23. C

36. E

49. A

11. C

24. C

37. E

50. E

12. A

25. D

38. B

51. B

13. A

26. C

39. A

52. C
77

FR. #1: ( 15 pts. for each section…total of 45 pts.)
A. In the US the move of the wealthy and middle class to the suburbs has left the older houses and apartments near the CBD empty.
This has lowered their value to the point where the poor can afford these dwellings and have made these neighborhoods their
homes. The poor can not pay for upkeep of these dwellings, or to pay high taxes. The lack of upkeep and tax money to repair the
roads and schools, adds to the downward spiral of the neighborhood. With little spending money for shopping, the poor do not
spend much in the stores. This causes many stores to close and move to the suburbs where the spending customers and money
went. The closing of the stores adds to the poverty of the area by taking away some of the jobs that were in the neighborhood. This
becomes a vicious cycle of poverty and deterioration. (15 points)

B. There are few retail stores and groceries is the area because the poor do not have money to shop. The lack of spending forces
many stores out of business or forces them to move to better locations. There also can be higher crime in these areas and the
crime often takes place at the stores. This is another reason for the stores to move out of the neighborhood. (15 points)
C. Neighborhoods in European and Latin American cities are different from those of US cities. In Europe and Latin America, the
wealthy and middle class still live near or in the CBD. The higher tax base and more spending ability of the upper and middle
classes, keeps the CBD area flourishing with jobs and in constant repair and upkeep of the cities’ physical condition. (15 points)

FR #2: (10 total points.)
You will need to judge how effectively you displayed you school
in the Multiple Nuclei Model. Refer to the model itself to help you
determine your success and grade.
School’s main office
78

Calculating your grade on test 13.
Add how many you got correct on the multiple choice part (55 possible) to how many
points you scored on the FR portion (55 possible)…110 total.
The following scale will show the approximate score if this test were the real AP exam. Remember that this
is an approximation. While 65-74% is normally the range for a 3 on the test, it is not definite. Over the
years I have seen scores as low as 60% be the low portion of a 3 score.

Out of 110 possible points:
72-83 is most likely a 3
84-94 is most likely a 4

95-110 is most likely a 5

Now lets start our review for the national exam by
reviewing the 33 key models and theories of the
course…the next PowerPoint.


Slide 37

Key topic/chapter 13…Urban Patterns
Key terms:
Annexation
Concentric zone model
Density gradient
Edge cities
Filtering
Galactic city
Gentrification
Greenbelts
Megalopolis
MSA
Multiple nuclei model
Peripheral model

Public housing
Redlining
Renovated housing
Scattered site
Squatter settlement
Sector model
Smart growth
Sprawl
Underclass
Urban renewal
Zone in transition
Zoning
1

Chapter 13…Urban Areas.
How are Cities planned?
Why

are cities where they are?
How are they organized?
Why are some areas of a city
different from
other areas of the same city?
What is the future of cities?
2

Settlement


Settlement - permanent collections of buildings,
where people live, work, and obtain services

3

ORIGINS OF SETTLEMENTS


Religious - graves, churches, temples



Cultural - schools, libraries



Political/Military - leader’s house, walls



Economic - stores, food
4

TYPES OF SETTLEMENTS


Rural Settlements - agriculture as the
predominant occupation.



Urban settlements - principal industries are
secondary and tertiary.

5

RURAL SETTLEMENTS
Clustered rural settlements –grouped
settlements in rural areas to minimize travel

Dispersed rural Settlements - isolated farms
with enclosed continuous fields (Found only in
N. America and Britain).

6

Urban Geographers want to know the global distribution of urban
settlements. MDC’s have a high percentage of people living in urban
areas because of the shift from agriculture-manufacturing-services.
Geographers are also interested in where people and activities are
distributed within urban spaces. What are the differences between the
inner-city and suburban areas and why?
As we saw in the last chapter, many downtowns are unique and can
often be recognized in photos where the suburbs often look very
much alike (Placelessness). Why? Suburbs offer the chance to avoid
some of the city problems (crime, tight living area, expensive
land/rent, noise, age of buildings) while still keeping a connection with
the goods and services of the city: jobs, sports teams, culture, shops,
recreation, etc.
7

Where is this place?

8

Today’s cities are evolving and changing. Although different internal
situations characterize urban areas in the US and elsewhere, the
problems arising from current spatial trends are quite similar in all cities.
Where have urban areas grown: in the early 1800’s only 3% of the earth’s
people lived in cities and only Beijing China had more than 1 million
people. Today over ½ of the world’s people live in cities and we have over
400 cities of at least 1 million people.

Urbanization: is the process by which city population grows.
Cities population growth is measured in 2 dimensions;
1. An increase in the number of people living in the cities.
2. An increase in the percentage of people living in the cities.
This distinction is important because they happen for different reason and
have different global distributions.
9

Increasing Percentage of People in Cities: a large percentage of people living in urban
areas is a measure of a country’s level of development. In MDC’s about ¾ of the people
live in urban areas compared to about 2/5 of people in LDC’s. (Except in Latin America
where the level is closer to MDC’s.)
The higher percentage of people in urban areas comes from the changes that have
occurred in the last 200 years as we went from agriculture (primary jobs) to industrial
(secondary jobs) and now service jobs, all created by the Industrial Revolution of the
1800’s.
People moved to the cities for industrial jobs, but in MDC’s this process has largely
ended because nearly everyone interested in moving to the cities from farms has already
done so.
In LDC’s the percentage of people living in urban areas is growing as people are pushed
off of their farms and replaced by machines and as people move to cities looking/hoping
for industrial jobs.
10

Increasing Number of People in Cities: MDC’s have a higher percentage of
people living in urban settlements but LDC’s have more of the very large urban
settlements (Primate cities). (Rank-size rule, primate cities, chapter 12.)

This is interesting because typically the large cities are created from the
improvements brought by the Industrial Revolution. This is not the case with the
large LDC cities. Migration to the primate city in LDC’s is happening even though
job opportunities may not be available. Increasing the population growth in LDC
cities is the fact that medical services are better in these cities, thus the child
mortality rate is lower.
Defining Urban Settlements: defining where urban areas end and rural areas
begin is not easy. Geographers have formulated definitions that distinguish
between urban and rural areas in two ways: Social differences and Physical
differences.
11

Percent Urban Population

Percent of the population living in urban areas is usually higher in MDCs
than in LDCs.

12

The most populated cities in the world

Of the top
20, only
Moscow,
Tokyo and
New York
are in MDC’s

Shanghai China has 14,608,512 people
13

14

15

Social Differences Between Urban and Rural Settlements: it is fair to say that rural
people and urban people follow different ways of life. A city can be defined as having 3
characteristics:
1. Large size. People in rural settlements know most of the other people in the
settlement. Not true in big cities. Social relationships are often described as “colder” in
urban areas because you only see some people at work instead of growing up with
them in the settlement.
2. High Density. Having lots of people in a tiny area creates social consequences. A
high density of people living in a small area can only be supported if the people
specialize (they can’t all be farmers). People are encouraged to compete for jobs, room,
and survival in a tightly limited space. Social groups compete to occupy the same space
(ethnic/ race problems). Rural settlements have very little of this problem.
3. Social Heterogeneity. The larger the settlement, the greater the variety of people.
Being “unusual” in a large settlement is more likely to be accepted than in a small rural
one. But despite the freedom to be different that large urban settlements give you,
people living there often feel alone because so many people are different from them.
There is a stronger feeling of belonging together in small rural settlements.
16

These 3 differences do not fully answer the question of where urban settlements
begin and rural ones end because in today’s MDC’s most everyone has access to
cars, telephones, televisions, and “urban type” jobs which reduce the differences
between urban and rural lifestyles. “City folk” and “Country folk” are more alike
today than they are different. To help distinguish between urban and rural areas we
need to add the physical definition of rural and urban to the equation.
Physical Definitions of Urban Settlements: In ancient time, cities had defensive
walls for protection which clearly defined the physical boundaries of the city. Today
the walls are gone but we can still define the physical boundaries in 3 ways:
1. Legal boundary. These are the official boundaries of a city as recognized by
the government of the country or state. These “city limits” have been officially given
to the city and are physically marked on official maps. The local government of the
city has authority to make laws and protect the people inside the city boundaries.
17

2. Urbanized area. This is the city plus its suburbs or urbanized area that
surrounds the city. About 70 percent of US residents live in urbanized areas with
40% being in the suburbs and 30% inside the city limits. The suburbs may have
their own city governments but the huge central city dominates what happens in
the entire area.
3. Metropolitan Statistical Area. Cities have an even bigger influence on people
than just those living in their city limits and surrounding urbanized areas. People
from far away come to shop, use the services, support the sports teams, read
the newspapers and watch the television broadcasts of the city. Thus the city
has a “functional area” which is its total zone of influence. The US Bureau of
Census has created a method of measuring the functional area of the city.
Known as the Metropolitan statistical area (MSA) this area includes:
•An urbanized area with a population of at least 50,000
•The county within which the city is located.
•Adjacent counties with a high population density and a large percentage of
residents working in the central city’s county.
18

Metropolitan Area of Philadelphia

City of
Philadelphia

Urbanized
area
(suburbs)
Metropolitan
Statistical
Area

The metropolitan area of Philadelphia is
spread over several counties and four states.
It is also a diversified trade center, given its
position on the Delaware river.

19

20

21

Micropolitan Statistical Areas: Smaller areas with between
10,000 and 50,000 people, the county where it is found, and
adjacent counties tied to the city. This would be a small town and
the area dominated by it.
Overlapping Metropolitan Areas: Some adjacent MSA’s overlap.
A county between two central cities may send a large number of
commuters to jobs in both cities. In some areas the cities are so
close that they form one continuous urban complex. This is
known as a Megalopolis (great city).
In a megalopolis, the downtown CBD often has its own
distinctive look and the urban areas are visually separated by
parks, open spaces, and dairy/truck farms. But at the periphery
of the urban areas, the boundaries overlap.
22

Colorado Springs, population 431,000

Ocala, Florida, population 56,000

Florala, Alabama, population 1,900

23

Megalopolis, from northern Va. To Maine.
This Illustrates the
difference between
strict city proper
definitions and broader
urban agglomerations.
To define urbanized
areas, the U.S. Census
Bureau uses the term
Metropolitan Statistical
Area (MSA) or
Consolidated MSA
(CMSA) if two or more of
them overlap.
24

Where are People Distributed within Urban Areas? People are not
just distributed at random in urban areas. For the most part they
concentrate in particular neighborhoods depending on their social
characteristics. Geographers want to see where people with
particular characteristics are likely to live and why.

Three models which try to explain the growth of a city:

The Burgess Model

The Hoyt Sector Model

The Harris and Ullman
multiple Nuclei Model
25

Burgess Concentric Zone Model

In the concentric zone model, a city grows in a series of rings surrounding the CBD.

Burgess Concentric Zone Model: This is the first used to explain the
distributions of different social groups within urban areas. It says that a
city grows outward from a central place in a series of concentric rings.
The precise size and width of the rings vary from one city to another, but
some basic types of rings appear in all cities in the same order (see chart
above).
26

•Hoyt Sector Model: In this model the city develops in a
series of sectors not rings. Certain areas of the city are
more attractive for various activities, originally because
of an environmental factor (or even pure chance). As the
city grows, activities extend outward in a wedge shape.
For example, once a wealthy neighborhood is built the
next wealthy neighborhood will extend from the first
neighborhood further outward from the center. In this
way, the best housing is found in a corridor extending
outward from the center to the outer edge (see chart on
the next page).
27

The Hoyt Sector Model

In the sector model, a city grows in a series of
wedges or corridors extending out from the
CBD.
28

•Harris and Ullman’s Multiple Nuclei Model: According
to this model, a city is a complex structure that includes
more than one center around which activities revolve.
Examples of these nodes include a port, parks,
stadium, neighborhood business center, university, and
airport (see chart). This theory states that some
activities are attracted to particular nodes, whereas
others try to avoid them. A university node may attract
well educated people and bookstores while the port will
attract hotels and warehouses. Heavy industry and
expensive houses rarely are found together. This
model shows the effect of the automobile more than
any other model.
29

The Harris and Ullman Multiple Nuclei model

The multiple nuclei model views a city as a
collection of individual centers, around which
different people and activities cluster.

30

Applications of the Models: The three models help explain where and in some
cases, why people live where they do. None of the models by themselves fully
explains why and where different types of people live, but combined they give
you as good a look as possible at the “Why” of “Where.” Effective use of the
models depends on getting good data on the areas. Most countries take a
census every 10 years to help determine useful data about the people and
places of the country. In our country we divide the census data into areas
known as census tracts of about 5,000 people. Each census tract has the data
that summarizes the characteristics of the people living within that tract. This
information includes things like the race, income, age, and education of the
people living in that tract.
Social Area Analysis: The data from the census tracts can all be plotted onto
maps to show the characteristics of the people living in that tract. This map is
known as a social area analysis.
31

Using Census tract information…Seattle, Washington
Each lined area is a
census tract of about 5000
people in Seattle
Washington. These maps
show average household
income for 1990 and
2000…note the changes in
income in some areas
between 1990 and 2000.
Using this information, a
business can make
decisions about where
they want to locate a new
store or the future of
existing stores.
You can find census tract
information on many topics
such as; age, education
level, race, ethnicity, crime
rate, and land ownership.
Note the areas with
incomes over
$63,000.

All can be very valuable
information to people
looking to open
businesses.

32

Examine the changes
between 1990 and
2000.

Oakland, California’s Ethnic neighborhoods
The small bordered areas are census tracks of 5000 people.

33

Use of the Models Outside of North America: The 3 models will also work in other
places in the world; however social groups in other countries may not have the
same reasons for selecting particular neighborhoods as Americans do.
European Cities: As in the US, wealthier people in European cities cluster along a
sector extending outward from the CBD, however unlike the US, wealthy and
middle class Europeans still live in the inner rings of the neighborhoods near the
CBD not out in the suburbs. In the past, poorer people lived in the center of the
city. Before electricity, social segregation was vertical: richer people lived on the
first or second floor of a building while the poorer people lived in the basement or
upper floors. In the Industrial Revolution, housing for the poor was constructed
near the factories and away from the rich.
Today poorer Europeans are less likely to live in the inner-city. Poor quality
housing has been renovated for the rich or turned into office buildings. Poorer
Europeans tend to live in the outskirts of the city. Vast suburbs with dozens of high
rise apartments house the poor. They face long commutes to reach their jobs in
the city.
34

European cities generally do not have the “suburban
sprawl” that US cities have. European cities tend to be
more pedestrian friendly with more parks downtown as
Europeans tend to still live downtown.
US cities have taller buildings as European cities tend to
be older and more historic.

American cities have more ethnic neighborhoods than
European cities. Ethnic neighborhoods that do exist in
European cities tend to be in the suburbs. WHY?
Because the established richer neighborhoods tend to be
downtown in European cities.
35

Less Developed Countries: Like Europe, most LDC’s accommodate their poor in the
suburbs with their middle class and rich living near the center of the city. LDC’s have
passed through 3 periods of city building: before the Europeans arrived, during the
period of European colonialism, and since independence from European control.

Pre-colonial Cities: Before the Europeans arrived few cities existed in Africa, Asia, and
Latin America and most people lived in small rural settlements. Those cities that existed
were mostly laid out surrounding a religious center; with the rest of the city laid out in a
hieratical concentric pattern (like the Burgess model) from government buildings,
homes of the wealthy, and businesses related to the religion out to other businesses
and shops.
Colonial cities: When the Europeans took over these lands, they changed the cities by
adding services to help the Europeans control the conquered people. Often a new
European style city would be build next to the existing native one. The new European
cities contained wider streets, a public square, larger houses and a much lower density.
The Spanish used the “Law of the Indies” which was a city plan designed specifically to
build cities in a “Spanish” style. (Gridiron pattern for streets centered on a church and
central plaza, walls around individual houses and neighborhoods centered around
smaller plazas and more churches.)
36

Early Mexico city was laid out in a grid pattern of streets. This followed
the Spanish “Law of the Indies.”

37

Central Plaza in Mexico City 1920 photo. Typical Colonial City plan.

Part of downtown Mexico city today still shows the
building plan of the “Law of the Indies.”

38

Cities since Independence: Following independence, cities have become
the focal point of the development of most LDC’s. Millions of people have
migrated to the cities (Primate cities) looking for jobs and services. Some
capitals have been moved to isolated areas in an attempt to help develop
that area of the country (Brasília) This is know as a forward capital. Latin
American cities have developed their own unique style.
Squatter settlements: The LDC’s are unable to house the rapidly growing
number of poor who are flowing into the cities. Because of the housing
shortages, the poor have constructed their own settlements around the city.
These settlements have few services because neither the city nor the
residents can afford them. Squatters have two basic choices for housing.
1. Illegally move into empty real houses located in the city or,
2. Rent slum housing.
(85% of the population of Addis Ababa in Ethiopia lives in squatter
settlements, slums or other illegal housing.)
39

Squatter shacks in Manila, the Philippines

40

Squatter settlement in Ethiopia

41

Zimbabwe, Africa

42

Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

43

Latin American City Model:
In many Latin
American cities,
the wealthy live in
the inner city and
in a sector
extending along a
commercial spine.
In situ accretion- businesses
and homes constantly under
construction/repair.
Zone of maturity-2nd best
housing in the city.
The poor live in squatter settlements on the
periphery of the city.

Disamenity- unpleasant area
used by the poor to get to the
market.

44

The City Outline of Rio de Janeiro
The rich tourist areas and expensive condo apartments are along the coast
and beach while the poor live in squatter shacks in the hills.

45

City problems:
Inner-City Physical Problems: Most US inner cities were constructed before the 1950’s
(people began to move to the suburbs in the 1950’s so new construction moved out of
the city).
Process of Deterioration (how a city deteriorates): A city doesn’t suddenly become old
and full of slummy areas. It happens over time. When a group of low-income people
inhabit an area of a city, nearby neighborhoods will often look to move out. They sell or
rent to more low-income occupants thus expanding the low-income area. Two processes
cause/speed up the devaluation of areas:
1. Filtering, 2. Redlining.
Filtering: Large houses and buildings that once housed rich downtown workers (who
moved to the suburbs) are taken over by landlords who don’t live in that area (they
moved to the suburbs too). Rents are low so the landlord doesn’t take as good care of
the property as they should and the property becomes run down or abandoned. Stores
close, or move, due to lack of sales. 100 years ago these neighborhoods would be used
by immigrants and ethnic businesses would succeed in those areas. Now, with a decline
in immigration, these neighborhoods have shrunk and so have schools, businesses and
other services. Thousands of vacant houses and buildings stand empty in inner cities
across America.

46

Redlining: Some banks refuse to give loans in what they consider
risky neighborhoods. They draw a red line on a map around areas
where they will not give loans. Without loans, these neighborhoods
have a hard time rebuilding/remodeling. Though illegal, this still
happens. Bankers just don’t put these “no-loan” areas on a map.

Urban Renewal: This is the series of projects to improve European
and N. American cities by buying up the blighted neighborhoods,
moving the people to new government built housing projects, and
building new roads, and other projects to make the inner city
attractive for business again. National and State government grants
help pay for these projects.
47

Public housing: Housing for the poor, built with government funding as part of
urban renewal. In the US this is only about 2% of the housing while in some
countries it may be more (Britain is 30%). Public housing built in the 50’s & 60’s
were largely high rise apartments, but those are seen as being unsatisfactory.
Problems arise from cramming large numbers of poor people into one area.
Today most public housing projects are one to three story buildings with many of
them being scattered around different parts of the city rather than clustered into
one area.
Because urban renewal has been criticized for destroying the social cohesion of
older neighborhoods, many governments (like the US) have stopped funding
most projects since the 1970’s. What do we do instead?
Renovated Housing: An alternative often used since the 70’s is to renovate a
building instead of urban renewal. The process where middle-class people
move into inner-city neighborhoods and renovate them is called gentrification.
Gentrified inner-city neighborhoods also attract middle-class people who work
downtown. Living close to work saves the hassle of commuting and rejuvenates
run down inner-city neighborhoods
48

Gentrified building downtown Harlem, NY. Note the supermarket.

49

Inner-City Social Problems: Inner-city residents are often referred to as the
permanent underclass because they are trapped in an unending cycle of
economic and social problems. High unemployment, alcoholism, drug
addiction, literacy, juvenile delinquency, and crime all exist at a higher rate
among those who live in the inner-city. Lack of jobs means lack of tax dollars
to pay for police and fire protection as well as good schools. Lack of job skills
and homelessness are also tremendous problems.
Culture of Poverty: Inner-city residents are trapped in a permanent underclass
culture that reproduces itself. In the US, unwed mothers give birth to 2/3 of the
babies in the inner-city. 90% of these children live with only one parent and it
is real hard for one parent to keep a job and take care of children. Both suffer
and a shortage of care and daily attention by the parent contributes to the kids
not learning the skills necessary to do well in school which leads to poor jobs
for their futures. Poverty leads to more poverty. Many families on welfare have
only one parent because it is financially better if one parent is gone, that way
the single parent gets food stamps and other services from the government
that they would not get if it was a 2 family household.
50

Crime: Trapped in a hopeless environment, some inner-city
residents turn to drugs. Drug use is a problem in inner-city
areas and the suburbs, but rates of drug use in inner-cities
are the highest.
Ethnic and Racial Segregation: As seen in chapter 7, many
neighborhoods in the US are segregated by ethnicity with
African Americans and Hispanics concentrated in one or two
continuous areas and whites living in the suburbs. Even small
cities display a strong distinction among neighborhoods. A
frequent division is between the east and west or north and
south side of town, or the railroad tracks. A family seeking a
new residence will seek the areas where the characteristics
of the people meet their own.

51

The exodus
from the
American city.
This has
happened in
many American
cities since the
1960’s.

52

Changes in Cities in the U.S.
U.S. population has been moving out of the city centers to the suburbs:
suburbanization and counter urbanization

Developed Countries: suburbanization

 wealthy move to suburbs
 automobiles and roads; ‘American
Dream’ of the home in the suburbs.
 better services
 wealthy move to suburbs
Counter urbanization

idyllic settings
cost of land for retirement
slow pace, yet high tech
connections to services and markets
53

U.S. intraregional migration during 1990s.

Inner city economic problems: the concentration of low income
residents in inner cities has caused economic problems. These
people require public services but can pay very little in taxes to
support the services. They need stores and jobs but have little
money to spend in the store and few skills for jobs (so the stores
close). To try to fight these problems many local and state
governments use tax monies to try to renovate these areas, but this
shifts tax money needed for other areas to the inner city (votes on
election day).
Annexation: Many cities could help their tax problem by adding the
new suburbs to be part of their city (annexation). After all, many of
these suburban people use the city for its’ jobs etc., so why not add
them into the city? Today, most people in the suburbs do not want
to be annexed into the city and so they do not vote to be annexed.
54

The Peripheral Model: According to this model, an urban area
consists of an inner city surrounded by large suburban residential
and business areas (MSA) tied together by a beltway or highway
that circles the city. Around the beltway are nodes of consumer
and business services called edge cities (see diagram of multiple
nuclei model). These edge cities sprang up to provide services
and jobs to the people in the suburbs.
Density Gradient: As you travel outward from the center of the
city, the density of people declines. Inner city has big apartments
of 250 of more people per acre. Suburbs have fewer people per
acre (but lots of acres) and finally you leave the cities periphery
you find few people. The number of houses per unit of land
diminishes as distance from the center of the city increases.
55

The Edge cities (bedroom communities) of Houston

The central city is surrounded by a ring road, around which are
suburban areas and edge cities, shopping malls, office parks,
industrial areas, and service complexes.

Known as
bedroom
communities
because
people live
there but
mostly don’t
work there.
They drive
into the city
for work.
56

As you move from the center of the city outward, the density of the population
changes. This is know as the density gradient. Two big changes have occurred in
the density gradient of today’s cities:
1. The number of people living in the center has decreased.
2. The density difference between the inner city and the suburbs is declining
because the inner city density is dropping and the suburban density is growing
due to more large apartments being built in the suburbs.
Cost of Suburban or Urban Sprawl: Urban Sprawl is the progressive spread of
development over the landscape. As long as we Americans want single-family
detached houses, land on the fringe of urban areas will be converted from open
space to residential use. The cost of this growth is more than the loss of land, it is
also the cost of new roads, utilities, building stores and offices and the cost of
automobiles to move these people over even longer distances. Lots of these new
developments are built on what was once farmland. Wonderful productive soil now
under concrete.

Greenbelts: are areas where, by law, the open space can not be used for any
construction. This is mostly found in Europe.

57

Once farmland that is being converted to suburbs and cities.

58

Tyson’s Corner Virginia in 1940

59

Washington, DC. MSA.

Tyson’s Corner Virginia
today.
Washington D.C. is off
In the distance.

60

Suburban Segregation: The “new” segregation.
Suburban segregation takes two forms:
1. Residents are separated from commercial and manufacturing activities
which are confined someplace else. (The whole neighborhood is
nothing but houses because they drive for services.)
2. The price of the house eliminates some from being able to live there. This
creates a homogeneous suburb of the same economic class of people.
This never existed before in history. Where we once had vertical
segregation of the classes we now we have horizontal segregation.
3. But this may be reversing as new statistics show that people are beginning
to move back to the city. Why? Cost of transportation.
Zoning Ordinances: This idea developed in Europe and later America in the
early decades of the 20th century. This means that businesses are allowed only
in certain areas of the settlement. (No all night taco stands inside your single
family neighborhood.)
Motor vehicles: The wide use of the automobile is largely responsible for the
American movement to the suburbs. Not only did people move out but 1/4 of
the land inside all American cities are now roads, streets, and parking lots.

61

Public Transportation: Because few US workers live within walking distance
of their jobs, urban areas are characterized by extensive commuting and the
problems that come with it. As much as 40% of all trips made into or out from
a city during the day takes place within just 4 hours. (2 in the morning and 2 in
the late afternoon). RUSH HOUR!!! In large cities, public transportation, like
subways and busses, are better suited to move people but Americans still
prefer their own cars. Public transportation is cheaper, cleaner, and more
energy efficient than personal cars, yet in the US only 5% of city travel is
done using public transit systems. American’s love their personal car too
much.
Local Government Fragmentation: Because of the large number of local
governments in the US (look at the settlements in Pinellas County) it is
difficult to solve some of the regional problems like garbage disposal, water
management, traffic and public housing.
62

Metropolitan government: This idea tries to put many local governments into a
larger unit that can better handle the urban problems. The 2 ways to do this
are:
1. Federations in which the individual settlements have their own police,
firemen, and tax collection but they all agree to be part of a second
government which handles transportation, water, sewage, parks and
welfare for all the communities.
2. Consolidations: In this method, several cities and the county may form one
government. Jacksonville’s government runs not only the town but the
county too, this makes Jacksonville the largest city, in land size, in the US.
Smart growth: A new movement by many states to curb suburban sprawl by
limiting where new construction can take place. Smart growth laws require that
land near cities be used up before any land further out can be developed. So
far, this is only being done an a few parts of our country.
63

The new
US as
some
people
see it.

64

Quiz Yourself:
1. The process where middle-class people move into inner city neighborhoods and
renovate them is called ____________
2. ____________ happens when banks refuse to give loans in what they consider
risky neighborhoods.
3. Because of the housing shortages, the poor have constructed their own settlements
around the city known as __________ _________

4. Businesses are allowed only in certain areas of the settlement because of
____________ ____________
5. Areas known as _____ _______ are areas of about 5,000 people. The data from
that area is used to help define needed services for that area.
6. When cities are so close that they form one continuous band of development this is
known as a ____________
65

7. Social relationships are often described as “colder” in urban areas because…
8. In this model the city develops in a series of sectors not rings. _______

9. ______ (LDC’s or MDC’s) have a higher percentage of people living in urban
settlements but ________ (LDC’s or MDC’s) have more of the very large urban
settlements.
10. _____________ was the first model developed to explain the distributions
of different social groups within urban areas.
11. New cities which develop around the beltway are nodes of consumer and
business services known as ________ _________.

12. When the Europeans took over lands around the world, they changed the
cities by adding services to help the Europeans control the conquered people.
These European planned cities are known as __________ cities.
66

Answer Key:
1.

Gentrification

2.

Redlining

3.

Squatter Settlements

4.

Zoning ordinances

5.

Census tracks

6.

Megalopolis

7. There is a stronger feeling of belonging together in small rural settlements.
8. Hoyt sector model
9. MDC, LDC
10. Burgess Concentric Zone model
11. Edge cities
12. Colonial cities
67

Test Key topic/chapter 13:
These questions come from a combination of our slides, your text book, and common knowledge you should
have discussed in your AP classroom. They are very typical of what you will see on the National Exam.
1) The multiple nuclei theory best explains why different neighborhoods of a city attract people of different… A) ages.
B) ethnic origin C) income D) marital status.
2) Sprawl is the… A) change in density within an urban area from the center to the periphery B) development of new
housing sites not contiguous to the existing built-up area. C) land maintained as open space surrounding an urban area.
D) period in the morning and evening with the heaviest volumes of traffic.
3) People are attracted to suburbs in part because suburbs are characterized by…A) heavy traffic. B) lower opportunity
for home ownership. C) private land surrounding the house. D) row houses and apartments.
4) Megalopolis refers to… A) adjacent, overlapping Metropolitan Statistical Areas. B) central cities. C) consolidated
Metropolitan Statistical Areas. D) central cities plus urbanized areas.
5) Which statement best describes the relationship between urbanization and the Industrial Revolution? A) Urbanization
promoted the Industrial Revolution. B) The Industrial Revolution promoted urbanization. C) Urbanization preceded the
Industrial Revolution by thousands of years. D) Urbanization and the Industrial Revolution are no longer related.
6) The process of legally adding land area to a city in the United States is… A) annexation. B) accreditation. C) an
application of eminent domain. D) defined by urbanized area.

68

7) The process of change in the use of a house, from single-family owner occupancy to abandonment, is… A) blockbusting.
B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining.
8) A process by which banks designate an area within which they refuse to lend money for improvements is… A) blockbusting.
B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining.
9) A recent change in the density gradient has been… A) the elimination of the gap traditionally found in the center. B) an
increase in the extremes between the inner and outer areas. C) an increase in the number of people living in the center.
D) a reduction in the differences in densities found within an urban area.
10) U.S. central cities face fiscal problems because… A) federal and state funds are available. B) low-income people are
concentrated there. C) middle-class families are attracted there. D) redlining is no longer legal.
11) A legal form of segregation in U.S. cities is achieved through...A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) zoning. D) greenbelts.
12) Factories have moved to suburban locations in part because of… A) access to main highways. B) adequate space to build
vertical structures. C) availability of large tracts of high-priced land. D) good rail connections.
13) According to the sector model, the best housing is located in…A) a corridor from downtown to the edge of the city.
B) an outer ring surrounding the city. C) nodes near universities and parks. D) renovated inner-city neighborhoods.
14) Ramshackle houses on the periphery of cities in less developed countries are known as… A) squatter settlements. B) council
estates. C) public housing. D) zone in transition.
15) Higher income people tend to live near the center of the city in all but which of the following regions? A) Latin America
B) North America C) South Asia D) Western Europe

16) The wide boulevards built in cities in less developed countries were most likely built during what era? A) pre-colonial
B) colonial C) independence D) all of the above equally

69

17) According to the multiple nuclei model, an airport is likely to attract nearby… A) industries. B) residences. C) shops.
D) universities.
18) The largest percentage of the U.S. population lives in…A) central cities. B) suburbs. C) non-metropolitan areas. D) all of the
above
19) In U.S. cities, the underclass is… A) clustered in inner-city neighborhoods. B) dispersed throughout the city. C) clustered in
suburbs. D) distributed uniformly in the city.

20) A process of converting a neighborhood from low-income to middle-class is…A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) gentrification.
D) redlining.
21) Higher social heterogeneity in urban settlements means that… A) the people with whom you relax are probably the same ones you
see at work. B) you play a specialized role in the urban economy. C) you compete for limited space. D) you may feel lonely and
isolated in a crowd.
22) The city plus its contiguous built-up suburbs is the… A) central city. B) urbanized area.
D) consolidated metropolitan statistical area

C) metropolitan statistical area.

23) The process whereby an increasing percentage of people live in an urban area is known as… A) demographic transition.
B) rank-size rule. C) urbanization. D) central place theory.
24) Of the ten largest urban areas in the world, how many are in More Developed Countries today? A) 1 B) 4 C) 7 D) 10 E) 2
25) Public housing is…A) conversion of low-income housing to middle-class housing. B) illegally established low-income housing.
C) housing that has changed from single-family owner occupancy to abandonment. D) low-income government-owned housing.
26) According to the concentric zone model, a city develops in a series of… A) corridors. B) nodes. C) rings. D) all of the above

70

27) Chicago is a good location in which to develop urban models because it is located… A) at the hub of the nation's transportation
system. B) in the center of the country. C) on a flat prairie. D) on the shore of Lake Michigan.
28) According to the sector model, the best housing is located in… A) a corridor from downtown to the edge of the city. B) an outer
ring surrounding the city. C) nodes near universities and parks. D) renovated inner-city neighborhoods.
29) The zone of transition in US cities generally contain…A) warehouses B) wealthy neighborhoods C) transportation hubs
D) universities and hospitals E) suburban homes
30) The attractions of shopping malls include all but which of the following? A) frequent concerts and exhibitions B) generous
parking lots C) place to meet friends D) walking distance from homes
The following questions are written at the high school level. You will find some questions from part one often rewritten
here. This is all designed to help you transition to the college/AP style of written questions. Any question preceded with ***
are questions that have been on the national exam before.
31. Most Latin American cities are focused on a…A) central plaza B) government housing project C) zone of heavy industry
D) skyscraper office building E) squatter settlement
32. The multiple-nuclei model of a city structure tends to be most applicable to…A) small cities B) traditional C) Latin American
cities D) newer, fast growing cities E) cities with homogeneous land use
33. ***Locational advantages important to the development of the earliest cities include…A) availability of good harbors for large
ships B) productive agricultural land and defensible sites C) temperate climate and proximity to coal mines D) good
connections by road and canal E) proximity to manufacturing areas

34. In cities, the CBD’s often show uniqueness while the suburbs usually show…A) a large hinterland. B) placelessness C) more
than one node. D) newer zones of transition.

71

35. Many LDC’s have tried to help a previously under-developed part of their country develop by moving their capital
city to that area. This new capital is known as a…A) forward capital B) new development zone C) enterprise zone
D) neocolonial city
36. Today the greatest number of urban dwellers is found in…A) North America
D) Europe E) Asia

B) South America C) Africa

37. ***All of the following have helped create ghettos in North American cities except…A)blockbusting and racial
steering B) redlining by financial institutions C) concentration of public housing and social services D) fixed school
districts E) Economic Enterprise Zones

38. Which of the following is NOT as reason for rapid suburbanization in the US after WW2? A) Mass production of
the automobile B) Reduction of long distance commuting C) Expansion of home construction D) Expansion of the
interstate highway system E) Availability of low down payment terms and long-term mortgages.
39. New cities which developed in the hinterland of large urban areas because of the automobile, are known as…
A) edge cities B) census tracts C) suburban sprawl D) squatter settlements. E) none of these
40. Gentrification refers to… A) moving the homeless into inner city shelters B) The “White Flight” from the urban city
C) losing tax revenue because of stores closing in downtown areas D) middle-class people moving into and renovating
inner city neighborhoods E) the creation of “beltway cities” around the city.

72

4
7
3

5

1
6

2

41-48 all use the sketch above.
41. The sketch in box A above represents which model of the inner structure of urban areas?
C) multiple nuclei model D) Burgess concentric zone model E) peripheral model
42. The models in boxes B and C represent A) Concentric zone and multiple nuclei
concentric zone D) peripheral and concentric zone E) Von Thunen and peripheral

A) Hoyt sector model B) VonThunen’s model

B) Multiple nuclei and Hoyt sector C) Hoyt sector and

43. In which ring (1, 2, etc.) of sketch A above would high-status households in North American cities likely live? A) 1 B) 2 C) 3 D) 4&5
44. In which ring (1, 2, etc.) of sketch A above would high status households in a European city likely live? A) 1

B) 2

C) 3

D) 4&5

45. In model B, zone # 2 is where it is likely because of: A) greenbelting B) squatter settling C) the culture of poverty D) transportation
E) no one knows
46. The model in sketch B is the; A) Hoyt sector model B) Burgess model C) multiple nuclei model D) peripheral model
47. The model in sketch C is the; A) Hoyt sector model B) Burgess model C) multiple nuclei model D) peripheral model
48. Which of these models best describes what has happened in US cities in the last 40 years? A)

B)

C)

73

49.*** In the U.S. a city plus its contiguous built-up suburbs is known as an…A) urbanized area B) zoned area
C) census tract D) Squatter settlement E) none of these
50. Done mostly in Europe, these are areas where land is kept as parks, farms or other kinds of open space and urban
sprawl is not allowed. A) Smart growth
B) zoning
C) filtering
D) census tracts E) greenbelts
51. Which statement best describes the relationship between urbanization and the Industrial Revolution?
A) Urbanization promoted the Industrial Revolution. B) The Industrial Revolution promoted urbanization.
C) Urbanization preceded the Industrial Revolution by thousands of years. D) Urbanization and the Industrial
Revolution are no longer related.
52. The process whereby an increasing percentage of people live in an urban area is known as…
A) Demographic transition. B) rank-size rule. C) Urbanization. D) Central place theory.
53. The city (if it has 50,000 or more people) plus its contiguous built-up suburbs AND the county it is in as well as any
other counties it influences, is known as the ...A) central city B) urbanized area
C) metropolitan statistical area
D) consolidated metropolitan area E) micropolitan statistical area
54. ***Higher social heterogeneity in urban settlements means that …A) the people with whom you relax are probably
the same ones you see at work. B) you play a specialized role in the urban economy. C) you compete for limited
space. D) you may feel lonely and isolated in a crowd.

55. The process of change in the use of a house, from single-family owner occupancy to smaller dwellings for the poor
and then sometimes to abandonment, is…A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining. E) none of
these

74

Free Response #1:
The Bid Rent theory says that the closer you get to the
CBD the higher the cost for land, yet in most American
cities you find the poorest people living near the
expensive CBD and the richest living further away.
Explain:
A. Why neighborhoods near the CBD are often poor and
run down?
B. Why are there few grocery and other retail stores in
these neighborhoods?
C. Why is this not really true in European and Latin
American countries?

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75

FR #2:
Think of the map of your school, explain the
layout of your school using the Multiple Nuclei
Model
The main office is the CBD.
Completely explain your answer using specific
buildings and/or land areas in your explanation
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76

Answer Key:
1. B

14. A

27. C

40. D

53. C

2. B

15. B

28. A

41. D

54. D

3. C

16. B

29. A

42. B

55. B

4. A

17. A

30. D

43. D

5. B

18. B

31. A

44. A

6. A

19. A

32. D

45. D

7. B

20. C

33. B

46. A

8. D

21. D

34. B

47. C

9. D

22. B

35. A

48. C

10. B

23. C

36. E

49. A

11. C

24. C

37. E

50. E

12. A

25. D

38. B

51. B

13. A

26. C

39. A

52. C
77

FR. #1: ( 15 pts. for each section…total of 45 pts.)
A. In the US the move of the wealthy and middle class to the suburbs has left the older houses and apartments near the CBD empty.
This has lowered their value to the point where the poor can afford these dwellings and have made these neighborhoods their
homes. The poor can not pay for upkeep of these dwellings, or to pay high taxes. The lack of upkeep and tax money to repair the
roads and schools, adds to the downward spiral of the neighborhood. With little spending money for shopping, the poor do not
spend much in the stores. This causes many stores to close and move to the suburbs where the spending customers and money
went. The closing of the stores adds to the poverty of the area by taking away some of the jobs that were in the neighborhood. This
becomes a vicious cycle of poverty and deterioration. (15 points)

B. There are few retail stores and groceries is the area because the poor do not have money to shop. The lack of spending forces
many stores out of business or forces them to move to better locations. There also can be higher crime in these areas and the
crime often takes place at the stores. This is another reason for the stores to move out of the neighborhood. (15 points)
C. Neighborhoods in European and Latin American cities are different from those of US cities. In Europe and Latin America, the
wealthy and middle class still live near or in the CBD. The higher tax base and more spending ability of the upper and middle
classes, keeps the CBD area flourishing with jobs and in constant repair and upkeep of the cities’ physical condition. (15 points)

FR #2: (10 total points.)
You will need to judge how effectively you displayed you school
in the Multiple Nuclei Model. Refer to the model itself to help you
determine your success and grade.
School’s main office
78

Calculating your grade on test 13.
Add how many you got correct on the multiple choice part (55 possible) to how many
points you scored on the FR portion (55 possible)…110 total.
The following scale will show the approximate score if this test were the real AP exam. Remember that this
is an approximation. While 65-74% is normally the range for a 3 on the test, it is not definite. Over the
years I have seen scores as low as 60% be the low portion of a 3 score.

Out of 110 possible points:
72-83 is most likely a 3
84-94 is most likely a 4

95-110 is most likely a 5

Now lets start our review for the national exam by
reviewing the 33 key models and theories of the
course…the next PowerPoint.


Slide 38

Key topic/chapter 13…Urban Patterns
Key terms:
Annexation
Concentric zone model
Density gradient
Edge cities
Filtering
Galactic city
Gentrification
Greenbelts
Megalopolis
MSA
Multiple nuclei model
Peripheral model

Public housing
Redlining
Renovated housing
Scattered site
Squatter settlement
Sector model
Smart growth
Sprawl
Underclass
Urban renewal
Zone in transition
Zoning
1

Chapter 13…Urban Areas.
How are Cities planned?
Why

are cities where they are?
How are they organized?
Why are some areas of a city
different from
other areas of the same city?
What is the future of cities?
2

Settlement


Settlement - permanent collections of buildings,
where people live, work, and obtain services

3

ORIGINS OF SETTLEMENTS


Religious - graves, churches, temples



Cultural - schools, libraries



Political/Military - leader’s house, walls



Economic - stores, food
4

TYPES OF SETTLEMENTS


Rural Settlements - agriculture as the
predominant occupation.



Urban settlements - principal industries are
secondary and tertiary.

5

RURAL SETTLEMENTS
Clustered rural settlements –grouped
settlements in rural areas to minimize travel

Dispersed rural Settlements - isolated farms
with enclosed continuous fields (Found only in
N. America and Britain).

6

Urban Geographers want to know the global distribution of urban
settlements. MDC’s have a high percentage of people living in urban
areas because of the shift from agriculture-manufacturing-services.
Geographers are also interested in where people and activities are
distributed within urban spaces. What are the differences between the
inner-city and suburban areas and why?
As we saw in the last chapter, many downtowns are unique and can
often be recognized in photos where the suburbs often look very
much alike (Placelessness). Why? Suburbs offer the chance to avoid
some of the city problems (crime, tight living area, expensive
land/rent, noise, age of buildings) while still keeping a connection with
the goods and services of the city: jobs, sports teams, culture, shops,
recreation, etc.
7

Where is this place?

8

Today’s cities are evolving and changing. Although different internal
situations characterize urban areas in the US and elsewhere, the
problems arising from current spatial trends are quite similar in all cities.
Where have urban areas grown: in the early 1800’s only 3% of the earth’s
people lived in cities and only Beijing China had more than 1 million
people. Today over ½ of the world’s people live in cities and we have over
400 cities of at least 1 million people.

Urbanization: is the process by which city population grows.
Cities population growth is measured in 2 dimensions;
1. An increase in the number of people living in the cities.
2. An increase in the percentage of people living in the cities.
This distinction is important because they happen for different reason and
have different global distributions.
9

Increasing Percentage of People in Cities: a large percentage of people living in urban
areas is a measure of a country’s level of development. In MDC’s about ¾ of the people
live in urban areas compared to about 2/5 of people in LDC’s. (Except in Latin America
where the level is closer to MDC’s.)
The higher percentage of people in urban areas comes from the changes that have
occurred in the last 200 years as we went from agriculture (primary jobs) to industrial
(secondary jobs) and now service jobs, all created by the Industrial Revolution of the
1800’s.
People moved to the cities for industrial jobs, but in MDC’s this process has largely
ended because nearly everyone interested in moving to the cities from farms has already
done so.
In LDC’s the percentage of people living in urban areas is growing as people are pushed
off of their farms and replaced by machines and as people move to cities looking/hoping
for industrial jobs.
10

Increasing Number of People in Cities: MDC’s have a higher percentage of
people living in urban settlements but LDC’s have more of the very large urban
settlements (Primate cities). (Rank-size rule, primate cities, chapter 12.)

This is interesting because typically the large cities are created from the
improvements brought by the Industrial Revolution. This is not the case with the
large LDC cities. Migration to the primate city in LDC’s is happening even though
job opportunities may not be available. Increasing the population growth in LDC
cities is the fact that medical services are better in these cities, thus the child
mortality rate is lower.
Defining Urban Settlements: defining where urban areas end and rural areas
begin is not easy. Geographers have formulated definitions that distinguish
between urban and rural areas in two ways: Social differences and Physical
differences.
11

Percent Urban Population

Percent of the population living in urban areas is usually higher in MDCs
than in LDCs.

12

The most populated cities in the world

Of the top
20, only
Moscow,
Tokyo and
New York
are in MDC’s

Shanghai China has 14,608,512 people
13

14

15

Social Differences Between Urban and Rural Settlements: it is fair to say that rural
people and urban people follow different ways of life. A city can be defined as having 3
characteristics:
1. Large size. People in rural settlements know most of the other people in the
settlement. Not true in big cities. Social relationships are often described as “colder” in
urban areas because you only see some people at work instead of growing up with
them in the settlement.
2. High Density. Having lots of people in a tiny area creates social consequences. A
high density of people living in a small area can only be supported if the people
specialize (they can’t all be farmers). People are encouraged to compete for jobs, room,
and survival in a tightly limited space. Social groups compete to occupy the same space
(ethnic/ race problems). Rural settlements have very little of this problem.
3. Social Heterogeneity. The larger the settlement, the greater the variety of people.
Being “unusual” in a large settlement is more likely to be accepted than in a small rural
one. But despite the freedom to be different that large urban settlements give you,
people living there often feel alone because so many people are different from them.
There is a stronger feeling of belonging together in small rural settlements.
16

These 3 differences do not fully answer the question of where urban settlements
begin and rural ones end because in today’s MDC’s most everyone has access to
cars, telephones, televisions, and “urban type” jobs which reduce the differences
between urban and rural lifestyles. “City folk” and “Country folk” are more alike
today than they are different. To help distinguish between urban and rural areas we
need to add the physical definition of rural and urban to the equation.
Physical Definitions of Urban Settlements: In ancient time, cities had defensive
walls for protection which clearly defined the physical boundaries of the city. Today
the walls are gone but we can still define the physical boundaries in 3 ways:
1. Legal boundary. These are the official boundaries of a city as recognized by
the government of the country or state. These “city limits” have been officially given
to the city and are physically marked on official maps. The local government of the
city has authority to make laws and protect the people inside the city boundaries.
17

2. Urbanized area. This is the city plus its suburbs or urbanized area that
surrounds the city. About 70 percent of US residents live in urbanized areas with
40% being in the suburbs and 30% inside the city limits. The suburbs may have
their own city governments but the huge central city dominates what happens in
the entire area.
3. Metropolitan Statistical Area. Cities have an even bigger influence on people
than just those living in their city limits and surrounding urbanized areas. People
from far away come to shop, use the services, support the sports teams, read
the newspapers and watch the television broadcasts of the city. Thus the city
has a “functional area” which is its total zone of influence. The US Bureau of
Census has created a method of measuring the functional area of the city.
Known as the Metropolitan statistical area (MSA) this area includes:
•An urbanized area with a population of at least 50,000
•The county within which the city is located.
•Adjacent counties with a high population density and a large percentage of
residents working in the central city’s county.
18

Metropolitan Area of Philadelphia

City of
Philadelphia

Urbanized
area
(suburbs)
Metropolitan
Statistical
Area

The metropolitan area of Philadelphia is
spread over several counties and four states.
It is also a diversified trade center, given its
position on the Delaware river.

19

20

21

Micropolitan Statistical Areas: Smaller areas with between
10,000 and 50,000 people, the county where it is found, and
adjacent counties tied to the city. This would be a small town and
the area dominated by it.
Overlapping Metropolitan Areas: Some adjacent MSA’s overlap.
A county between two central cities may send a large number of
commuters to jobs in both cities. In some areas the cities are so
close that they form one continuous urban complex. This is
known as a Megalopolis (great city).
In a megalopolis, the downtown CBD often has its own
distinctive look and the urban areas are visually separated by
parks, open spaces, and dairy/truck farms. But at the periphery
of the urban areas, the boundaries overlap.
22

Colorado Springs, population 431,000

Ocala, Florida, population 56,000

Florala, Alabama, population 1,900

23

Megalopolis, from northern Va. To Maine.
This Illustrates the
difference between
strict city proper
definitions and broader
urban agglomerations.
To define urbanized
areas, the U.S. Census
Bureau uses the term
Metropolitan Statistical
Area (MSA) or
Consolidated MSA
(CMSA) if two or more of
them overlap.
24

Where are People Distributed within Urban Areas? People are not
just distributed at random in urban areas. For the most part they
concentrate in particular neighborhoods depending on their social
characteristics. Geographers want to see where people with
particular characteristics are likely to live and why.

Three models which try to explain the growth of a city:

The Burgess Model

The Hoyt Sector Model

The Harris and Ullman
multiple Nuclei Model
25

Burgess Concentric Zone Model

In the concentric zone model, a city grows in a series of rings surrounding the CBD.

Burgess Concentric Zone Model: This is the first used to explain the
distributions of different social groups within urban areas. It says that a
city grows outward from a central place in a series of concentric rings.
The precise size and width of the rings vary from one city to another, but
some basic types of rings appear in all cities in the same order (see chart
above).
26

•Hoyt Sector Model: In this model the city develops in a
series of sectors not rings. Certain areas of the city are
more attractive for various activities, originally because
of an environmental factor (or even pure chance). As the
city grows, activities extend outward in a wedge shape.
For example, once a wealthy neighborhood is built the
next wealthy neighborhood will extend from the first
neighborhood further outward from the center. In this
way, the best housing is found in a corridor extending
outward from the center to the outer edge (see chart on
the next page).
27

The Hoyt Sector Model

In the sector model, a city grows in a series of
wedges or corridors extending out from the
CBD.
28

•Harris and Ullman’s Multiple Nuclei Model: According
to this model, a city is a complex structure that includes
more than one center around which activities revolve.
Examples of these nodes include a port, parks,
stadium, neighborhood business center, university, and
airport (see chart). This theory states that some
activities are attracted to particular nodes, whereas
others try to avoid them. A university node may attract
well educated people and bookstores while the port will
attract hotels and warehouses. Heavy industry and
expensive houses rarely are found together. This
model shows the effect of the automobile more than
any other model.
29

The Harris and Ullman Multiple Nuclei model

The multiple nuclei model views a city as a
collection of individual centers, around which
different people and activities cluster.

30

Applications of the Models: The three models help explain where and in some
cases, why people live where they do. None of the models by themselves fully
explains why and where different types of people live, but combined they give
you as good a look as possible at the “Why” of “Where.” Effective use of the
models depends on getting good data on the areas. Most countries take a
census every 10 years to help determine useful data about the people and
places of the country. In our country we divide the census data into areas
known as census tracts of about 5,000 people. Each census tract has the data
that summarizes the characteristics of the people living within that tract. This
information includes things like the race, income, age, and education of the
people living in that tract.
Social Area Analysis: The data from the census tracts can all be plotted onto
maps to show the characteristics of the people living in that tract. This map is
known as a social area analysis.
31

Using Census tract information…Seattle, Washington
Each lined area is a
census tract of about 5000
people in Seattle
Washington. These maps
show average household
income for 1990 and
2000…note the changes in
income in some areas
between 1990 and 2000.
Using this information, a
business can make
decisions about where
they want to locate a new
store or the future of
existing stores.
You can find census tract
information on many topics
such as; age, education
level, race, ethnicity, crime
rate, and land ownership.
Note the areas with
incomes over
$63,000.

All can be very valuable
information to people
looking to open
businesses.

32

Examine the changes
between 1990 and
2000.

Oakland, California’s Ethnic neighborhoods
The small bordered areas are census tracks of 5000 people.

33

Use of the Models Outside of North America: The 3 models will also work in other
places in the world; however social groups in other countries may not have the
same reasons for selecting particular neighborhoods as Americans do.
European Cities: As in the US, wealthier people in European cities cluster along a
sector extending outward from the CBD, however unlike the US, wealthy and
middle class Europeans still live in the inner rings of the neighborhoods near the
CBD not out in the suburbs. In the past, poorer people lived in the center of the
city. Before electricity, social segregation was vertical: richer people lived on the
first or second floor of a building while the poorer people lived in the basement or
upper floors. In the Industrial Revolution, housing for the poor was constructed
near the factories and away from the rich.
Today poorer Europeans are less likely to live in the inner-city. Poor quality
housing has been renovated for the rich or turned into office buildings. Poorer
Europeans tend to live in the outskirts of the city. Vast suburbs with dozens of high
rise apartments house the poor. They face long commutes to reach their jobs in
the city.
34

European cities generally do not have the “suburban
sprawl” that US cities have. European cities tend to be
more pedestrian friendly with more parks downtown as
Europeans tend to still live downtown.
US cities have taller buildings as European cities tend to
be older and more historic.

American cities have more ethnic neighborhoods than
European cities. Ethnic neighborhoods that do exist in
European cities tend to be in the suburbs. WHY?
Because the established richer neighborhoods tend to be
downtown in European cities.
35

Less Developed Countries: Like Europe, most LDC’s accommodate their poor in the
suburbs with their middle class and rich living near the center of the city. LDC’s have
passed through 3 periods of city building: before the Europeans arrived, during the
period of European colonialism, and since independence from European control.

Pre-colonial Cities: Before the Europeans arrived few cities existed in Africa, Asia, and
Latin America and most people lived in small rural settlements. Those cities that existed
were mostly laid out surrounding a religious center; with the rest of the city laid out in a
hieratical concentric pattern (like the Burgess model) from government buildings,
homes of the wealthy, and businesses related to the religion out to other businesses
and shops.
Colonial cities: When the Europeans took over these lands, they changed the cities by
adding services to help the Europeans control the conquered people. Often a new
European style city would be build next to the existing native one. The new European
cities contained wider streets, a public square, larger houses and a much lower density.
The Spanish used the “Law of the Indies” which was a city plan designed specifically to
build cities in a “Spanish” style. (Gridiron pattern for streets centered on a church and
central plaza, walls around individual houses and neighborhoods centered around
smaller plazas and more churches.)
36

Early Mexico city was laid out in a grid pattern of streets. This followed
the Spanish “Law of the Indies.”

37

Central Plaza in Mexico City 1920 photo. Typical Colonial City plan.

Part of downtown Mexico city today still shows the
building plan of the “Law of the Indies.”

38

Cities since Independence: Following independence, cities have become
the focal point of the development of most LDC’s. Millions of people have
migrated to the cities (Primate cities) looking for jobs and services. Some
capitals have been moved to isolated areas in an attempt to help develop
that area of the country (Brasília) This is know as a forward capital. Latin
American cities have developed their own unique style.
Squatter settlements: The LDC’s are unable to house the rapidly growing
number of poor who are flowing into the cities. Because of the housing
shortages, the poor have constructed their own settlements around the city.
These settlements have few services because neither the city nor the
residents can afford them. Squatters have two basic choices for housing.
1. Illegally move into empty real houses located in the city or,
2. Rent slum housing.
(85% of the population of Addis Ababa in Ethiopia lives in squatter
settlements, slums or other illegal housing.)
39

Squatter shacks in Manila, the Philippines

40

Squatter settlement in Ethiopia

41

Zimbabwe, Africa

42

Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

43

Latin American City Model:
In many Latin
American cities,
the wealthy live in
the inner city and
in a sector
extending along a
commercial spine.
In situ accretion- businesses
and homes constantly under
construction/repair.
Zone of maturity-2nd best
housing in the city.
The poor live in squatter settlements on the
periphery of the city.

Disamenity- unpleasant area
used by the poor to get to the
market.

44

The City Outline of Rio de Janeiro
The rich tourist areas and expensive condo apartments are along the coast
and beach while the poor live in squatter shacks in the hills.

45

City problems:
Inner-City Physical Problems: Most US inner cities were constructed before the 1950’s
(people began to move to the suburbs in the 1950’s so new construction moved out of
the city).
Process of Deterioration (how a city deteriorates): A city doesn’t suddenly become old
and full of slummy areas. It happens over time. When a group of low-income people
inhabit an area of a city, nearby neighborhoods will often look to move out. They sell or
rent to more low-income occupants thus expanding the low-income area. Two processes
cause/speed up the devaluation of areas:
1. Filtering, 2. Redlining.
Filtering: Large houses and buildings that once housed rich downtown workers (who
moved to the suburbs) are taken over by landlords who don’t live in that area (they
moved to the suburbs too). Rents are low so the landlord doesn’t take as good care of
the property as they should and the property becomes run down or abandoned. Stores
close, or move, due to lack of sales. 100 years ago these neighborhoods would be used
by immigrants and ethnic businesses would succeed in those areas. Now, with a decline
in immigration, these neighborhoods have shrunk and so have schools, businesses and
other services. Thousands of vacant houses and buildings stand empty in inner cities
across America.

46

Redlining: Some banks refuse to give loans in what they consider
risky neighborhoods. They draw a red line on a map around areas
where they will not give loans. Without loans, these neighborhoods
have a hard time rebuilding/remodeling. Though illegal, this still
happens. Bankers just don’t put these “no-loan” areas on a map.

Urban Renewal: This is the series of projects to improve European
and N. American cities by buying up the blighted neighborhoods,
moving the people to new government built housing projects, and
building new roads, and other projects to make the inner city
attractive for business again. National and State government grants
help pay for these projects.
47

Public housing: Housing for the poor, built with government funding as part of
urban renewal. In the US this is only about 2% of the housing while in some
countries it may be more (Britain is 30%). Public housing built in the 50’s & 60’s
were largely high rise apartments, but those are seen as being unsatisfactory.
Problems arise from cramming large numbers of poor people into one area.
Today most public housing projects are one to three story buildings with many of
them being scattered around different parts of the city rather than clustered into
one area.
Because urban renewal has been criticized for destroying the social cohesion of
older neighborhoods, many governments (like the US) have stopped funding
most projects since the 1970’s. What do we do instead?
Renovated Housing: An alternative often used since the 70’s is to renovate a
building instead of urban renewal. The process where middle-class people
move into inner-city neighborhoods and renovate them is called gentrification.
Gentrified inner-city neighborhoods also attract middle-class people who work
downtown. Living close to work saves the hassle of commuting and rejuvenates
run down inner-city neighborhoods
48

Gentrified building downtown Harlem, NY. Note the supermarket.

49

Inner-City Social Problems: Inner-city residents are often referred to as the
permanent underclass because they are trapped in an unending cycle of
economic and social problems. High unemployment, alcoholism, drug
addiction, literacy, juvenile delinquency, and crime all exist at a higher rate
among those who live in the inner-city. Lack of jobs means lack of tax dollars
to pay for police and fire protection as well as good schools. Lack of job skills
and homelessness are also tremendous problems.
Culture of Poverty: Inner-city residents are trapped in a permanent underclass
culture that reproduces itself. In the US, unwed mothers give birth to 2/3 of the
babies in the inner-city. 90% of these children live with only one parent and it
is real hard for one parent to keep a job and take care of children. Both suffer
and a shortage of care and daily attention by the parent contributes to the kids
not learning the skills necessary to do well in school which leads to poor jobs
for their futures. Poverty leads to more poverty. Many families on welfare have
only one parent because it is financially better if one parent is gone, that way
the single parent gets food stamps and other services from the government
that they would not get if it was a 2 family household.
50

Crime: Trapped in a hopeless environment, some inner-city
residents turn to drugs. Drug use is a problem in inner-city
areas and the suburbs, but rates of drug use in inner-cities
are the highest.
Ethnic and Racial Segregation: As seen in chapter 7, many
neighborhoods in the US are segregated by ethnicity with
African Americans and Hispanics concentrated in one or two
continuous areas and whites living in the suburbs. Even small
cities display a strong distinction among neighborhoods. A
frequent division is between the east and west or north and
south side of town, or the railroad tracks. A family seeking a
new residence will seek the areas where the characteristics
of the people meet their own.

51

The exodus
from the
American city.
This has
happened in
many American
cities since the
1960’s.

52

Changes in Cities in the U.S.
U.S. population has been moving out of the city centers to the suburbs:
suburbanization and counter urbanization

Developed Countries: suburbanization

 wealthy move to suburbs
 automobiles and roads; ‘American
Dream’ of the home in the suburbs.
 better services
 wealthy move to suburbs
Counter urbanization

idyllic settings
cost of land for retirement
slow pace, yet high tech
connections to services and markets
53

U.S. intraregional migration during 1990s.

Inner city economic problems: the concentration of low income
residents in inner cities has caused economic problems. These
people require public services but can pay very little in taxes to
support the services. They need stores and jobs but have little
money to spend in the store and few skills for jobs (so the stores
close). To try to fight these problems many local and state
governments use tax monies to try to renovate these areas, but this
shifts tax money needed for other areas to the inner city (votes on
election day).
Annexation: Many cities could help their tax problem by adding the
new suburbs to be part of their city (annexation). After all, many of
these suburban people use the city for its’ jobs etc., so why not add
them into the city? Today, most people in the suburbs do not want
to be annexed into the city and so they do not vote to be annexed.
54

The Peripheral Model: According to this model, an urban area
consists of an inner city surrounded by large suburban residential
and business areas (MSA) tied together by a beltway or highway
that circles the city. Around the beltway are nodes of consumer
and business services called edge cities (see diagram of multiple
nuclei model). These edge cities sprang up to provide services
and jobs to the people in the suburbs.
Density Gradient: As you travel outward from the center of the
city, the density of people declines. Inner city has big apartments
of 250 of more people per acre. Suburbs have fewer people per
acre (but lots of acres) and finally you leave the cities periphery
you find few people. The number of houses per unit of land
diminishes as distance from the center of the city increases.
55

The Edge cities (bedroom communities) of Houston

The central city is surrounded by a ring road, around which are
suburban areas and edge cities, shopping malls, office parks,
industrial areas, and service complexes.

Known as
bedroom
communities
because
people live
there but
mostly don’t
work there.
They drive
into the city
for work.
56

As you move from the center of the city outward, the density of the population
changes. This is know as the density gradient. Two big changes have occurred in
the density gradient of today’s cities:
1. The number of people living in the center has decreased.
2. The density difference between the inner city and the suburbs is declining
because the inner city density is dropping and the suburban density is growing
due to more large apartments being built in the suburbs.
Cost of Suburban or Urban Sprawl: Urban Sprawl is the progressive spread of
development over the landscape. As long as we Americans want single-family
detached houses, land on the fringe of urban areas will be converted from open
space to residential use. The cost of this growth is more than the loss of land, it is
also the cost of new roads, utilities, building stores and offices and the cost of
automobiles to move these people over even longer distances. Lots of these new
developments are built on what was once farmland. Wonderful productive soil now
under concrete.

Greenbelts: are areas where, by law, the open space can not be used for any
construction. This is mostly found in Europe.

57

Once farmland that is being converted to suburbs and cities.

58

Tyson’s Corner Virginia in 1940

59

Washington, DC. MSA.

Tyson’s Corner Virginia
today.
Washington D.C. is off
In the distance.

60

Suburban Segregation: The “new” segregation.
Suburban segregation takes two forms:
1. Residents are separated from commercial and manufacturing activities
which are confined someplace else. (The whole neighborhood is
nothing but houses because they drive for services.)
2. The price of the house eliminates some from being able to live there. This
creates a homogeneous suburb of the same economic class of people.
This never existed before in history. Where we once had vertical
segregation of the classes we now we have horizontal segregation.
3. But this may be reversing as new statistics show that people are beginning
to move back to the city. Why? Cost of transportation.
Zoning Ordinances: This idea developed in Europe and later America in the
early decades of the 20th century. This means that businesses are allowed only
in certain areas of the settlement. (No all night taco stands inside your single
family neighborhood.)
Motor vehicles: The wide use of the automobile is largely responsible for the
American movement to the suburbs. Not only did people move out but 1/4 of
the land inside all American cities are now roads, streets, and parking lots.

61

Public Transportation: Because few US workers live within walking distance
of their jobs, urban areas are characterized by extensive commuting and the
problems that come with it. As much as 40% of all trips made into or out from
a city during the day takes place within just 4 hours. (2 in the morning and 2 in
the late afternoon). RUSH HOUR!!! In large cities, public transportation, like
subways and busses, are better suited to move people but Americans still
prefer their own cars. Public transportation is cheaper, cleaner, and more
energy efficient than personal cars, yet in the US only 5% of city travel is
done using public transit systems. American’s love their personal car too
much.
Local Government Fragmentation: Because of the large number of local
governments in the US (look at the settlements in Pinellas County) it is
difficult to solve some of the regional problems like garbage disposal, water
management, traffic and public housing.
62

Metropolitan government: This idea tries to put many local governments into a
larger unit that can better handle the urban problems. The 2 ways to do this
are:
1. Federations in which the individual settlements have their own police,
firemen, and tax collection but they all agree to be part of a second
government which handles transportation, water, sewage, parks and
welfare for all the communities.
2. Consolidations: In this method, several cities and the county may form one
government. Jacksonville’s government runs not only the town but the
county too, this makes Jacksonville the largest city, in land size, in the US.
Smart growth: A new movement by many states to curb suburban sprawl by
limiting where new construction can take place. Smart growth laws require that
land near cities be used up before any land further out can be developed. So
far, this is only being done an a few parts of our country.
63

The new
US as
some
people
see it.

64

Quiz Yourself:
1. The process where middle-class people move into inner city neighborhoods and
renovate them is called ____________
2. ____________ happens when banks refuse to give loans in what they consider
risky neighborhoods.
3. Because of the housing shortages, the poor have constructed their own settlements
around the city known as __________ _________

4. Businesses are allowed only in certain areas of the settlement because of
____________ ____________
5. Areas known as _____ _______ are areas of about 5,000 people. The data from
that area is used to help define needed services for that area.
6. When cities are so close that they form one continuous band of development this is
known as a ____________
65

7. Social relationships are often described as “colder” in urban areas because…
8. In this model the city develops in a series of sectors not rings. _______

9. ______ (LDC’s or MDC’s) have a higher percentage of people living in urban
settlements but ________ (LDC’s or MDC’s) have more of the very large urban
settlements.
10. _____________ was the first model developed to explain the distributions
of different social groups within urban areas.
11. New cities which develop around the beltway are nodes of consumer and
business services known as ________ _________.

12. When the Europeans took over lands around the world, they changed the
cities by adding services to help the Europeans control the conquered people.
These European planned cities are known as __________ cities.
66

Answer Key:
1.

Gentrification

2.

Redlining

3.

Squatter Settlements

4.

Zoning ordinances

5.

Census tracks

6.

Megalopolis

7. There is a stronger feeling of belonging together in small rural settlements.
8. Hoyt sector model
9. MDC, LDC
10. Burgess Concentric Zone model
11. Edge cities
12. Colonial cities
67

Test Key topic/chapter 13:
These questions come from a combination of our slides, your text book, and common knowledge you should
have discussed in your AP classroom. They are very typical of what you will see on the National Exam.
1) The multiple nuclei theory best explains why different neighborhoods of a city attract people of different… A) ages.
B) ethnic origin C) income D) marital status.
2) Sprawl is the… A) change in density within an urban area from the center to the periphery B) development of new
housing sites not contiguous to the existing built-up area. C) land maintained as open space surrounding an urban area.
D) period in the morning and evening with the heaviest volumes of traffic.
3) People are attracted to suburbs in part because suburbs are characterized by…A) heavy traffic. B) lower opportunity
for home ownership. C) private land surrounding the house. D) row houses and apartments.
4) Megalopolis refers to… A) adjacent, overlapping Metropolitan Statistical Areas. B) central cities. C) consolidated
Metropolitan Statistical Areas. D) central cities plus urbanized areas.
5) Which statement best describes the relationship between urbanization and the Industrial Revolution? A) Urbanization
promoted the Industrial Revolution. B) The Industrial Revolution promoted urbanization. C) Urbanization preceded the
Industrial Revolution by thousands of years. D) Urbanization and the Industrial Revolution are no longer related.
6) The process of legally adding land area to a city in the United States is… A) annexation. B) accreditation. C) an
application of eminent domain. D) defined by urbanized area.

68

7) The process of change in the use of a house, from single-family owner occupancy to abandonment, is… A) blockbusting.
B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining.
8) A process by which banks designate an area within which they refuse to lend money for improvements is… A) blockbusting.
B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining.
9) A recent change in the density gradient has been… A) the elimination of the gap traditionally found in the center. B) an
increase in the extremes between the inner and outer areas. C) an increase in the number of people living in the center.
D) a reduction in the differences in densities found within an urban area.
10) U.S. central cities face fiscal problems because… A) federal and state funds are available. B) low-income people are
concentrated there. C) middle-class families are attracted there. D) redlining is no longer legal.
11) A legal form of segregation in U.S. cities is achieved through...A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) zoning. D) greenbelts.
12) Factories have moved to suburban locations in part because of… A) access to main highways. B) adequate space to build
vertical structures. C) availability of large tracts of high-priced land. D) good rail connections.
13) According to the sector model, the best housing is located in…A) a corridor from downtown to the edge of the city.
B) an outer ring surrounding the city. C) nodes near universities and parks. D) renovated inner-city neighborhoods.
14) Ramshackle houses on the periphery of cities in less developed countries are known as… A) squatter settlements. B) council
estates. C) public housing. D) zone in transition.
15) Higher income people tend to live near the center of the city in all but which of the following regions? A) Latin America
B) North America C) South Asia D) Western Europe

16) The wide boulevards built in cities in less developed countries were most likely built during what era? A) pre-colonial
B) colonial C) independence D) all of the above equally

69

17) According to the multiple nuclei model, an airport is likely to attract nearby… A) industries. B) residences. C) shops.
D) universities.
18) The largest percentage of the U.S. population lives in…A) central cities. B) suburbs. C) non-metropolitan areas. D) all of the
above
19) In U.S. cities, the underclass is… A) clustered in inner-city neighborhoods. B) dispersed throughout the city. C) clustered in
suburbs. D) distributed uniformly in the city.

20) A process of converting a neighborhood from low-income to middle-class is…A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) gentrification.
D) redlining.
21) Higher social heterogeneity in urban settlements means that… A) the people with whom you relax are probably the same ones you
see at work. B) you play a specialized role in the urban economy. C) you compete for limited space. D) you may feel lonely and
isolated in a crowd.
22) The city plus its contiguous built-up suburbs is the… A) central city. B) urbanized area.
D) consolidated metropolitan statistical area

C) metropolitan statistical area.

23) The process whereby an increasing percentage of people live in an urban area is known as… A) demographic transition.
B) rank-size rule. C) urbanization. D) central place theory.
24) Of the ten largest urban areas in the world, how many are in More Developed Countries today? A) 1 B) 4 C) 7 D) 10 E) 2
25) Public housing is…A) conversion of low-income housing to middle-class housing. B) illegally established low-income housing.
C) housing that has changed from single-family owner occupancy to abandonment. D) low-income government-owned housing.
26) According to the concentric zone model, a city develops in a series of… A) corridors. B) nodes. C) rings. D) all of the above

70

27) Chicago is a good location in which to develop urban models because it is located… A) at the hub of the nation's transportation
system. B) in the center of the country. C) on a flat prairie. D) on the shore of Lake Michigan.
28) According to the sector model, the best housing is located in… A) a corridor from downtown to the edge of the city. B) an outer
ring surrounding the city. C) nodes near universities and parks. D) renovated inner-city neighborhoods.
29) The zone of transition in US cities generally contain…A) warehouses B) wealthy neighborhoods C) transportation hubs
D) universities and hospitals E) suburban homes
30) The attractions of shopping malls include all but which of the following? A) frequent concerts and exhibitions B) generous
parking lots C) place to meet friends D) walking distance from homes
The following questions are written at the high school level. You will find some questions from part one often rewritten
here. This is all designed to help you transition to the college/AP style of written questions. Any question preceded with ***
are questions that have been on the national exam before.
31. Most Latin American cities are focused on a…A) central plaza B) government housing project C) zone of heavy industry
D) skyscraper office building E) squatter settlement
32. The multiple-nuclei model of a city structure tends to be most applicable to…A) small cities B) traditional C) Latin American
cities D) newer, fast growing cities E) cities with homogeneous land use
33. ***Locational advantages important to the development of the earliest cities include…A) availability of good harbors for large
ships B) productive agricultural land and defensible sites C) temperate climate and proximity to coal mines D) good
connections by road and canal E) proximity to manufacturing areas

34. In cities, the CBD’s often show uniqueness while the suburbs usually show…A) a large hinterland. B) placelessness C) more
than one node. D) newer zones of transition.

71

35. Many LDC’s have tried to help a previously under-developed part of their country develop by moving their capital
city to that area. This new capital is known as a…A) forward capital B) new development zone C) enterprise zone
D) neocolonial city
36. Today the greatest number of urban dwellers is found in…A) North America
D) Europe E) Asia

B) South America C) Africa

37. ***All of the following have helped create ghettos in North American cities except…A)blockbusting and racial
steering B) redlining by financial institutions C) concentration of public housing and social services D) fixed school
districts E) Economic Enterprise Zones

38. Which of the following is NOT as reason for rapid suburbanization in the US after WW2? A) Mass production of
the automobile B) Reduction of long distance commuting C) Expansion of home construction D) Expansion of the
interstate highway system E) Availability of low down payment terms and long-term mortgages.
39. New cities which developed in the hinterland of large urban areas because of the automobile, are known as…
A) edge cities B) census tracts C) suburban sprawl D) squatter settlements. E) none of these
40. Gentrification refers to… A) moving the homeless into inner city shelters B) The “White Flight” from the urban city
C) losing tax revenue because of stores closing in downtown areas D) middle-class people moving into and renovating
inner city neighborhoods E) the creation of “beltway cities” around the city.

72

4
7
3

5

1
6

2

41-48 all use the sketch above.
41. The sketch in box A above represents which model of the inner structure of urban areas?
C) multiple nuclei model D) Burgess concentric zone model E) peripheral model
42. The models in boxes B and C represent A) Concentric zone and multiple nuclei
concentric zone D) peripheral and concentric zone E) Von Thunen and peripheral

A) Hoyt sector model B) VonThunen’s model

B) Multiple nuclei and Hoyt sector C) Hoyt sector and

43. In which ring (1, 2, etc.) of sketch A above would high-status households in North American cities likely live? A) 1 B) 2 C) 3 D) 4&5
44. In which ring (1, 2, etc.) of sketch A above would high status households in a European city likely live? A) 1

B) 2

C) 3

D) 4&5

45. In model B, zone # 2 is where it is likely because of: A) greenbelting B) squatter settling C) the culture of poverty D) transportation
E) no one knows
46. The model in sketch B is the; A) Hoyt sector model B) Burgess model C) multiple nuclei model D) peripheral model
47. The model in sketch C is the; A) Hoyt sector model B) Burgess model C) multiple nuclei model D) peripheral model
48. Which of these models best describes what has happened in US cities in the last 40 years? A)

B)

C)

73

49.*** In the U.S. a city plus its contiguous built-up suburbs is known as an…A) urbanized area B) zoned area
C) census tract D) Squatter settlement E) none of these
50. Done mostly in Europe, these are areas where land is kept as parks, farms or other kinds of open space and urban
sprawl is not allowed. A) Smart growth
B) zoning
C) filtering
D) census tracts E) greenbelts
51. Which statement best describes the relationship between urbanization and the Industrial Revolution?
A) Urbanization promoted the Industrial Revolution. B) The Industrial Revolution promoted urbanization.
C) Urbanization preceded the Industrial Revolution by thousands of years. D) Urbanization and the Industrial
Revolution are no longer related.
52. The process whereby an increasing percentage of people live in an urban area is known as…
A) Demographic transition. B) rank-size rule. C) Urbanization. D) Central place theory.
53. The city (if it has 50,000 or more people) plus its contiguous built-up suburbs AND the county it is in as well as any
other counties it influences, is known as the ...A) central city B) urbanized area
C) metropolitan statistical area
D) consolidated metropolitan area E) micropolitan statistical area
54. ***Higher social heterogeneity in urban settlements means that …A) the people with whom you relax are probably
the same ones you see at work. B) you play a specialized role in the urban economy. C) you compete for limited
space. D) you may feel lonely and isolated in a crowd.

55. The process of change in the use of a house, from single-family owner occupancy to smaller dwellings for the poor
and then sometimes to abandonment, is…A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining. E) none of
these

74

Free Response #1:
The Bid Rent theory says that the closer you get to the
CBD the higher the cost for land, yet in most American
cities you find the poorest people living near the
expensive CBD and the richest living further away.
Explain:
A. Why neighborhoods near the CBD are often poor and
run down?
B. Why are there few grocery and other retail stores in
these neighborhoods?
C. Why is this not really true in European and Latin
American countries?

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FR #2:
Think of the map of your school, explain the
layout of your school using the Multiple Nuclei
Model
The main office is the CBD.
Completely explain your answer using specific
buildings and/or land areas in your explanation
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76

Answer Key:
1. B

14. A

27. C

40. D

53. C

2. B

15. B

28. A

41. D

54. D

3. C

16. B

29. A

42. B

55. B

4. A

17. A

30. D

43. D

5. B

18. B

31. A

44. A

6. A

19. A

32. D

45. D

7. B

20. C

33. B

46. A

8. D

21. D

34. B

47. C

9. D

22. B

35. A

48. C

10. B

23. C

36. E

49. A

11. C

24. C

37. E

50. E

12. A

25. D

38. B

51. B

13. A

26. C

39. A

52. C
77

FR. #1: ( 15 pts. for each section…total of 45 pts.)
A. In the US the move of the wealthy and middle class to the suburbs has left the older houses and apartments near the CBD empty.
This has lowered their value to the point where the poor can afford these dwellings and have made these neighborhoods their
homes. The poor can not pay for upkeep of these dwellings, or to pay high taxes. The lack of upkeep and tax money to repair the
roads and schools, adds to the downward spiral of the neighborhood. With little spending money for shopping, the poor do not
spend much in the stores. This causes many stores to close and move to the suburbs where the spending customers and money
went. The closing of the stores adds to the poverty of the area by taking away some of the jobs that were in the neighborhood. This
becomes a vicious cycle of poverty and deterioration. (15 points)

B. There are few retail stores and groceries is the area because the poor do not have money to shop. The lack of spending forces
many stores out of business or forces them to move to better locations. There also can be higher crime in these areas and the
crime often takes place at the stores. This is another reason for the stores to move out of the neighborhood. (15 points)
C. Neighborhoods in European and Latin American cities are different from those of US cities. In Europe and Latin America, the
wealthy and middle class still live near or in the CBD. The higher tax base and more spending ability of the upper and middle
classes, keeps the CBD area flourishing with jobs and in constant repair and upkeep of the cities’ physical condition. (15 points)

FR #2: (10 total points.)
You will need to judge how effectively you displayed you school
in the Multiple Nuclei Model. Refer to the model itself to help you
determine your success and grade.
School’s main office
78

Calculating your grade on test 13.
Add how many you got correct on the multiple choice part (55 possible) to how many
points you scored on the FR portion (55 possible)…110 total.
The following scale will show the approximate score if this test were the real AP exam. Remember that this
is an approximation. While 65-74% is normally the range for a 3 on the test, it is not definite. Over the
years I have seen scores as low as 60% be the low portion of a 3 score.

Out of 110 possible points:
72-83 is most likely a 3
84-94 is most likely a 4

95-110 is most likely a 5

Now lets start our review for the national exam by
reviewing the 33 key models and theories of the
course…the next PowerPoint.


Slide 39

Key topic/chapter 13…Urban Patterns
Key terms:
Annexation
Concentric zone model
Density gradient
Edge cities
Filtering
Galactic city
Gentrification
Greenbelts
Megalopolis
MSA
Multiple nuclei model
Peripheral model

Public housing
Redlining
Renovated housing
Scattered site
Squatter settlement
Sector model
Smart growth
Sprawl
Underclass
Urban renewal
Zone in transition
Zoning
1

Chapter 13…Urban Areas.
How are Cities planned?
Why

are cities where they are?
How are they organized?
Why are some areas of a city
different from
other areas of the same city?
What is the future of cities?
2

Settlement


Settlement - permanent collections of buildings,
where people live, work, and obtain services

3

ORIGINS OF SETTLEMENTS


Religious - graves, churches, temples



Cultural - schools, libraries



Political/Military - leader’s house, walls



Economic - stores, food
4

TYPES OF SETTLEMENTS


Rural Settlements - agriculture as the
predominant occupation.



Urban settlements - principal industries are
secondary and tertiary.

5

RURAL SETTLEMENTS
Clustered rural settlements –grouped
settlements in rural areas to minimize travel

Dispersed rural Settlements - isolated farms
with enclosed continuous fields (Found only in
N. America and Britain).

6

Urban Geographers want to know the global distribution of urban
settlements. MDC’s have a high percentage of people living in urban
areas because of the shift from agriculture-manufacturing-services.
Geographers are also interested in where people and activities are
distributed within urban spaces. What are the differences between the
inner-city and suburban areas and why?
As we saw in the last chapter, many downtowns are unique and can
often be recognized in photos where the suburbs often look very
much alike (Placelessness). Why? Suburbs offer the chance to avoid
some of the city problems (crime, tight living area, expensive
land/rent, noise, age of buildings) while still keeping a connection with
the goods and services of the city: jobs, sports teams, culture, shops,
recreation, etc.
7

Where is this place?

8

Today’s cities are evolving and changing. Although different internal
situations characterize urban areas in the US and elsewhere, the
problems arising from current spatial trends are quite similar in all cities.
Where have urban areas grown: in the early 1800’s only 3% of the earth’s
people lived in cities and only Beijing China had more than 1 million
people. Today over ½ of the world’s people live in cities and we have over
400 cities of at least 1 million people.

Urbanization: is the process by which city population grows.
Cities population growth is measured in 2 dimensions;
1. An increase in the number of people living in the cities.
2. An increase in the percentage of people living in the cities.
This distinction is important because they happen for different reason and
have different global distributions.
9

Increasing Percentage of People in Cities: a large percentage of people living in urban
areas is a measure of a country’s level of development. In MDC’s about ¾ of the people
live in urban areas compared to about 2/5 of people in LDC’s. (Except in Latin America
where the level is closer to MDC’s.)
The higher percentage of people in urban areas comes from the changes that have
occurred in the last 200 years as we went from agriculture (primary jobs) to industrial
(secondary jobs) and now service jobs, all created by the Industrial Revolution of the
1800’s.
People moved to the cities for industrial jobs, but in MDC’s this process has largely
ended because nearly everyone interested in moving to the cities from farms has already
done so.
In LDC’s the percentage of people living in urban areas is growing as people are pushed
off of their farms and replaced by machines and as people move to cities looking/hoping
for industrial jobs.
10

Increasing Number of People in Cities: MDC’s have a higher percentage of
people living in urban settlements but LDC’s have more of the very large urban
settlements (Primate cities). (Rank-size rule, primate cities, chapter 12.)

This is interesting because typically the large cities are created from the
improvements brought by the Industrial Revolution. This is not the case with the
large LDC cities. Migration to the primate city in LDC’s is happening even though
job opportunities may not be available. Increasing the population growth in LDC
cities is the fact that medical services are better in these cities, thus the child
mortality rate is lower.
Defining Urban Settlements: defining where urban areas end and rural areas
begin is not easy. Geographers have formulated definitions that distinguish
between urban and rural areas in two ways: Social differences and Physical
differences.
11

Percent Urban Population

Percent of the population living in urban areas is usually higher in MDCs
than in LDCs.

12

The most populated cities in the world

Of the top
20, only
Moscow,
Tokyo and
New York
are in MDC’s

Shanghai China has 14,608,512 people
13

14

15

Social Differences Between Urban and Rural Settlements: it is fair to say that rural
people and urban people follow different ways of life. A city can be defined as having 3
characteristics:
1. Large size. People in rural settlements know most of the other people in the
settlement. Not true in big cities. Social relationships are often described as “colder” in
urban areas because you only see some people at work instead of growing up with
them in the settlement.
2. High Density. Having lots of people in a tiny area creates social consequences. A
high density of people living in a small area can only be supported if the people
specialize (they can’t all be farmers). People are encouraged to compete for jobs, room,
and survival in a tightly limited space. Social groups compete to occupy the same space
(ethnic/ race problems). Rural settlements have very little of this problem.
3. Social Heterogeneity. The larger the settlement, the greater the variety of people.
Being “unusual” in a large settlement is more likely to be accepted than in a small rural
one. But despite the freedom to be different that large urban settlements give you,
people living there often feel alone because so many people are different from them.
There is a stronger feeling of belonging together in small rural settlements.
16

These 3 differences do not fully answer the question of where urban settlements
begin and rural ones end because in today’s MDC’s most everyone has access to
cars, telephones, televisions, and “urban type” jobs which reduce the differences
between urban and rural lifestyles. “City folk” and “Country folk” are more alike
today than they are different. To help distinguish between urban and rural areas we
need to add the physical definition of rural and urban to the equation.
Physical Definitions of Urban Settlements: In ancient time, cities had defensive
walls for protection which clearly defined the physical boundaries of the city. Today
the walls are gone but we can still define the physical boundaries in 3 ways:
1. Legal boundary. These are the official boundaries of a city as recognized by
the government of the country or state. These “city limits” have been officially given
to the city and are physically marked on official maps. The local government of the
city has authority to make laws and protect the people inside the city boundaries.
17

2. Urbanized area. This is the city plus its suburbs or urbanized area that
surrounds the city. About 70 percent of US residents live in urbanized areas with
40% being in the suburbs and 30% inside the city limits. The suburbs may have
their own city governments but the huge central city dominates what happens in
the entire area.
3. Metropolitan Statistical Area. Cities have an even bigger influence on people
than just those living in their city limits and surrounding urbanized areas. People
from far away come to shop, use the services, support the sports teams, read
the newspapers and watch the television broadcasts of the city. Thus the city
has a “functional area” which is its total zone of influence. The US Bureau of
Census has created a method of measuring the functional area of the city.
Known as the Metropolitan statistical area (MSA) this area includes:
•An urbanized area with a population of at least 50,000
•The county within which the city is located.
•Adjacent counties with a high population density and a large percentage of
residents working in the central city’s county.
18

Metropolitan Area of Philadelphia

City of
Philadelphia

Urbanized
area
(suburbs)
Metropolitan
Statistical
Area

The metropolitan area of Philadelphia is
spread over several counties and four states.
It is also a diversified trade center, given its
position on the Delaware river.

19

20

21

Micropolitan Statistical Areas: Smaller areas with between
10,000 and 50,000 people, the county where it is found, and
adjacent counties tied to the city. This would be a small town and
the area dominated by it.
Overlapping Metropolitan Areas: Some adjacent MSA’s overlap.
A county between two central cities may send a large number of
commuters to jobs in both cities. In some areas the cities are so
close that they form one continuous urban complex. This is
known as a Megalopolis (great city).
In a megalopolis, the downtown CBD often has its own
distinctive look and the urban areas are visually separated by
parks, open spaces, and dairy/truck farms. But at the periphery
of the urban areas, the boundaries overlap.
22

Colorado Springs, population 431,000

Ocala, Florida, population 56,000

Florala, Alabama, population 1,900

23

Megalopolis, from northern Va. To Maine.
This Illustrates the
difference between
strict city proper
definitions and broader
urban agglomerations.
To define urbanized
areas, the U.S. Census
Bureau uses the term
Metropolitan Statistical
Area (MSA) or
Consolidated MSA
(CMSA) if two or more of
them overlap.
24

Where are People Distributed within Urban Areas? People are not
just distributed at random in urban areas. For the most part they
concentrate in particular neighborhoods depending on their social
characteristics. Geographers want to see where people with
particular characteristics are likely to live and why.

Three models which try to explain the growth of a city:

The Burgess Model

The Hoyt Sector Model

The Harris and Ullman
multiple Nuclei Model
25

Burgess Concentric Zone Model

In the concentric zone model, a city grows in a series of rings surrounding the CBD.

Burgess Concentric Zone Model: This is the first used to explain the
distributions of different social groups within urban areas. It says that a
city grows outward from a central place in a series of concentric rings.
The precise size and width of the rings vary from one city to another, but
some basic types of rings appear in all cities in the same order (see chart
above).
26

•Hoyt Sector Model: In this model the city develops in a
series of sectors not rings. Certain areas of the city are
more attractive for various activities, originally because
of an environmental factor (or even pure chance). As the
city grows, activities extend outward in a wedge shape.
For example, once a wealthy neighborhood is built the
next wealthy neighborhood will extend from the first
neighborhood further outward from the center. In this
way, the best housing is found in a corridor extending
outward from the center to the outer edge (see chart on
the next page).
27

The Hoyt Sector Model

In the sector model, a city grows in a series of
wedges or corridors extending out from the
CBD.
28

•Harris and Ullman’s Multiple Nuclei Model: According
to this model, a city is a complex structure that includes
more than one center around which activities revolve.
Examples of these nodes include a port, parks,
stadium, neighborhood business center, university, and
airport (see chart). This theory states that some
activities are attracted to particular nodes, whereas
others try to avoid them. A university node may attract
well educated people and bookstores while the port will
attract hotels and warehouses. Heavy industry and
expensive houses rarely are found together. This
model shows the effect of the automobile more than
any other model.
29

The Harris and Ullman Multiple Nuclei model

The multiple nuclei model views a city as a
collection of individual centers, around which
different people and activities cluster.

30

Applications of the Models: The three models help explain where and in some
cases, why people live where they do. None of the models by themselves fully
explains why and where different types of people live, but combined they give
you as good a look as possible at the “Why” of “Where.” Effective use of the
models depends on getting good data on the areas. Most countries take a
census every 10 years to help determine useful data about the people and
places of the country. In our country we divide the census data into areas
known as census tracts of about 5,000 people. Each census tract has the data
that summarizes the characteristics of the people living within that tract. This
information includes things like the race, income, age, and education of the
people living in that tract.
Social Area Analysis: The data from the census tracts can all be plotted onto
maps to show the characteristics of the people living in that tract. This map is
known as a social area analysis.
31

Using Census tract information…Seattle, Washington
Each lined area is a
census tract of about 5000
people in Seattle
Washington. These maps
show average household
income for 1990 and
2000…note the changes in
income in some areas
between 1990 and 2000.
Using this information, a
business can make
decisions about where
they want to locate a new
store or the future of
existing stores.
You can find census tract
information on many topics
such as; age, education
level, race, ethnicity, crime
rate, and land ownership.
Note the areas with
incomes over
$63,000.

All can be very valuable
information to people
looking to open
businesses.

32

Examine the changes
between 1990 and
2000.

Oakland, California’s Ethnic neighborhoods
The small bordered areas are census tracks of 5000 people.

33

Use of the Models Outside of North America: The 3 models will also work in other
places in the world; however social groups in other countries may not have the
same reasons for selecting particular neighborhoods as Americans do.
European Cities: As in the US, wealthier people in European cities cluster along a
sector extending outward from the CBD, however unlike the US, wealthy and
middle class Europeans still live in the inner rings of the neighborhoods near the
CBD not out in the suburbs. In the past, poorer people lived in the center of the
city. Before electricity, social segregation was vertical: richer people lived on the
first or second floor of a building while the poorer people lived in the basement or
upper floors. In the Industrial Revolution, housing for the poor was constructed
near the factories and away from the rich.
Today poorer Europeans are less likely to live in the inner-city. Poor quality
housing has been renovated for the rich or turned into office buildings. Poorer
Europeans tend to live in the outskirts of the city. Vast suburbs with dozens of high
rise apartments house the poor. They face long commutes to reach their jobs in
the city.
34

European cities generally do not have the “suburban
sprawl” that US cities have. European cities tend to be
more pedestrian friendly with more parks downtown as
Europeans tend to still live downtown.
US cities have taller buildings as European cities tend to
be older and more historic.

American cities have more ethnic neighborhoods than
European cities. Ethnic neighborhoods that do exist in
European cities tend to be in the suburbs. WHY?
Because the established richer neighborhoods tend to be
downtown in European cities.
35

Less Developed Countries: Like Europe, most LDC’s accommodate their poor in the
suburbs with their middle class and rich living near the center of the city. LDC’s have
passed through 3 periods of city building: before the Europeans arrived, during the
period of European colonialism, and since independence from European control.

Pre-colonial Cities: Before the Europeans arrived few cities existed in Africa, Asia, and
Latin America and most people lived in small rural settlements. Those cities that existed
were mostly laid out surrounding a religious center; with the rest of the city laid out in a
hieratical concentric pattern (like the Burgess model) from government buildings,
homes of the wealthy, and businesses related to the religion out to other businesses
and shops.
Colonial cities: When the Europeans took over these lands, they changed the cities by
adding services to help the Europeans control the conquered people. Often a new
European style city would be build next to the existing native one. The new European
cities contained wider streets, a public square, larger houses and a much lower density.
The Spanish used the “Law of the Indies” which was a city plan designed specifically to
build cities in a “Spanish” style. (Gridiron pattern for streets centered on a church and
central plaza, walls around individual houses and neighborhoods centered around
smaller plazas and more churches.)
36

Early Mexico city was laid out in a grid pattern of streets. This followed
the Spanish “Law of the Indies.”

37

Central Plaza in Mexico City 1920 photo. Typical Colonial City plan.

Part of downtown Mexico city today still shows the
building plan of the “Law of the Indies.”

38

Cities since Independence: Following independence, cities have become
the focal point of the development of most LDC’s. Millions of people have
migrated to the cities (Primate cities) looking for jobs and services. Some
capitals have been moved to isolated areas in an attempt to help develop
that area of the country (Brasília) This is know as a forward capital. Latin
American cities have developed their own unique style.
Squatter settlements: The LDC’s are unable to house the rapidly growing
number of poor who are flowing into the cities. Because of the housing
shortages, the poor have constructed their own settlements around the city.
These settlements have few services because neither the city nor the
residents can afford them. Squatters have two basic choices for housing.
1. Illegally move into empty real houses located in the city or,
2. Rent slum housing.
(85% of the population of Addis Ababa in Ethiopia lives in squatter
settlements, slums or other illegal housing.)
39

Squatter shacks in Manila, the Philippines

40

Squatter settlement in Ethiopia

41

Zimbabwe, Africa

42

Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

43

Latin American City Model:
In many Latin
American cities,
the wealthy live in
the inner city and
in a sector
extending along a
commercial spine.
In situ accretion- businesses
and homes constantly under
construction/repair.
Zone of maturity-2nd best
housing in the city.
The poor live in squatter settlements on the
periphery of the city.

Disamenity- unpleasant area
used by the poor to get to the
market.

44

The City Outline of Rio de Janeiro
The rich tourist areas and expensive condo apartments are along the coast
and beach while the poor live in squatter shacks in the hills.

45

City problems:
Inner-City Physical Problems: Most US inner cities were constructed before the 1950’s
(people began to move to the suburbs in the 1950’s so new construction moved out of
the city).
Process of Deterioration (how a city deteriorates): A city doesn’t suddenly become old
and full of slummy areas. It happens over time. When a group of low-income people
inhabit an area of a city, nearby neighborhoods will often look to move out. They sell or
rent to more low-income occupants thus expanding the low-income area. Two processes
cause/speed up the devaluation of areas:
1. Filtering, 2. Redlining.
Filtering: Large houses and buildings that once housed rich downtown workers (who
moved to the suburbs) are taken over by landlords who don’t live in that area (they
moved to the suburbs too). Rents are low so the landlord doesn’t take as good care of
the property as they should and the property becomes run down or abandoned. Stores
close, or move, due to lack of sales. 100 years ago these neighborhoods would be used
by immigrants and ethnic businesses would succeed in those areas. Now, with a decline
in immigration, these neighborhoods have shrunk and so have schools, businesses and
other services. Thousands of vacant houses and buildings stand empty in inner cities
across America.

46

Redlining: Some banks refuse to give loans in what they consider
risky neighborhoods. They draw a red line on a map around areas
where they will not give loans. Without loans, these neighborhoods
have a hard time rebuilding/remodeling. Though illegal, this still
happens. Bankers just don’t put these “no-loan” areas on a map.

Urban Renewal: This is the series of projects to improve European
and N. American cities by buying up the blighted neighborhoods,
moving the people to new government built housing projects, and
building new roads, and other projects to make the inner city
attractive for business again. National and State government grants
help pay for these projects.
47

Public housing: Housing for the poor, built with government funding as part of
urban renewal. In the US this is only about 2% of the housing while in some
countries it may be more (Britain is 30%). Public housing built in the 50’s & 60’s
were largely high rise apartments, but those are seen as being unsatisfactory.
Problems arise from cramming large numbers of poor people into one area.
Today most public housing projects are one to three story buildings with many of
them being scattered around different parts of the city rather than clustered into
one area.
Because urban renewal has been criticized for destroying the social cohesion of
older neighborhoods, many governments (like the US) have stopped funding
most projects since the 1970’s. What do we do instead?
Renovated Housing: An alternative often used since the 70’s is to renovate a
building instead of urban renewal. The process where middle-class people
move into inner-city neighborhoods and renovate them is called gentrification.
Gentrified inner-city neighborhoods also attract middle-class people who work
downtown. Living close to work saves the hassle of commuting and rejuvenates
run down inner-city neighborhoods
48

Gentrified building downtown Harlem, NY. Note the supermarket.

49

Inner-City Social Problems: Inner-city residents are often referred to as the
permanent underclass because they are trapped in an unending cycle of
economic and social problems. High unemployment, alcoholism, drug
addiction, literacy, juvenile delinquency, and crime all exist at a higher rate
among those who live in the inner-city. Lack of jobs means lack of tax dollars
to pay for police and fire protection as well as good schools. Lack of job skills
and homelessness are also tremendous problems.
Culture of Poverty: Inner-city residents are trapped in a permanent underclass
culture that reproduces itself. In the US, unwed mothers give birth to 2/3 of the
babies in the inner-city. 90% of these children live with only one parent and it
is real hard for one parent to keep a job and take care of children. Both suffer
and a shortage of care and daily attention by the parent contributes to the kids
not learning the skills necessary to do well in school which leads to poor jobs
for their futures. Poverty leads to more poverty. Many families on welfare have
only one parent because it is financially better if one parent is gone, that way
the single parent gets food stamps and other services from the government
that they would not get if it was a 2 family household.
50

Crime: Trapped in a hopeless environment, some inner-city
residents turn to drugs. Drug use is a problem in inner-city
areas and the suburbs, but rates of drug use in inner-cities
are the highest.
Ethnic and Racial Segregation: As seen in chapter 7, many
neighborhoods in the US are segregated by ethnicity with
African Americans and Hispanics concentrated in one or two
continuous areas and whites living in the suburbs. Even small
cities display a strong distinction among neighborhoods. A
frequent division is between the east and west or north and
south side of town, or the railroad tracks. A family seeking a
new residence will seek the areas where the characteristics
of the people meet their own.

51

The exodus
from the
American city.
This has
happened in
many American
cities since the
1960’s.

52

Changes in Cities in the U.S.
U.S. population has been moving out of the city centers to the suburbs:
suburbanization and counter urbanization

Developed Countries: suburbanization

 wealthy move to suburbs
 automobiles and roads; ‘American
Dream’ of the home in the suburbs.
 better services
 wealthy move to suburbs
Counter urbanization

idyllic settings
cost of land for retirement
slow pace, yet high tech
connections to services and markets
53

U.S. intraregional migration during 1990s.

Inner city economic problems: the concentration of low income
residents in inner cities has caused economic problems. These
people require public services but can pay very little in taxes to
support the services. They need stores and jobs but have little
money to spend in the store and few skills for jobs (so the stores
close). To try to fight these problems many local and state
governments use tax monies to try to renovate these areas, but this
shifts tax money needed for other areas to the inner city (votes on
election day).
Annexation: Many cities could help their tax problem by adding the
new suburbs to be part of their city (annexation). After all, many of
these suburban people use the city for its’ jobs etc., so why not add
them into the city? Today, most people in the suburbs do not want
to be annexed into the city and so they do not vote to be annexed.
54

The Peripheral Model: According to this model, an urban area
consists of an inner city surrounded by large suburban residential
and business areas (MSA) tied together by a beltway or highway
that circles the city. Around the beltway are nodes of consumer
and business services called edge cities (see diagram of multiple
nuclei model). These edge cities sprang up to provide services
and jobs to the people in the suburbs.
Density Gradient: As you travel outward from the center of the
city, the density of people declines. Inner city has big apartments
of 250 of more people per acre. Suburbs have fewer people per
acre (but lots of acres) and finally you leave the cities periphery
you find few people. The number of houses per unit of land
diminishes as distance from the center of the city increases.
55

The Edge cities (bedroom communities) of Houston

The central city is surrounded by a ring road, around which are
suburban areas and edge cities, shopping malls, office parks,
industrial areas, and service complexes.

Known as
bedroom
communities
because
people live
there but
mostly don’t
work there.
They drive
into the city
for work.
56

As you move from the center of the city outward, the density of the population
changes. This is know as the density gradient. Two big changes have occurred in
the density gradient of today’s cities:
1. The number of people living in the center has decreased.
2. The density difference between the inner city and the suburbs is declining
because the inner city density is dropping and the suburban density is growing
due to more large apartments being built in the suburbs.
Cost of Suburban or Urban Sprawl: Urban Sprawl is the progressive spread of
development over the landscape. As long as we Americans want single-family
detached houses, land on the fringe of urban areas will be converted from open
space to residential use. The cost of this growth is more than the loss of land, it is
also the cost of new roads, utilities, building stores and offices and the cost of
automobiles to move these people over even longer distances. Lots of these new
developments are built on what was once farmland. Wonderful productive soil now
under concrete.

Greenbelts: are areas where, by law, the open space can not be used for any
construction. This is mostly found in Europe.

57

Once farmland that is being converted to suburbs and cities.

58

Tyson’s Corner Virginia in 1940

59

Washington, DC. MSA.

Tyson’s Corner Virginia
today.
Washington D.C. is off
In the distance.

60

Suburban Segregation: The “new” segregation.
Suburban segregation takes two forms:
1. Residents are separated from commercial and manufacturing activities
which are confined someplace else. (The whole neighborhood is
nothing but houses because they drive for services.)
2. The price of the house eliminates some from being able to live there. This
creates a homogeneous suburb of the same economic class of people.
This never existed before in history. Where we once had vertical
segregation of the classes we now we have horizontal segregation.
3. But this may be reversing as new statistics show that people are beginning
to move back to the city. Why? Cost of transportation.
Zoning Ordinances: This idea developed in Europe and later America in the
early decades of the 20th century. This means that businesses are allowed only
in certain areas of the settlement. (No all night taco stands inside your single
family neighborhood.)
Motor vehicles: The wide use of the automobile is largely responsible for the
American movement to the suburbs. Not only did people move out but 1/4 of
the land inside all American cities are now roads, streets, and parking lots.

61

Public Transportation: Because few US workers live within walking distance
of their jobs, urban areas are characterized by extensive commuting and the
problems that come with it. As much as 40% of all trips made into or out from
a city during the day takes place within just 4 hours. (2 in the morning and 2 in
the late afternoon). RUSH HOUR!!! In large cities, public transportation, like
subways and busses, are better suited to move people but Americans still
prefer their own cars. Public transportation is cheaper, cleaner, and more
energy efficient than personal cars, yet in the US only 5% of city travel is
done using public transit systems. American’s love their personal car too
much.
Local Government Fragmentation: Because of the large number of local
governments in the US (look at the settlements in Pinellas County) it is
difficult to solve some of the regional problems like garbage disposal, water
management, traffic and public housing.
62

Metropolitan government: This idea tries to put many local governments into a
larger unit that can better handle the urban problems. The 2 ways to do this
are:
1. Federations in which the individual settlements have their own police,
firemen, and tax collection but they all agree to be part of a second
government which handles transportation, water, sewage, parks and
welfare for all the communities.
2. Consolidations: In this method, several cities and the county may form one
government. Jacksonville’s government runs not only the town but the
county too, this makes Jacksonville the largest city, in land size, in the US.
Smart growth: A new movement by many states to curb suburban sprawl by
limiting where new construction can take place. Smart growth laws require that
land near cities be used up before any land further out can be developed. So
far, this is only being done an a few parts of our country.
63

The new
US as
some
people
see it.

64

Quiz Yourself:
1. The process where middle-class people move into inner city neighborhoods and
renovate them is called ____________
2. ____________ happens when banks refuse to give loans in what they consider
risky neighborhoods.
3. Because of the housing shortages, the poor have constructed their own settlements
around the city known as __________ _________

4. Businesses are allowed only in certain areas of the settlement because of
____________ ____________
5. Areas known as _____ _______ are areas of about 5,000 people. The data from
that area is used to help define needed services for that area.
6. When cities are so close that they form one continuous band of development this is
known as a ____________
65

7. Social relationships are often described as “colder” in urban areas because…
8. In this model the city develops in a series of sectors not rings. _______

9. ______ (LDC’s or MDC’s) have a higher percentage of people living in urban
settlements but ________ (LDC’s or MDC’s) have more of the very large urban
settlements.
10. _____________ was the first model developed to explain the distributions
of different social groups within urban areas.
11. New cities which develop around the beltway are nodes of consumer and
business services known as ________ _________.

12. When the Europeans took over lands around the world, they changed the
cities by adding services to help the Europeans control the conquered people.
These European planned cities are known as __________ cities.
66

Answer Key:
1.

Gentrification

2.

Redlining

3.

Squatter Settlements

4.

Zoning ordinances

5.

Census tracks

6.

Megalopolis

7. There is a stronger feeling of belonging together in small rural settlements.
8. Hoyt sector model
9. MDC, LDC
10. Burgess Concentric Zone model
11. Edge cities
12. Colonial cities
67

Test Key topic/chapter 13:
These questions come from a combination of our slides, your text book, and common knowledge you should
have discussed in your AP classroom. They are very typical of what you will see on the National Exam.
1) The multiple nuclei theory best explains why different neighborhoods of a city attract people of different… A) ages.
B) ethnic origin C) income D) marital status.
2) Sprawl is the… A) change in density within an urban area from the center to the periphery B) development of new
housing sites not contiguous to the existing built-up area. C) land maintained as open space surrounding an urban area.
D) period in the morning and evening with the heaviest volumes of traffic.
3) People are attracted to suburbs in part because suburbs are characterized by…A) heavy traffic. B) lower opportunity
for home ownership. C) private land surrounding the house. D) row houses and apartments.
4) Megalopolis refers to… A) adjacent, overlapping Metropolitan Statistical Areas. B) central cities. C) consolidated
Metropolitan Statistical Areas. D) central cities plus urbanized areas.
5) Which statement best describes the relationship between urbanization and the Industrial Revolution? A) Urbanization
promoted the Industrial Revolution. B) The Industrial Revolution promoted urbanization. C) Urbanization preceded the
Industrial Revolution by thousands of years. D) Urbanization and the Industrial Revolution are no longer related.
6) The process of legally adding land area to a city in the United States is… A) annexation. B) accreditation. C) an
application of eminent domain. D) defined by urbanized area.

68

7) The process of change in the use of a house, from single-family owner occupancy to abandonment, is… A) blockbusting.
B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining.
8) A process by which banks designate an area within which they refuse to lend money for improvements is… A) blockbusting.
B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining.
9) A recent change in the density gradient has been… A) the elimination of the gap traditionally found in the center. B) an
increase in the extremes between the inner and outer areas. C) an increase in the number of people living in the center.
D) a reduction in the differences in densities found within an urban area.
10) U.S. central cities face fiscal problems because… A) federal and state funds are available. B) low-income people are
concentrated there. C) middle-class families are attracted there. D) redlining is no longer legal.
11) A legal form of segregation in U.S. cities is achieved through...A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) zoning. D) greenbelts.
12) Factories have moved to suburban locations in part because of… A) access to main highways. B) adequate space to build
vertical structures. C) availability of large tracts of high-priced land. D) good rail connections.
13) According to the sector model, the best housing is located in…A) a corridor from downtown to the edge of the city.
B) an outer ring surrounding the city. C) nodes near universities and parks. D) renovated inner-city neighborhoods.
14) Ramshackle houses on the periphery of cities in less developed countries are known as… A) squatter settlements. B) council
estates. C) public housing. D) zone in transition.
15) Higher income people tend to live near the center of the city in all but which of the following regions? A) Latin America
B) North America C) South Asia D) Western Europe

16) The wide boulevards built in cities in less developed countries were most likely built during what era? A) pre-colonial
B) colonial C) independence D) all of the above equally

69

17) According to the multiple nuclei model, an airport is likely to attract nearby… A) industries. B) residences. C) shops.
D) universities.
18) The largest percentage of the U.S. population lives in…A) central cities. B) suburbs. C) non-metropolitan areas. D) all of the
above
19) In U.S. cities, the underclass is… A) clustered in inner-city neighborhoods. B) dispersed throughout the city. C) clustered in
suburbs. D) distributed uniformly in the city.

20) A process of converting a neighborhood from low-income to middle-class is…A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) gentrification.
D) redlining.
21) Higher social heterogeneity in urban settlements means that… A) the people with whom you relax are probably the same ones you
see at work. B) you play a specialized role in the urban economy. C) you compete for limited space. D) you may feel lonely and
isolated in a crowd.
22) The city plus its contiguous built-up suburbs is the… A) central city. B) urbanized area.
D) consolidated metropolitan statistical area

C) metropolitan statistical area.

23) The process whereby an increasing percentage of people live in an urban area is known as… A) demographic transition.
B) rank-size rule. C) urbanization. D) central place theory.
24) Of the ten largest urban areas in the world, how many are in More Developed Countries today? A) 1 B) 4 C) 7 D) 10 E) 2
25) Public housing is…A) conversion of low-income housing to middle-class housing. B) illegally established low-income housing.
C) housing that has changed from single-family owner occupancy to abandonment. D) low-income government-owned housing.
26) According to the concentric zone model, a city develops in a series of… A) corridors. B) nodes. C) rings. D) all of the above

70

27) Chicago is a good location in which to develop urban models because it is located… A) at the hub of the nation's transportation
system. B) in the center of the country. C) on a flat prairie. D) on the shore of Lake Michigan.
28) According to the sector model, the best housing is located in… A) a corridor from downtown to the edge of the city. B) an outer
ring surrounding the city. C) nodes near universities and parks. D) renovated inner-city neighborhoods.
29) The zone of transition in US cities generally contain…A) warehouses B) wealthy neighborhoods C) transportation hubs
D) universities and hospitals E) suburban homes
30) The attractions of shopping malls include all but which of the following? A) frequent concerts and exhibitions B) generous
parking lots C) place to meet friends D) walking distance from homes
The following questions are written at the high school level. You will find some questions from part one often rewritten
here. This is all designed to help you transition to the college/AP style of written questions. Any question preceded with ***
are questions that have been on the national exam before.
31. Most Latin American cities are focused on a…A) central plaza B) government housing project C) zone of heavy industry
D) skyscraper office building E) squatter settlement
32. The multiple-nuclei model of a city structure tends to be most applicable to…A) small cities B) traditional C) Latin American
cities D) newer, fast growing cities E) cities with homogeneous land use
33. ***Locational advantages important to the development of the earliest cities include…A) availability of good harbors for large
ships B) productive agricultural land and defensible sites C) temperate climate and proximity to coal mines D) good
connections by road and canal E) proximity to manufacturing areas

34. In cities, the CBD’s often show uniqueness while the suburbs usually show…A) a large hinterland. B) placelessness C) more
than one node. D) newer zones of transition.

71

35. Many LDC’s have tried to help a previously under-developed part of their country develop by moving their capital
city to that area. This new capital is known as a…A) forward capital B) new development zone C) enterprise zone
D) neocolonial city
36. Today the greatest number of urban dwellers is found in…A) North America
D) Europe E) Asia

B) South America C) Africa

37. ***All of the following have helped create ghettos in North American cities except…A)blockbusting and racial
steering B) redlining by financial institutions C) concentration of public housing and social services D) fixed school
districts E) Economic Enterprise Zones

38. Which of the following is NOT as reason for rapid suburbanization in the US after WW2? A) Mass production of
the automobile B) Reduction of long distance commuting C) Expansion of home construction D) Expansion of the
interstate highway system E) Availability of low down payment terms and long-term mortgages.
39. New cities which developed in the hinterland of large urban areas because of the automobile, are known as…
A) edge cities B) census tracts C) suburban sprawl D) squatter settlements. E) none of these
40. Gentrification refers to… A) moving the homeless into inner city shelters B) The “White Flight” from the urban city
C) losing tax revenue because of stores closing in downtown areas D) middle-class people moving into and renovating
inner city neighborhoods E) the creation of “beltway cities” around the city.

72

4
7
3

5

1
6

2

41-48 all use the sketch above.
41. The sketch in box A above represents which model of the inner structure of urban areas?
C) multiple nuclei model D) Burgess concentric zone model E) peripheral model
42. The models in boxes B and C represent A) Concentric zone and multiple nuclei
concentric zone D) peripheral and concentric zone E) Von Thunen and peripheral

A) Hoyt sector model B) VonThunen’s model

B) Multiple nuclei and Hoyt sector C) Hoyt sector and

43. In which ring (1, 2, etc.) of sketch A above would high-status households in North American cities likely live? A) 1 B) 2 C) 3 D) 4&5
44. In which ring (1, 2, etc.) of sketch A above would high status households in a European city likely live? A) 1

B) 2

C) 3

D) 4&5

45. In model B, zone # 2 is where it is likely because of: A) greenbelting B) squatter settling C) the culture of poverty D) transportation
E) no one knows
46. The model in sketch B is the; A) Hoyt sector model B) Burgess model C) multiple nuclei model D) peripheral model
47. The model in sketch C is the; A) Hoyt sector model B) Burgess model C) multiple nuclei model D) peripheral model
48. Which of these models best describes what has happened in US cities in the last 40 years? A)

B)

C)

73

49.*** In the U.S. a city plus its contiguous built-up suburbs is known as an…A) urbanized area B) zoned area
C) census tract D) Squatter settlement E) none of these
50. Done mostly in Europe, these are areas where land is kept as parks, farms or other kinds of open space and urban
sprawl is not allowed. A) Smart growth
B) zoning
C) filtering
D) census tracts E) greenbelts
51. Which statement best describes the relationship between urbanization and the Industrial Revolution?
A) Urbanization promoted the Industrial Revolution. B) The Industrial Revolution promoted urbanization.
C) Urbanization preceded the Industrial Revolution by thousands of years. D) Urbanization and the Industrial
Revolution are no longer related.
52. The process whereby an increasing percentage of people live in an urban area is known as…
A) Demographic transition. B) rank-size rule. C) Urbanization. D) Central place theory.
53. The city (if it has 50,000 or more people) plus its contiguous built-up suburbs AND the county it is in as well as any
other counties it influences, is known as the ...A) central city B) urbanized area
C) metropolitan statistical area
D) consolidated metropolitan area E) micropolitan statistical area
54. ***Higher social heterogeneity in urban settlements means that …A) the people with whom you relax are probably
the same ones you see at work. B) you play a specialized role in the urban economy. C) you compete for limited
space. D) you may feel lonely and isolated in a crowd.

55. The process of change in the use of a house, from single-family owner occupancy to smaller dwellings for the poor
and then sometimes to abandonment, is…A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining. E) none of
these

74

Free Response #1:
The Bid Rent theory says that the closer you get to the
CBD the higher the cost for land, yet in most American
cities you find the poorest people living near the
expensive CBD and the richest living further away.
Explain:
A. Why neighborhoods near the CBD are often poor and
run down?
B. Why are there few grocery and other retail stores in
these neighborhoods?
C. Why is this not really true in European and Latin
American countries?

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75

FR #2:
Think of the map of your school, explain the
layout of your school using the Multiple Nuclei
Model
The main office is the CBD.
Completely explain your answer using specific
buildings and/or land areas in your explanation
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76

Answer Key:
1. B

14. A

27. C

40. D

53. C

2. B

15. B

28. A

41. D

54. D

3. C

16. B

29. A

42. B

55. B

4. A

17. A

30. D

43. D

5. B

18. B

31. A

44. A

6. A

19. A

32. D

45. D

7. B

20. C

33. B

46. A

8. D

21. D

34. B

47. C

9. D

22. B

35. A

48. C

10. B

23. C

36. E

49. A

11. C

24. C

37. E

50. E

12. A

25. D

38. B

51. B

13. A

26. C

39. A

52. C
77

FR. #1: ( 15 pts. for each section…total of 45 pts.)
A. In the US the move of the wealthy and middle class to the suburbs has left the older houses and apartments near the CBD empty.
This has lowered their value to the point where the poor can afford these dwellings and have made these neighborhoods their
homes. The poor can not pay for upkeep of these dwellings, or to pay high taxes. The lack of upkeep and tax money to repair the
roads and schools, adds to the downward spiral of the neighborhood. With little spending money for shopping, the poor do not
spend much in the stores. This causes many stores to close and move to the suburbs where the spending customers and money
went. The closing of the stores adds to the poverty of the area by taking away some of the jobs that were in the neighborhood. This
becomes a vicious cycle of poverty and deterioration. (15 points)

B. There are few retail stores and groceries is the area because the poor do not have money to shop. The lack of spending forces
many stores out of business or forces them to move to better locations. There also can be higher crime in these areas and the
crime often takes place at the stores. This is another reason for the stores to move out of the neighborhood. (15 points)
C. Neighborhoods in European and Latin American cities are different from those of US cities. In Europe and Latin America, the
wealthy and middle class still live near or in the CBD. The higher tax base and more spending ability of the upper and middle
classes, keeps the CBD area flourishing with jobs and in constant repair and upkeep of the cities’ physical condition. (15 points)

FR #2: (10 total points.)
You will need to judge how effectively you displayed you school
in the Multiple Nuclei Model. Refer to the model itself to help you
determine your success and grade.
School’s main office
78

Calculating your grade on test 13.
Add how many you got correct on the multiple choice part (55 possible) to how many
points you scored on the FR portion (55 possible)…110 total.
The following scale will show the approximate score if this test were the real AP exam. Remember that this
is an approximation. While 65-74% is normally the range for a 3 on the test, it is not definite. Over the
years I have seen scores as low as 60% be the low portion of a 3 score.

Out of 110 possible points:
72-83 is most likely a 3
84-94 is most likely a 4

95-110 is most likely a 5

Now lets start our review for the national exam by
reviewing the 33 key models and theories of the
course…the next PowerPoint.


Slide 40

Key topic/chapter 13…Urban Patterns
Key terms:
Annexation
Concentric zone model
Density gradient
Edge cities
Filtering
Galactic city
Gentrification
Greenbelts
Megalopolis
MSA
Multiple nuclei model
Peripheral model

Public housing
Redlining
Renovated housing
Scattered site
Squatter settlement
Sector model
Smart growth
Sprawl
Underclass
Urban renewal
Zone in transition
Zoning
1

Chapter 13…Urban Areas.
How are Cities planned?
Why

are cities where they are?
How are they organized?
Why are some areas of a city
different from
other areas of the same city?
What is the future of cities?
2

Settlement


Settlement - permanent collections of buildings,
where people live, work, and obtain services

3

ORIGINS OF SETTLEMENTS


Religious - graves, churches, temples



Cultural - schools, libraries



Political/Military - leader’s house, walls



Economic - stores, food
4

TYPES OF SETTLEMENTS


Rural Settlements - agriculture as the
predominant occupation.



Urban settlements - principal industries are
secondary and tertiary.

5

RURAL SETTLEMENTS
Clustered rural settlements –grouped
settlements in rural areas to minimize travel

Dispersed rural Settlements - isolated farms
with enclosed continuous fields (Found only in
N. America and Britain).

6

Urban Geographers want to know the global distribution of urban
settlements. MDC’s have a high percentage of people living in urban
areas because of the shift from agriculture-manufacturing-services.
Geographers are also interested in where people and activities are
distributed within urban spaces. What are the differences between the
inner-city and suburban areas and why?
As we saw in the last chapter, many downtowns are unique and can
often be recognized in photos where the suburbs often look very
much alike (Placelessness). Why? Suburbs offer the chance to avoid
some of the city problems (crime, tight living area, expensive
land/rent, noise, age of buildings) while still keeping a connection with
the goods and services of the city: jobs, sports teams, culture, shops,
recreation, etc.
7

Where is this place?

8

Today’s cities are evolving and changing. Although different internal
situations characterize urban areas in the US and elsewhere, the
problems arising from current spatial trends are quite similar in all cities.
Where have urban areas grown: in the early 1800’s only 3% of the earth’s
people lived in cities and only Beijing China had more than 1 million
people. Today over ½ of the world’s people live in cities and we have over
400 cities of at least 1 million people.

Urbanization: is the process by which city population grows.
Cities population growth is measured in 2 dimensions;
1. An increase in the number of people living in the cities.
2. An increase in the percentage of people living in the cities.
This distinction is important because they happen for different reason and
have different global distributions.
9

Increasing Percentage of People in Cities: a large percentage of people living in urban
areas is a measure of a country’s level of development. In MDC’s about ¾ of the people
live in urban areas compared to about 2/5 of people in LDC’s. (Except in Latin America
where the level is closer to MDC’s.)
The higher percentage of people in urban areas comes from the changes that have
occurred in the last 200 years as we went from agriculture (primary jobs) to industrial
(secondary jobs) and now service jobs, all created by the Industrial Revolution of the
1800’s.
People moved to the cities for industrial jobs, but in MDC’s this process has largely
ended because nearly everyone interested in moving to the cities from farms has already
done so.
In LDC’s the percentage of people living in urban areas is growing as people are pushed
off of their farms and replaced by machines and as people move to cities looking/hoping
for industrial jobs.
10

Increasing Number of People in Cities: MDC’s have a higher percentage of
people living in urban settlements but LDC’s have more of the very large urban
settlements (Primate cities). (Rank-size rule, primate cities, chapter 12.)

This is interesting because typically the large cities are created from the
improvements brought by the Industrial Revolution. This is not the case with the
large LDC cities. Migration to the primate city in LDC’s is happening even though
job opportunities may not be available. Increasing the population growth in LDC
cities is the fact that medical services are better in these cities, thus the child
mortality rate is lower.
Defining Urban Settlements: defining where urban areas end and rural areas
begin is not easy. Geographers have formulated definitions that distinguish
between urban and rural areas in two ways: Social differences and Physical
differences.
11

Percent Urban Population

Percent of the population living in urban areas is usually higher in MDCs
than in LDCs.

12

The most populated cities in the world

Of the top
20, only
Moscow,
Tokyo and
New York
are in MDC’s

Shanghai China has 14,608,512 people
13

14

15

Social Differences Between Urban and Rural Settlements: it is fair to say that rural
people and urban people follow different ways of life. A city can be defined as having 3
characteristics:
1. Large size. People in rural settlements know most of the other people in the
settlement. Not true in big cities. Social relationships are often described as “colder” in
urban areas because you only see some people at work instead of growing up with
them in the settlement.
2. High Density. Having lots of people in a tiny area creates social consequences. A
high density of people living in a small area can only be supported if the people
specialize (they can’t all be farmers). People are encouraged to compete for jobs, room,
and survival in a tightly limited space. Social groups compete to occupy the same space
(ethnic/ race problems). Rural settlements have very little of this problem.
3. Social Heterogeneity. The larger the settlement, the greater the variety of people.
Being “unusual” in a large settlement is more likely to be accepted than in a small rural
one. But despite the freedom to be different that large urban settlements give you,
people living there often feel alone because so many people are different from them.
There is a stronger feeling of belonging together in small rural settlements.
16

These 3 differences do not fully answer the question of where urban settlements
begin and rural ones end because in today’s MDC’s most everyone has access to
cars, telephones, televisions, and “urban type” jobs which reduce the differences
between urban and rural lifestyles. “City folk” and “Country folk” are more alike
today than they are different. To help distinguish between urban and rural areas we
need to add the physical definition of rural and urban to the equation.
Physical Definitions of Urban Settlements: In ancient time, cities had defensive
walls for protection which clearly defined the physical boundaries of the city. Today
the walls are gone but we can still define the physical boundaries in 3 ways:
1. Legal boundary. These are the official boundaries of a city as recognized by
the government of the country or state. These “city limits” have been officially given
to the city and are physically marked on official maps. The local government of the
city has authority to make laws and protect the people inside the city boundaries.
17

2. Urbanized area. This is the city plus its suburbs or urbanized area that
surrounds the city. About 70 percent of US residents live in urbanized areas with
40% being in the suburbs and 30% inside the city limits. The suburbs may have
their own city governments but the huge central city dominates what happens in
the entire area.
3. Metropolitan Statistical Area. Cities have an even bigger influence on people
than just those living in their city limits and surrounding urbanized areas. People
from far away come to shop, use the services, support the sports teams, read
the newspapers and watch the television broadcasts of the city. Thus the city
has a “functional area” which is its total zone of influence. The US Bureau of
Census has created a method of measuring the functional area of the city.
Known as the Metropolitan statistical area (MSA) this area includes:
•An urbanized area with a population of at least 50,000
•The county within which the city is located.
•Adjacent counties with a high population density and a large percentage of
residents working in the central city’s county.
18

Metropolitan Area of Philadelphia

City of
Philadelphia

Urbanized
area
(suburbs)
Metropolitan
Statistical
Area

The metropolitan area of Philadelphia is
spread over several counties and four states.
It is also a diversified trade center, given its
position on the Delaware river.

19

20

21

Micropolitan Statistical Areas: Smaller areas with between
10,000 and 50,000 people, the county where it is found, and
adjacent counties tied to the city. This would be a small town and
the area dominated by it.
Overlapping Metropolitan Areas: Some adjacent MSA’s overlap.
A county between two central cities may send a large number of
commuters to jobs in both cities. In some areas the cities are so
close that they form one continuous urban complex. This is
known as a Megalopolis (great city).
In a megalopolis, the downtown CBD often has its own
distinctive look and the urban areas are visually separated by
parks, open spaces, and dairy/truck farms. But at the periphery
of the urban areas, the boundaries overlap.
22

Colorado Springs, population 431,000

Ocala, Florida, population 56,000

Florala, Alabama, population 1,900

23

Megalopolis, from northern Va. To Maine.
This Illustrates the
difference between
strict city proper
definitions and broader
urban agglomerations.
To define urbanized
areas, the U.S. Census
Bureau uses the term
Metropolitan Statistical
Area (MSA) or
Consolidated MSA
(CMSA) if two or more of
them overlap.
24

Where are People Distributed within Urban Areas? People are not
just distributed at random in urban areas. For the most part they
concentrate in particular neighborhoods depending on their social
characteristics. Geographers want to see where people with
particular characteristics are likely to live and why.

Three models which try to explain the growth of a city:

The Burgess Model

The Hoyt Sector Model

The Harris and Ullman
multiple Nuclei Model
25

Burgess Concentric Zone Model

In the concentric zone model, a city grows in a series of rings surrounding the CBD.

Burgess Concentric Zone Model: This is the first used to explain the
distributions of different social groups within urban areas. It says that a
city grows outward from a central place in a series of concentric rings.
The precise size and width of the rings vary from one city to another, but
some basic types of rings appear in all cities in the same order (see chart
above).
26

•Hoyt Sector Model: In this model the city develops in a
series of sectors not rings. Certain areas of the city are
more attractive for various activities, originally because
of an environmental factor (or even pure chance). As the
city grows, activities extend outward in a wedge shape.
For example, once a wealthy neighborhood is built the
next wealthy neighborhood will extend from the first
neighborhood further outward from the center. In this
way, the best housing is found in a corridor extending
outward from the center to the outer edge (see chart on
the next page).
27

The Hoyt Sector Model

In the sector model, a city grows in a series of
wedges or corridors extending out from the
CBD.
28

•Harris and Ullman’s Multiple Nuclei Model: According
to this model, a city is a complex structure that includes
more than one center around which activities revolve.
Examples of these nodes include a port, parks,
stadium, neighborhood business center, university, and
airport (see chart). This theory states that some
activities are attracted to particular nodes, whereas
others try to avoid them. A university node may attract
well educated people and bookstores while the port will
attract hotels and warehouses. Heavy industry and
expensive houses rarely are found together. This
model shows the effect of the automobile more than
any other model.
29

The Harris and Ullman Multiple Nuclei model

The multiple nuclei model views a city as a
collection of individual centers, around which
different people and activities cluster.

30

Applications of the Models: The three models help explain where and in some
cases, why people live where they do. None of the models by themselves fully
explains why and where different types of people live, but combined they give
you as good a look as possible at the “Why” of “Where.” Effective use of the
models depends on getting good data on the areas. Most countries take a
census every 10 years to help determine useful data about the people and
places of the country. In our country we divide the census data into areas
known as census tracts of about 5,000 people. Each census tract has the data
that summarizes the characteristics of the people living within that tract. This
information includes things like the race, income, age, and education of the
people living in that tract.
Social Area Analysis: The data from the census tracts can all be plotted onto
maps to show the characteristics of the people living in that tract. This map is
known as a social area analysis.
31

Using Census tract information…Seattle, Washington
Each lined area is a
census tract of about 5000
people in Seattle
Washington. These maps
show average household
income for 1990 and
2000…note the changes in
income in some areas
between 1990 and 2000.
Using this information, a
business can make
decisions about where
they want to locate a new
store or the future of
existing stores.
You can find census tract
information on many topics
such as; age, education
level, race, ethnicity, crime
rate, and land ownership.
Note the areas with
incomes over
$63,000.

All can be very valuable
information to people
looking to open
businesses.

32

Examine the changes
between 1990 and
2000.

Oakland, California’s Ethnic neighborhoods
The small bordered areas are census tracks of 5000 people.

33

Use of the Models Outside of North America: The 3 models will also work in other
places in the world; however social groups in other countries may not have the
same reasons for selecting particular neighborhoods as Americans do.
European Cities: As in the US, wealthier people in European cities cluster along a
sector extending outward from the CBD, however unlike the US, wealthy and
middle class Europeans still live in the inner rings of the neighborhoods near the
CBD not out in the suburbs. In the past, poorer people lived in the center of the
city. Before electricity, social segregation was vertical: richer people lived on the
first or second floor of a building while the poorer people lived in the basement or
upper floors. In the Industrial Revolution, housing for the poor was constructed
near the factories and away from the rich.
Today poorer Europeans are less likely to live in the inner-city. Poor quality
housing has been renovated for the rich or turned into office buildings. Poorer
Europeans tend to live in the outskirts of the city. Vast suburbs with dozens of high
rise apartments house the poor. They face long commutes to reach their jobs in
the city.
34

European cities generally do not have the “suburban
sprawl” that US cities have. European cities tend to be
more pedestrian friendly with more parks downtown as
Europeans tend to still live downtown.
US cities have taller buildings as European cities tend to
be older and more historic.

American cities have more ethnic neighborhoods than
European cities. Ethnic neighborhoods that do exist in
European cities tend to be in the suburbs. WHY?
Because the established richer neighborhoods tend to be
downtown in European cities.
35

Less Developed Countries: Like Europe, most LDC’s accommodate their poor in the
suburbs with their middle class and rich living near the center of the city. LDC’s have
passed through 3 periods of city building: before the Europeans arrived, during the
period of European colonialism, and since independence from European control.

Pre-colonial Cities: Before the Europeans arrived few cities existed in Africa, Asia, and
Latin America and most people lived in small rural settlements. Those cities that existed
were mostly laid out surrounding a religious center; with the rest of the city laid out in a
hieratical concentric pattern (like the Burgess model) from government buildings,
homes of the wealthy, and businesses related to the religion out to other businesses
and shops.
Colonial cities: When the Europeans took over these lands, they changed the cities by
adding services to help the Europeans control the conquered people. Often a new
European style city would be build next to the existing native one. The new European
cities contained wider streets, a public square, larger houses and a much lower density.
The Spanish used the “Law of the Indies” which was a city plan designed specifically to
build cities in a “Spanish” style. (Gridiron pattern for streets centered on a church and
central plaza, walls around individual houses and neighborhoods centered around
smaller plazas and more churches.)
36

Early Mexico city was laid out in a grid pattern of streets. This followed
the Spanish “Law of the Indies.”

37

Central Plaza in Mexico City 1920 photo. Typical Colonial City plan.

Part of downtown Mexico city today still shows the
building plan of the “Law of the Indies.”

38

Cities since Independence: Following independence, cities have become
the focal point of the development of most LDC’s. Millions of people have
migrated to the cities (Primate cities) looking for jobs and services. Some
capitals have been moved to isolated areas in an attempt to help develop
that area of the country (Brasília) This is know as a forward capital. Latin
American cities have developed their own unique style.
Squatter settlements: The LDC’s are unable to house the rapidly growing
number of poor who are flowing into the cities. Because of the housing
shortages, the poor have constructed their own settlements around the city.
These settlements have few services because neither the city nor the
residents can afford them. Squatters have two basic choices for housing.
1. Illegally move into empty real houses located in the city or,
2. Rent slum housing.
(85% of the population of Addis Ababa in Ethiopia lives in squatter
settlements, slums or other illegal housing.)
39

Squatter shacks in Manila, the Philippines

40

Squatter settlement in Ethiopia

41

Zimbabwe, Africa

42

Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

43

Latin American City Model:
In many Latin
American cities,
the wealthy live in
the inner city and
in a sector
extending along a
commercial spine.
In situ accretion- businesses
and homes constantly under
construction/repair.
Zone of maturity-2nd best
housing in the city.
The poor live in squatter settlements on the
periphery of the city.

Disamenity- unpleasant area
used by the poor to get to the
market.

44

The City Outline of Rio de Janeiro
The rich tourist areas and expensive condo apartments are along the coast
and beach while the poor live in squatter shacks in the hills.

45

City problems:
Inner-City Physical Problems: Most US inner cities were constructed before the 1950’s
(people began to move to the suburbs in the 1950’s so new construction moved out of
the city).
Process of Deterioration (how a city deteriorates): A city doesn’t suddenly become old
and full of slummy areas. It happens over time. When a group of low-income people
inhabit an area of a city, nearby neighborhoods will often look to move out. They sell or
rent to more low-income occupants thus expanding the low-income area. Two processes
cause/speed up the devaluation of areas:
1. Filtering, 2. Redlining.
Filtering: Large houses and buildings that once housed rich downtown workers (who
moved to the suburbs) are taken over by landlords who don’t live in that area (they
moved to the suburbs too). Rents are low so the landlord doesn’t take as good care of
the property as they should and the property becomes run down or abandoned. Stores
close, or move, due to lack of sales. 100 years ago these neighborhoods would be used
by immigrants and ethnic businesses would succeed in those areas. Now, with a decline
in immigration, these neighborhoods have shrunk and so have schools, businesses and
other services. Thousands of vacant houses and buildings stand empty in inner cities
across America.

46

Redlining: Some banks refuse to give loans in what they consider
risky neighborhoods. They draw a red line on a map around areas
where they will not give loans. Without loans, these neighborhoods
have a hard time rebuilding/remodeling. Though illegal, this still
happens. Bankers just don’t put these “no-loan” areas on a map.

Urban Renewal: This is the series of projects to improve European
and N. American cities by buying up the blighted neighborhoods,
moving the people to new government built housing projects, and
building new roads, and other projects to make the inner city
attractive for business again. National and State government grants
help pay for these projects.
47

Public housing: Housing for the poor, built with government funding as part of
urban renewal. In the US this is only about 2% of the housing while in some
countries it may be more (Britain is 30%). Public housing built in the 50’s & 60’s
were largely high rise apartments, but those are seen as being unsatisfactory.
Problems arise from cramming large numbers of poor people into one area.
Today most public housing projects are one to three story buildings with many of
them being scattered around different parts of the city rather than clustered into
one area.
Because urban renewal has been criticized for destroying the social cohesion of
older neighborhoods, many governments (like the US) have stopped funding
most projects since the 1970’s. What do we do instead?
Renovated Housing: An alternative often used since the 70’s is to renovate a
building instead of urban renewal. The process where middle-class people
move into inner-city neighborhoods and renovate them is called gentrification.
Gentrified inner-city neighborhoods also attract middle-class people who work
downtown. Living close to work saves the hassle of commuting and rejuvenates
run down inner-city neighborhoods
48

Gentrified building downtown Harlem, NY. Note the supermarket.

49

Inner-City Social Problems: Inner-city residents are often referred to as the
permanent underclass because they are trapped in an unending cycle of
economic and social problems. High unemployment, alcoholism, drug
addiction, literacy, juvenile delinquency, and crime all exist at a higher rate
among those who live in the inner-city. Lack of jobs means lack of tax dollars
to pay for police and fire protection as well as good schools. Lack of job skills
and homelessness are also tremendous problems.
Culture of Poverty: Inner-city residents are trapped in a permanent underclass
culture that reproduces itself. In the US, unwed mothers give birth to 2/3 of the
babies in the inner-city. 90% of these children live with only one parent and it
is real hard for one parent to keep a job and take care of children. Both suffer
and a shortage of care and daily attention by the parent contributes to the kids
not learning the skills necessary to do well in school which leads to poor jobs
for their futures. Poverty leads to more poverty. Many families on welfare have
only one parent because it is financially better if one parent is gone, that way
the single parent gets food stamps and other services from the government
that they would not get if it was a 2 family household.
50

Crime: Trapped in a hopeless environment, some inner-city
residents turn to drugs. Drug use is a problem in inner-city
areas and the suburbs, but rates of drug use in inner-cities
are the highest.
Ethnic and Racial Segregation: As seen in chapter 7, many
neighborhoods in the US are segregated by ethnicity with
African Americans and Hispanics concentrated in one or two
continuous areas and whites living in the suburbs. Even small
cities display a strong distinction among neighborhoods. A
frequent division is between the east and west or north and
south side of town, or the railroad tracks. A family seeking a
new residence will seek the areas where the characteristics
of the people meet their own.

51

The exodus
from the
American city.
This has
happened in
many American
cities since the
1960’s.

52

Changes in Cities in the U.S.
U.S. population has been moving out of the city centers to the suburbs:
suburbanization and counter urbanization

Developed Countries: suburbanization

 wealthy move to suburbs
 automobiles and roads; ‘American
Dream’ of the home in the suburbs.
 better services
 wealthy move to suburbs
Counter urbanization

idyllic settings
cost of land for retirement
slow pace, yet high tech
connections to services and markets
53

U.S. intraregional migration during 1990s.

Inner city economic problems: the concentration of low income
residents in inner cities has caused economic problems. These
people require public services but can pay very little in taxes to
support the services. They need stores and jobs but have little
money to spend in the store and few skills for jobs (so the stores
close). To try to fight these problems many local and state
governments use tax monies to try to renovate these areas, but this
shifts tax money needed for other areas to the inner city (votes on
election day).
Annexation: Many cities could help their tax problem by adding the
new suburbs to be part of their city (annexation). After all, many of
these suburban people use the city for its’ jobs etc., so why not add
them into the city? Today, most people in the suburbs do not want
to be annexed into the city and so they do not vote to be annexed.
54

The Peripheral Model: According to this model, an urban area
consists of an inner city surrounded by large suburban residential
and business areas (MSA) tied together by a beltway or highway
that circles the city. Around the beltway are nodes of consumer
and business services called edge cities (see diagram of multiple
nuclei model). These edge cities sprang up to provide services
and jobs to the people in the suburbs.
Density Gradient: As you travel outward from the center of the
city, the density of people declines. Inner city has big apartments
of 250 of more people per acre. Suburbs have fewer people per
acre (but lots of acres) and finally you leave the cities periphery
you find few people. The number of houses per unit of land
diminishes as distance from the center of the city increases.
55

The Edge cities (bedroom communities) of Houston

The central city is surrounded by a ring road, around which are
suburban areas and edge cities, shopping malls, office parks,
industrial areas, and service complexes.

Known as
bedroom
communities
because
people live
there but
mostly don’t
work there.
They drive
into the city
for work.
56

As you move from the center of the city outward, the density of the population
changes. This is know as the density gradient. Two big changes have occurred in
the density gradient of today’s cities:
1. The number of people living in the center has decreased.
2. The density difference between the inner city and the suburbs is declining
because the inner city density is dropping and the suburban density is growing
due to more large apartments being built in the suburbs.
Cost of Suburban or Urban Sprawl: Urban Sprawl is the progressive spread of
development over the landscape. As long as we Americans want single-family
detached houses, land on the fringe of urban areas will be converted from open
space to residential use. The cost of this growth is more than the loss of land, it is
also the cost of new roads, utilities, building stores and offices and the cost of
automobiles to move these people over even longer distances. Lots of these new
developments are built on what was once farmland. Wonderful productive soil now
under concrete.

Greenbelts: are areas where, by law, the open space can not be used for any
construction. This is mostly found in Europe.

57

Once farmland that is being converted to suburbs and cities.

58

Tyson’s Corner Virginia in 1940

59

Washington, DC. MSA.

Tyson’s Corner Virginia
today.
Washington D.C. is off
In the distance.

60

Suburban Segregation: The “new” segregation.
Suburban segregation takes two forms:
1. Residents are separated from commercial and manufacturing activities
which are confined someplace else. (The whole neighborhood is
nothing but houses because they drive for services.)
2. The price of the house eliminates some from being able to live there. This
creates a homogeneous suburb of the same economic class of people.
This never existed before in history. Where we once had vertical
segregation of the classes we now we have horizontal segregation.
3. But this may be reversing as new statistics show that people are beginning
to move back to the city. Why? Cost of transportation.
Zoning Ordinances: This idea developed in Europe and later America in the
early decades of the 20th century. This means that businesses are allowed only
in certain areas of the settlement. (No all night taco stands inside your single
family neighborhood.)
Motor vehicles: The wide use of the automobile is largely responsible for the
American movement to the suburbs. Not only did people move out but 1/4 of
the land inside all American cities are now roads, streets, and parking lots.

61

Public Transportation: Because few US workers live within walking distance
of their jobs, urban areas are characterized by extensive commuting and the
problems that come with it. As much as 40% of all trips made into or out from
a city during the day takes place within just 4 hours. (2 in the morning and 2 in
the late afternoon). RUSH HOUR!!! In large cities, public transportation, like
subways and busses, are better suited to move people but Americans still
prefer their own cars. Public transportation is cheaper, cleaner, and more
energy efficient than personal cars, yet in the US only 5% of city travel is
done using public transit systems. American’s love their personal car too
much.
Local Government Fragmentation: Because of the large number of local
governments in the US (look at the settlements in Pinellas County) it is
difficult to solve some of the regional problems like garbage disposal, water
management, traffic and public housing.
62

Metropolitan government: This idea tries to put many local governments into a
larger unit that can better handle the urban problems. The 2 ways to do this
are:
1. Federations in which the individual settlements have their own police,
firemen, and tax collection but they all agree to be part of a second
government which handles transportation, water, sewage, parks and
welfare for all the communities.
2. Consolidations: In this method, several cities and the county may form one
government. Jacksonville’s government runs not only the town but the
county too, this makes Jacksonville the largest city, in land size, in the US.
Smart growth: A new movement by many states to curb suburban sprawl by
limiting where new construction can take place. Smart growth laws require that
land near cities be used up before any land further out can be developed. So
far, this is only being done an a few parts of our country.
63

The new
US as
some
people
see it.

64

Quiz Yourself:
1. The process where middle-class people move into inner city neighborhoods and
renovate them is called ____________
2. ____________ happens when banks refuse to give loans in what they consider
risky neighborhoods.
3. Because of the housing shortages, the poor have constructed their own settlements
around the city known as __________ _________

4. Businesses are allowed only in certain areas of the settlement because of
____________ ____________
5. Areas known as _____ _______ are areas of about 5,000 people. The data from
that area is used to help define needed services for that area.
6. When cities are so close that they form one continuous band of development this is
known as a ____________
65

7. Social relationships are often described as “colder” in urban areas because…
8. In this model the city develops in a series of sectors not rings. _______

9. ______ (LDC’s or MDC’s) have a higher percentage of people living in urban
settlements but ________ (LDC’s or MDC’s) have more of the very large urban
settlements.
10. _____________ was the first model developed to explain the distributions
of different social groups within urban areas.
11. New cities which develop around the beltway are nodes of consumer and
business services known as ________ _________.

12. When the Europeans took over lands around the world, they changed the
cities by adding services to help the Europeans control the conquered people.
These European planned cities are known as __________ cities.
66

Answer Key:
1.

Gentrification

2.

Redlining

3.

Squatter Settlements

4.

Zoning ordinances

5.

Census tracks

6.

Megalopolis

7. There is a stronger feeling of belonging together in small rural settlements.
8. Hoyt sector model
9. MDC, LDC
10. Burgess Concentric Zone model
11. Edge cities
12. Colonial cities
67

Test Key topic/chapter 13:
These questions come from a combination of our slides, your text book, and common knowledge you should
have discussed in your AP classroom. They are very typical of what you will see on the National Exam.
1) The multiple nuclei theory best explains why different neighborhoods of a city attract people of different… A) ages.
B) ethnic origin C) income D) marital status.
2) Sprawl is the… A) change in density within an urban area from the center to the periphery B) development of new
housing sites not contiguous to the existing built-up area. C) land maintained as open space surrounding an urban area.
D) period in the morning and evening with the heaviest volumes of traffic.
3) People are attracted to suburbs in part because suburbs are characterized by…A) heavy traffic. B) lower opportunity
for home ownership. C) private land surrounding the house. D) row houses and apartments.
4) Megalopolis refers to… A) adjacent, overlapping Metropolitan Statistical Areas. B) central cities. C) consolidated
Metropolitan Statistical Areas. D) central cities plus urbanized areas.
5) Which statement best describes the relationship between urbanization and the Industrial Revolution? A) Urbanization
promoted the Industrial Revolution. B) The Industrial Revolution promoted urbanization. C) Urbanization preceded the
Industrial Revolution by thousands of years. D) Urbanization and the Industrial Revolution are no longer related.
6) The process of legally adding land area to a city in the United States is… A) annexation. B) accreditation. C) an
application of eminent domain. D) defined by urbanized area.

68

7) The process of change in the use of a house, from single-family owner occupancy to abandonment, is… A) blockbusting.
B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining.
8) A process by which banks designate an area within which they refuse to lend money for improvements is… A) blockbusting.
B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining.
9) A recent change in the density gradient has been… A) the elimination of the gap traditionally found in the center. B) an
increase in the extremes between the inner and outer areas. C) an increase in the number of people living in the center.
D) a reduction in the differences in densities found within an urban area.
10) U.S. central cities face fiscal problems because… A) federal and state funds are available. B) low-income people are
concentrated there. C) middle-class families are attracted there. D) redlining is no longer legal.
11) A legal form of segregation in U.S. cities is achieved through...A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) zoning. D) greenbelts.
12) Factories have moved to suburban locations in part because of… A) access to main highways. B) adequate space to build
vertical structures. C) availability of large tracts of high-priced land. D) good rail connections.
13) According to the sector model, the best housing is located in…A) a corridor from downtown to the edge of the city.
B) an outer ring surrounding the city. C) nodes near universities and parks. D) renovated inner-city neighborhoods.
14) Ramshackle houses on the periphery of cities in less developed countries are known as… A) squatter settlements. B) council
estates. C) public housing. D) zone in transition.
15) Higher income people tend to live near the center of the city in all but which of the following regions? A) Latin America
B) North America C) South Asia D) Western Europe

16) The wide boulevards built in cities in less developed countries were most likely built during what era? A) pre-colonial
B) colonial C) independence D) all of the above equally

69

17) According to the multiple nuclei model, an airport is likely to attract nearby… A) industries. B) residences. C) shops.
D) universities.
18) The largest percentage of the U.S. population lives in…A) central cities. B) suburbs. C) non-metropolitan areas. D) all of the
above
19) In U.S. cities, the underclass is… A) clustered in inner-city neighborhoods. B) dispersed throughout the city. C) clustered in
suburbs. D) distributed uniformly in the city.

20) A process of converting a neighborhood from low-income to middle-class is…A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) gentrification.
D) redlining.
21) Higher social heterogeneity in urban settlements means that… A) the people with whom you relax are probably the same ones you
see at work. B) you play a specialized role in the urban economy. C) you compete for limited space. D) you may feel lonely and
isolated in a crowd.
22) The city plus its contiguous built-up suburbs is the… A) central city. B) urbanized area.
D) consolidated metropolitan statistical area

C) metropolitan statistical area.

23) The process whereby an increasing percentage of people live in an urban area is known as… A) demographic transition.
B) rank-size rule. C) urbanization. D) central place theory.
24) Of the ten largest urban areas in the world, how many are in More Developed Countries today? A) 1 B) 4 C) 7 D) 10 E) 2
25) Public housing is…A) conversion of low-income housing to middle-class housing. B) illegally established low-income housing.
C) housing that has changed from single-family owner occupancy to abandonment. D) low-income government-owned housing.
26) According to the concentric zone model, a city develops in a series of… A) corridors. B) nodes. C) rings. D) all of the above

70

27) Chicago is a good location in which to develop urban models because it is located… A) at the hub of the nation's transportation
system. B) in the center of the country. C) on a flat prairie. D) on the shore of Lake Michigan.
28) According to the sector model, the best housing is located in… A) a corridor from downtown to the edge of the city. B) an outer
ring surrounding the city. C) nodes near universities and parks. D) renovated inner-city neighborhoods.
29) The zone of transition in US cities generally contain…A) warehouses B) wealthy neighborhoods C) transportation hubs
D) universities and hospitals E) suburban homes
30) The attractions of shopping malls include all but which of the following? A) frequent concerts and exhibitions B) generous
parking lots C) place to meet friends D) walking distance from homes
The following questions are written at the high school level. You will find some questions from part one often rewritten
here. This is all designed to help you transition to the college/AP style of written questions. Any question preceded with ***
are questions that have been on the national exam before.
31. Most Latin American cities are focused on a…A) central plaza B) government housing project C) zone of heavy industry
D) skyscraper office building E) squatter settlement
32. The multiple-nuclei model of a city structure tends to be most applicable to…A) small cities B) traditional C) Latin American
cities D) newer, fast growing cities E) cities with homogeneous land use
33. ***Locational advantages important to the development of the earliest cities include…A) availability of good harbors for large
ships B) productive agricultural land and defensible sites C) temperate climate and proximity to coal mines D) good
connections by road and canal E) proximity to manufacturing areas

34. In cities, the CBD’s often show uniqueness while the suburbs usually show…A) a large hinterland. B) placelessness C) more
than one node. D) newer zones of transition.

71

35. Many LDC’s have tried to help a previously under-developed part of their country develop by moving their capital
city to that area. This new capital is known as a…A) forward capital B) new development zone C) enterprise zone
D) neocolonial city
36. Today the greatest number of urban dwellers is found in…A) North America
D) Europe E) Asia

B) South America C) Africa

37. ***All of the following have helped create ghettos in North American cities except…A)blockbusting and racial
steering B) redlining by financial institutions C) concentration of public housing and social services D) fixed school
districts E) Economic Enterprise Zones

38. Which of the following is NOT as reason for rapid suburbanization in the US after WW2? A) Mass production of
the automobile B) Reduction of long distance commuting C) Expansion of home construction D) Expansion of the
interstate highway system E) Availability of low down payment terms and long-term mortgages.
39. New cities which developed in the hinterland of large urban areas because of the automobile, are known as…
A) edge cities B) census tracts C) suburban sprawl D) squatter settlements. E) none of these
40. Gentrification refers to… A) moving the homeless into inner city shelters B) The “White Flight” from the urban city
C) losing tax revenue because of stores closing in downtown areas D) middle-class people moving into and renovating
inner city neighborhoods E) the creation of “beltway cities” around the city.

72

4
7
3

5

1
6

2

41-48 all use the sketch above.
41. The sketch in box A above represents which model of the inner structure of urban areas?
C) multiple nuclei model D) Burgess concentric zone model E) peripheral model
42. The models in boxes B and C represent A) Concentric zone and multiple nuclei
concentric zone D) peripheral and concentric zone E) Von Thunen and peripheral

A) Hoyt sector model B) VonThunen’s model

B) Multiple nuclei and Hoyt sector C) Hoyt sector and

43. In which ring (1, 2, etc.) of sketch A above would high-status households in North American cities likely live? A) 1 B) 2 C) 3 D) 4&5
44. In which ring (1, 2, etc.) of sketch A above would high status households in a European city likely live? A) 1

B) 2

C) 3

D) 4&5

45. In model B, zone # 2 is where it is likely because of: A) greenbelting B) squatter settling C) the culture of poverty D) transportation
E) no one knows
46. The model in sketch B is the; A) Hoyt sector model B) Burgess model C) multiple nuclei model D) peripheral model
47. The model in sketch C is the; A) Hoyt sector model B) Burgess model C) multiple nuclei model D) peripheral model
48. Which of these models best describes what has happened in US cities in the last 40 years? A)

B)

C)

73

49.*** In the U.S. a city plus its contiguous built-up suburbs is known as an…A) urbanized area B) zoned area
C) census tract D) Squatter settlement E) none of these
50. Done mostly in Europe, these are areas where land is kept as parks, farms or other kinds of open space and urban
sprawl is not allowed. A) Smart growth
B) zoning
C) filtering
D) census tracts E) greenbelts
51. Which statement best describes the relationship between urbanization and the Industrial Revolution?
A) Urbanization promoted the Industrial Revolution. B) The Industrial Revolution promoted urbanization.
C) Urbanization preceded the Industrial Revolution by thousands of years. D) Urbanization and the Industrial
Revolution are no longer related.
52. The process whereby an increasing percentage of people live in an urban area is known as…
A) Demographic transition. B) rank-size rule. C) Urbanization. D) Central place theory.
53. The city (if it has 50,000 or more people) plus its contiguous built-up suburbs AND the county it is in as well as any
other counties it influences, is known as the ...A) central city B) urbanized area
C) metropolitan statistical area
D) consolidated metropolitan area E) micropolitan statistical area
54. ***Higher social heterogeneity in urban settlements means that …A) the people with whom you relax are probably
the same ones you see at work. B) you play a specialized role in the urban economy. C) you compete for limited
space. D) you may feel lonely and isolated in a crowd.

55. The process of change in the use of a house, from single-family owner occupancy to smaller dwellings for the poor
and then sometimes to abandonment, is…A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining. E) none of
these

74

Free Response #1:
The Bid Rent theory says that the closer you get to the
CBD the higher the cost for land, yet in most American
cities you find the poorest people living near the
expensive CBD and the richest living further away.
Explain:
A. Why neighborhoods near the CBD are often poor and
run down?
B. Why are there few grocery and other retail stores in
these neighborhoods?
C. Why is this not really true in European and Latin
American countries?

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75

FR #2:
Think of the map of your school, explain the
layout of your school using the Multiple Nuclei
Model
The main office is the CBD.
Completely explain your answer using specific
buildings and/or land areas in your explanation
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76

Answer Key:
1. B

14. A

27. C

40. D

53. C

2. B

15. B

28. A

41. D

54. D

3. C

16. B

29. A

42. B

55. B

4. A

17. A

30. D

43. D

5. B

18. B

31. A

44. A

6. A

19. A

32. D

45. D

7. B

20. C

33. B

46. A

8. D

21. D

34. B

47. C

9. D

22. B

35. A

48. C

10. B

23. C

36. E

49. A

11. C

24. C

37. E

50. E

12. A

25. D

38. B

51. B

13. A

26. C

39. A

52. C
77

FR. #1: ( 15 pts. for each section…total of 45 pts.)
A. In the US the move of the wealthy and middle class to the suburbs has left the older houses and apartments near the CBD empty.
This has lowered their value to the point where the poor can afford these dwellings and have made these neighborhoods their
homes. The poor can not pay for upkeep of these dwellings, or to pay high taxes. The lack of upkeep and tax money to repair the
roads and schools, adds to the downward spiral of the neighborhood. With little spending money for shopping, the poor do not
spend much in the stores. This causes many stores to close and move to the suburbs where the spending customers and money
went. The closing of the stores adds to the poverty of the area by taking away some of the jobs that were in the neighborhood. This
becomes a vicious cycle of poverty and deterioration. (15 points)

B. There are few retail stores and groceries is the area because the poor do not have money to shop. The lack of spending forces
many stores out of business or forces them to move to better locations. There also can be higher crime in these areas and the
crime often takes place at the stores. This is another reason for the stores to move out of the neighborhood. (15 points)
C. Neighborhoods in European and Latin American cities are different from those of US cities. In Europe and Latin America, the
wealthy and middle class still live near or in the CBD. The higher tax base and more spending ability of the upper and middle
classes, keeps the CBD area flourishing with jobs and in constant repair and upkeep of the cities’ physical condition. (15 points)

FR #2: (10 total points.)
You will need to judge how effectively you displayed you school
in the Multiple Nuclei Model. Refer to the model itself to help you
determine your success and grade.
School’s main office
78

Calculating your grade on test 13.
Add how many you got correct on the multiple choice part (55 possible) to how many
points you scored on the FR portion (55 possible)…110 total.
The following scale will show the approximate score if this test were the real AP exam. Remember that this
is an approximation. While 65-74% is normally the range for a 3 on the test, it is not definite. Over the
years I have seen scores as low as 60% be the low portion of a 3 score.

Out of 110 possible points:
72-83 is most likely a 3
84-94 is most likely a 4

95-110 is most likely a 5

Now lets start our review for the national exam by
reviewing the 33 key models and theories of the
course…the next PowerPoint.


Slide 41

Key topic/chapter 13…Urban Patterns
Key terms:
Annexation
Concentric zone model
Density gradient
Edge cities
Filtering
Galactic city
Gentrification
Greenbelts
Megalopolis
MSA
Multiple nuclei model
Peripheral model

Public housing
Redlining
Renovated housing
Scattered site
Squatter settlement
Sector model
Smart growth
Sprawl
Underclass
Urban renewal
Zone in transition
Zoning
1

Chapter 13…Urban Areas.
How are Cities planned?
Why

are cities where they are?
How are they organized?
Why are some areas of a city
different from
other areas of the same city?
What is the future of cities?
2

Settlement


Settlement - permanent collections of buildings,
where people live, work, and obtain services

3

ORIGINS OF SETTLEMENTS


Religious - graves, churches, temples



Cultural - schools, libraries



Political/Military - leader’s house, walls



Economic - stores, food
4

TYPES OF SETTLEMENTS


Rural Settlements - agriculture as the
predominant occupation.



Urban settlements - principal industries are
secondary and tertiary.

5

RURAL SETTLEMENTS
Clustered rural settlements –grouped
settlements in rural areas to minimize travel

Dispersed rural Settlements - isolated farms
with enclosed continuous fields (Found only in
N. America and Britain).

6

Urban Geographers want to know the global distribution of urban
settlements. MDC’s have a high percentage of people living in urban
areas because of the shift from agriculture-manufacturing-services.
Geographers are also interested in where people and activities are
distributed within urban spaces. What are the differences between the
inner-city and suburban areas and why?
As we saw in the last chapter, many downtowns are unique and can
often be recognized in photos where the suburbs often look very
much alike (Placelessness). Why? Suburbs offer the chance to avoid
some of the city problems (crime, tight living area, expensive
land/rent, noise, age of buildings) while still keeping a connection with
the goods and services of the city: jobs, sports teams, culture, shops,
recreation, etc.
7

Where is this place?

8

Today’s cities are evolving and changing. Although different internal
situations characterize urban areas in the US and elsewhere, the
problems arising from current spatial trends are quite similar in all cities.
Where have urban areas grown: in the early 1800’s only 3% of the earth’s
people lived in cities and only Beijing China had more than 1 million
people. Today over ½ of the world’s people live in cities and we have over
400 cities of at least 1 million people.

Urbanization: is the process by which city population grows.
Cities population growth is measured in 2 dimensions;
1. An increase in the number of people living in the cities.
2. An increase in the percentage of people living in the cities.
This distinction is important because they happen for different reason and
have different global distributions.
9

Increasing Percentage of People in Cities: a large percentage of people living in urban
areas is a measure of a country’s level of development. In MDC’s about ¾ of the people
live in urban areas compared to about 2/5 of people in LDC’s. (Except in Latin America
where the level is closer to MDC’s.)
The higher percentage of people in urban areas comes from the changes that have
occurred in the last 200 years as we went from agriculture (primary jobs) to industrial
(secondary jobs) and now service jobs, all created by the Industrial Revolution of the
1800’s.
People moved to the cities for industrial jobs, but in MDC’s this process has largely
ended because nearly everyone interested in moving to the cities from farms has already
done so.
In LDC’s the percentage of people living in urban areas is growing as people are pushed
off of their farms and replaced by machines and as people move to cities looking/hoping
for industrial jobs.
10

Increasing Number of People in Cities: MDC’s have a higher percentage of
people living in urban settlements but LDC’s have more of the very large urban
settlements (Primate cities). (Rank-size rule, primate cities, chapter 12.)

This is interesting because typically the large cities are created from the
improvements brought by the Industrial Revolution. This is not the case with the
large LDC cities. Migration to the primate city in LDC’s is happening even though
job opportunities may not be available. Increasing the population growth in LDC
cities is the fact that medical services are better in these cities, thus the child
mortality rate is lower.
Defining Urban Settlements: defining where urban areas end and rural areas
begin is not easy. Geographers have formulated definitions that distinguish
between urban and rural areas in two ways: Social differences and Physical
differences.
11

Percent Urban Population

Percent of the population living in urban areas is usually higher in MDCs
than in LDCs.

12

The most populated cities in the world

Of the top
20, only
Moscow,
Tokyo and
New York
are in MDC’s

Shanghai China has 14,608,512 people
13

14

15

Social Differences Between Urban and Rural Settlements: it is fair to say that rural
people and urban people follow different ways of life. A city can be defined as having 3
characteristics:
1. Large size. People in rural settlements know most of the other people in the
settlement. Not true in big cities. Social relationships are often described as “colder” in
urban areas because you only see some people at work instead of growing up with
them in the settlement.
2. High Density. Having lots of people in a tiny area creates social consequences. A
high density of people living in a small area can only be supported if the people
specialize (they can’t all be farmers). People are encouraged to compete for jobs, room,
and survival in a tightly limited space. Social groups compete to occupy the same space
(ethnic/ race problems). Rural settlements have very little of this problem.
3. Social Heterogeneity. The larger the settlement, the greater the variety of people.
Being “unusual” in a large settlement is more likely to be accepted than in a small rural
one. But despite the freedom to be different that large urban settlements give you,
people living there often feel alone because so many people are different from them.
There is a stronger feeling of belonging together in small rural settlements.
16

These 3 differences do not fully answer the question of where urban settlements
begin and rural ones end because in today’s MDC’s most everyone has access to
cars, telephones, televisions, and “urban type” jobs which reduce the differences
between urban and rural lifestyles. “City folk” and “Country folk” are more alike
today than they are different. To help distinguish between urban and rural areas we
need to add the physical definition of rural and urban to the equation.
Physical Definitions of Urban Settlements: In ancient time, cities had defensive
walls for protection which clearly defined the physical boundaries of the city. Today
the walls are gone but we can still define the physical boundaries in 3 ways:
1. Legal boundary. These are the official boundaries of a city as recognized by
the government of the country or state. These “city limits” have been officially given
to the city and are physically marked on official maps. The local government of the
city has authority to make laws and protect the people inside the city boundaries.
17

2. Urbanized area. This is the city plus its suburbs or urbanized area that
surrounds the city. About 70 percent of US residents live in urbanized areas with
40% being in the suburbs and 30% inside the city limits. The suburbs may have
their own city governments but the huge central city dominates what happens in
the entire area.
3. Metropolitan Statistical Area. Cities have an even bigger influence on people
than just those living in their city limits and surrounding urbanized areas. People
from far away come to shop, use the services, support the sports teams, read
the newspapers and watch the television broadcasts of the city. Thus the city
has a “functional area” which is its total zone of influence. The US Bureau of
Census has created a method of measuring the functional area of the city.
Known as the Metropolitan statistical area (MSA) this area includes:
•An urbanized area with a population of at least 50,000
•The county within which the city is located.
•Adjacent counties with a high population density and a large percentage of
residents working in the central city’s county.
18

Metropolitan Area of Philadelphia

City of
Philadelphia

Urbanized
area
(suburbs)
Metropolitan
Statistical
Area

The metropolitan area of Philadelphia is
spread over several counties and four states.
It is also a diversified trade center, given its
position on the Delaware river.

19

20

21

Micropolitan Statistical Areas: Smaller areas with between
10,000 and 50,000 people, the county where it is found, and
adjacent counties tied to the city. This would be a small town and
the area dominated by it.
Overlapping Metropolitan Areas: Some adjacent MSA’s overlap.
A county between two central cities may send a large number of
commuters to jobs in both cities. In some areas the cities are so
close that they form one continuous urban complex. This is
known as a Megalopolis (great city).
In a megalopolis, the downtown CBD often has its own
distinctive look and the urban areas are visually separated by
parks, open spaces, and dairy/truck farms. But at the periphery
of the urban areas, the boundaries overlap.
22

Colorado Springs, population 431,000

Ocala, Florida, population 56,000

Florala, Alabama, population 1,900

23

Megalopolis, from northern Va. To Maine.
This Illustrates the
difference between
strict city proper
definitions and broader
urban agglomerations.
To define urbanized
areas, the U.S. Census
Bureau uses the term
Metropolitan Statistical
Area (MSA) or
Consolidated MSA
(CMSA) if two or more of
them overlap.
24

Where are People Distributed within Urban Areas? People are not
just distributed at random in urban areas. For the most part they
concentrate in particular neighborhoods depending on their social
characteristics. Geographers want to see where people with
particular characteristics are likely to live and why.

Three models which try to explain the growth of a city:

The Burgess Model

The Hoyt Sector Model

The Harris and Ullman
multiple Nuclei Model
25

Burgess Concentric Zone Model

In the concentric zone model, a city grows in a series of rings surrounding the CBD.

Burgess Concentric Zone Model: This is the first used to explain the
distributions of different social groups within urban areas. It says that a
city grows outward from a central place in a series of concentric rings.
The precise size and width of the rings vary from one city to another, but
some basic types of rings appear in all cities in the same order (see chart
above).
26

•Hoyt Sector Model: In this model the city develops in a
series of sectors not rings. Certain areas of the city are
more attractive for various activities, originally because
of an environmental factor (or even pure chance). As the
city grows, activities extend outward in a wedge shape.
For example, once a wealthy neighborhood is built the
next wealthy neighborhood will extend from the first
neighborhood further outward from the center. In this
way, the best housing is found in a corridor extending
outward from the center to the outer edge (see chart on
the next page).
27

The Hoyt Sector Model

In the sector model, a city grows in a series of
wedges or corridors extending out from the
CBD.
28

•Harris and Ullman’s Multiple Nuclei Model: According
to this model, a city is a complex structure that includes
more than one center around which activities revolve.
Examples of these nodes include a port, parks,
stadium, neighborhood business center, university, and
airport (see chart). This theory states that some
activities are attracted to particular nodes, whereas
others try to avoid them. A university node may attract
well educated people and bookstores while the port will
attract hotels and warehouses. Heavy industry and
expensive houses rarely are found together. This
model shows the effect of the automobile more than
any other model.
29

The Harris and Ullman Multiple Nuclei model

The multiple nuclei model views a city as a
collection of individual centers, around which
different people and activities cluster.

30

Applications of the Models: The three models help explain where and in some
cases, why people live where they do. None of the models by themselves fully
explains why and where different types of people live, but combined they give
you as good a look as possible at the “Why” of “Where.” Effective use of the
models depends on getting good data on the areas. Most countries take a
census every 10 years to help determine useful data about the people and
places of the country. In our country we divide the census data into areas
known as census tracts of about 5,000 people. Each census tract has the data
that summarizes the characteristics of the people living within that tract. This
information includes things like the race, income, age, and education of the
people living in that tract.
Social Area Analysis: The data from the census tracts can all be plotted onto
maps to show the characteristics of the people living in that tract. This map is
known as a social area analysis.
31

Using Census tract information…Seattle, Washington
Each lined area is a
census tract of about 5000
people in Seattle
Washington. These maps
show average household
income for 1990 and
2000…note the changes in
income in some areas
between 1990 and 2000.
Using this information, a
business can make
decisions about where
they want to locate a new
store or the future of
existing stores.
You can find census tract
information on many topics
such as; age, education
level, race, ethnicity, crime
rate, and land ownership.
Note the areas with
incomes over
$63,000.

All can be very valuable
information to people
looking to open
businesses.

32

Examine the changes
between 1990 and
2000.

Oakland, California’s Ethnic neighborhoods
The small bordered areas are census tracks of 5000 people.

33

Use of the Models Outside of North America: The 3 models will also work in other
places in the world; however social groups in other countries may not have the
same reasons for selecting particular neighborhoods as Americans do.
European Cities: As in the US, wealthier people in European cities cluster along a
sector extending outward from the CBD, however unlike the US, wealthy and
middle class Europeans still live in the inner rings of the neighborhoods near the
CBD not out in the suburbs. In the past, poorer people lived in the center of the
city. Before electricity, social segregation was vertical: richer people lived on the
first or second floor of a building while the poorer people lived in the basement or
upper floors. In the Industrial Revolution, housing for the poor was constructed
near the factories and away from the rich.
Today poorer Europeans are less likely to live in the inner-city. Poor quality
housing has been renovated for the rich or turned into office buildings. Poorer
Europeans tend to live in the outskirts of the city. Vast suburbs with dozens of high
rise apartments house the poor. They face long commutes to reach their jobs in
the city.
34

European cities generally do not have the “suburban
sprawl” that US cities have. European cities tend to be
more pedestrian friendly with more parks downtown as
Europeans tend to still live downtown.
US cities have taller buildings as European cities tend to
be older and more historic.

American cities have more ethnic neighborhoods than
European cities. Ethnic neighborhoods that do exist in
European cities tend to be in the suburbs. WHY?
Because the established richer neighborhoods tend to be
downtown in European cities.
35

Less Developed Countries: Like Europe, most LDC’s accommodate their poor in the
suburbs with their middle class and rich living near the center of the city. LDC’s have
passed through 3 periods of city building: before the Europeans arrived, during the
period of European colonialism, and since independence from European control.

Pre-colonial Cities: Before the Europeans arrived few cities existed in Africa, Asia, and
Latin America and most people lived in small rural settlements. Those cities that existed
were mostly laid out surrounding a religious center; with the rest of the city laid out in a
hieratical concentric pattern (like the Burgess model) from government buildings,
homes of the wealthy, and businesses related to the religion out to other businesses
and shops.
Colonial cities: When the Europeans took over these lands, they changed the cities by
adding services to help the Europeans control the conquered people. Often a new
European style city would be build next to the existing native one. The new European
cities contained wider streets, a public square, larger houses and a much lower density.
The Spanish used the “Law of the Indies” which was a city plan designed specifically to
build cities in a “Spanish” style. (Gridiron pattern for streets centered on a church and
central plaza, walls around individual houses and neighborhoods centered around
smaller plazas and more churches.)
36

Early Mexico city was laid out in a grid pattern of streets. This followed
the Spanish “Law of the Indies.”

37

Central Plaza in Mexico City 1920 photo. Typical Colonial City plan.

Part of downtown Mexico city today still shows the
building plan of the “Law of the Indies.”

38

Cities since Independence: Following independence, cities have become
the focal point of the development of most LDC’s. Millions of people have
migrated to the cities (Primate cities) looking for jobs and services. Some
capitals have been moved to isolated areas in an attempt to help develop
that area of the country (Brasília) This is know as a forward capital. Latin
American cities have developed their own unique style.
Squatter settlements: The LDC’s are unable to house the rapidly growing
number of poor who are flowing into the cities. Because of the housing
shortages, the poor have constructed their own settlements around the city.
These settlements have few services because neither the city nor the
residents can afford them. Squatters have two basic choices for housing.
1. Illegally move into empty real houses located in the city or,
2. Rent slum housing.
(85% of the population of Addis Ababa in Ethiopia lives in squatter
settlements, slums or other illegal housing.)
39

Squatter shacks in Manila, the Philippines

40

Squatter settlement in Ethiopia

41

Zimbabwe, Africa

42

Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

43

Latin American City Model:
In many Latin
American cities,
the wealthy live in
the inner city and
in a sector
extending along a
commercial spine.
In situ accretion- businesses
and homes constantly under
construction/repair.
Zone of maturity-2nd best
housing in the city.
The poor live in squatter settlements on the
periphery of the city.

Disamenity- unpleasant area
used by the poor to get to the
market.

44

The City Outline of Rio de Janeiro
The rich tourist areas and expensive condo apartments are along the coast
and beach while the poor live in squatter shacks in the hills.

45

City problems:
Inner-City Physical Problems: Most US inner cities were constructed before the 1950’s
(people began to move to the suburbs in the 1950’s so new construction moved out of
the city).
Process of Deterioration (how a city deteriorates): A city doesn’t suddenly become old
and full of slummy areas. It happens over time. When a group of low-income people
inhabit an area of a city, nearby neighborhoods will often look to move out. They sell or
rent to more low-income occupants thus expanding the low-income area. Two processes
cause/speed up the devaluation of areas:
1. Filtering, 2. Redlining.
Filtering: Large houses and buildings that once housed rich downtown workers (who
moved to the suburbs) are taken over by landlords who don’t live in that area (they
moved to the suburbs too). Rents are low so the landlord doesn’t take as good care of
the property as they should and the property becomes run down or abandoned. Stores
close, or move, due to lack of sales. 100 years ago these neighborhoods would be used
by immigrants and ethnic businesses would succeed in those areas. Now, with a decline
in immigration, these neighborhoods have shrunk and so have schools, businesses and
other services. Thousands of vacant houses and buildings stand empty in inner cities
across America.

46

Redlining: Some banks refuse to give loans in what they consider
risky neighborhoods. They draw a red line on a map around areas
where they will not give loans. Without loans, these neighborhoods
have a hard time rebuilding/remodeling. Though illegal, this still
happens. Bankers just don’t put these “no-loan” areas on a map.

Urban Renewal: This is the series of projects to improve European
and N. American cities by buying up the blighted neighborhoods,
moving the people to new government built housing projects, and
building new roads, and other projects to make the inner city
attractive for business again. National and State government grants
help pay for these projects.
47

Public housing: Housing for the poor, built with government funding as part of
urban renewal. In the US this is only about 2% of the housing while in some
countries it may be more (Britain is 30%). Public housing built in the 50’s & 60’s
were largely high rise apartments, but those are seen as being unsatisfactory.
Problems arise from cramming large numbers of poor people into one area.
Today most public housing projects are one to three story buildings with many of
them being scattered around different parts of the city rather than clustered into
one area.
Because urban renewal has been criticized for destroying the social cohesion of
older neighborhoods, many governments (like the US) have stopped funding
most projects since the 1970’s. What do we do instead?
Renovated Housing: An alternative often used since the 70’s is to renovate a
building instead of urban renewal. The process where middle-class people
move into inner-city neighborhoods and renovate them is called gentrification.
Gentrified inner-city neighborhoods also attract middle-class people who work
downtown. Living close to work saves the hassle of commuting and rejuvenates
run down inner-city neighborhoods
48

Gentrified building downtown Harlem, NY. Note the supermarket.

49

Inner-City Social Problems: Inner-city residents are often referred to as the
permanent underclass because they are trapped in an unending cycle of
economic and social problems. High unemployment, alcoholism, drug
addiction, literacy, juvenile delinquency, and crime all exist at a higher rate
among those who live in the inner-city. Lack of jobs means lack of tax dollars
to pay for police and fire protection as well as good schools. Lack of job skills
and homelessness are also tremendous problems.
Culture of Poverty: Inner-city residents are trapped in a permanent underclass
culture that reproduces itself. In the US, unwed mothers give birth to 2/3 of the
babies in the inner-city. 90% of these children live with only one parent and it
is real hard for one parent to keep a job and take care of children. Both suffer
and a shortage of care and daily attention by the parent contributes to the kids
not learning the skills necessary to do well in school which leads to poor jobs
for their futures. Poverty leads to more poverty. Many families on welfare have
only one parent because it is financially better if one parent is gone, that way
the single parent gets food stamps and other services from the government
that they would not get if it was a 2 family household.
50

Crime: Trapped in a hopeless environment, some inner-city
residents turn to drugs. Drug use is a problem in inner-city
areas and the suburbs, but rates of drug use in inner-cities
are the highest.
Ethnic and Racial Segregation: As seen in chapter 7, many
neighborhoods in the US are segregated by ethnicity with
African Americans and Hispanics concentrated in one or two
continuous areas and whites living in the suburbs. Even small
cities display a strong distinction among neighborhoods. A
frequent division is between the east and west or north and
south side of town, or the railroad tracks. A family seeking a
new residence will seek the areas where the characteristics
of the people meet their own.

51

The exodus
from the
American city.
This has
happened in
many American
cities since the
1960’s.

52

Changes in Cities in the U.S.
U.S. population has been moving out of the city centers to the suburbs:
suburbanization and counter urbanization

Developed Countries: suburbanization

 wealthy move to suburbs
 automobiles and roads; ‘American
Dream’ of the home in the suburbs.
 better services
 wealthy move to suburbs
Counter urbanization

idyllic settings
cost of land for retirement
slow pace, yet high tech
connections to services and markets
53

U.S. intraregional migration during 1990s.

Inner city economic problems: the concentration of low income
residents in inner cities has caused economic problems. These
people require public services but can pay very little in taxes to
support the services. They need stores and jobs but have little
money to spend in the store and few skills for jobs (so the stores
close). To try to fight these problems many local and state
governments use tax monies to try to renovate these areas, but this
shifts tax money needed for other areas to the inner city (votes on
election day).
Annexation: Many cities could help their tax problem by adding the
new suburbs to be part of their city (annexation). After all, many of
these suburban people use the city for its’ jobs etc., so why not add
them into the city? Today, most people in the suburbs do not want
to be annexed into the city and so they do not vote to be annexed.
54

The Peripheral Model: According to this model, an urban area
consists of an inner city surrounded by large suburban residential
and business areas (MSA) tied together by a beltway or highway
that circles the city. Around the beltway are nodes of consumer
and business services called edge cities (see diagram of multiple
nuclei model). These edge cities sprang up to provide services
and jobs to the people in the suburbs.
Density Gradient: As you travel outward from the center of the
city, the density of people declines. Inner city has big apartments
of 250 of more people per acre. Suburbs have fewer people per
acre (but lots of acres) and finally you leave the cities periphery
you find few people. The number of houses per unit of land
diminishes as distance from the center of the city increases.
55

The Edge cities (bedroom communities) of Houston

The central city is surrounded by a ring road, around which are
suburban areas and edge cities, shopping malls, office parks,
industrial areas, and service complexes.

Known as
bedroom
communities
because
people live
there but
mostly don’t
work there.
They drive
into the city
for work.
56

As you move from the center of the city outward, the density of the population
changes. This is know as the density gradient. Two big changes have occurred in
the density gradient of today’s cities:
1. The number of people living in the center has decreased.
2. The density difference between the inner city and the suburbs is declining
because the inner city density is dropping and the suburban density is growing
due to more large apartments being built in the suburbs.
Cost of Suburban or Urban Sprawl: Urban Sprawl is the progressive spread of
development over the landscape. As long as we Americans want single-family
detached houses, land on the fringe of urban areas will be converted from open
space to residential use. The cost of this growth is more than the loss of land, it is
also the cost of new roads, utilities, building stores and offices and the cost of
automobiles to move these people over even longer distances. Lots of these new
developments are built on what was once farmland. Wonderful productive soil now
under concrete.

Greenbelts: are areas where, by law, the open space can not be used for any
construction. This is mostly found in Europe.

57

Once farmland that is being converted to suburbs and cities.

58

Tyson’s Corner Virginia in 1940

59

Washington, DC. MSA.

Tyson’s Corner Virginia
today.
Washington D.C. is off
In the distance.

60

Suburban Segregation: The “new” segregation.
Suburban segregation takes two forms:
1. Residents are separated from commercial and manufacturing activities
which are confined someplace else. (The whole neighborhood is
nothing but houses because they drive for services.)
2. The price of the house eliminates some from being able to live there. This
creates a homogeneous suburb of the same economic class of people.
This never existed before in history. Where we once had vertical
segregation of the classes we now we have horizontal segregation.
3. But this may be reversing as new statistics show that people are beginning
to move back to the city. Why? Cost of transportation.
Zoning Ordinances: This idea developed in Europe and later America in the
early decades of the 20th century. This means that businesses are allowed only
in certain areas of the settlement. (No all night taco stands inside your single
family neighborhood.)
Motor vehicles: The wide use of the automobile is largely responsible for the
American movement to the suburbs. Not only did people move out but 1/4 of
the land inside all American cities are now roads, streets, and parking lots.

61

Public Transportation: Because few US workers live within walking distance
of their jobs, urban areas are characterized by extensive commuting and the
problems that come with it. As much as 40% of all trips made into or out from
a city during the day takes place within just 4 hours. (2 in the morning and 2 in
the late afternoon). RUSH HOUR!!! In large cities, public transportation, like
subways and busses, are better suited to move people but Americans still
prefer their own cars. Public transportation is cheaper, cleaner, and more
energy efficient than personal cars, yet in the US only 5% of city travel is
done using public transit systems. American’s love their personal car too
much.
Local Government Fragmentation: Because of the large number of local
governments in the US (look at the settlements in Pinellas County) it is
difficult to solve some of the regional problems like garbage disposal, water
management, traffic and public housing.
62

Metropolitan government: This idea tries to put many local governments into a
larger unit that can better handle the urban problems. The 2 ways to do this
are:
1. Federations in which the individual settlements have their own police,
firemen, and tax collection but they all agree to be part of a second
government which handles transportation, water, sewage, parks and
welfare for all the communities.
2. Consolidations: In this method, several cities and the county may form one
government. Jacksonville’s government runs not only the town but the
county too, this makes Jacksonville the largest city, in land size, in the US.
Smart growth: A new movement by many states to curb suburban sprawl by
limiting where new construction can take place. Smart growth laws require that
land near cities be used up before any land further out can be developed. So
far, this is only being done an a few parts of our country.
63

The new
US as
some
people
see it.

64

Quiz Yourself:
1. The process where middle-class people move into inner city neighborhoods and
renovate them is called ____________
2. ____________ happens when banks refuse to give loans in what they consider
risky neighborhoods.
3. Because of the housing shortages, the poor have constructed their own settlements
around the city known as __________ _________

4. Businesses are allowed only in certain areas of the settlement because of
____________ ____________
5. Areas known as _____ _______ are areas of about 5,000 people. The data from
that area is used to help define needed services for that area.
6. When cities are so close that they form one continuous band of development this is
known as a ____________
65

7. Social relationships are often described as “colder” in urban areas because…
8. In this model the city develops in a series of sectors not rings. _______

9. ______ (LDC’s or MDC’s) have a higher percentage of people living in urban
settlements but ________ (LDC’s or MDC’s) have more of the very large urban
settlements.
10. _____________ was the first model developed to explain the distributions
of different social groups within urban areas.
11. New cities which develop around the beltway are nodes of consumer and
business services known as ________ _________.

12. When the Europeans took over lands around the world, they changed the
cities by adding services to help the Europeans control the conquered people.
These European planned cities are known as __________ cities.
66

Answer Key:
1.

Gentrification

2.

Redlining

3.

Squatter Settlements

4.

Zoning ordinances

5.

Census tracks

6.

Megalopolis

7. There is a stronger feeling of belonging together in small rural settlements.
8. Hoyt sector model
9. MDC, LDC
10. Burgess Concentric Zone model
11. Edge cities
12. Colonial cities
67

Test Key topic/chapter 13:
These questions come from a combination of our slides, your text book, and common knowledge you should
have discussed in your AP classroom. They are very typical of what you will see on the National Exam.
1) The multiple nuclei theory best explains why different neighborhoods of a city attract people of different… A) ages.
B) ethnic origin C) income D) marital status.
2) Sprawl is the… A) change in density within an urban area from the center to the periphery B) development of new
housing sites not contiguous to the existing built-up area. C) land maintained as open space surrounding an urban area.
D) period in the morning and evening with the heaviest volumes of traffic.
3) People are attracted to suburbs in part because suburbs are characterized by…A) heavy traffic. B) lower opportunity
for home ownership. C) private land surrounding the house. D) row houses and apartments.
4) Megalopolis refers to… A) adjacent, overlapping Metropolitan Statistical Areas. B) central cities. C) consolidated
Metropolitan Statistical Areas. D) central cities plus urbanized areas.
5) Which statement best describes the relationship between urbanization and the Industrial Revolution? A) Urbanization
promoted the Industrial Revolution. B) The Industrial Revolution promoted urbanization. C) Urbanization preceded the
Industrial Revolution by thousands of years. D) Urbanization and the Industrial Revolution are no longer related.
6) The process of legally adding land area to a city in the United States is… A) annexation. B) accreditation. C) an
application of eminent domain. D) defined by urbanized area.

68

7) The process of change in the use of a house, from single-family owner occupancy to abandonment, is… A) blockbusting.
B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining.
8) A process by which banks designate an area within which they refuse to lend money for improvements is… A) blockbusting.
B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining.
9) A recent change in the density gradient has been… A) the elimination of the gap traditionally found in the center. B) an
increase in the extremes between the inner and outer areas. C) an increase in the number of people living in the center.
D) a reduction in the differences in densities found within an urban area.
10) U.S. central cities face fiscal problems because… A) federal and state funds are available. B) low-income people are
concentrated there. C) middle-class families are attracted there. D) redlining is no longer legal.
11) A legal form of segregation in U.S. cities is achieved through...A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) zoning. D) greenbelts.
12) Factories have moved to suburban locations in part because of… A) access to main highways. B) adequate space to build
vertical structures. C) availability of large tracts of high-priced land. D) good rail connections.
13) According to the sector model, the best housing is located in…A) a corridor from downtown to the edge of the city.
B) an outer ring surrounding the city. C) nodes near universities and parks. D) renovated inner-city neighborhoods.
14) Ramshackle houses on the periphery of cities in less developed countries are known as… A) squatter settlements. B) council
estates. C) public housing. D) zone in transition.
15) Higher income people tend to live near the center of the city in all but which of the following regions? A) Latin America
B) North America C) South Asia D) Western Europe

16) The wide boulevards built in cities in less developed countries were most likely built during what era? A) pre-colonial
B) colonial C) independence D) all of the above equally

69

17) According to the multiple nuclei model, an airport is likely to attract nearby… A) industries. B) residences. C) shops.
D) universities.
18) The largest percentage of the U.S. population lives in…A) central cities. B) suburbs. C) non-metropolitan areas. D) all of the
above
19) In U.S. cities, the underclass is… A) clustered in inner-city neighborhoods. B) dispersed throughout the city. C) clustered in
suburbs. D) distributed uniformly in the city.

20) A process of converting a neighborhood from low-income to middle-class is…A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) gentrification.
D) redlining.
21) Higher social heterogeneity in urban settlements means that… A) the people with whom you relax are probably the same ones you
see at work. B) you play a specialized role in the urban economy. C) you compete for limited space. D) you may feel lonely and
isolated in a crowd.
22) The city plus its contiguous built-up suburbs is the… A) central city. B) urbanized area.
D) consolidated metropolitan statistical area

C) metropolitan statistical area.

23) The process whereby an increasing percentage of people live in an urban area is known as… A) demographic transition.
B) rank-size rule. C) urbanization. D) central place theory.
24) Of the ten largest urban areas in the world, how many are in More Developed Countries today? A) 1 B) 4 C) 7 D) 10 E) 2
25) Public housing is…A) conversion of low-income housing to middle-class housing. B) illegally established low-income housing.
C) housing that has changed from single-family owner occupancy to abandonment. D) low-income government-owned housing.
26) According to the concentric zone model, a city develops in a series of… A) corridors. B) nodes. C) rings. D) all of the above

70

27) Chicago is a good location in which to develop urban models because it is located… A) at the hub of the nation's transportation
system. B) in the center of the country. C) on a flat prairie. D) on the shore of Lake Michigan.
28) According to the sector model, the best housing is located in… A) a corridor from downtown to the edge of the city. B) an outer
ring surrounding the city. C) nodes near universities and parks. D) renovated inner-city neighborhoods.
29) The zone of transition in US cities generally contain…A) warehouses B) wealthy neighborhoods C) transportation hubs
D) universities and hospitals E) suburban homes
30) The attractions of shopping malls include all but which of the following? A) frequent concerts and exhibitions B) generous
parking lots C) place to meet friends D) walking distance from homes
The following questions are written at the high school level. You will find some questions from part one often rewritten
here. This is all designed to help you transition to the college/AP style of written questions. Any question preceded with ***
are questions that have been on the national exam before.
31. Most Latin American cities are focused on a…A) central plaza B) government housing project C) zone of heavy industry
D) skyscraper office building E) squatter settlement
32. The multiple-nuclei model of a city structure tends to be most applicable to…A) small cities B) traditional C) Latin American
cities D) newer, fast growing cities E) cities with homogeneous land use
33. ***Locational advantages important to the development of the earliest cities include…A) availability of good harbors for large
ships B) productive agricultural land and defensible sites C) temperate climate and proximity to coal mines D) good
connections by road and canal E) proximity to manufacturing areas

34. In cities, the CBD’s often show uniqueness while the suburbs usually show…A) a large hinterland. B) placelessness C) more
than one node. D) newer zones of transition.

71

35. Many LDC’s have tried to help a previously under-developed part of their country develop by moving their capital
city to that area. This new capital is known as a…A) forward capital B) new development zone C) enterprise zone
D) neocolonial city
36. Today the greatest number of urban dwellers is found in…A) North America
D) Europe E) Asia

B) South America C) Africa

37. ***All of the following have helped create ghettos in North American cities except…A)blockbusting and racial
steering B) redlining by financial institutions C) concentration of public housing and social services D) fixed school
districts E) Economic Enterprise Zones

38. Which of the following is NOT as reason for rapid suburbanization in the US after WW2? A) Mass production of
the automobile B) Reduction of long distance commuting C) Expansion of home construction D) Expansion of the
interstate highway system E) Availability of low down payment terms and long-term mortgages.
39. New cities which developed in the hinterland of large urban areas because of the automobile, are known as…
A) edge cities B) census tracts C) suburban sprawl D) squatter settlements. E) none of these
40. Gentrification refers to… A) moving the homeless into inner city shelters B) The “White Flight” from the urban city
C) losing tax revenue because of stores closing in downtown areas D) middle-class people moving into and renovating
inner city neighborhoods E) the creation of “beltway cities” around the city.

72

4
7
3

5

1
6

2

41-48 all use the sketch above.
41. The sketch in box A above represents which model of the inner structure of urban areas?
C) multiple nuclei model D) Burgess concentric zone model E) peripheral model
42. The models in boxes B and C represent A) Concentric zone and multiple nuclei
concentric zone D) peripheral and concentric zone E) Von Thunen and peripheral

A) Hoyt sector model B) VonThunen’s model

B) Multiple nuclei and Hoyt sector C) Hoyt sector and

43. In which ring (1, 2, etc.) of sketch A above would high-status households in North American cities likely live? A) 1 B) 2 C) 3 D) 4&5
44. In which ring (1, 2, etc.) of sketch A above would high status households in a European city likely live? A) 1

B) 2

C) 3

D) 4&5

45. In model B, zone # 2 is where it is likely because of: A) greenbelting B) squatter settling C) the culture of poverty D) transportation
E) no one knows
46. The model in sketch B is the; A) Hoyt sector model B) Burgess model C) multiple nuclei model D) peripheral model
47. The model in sketch C is the; A) Hoyt sector model B) Burgess model C) multiple nuclei model D) peripheral model
48. Which of these models best describes what has happened in US cities in the last 40 years? A)

B)

C)

73

49.*** In the U.S. a city plus its contiguous built-up suburbs is known as an…A) urbanized area B) zoned area
C) census tract D) Squatter settlement E) none of these
50. Done mostly in Europe, these are areas where land is kept as parks, farms or other kinds of open space and urban
sprawl is not allowed. A) Smart growth
B) zoning
C) filtering
D) census tracts E) greenbelts
51. Which statement best describes the relationship between urbanization and the Industrial Revolution?
A) Urbanization promoted the Industrial Revolution. B) The Industrial Revolution promoted urbanization.
C) Urbanization preceded the Industrial Revolution by thousands of years. D) Urbanization and the Industrial
Revolution are no longer related.
52. The process whereby an increasing percentage of people live in an urban area is known as…
A) Demographic transition. B) rank-size rule. C) Urbanization. D) Central place theory.
53. The city (if it has 50,000 or more people) plus its contiguous built-up suburbs AND the county it is in as well as any
other counties it influences, is known as the ...A) central city B) urbanized area
C) metropolitan statistical area
D) consolidated metropolitan area E) micropolitan statistical area
54. ***Higher social heterogeneity in urban settlements means that …A) the people with whom you relax are probably
the same ones you see at work. B) you play a specialized role in the urban economy. C) you compete for limited
space. D) you may feel lonely and isolated in a crowd.

55. The process of change in the use of a house, from single-family owner occupancy to smaller dwellings for the poor
and then sometimes to abandonment, is…A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining. E) none of
these

74

Free Response #1:
The Bid Rent theory says that the closer you get to the
CBD the higher the cost for land, yet in most American
cities you find the poorest people living near the
expensive CBD and the richest living further away.
Explain:
A. Why neighborhoods near the CBD are often poor and
run down?
B. Why are there few grocery and other retail stores in
these neighborhoods?
C. Why is this not really true in European and Latin
American countries?

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75

FR #2:
Think of the map of your school, explain the
layout of your school using the Multiple Nuclei
Model
The main office is the CBD.
Completely explain your answer using specific
buildings and/or land areas in your explanation
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76

Answer Key:
1. B

14. A

27. C

40. D

53. C

2. B

15. B

28. A

41. D

54. D

3. C

16. B

29. A

42. B

55. B

4. A

17. A

30. D

43. D

5. B

18. B

31. A

44. A

6. A

19. A

32. D

45. D

7. B

20. C

33. B

46. A

8. D

21. D

34. B

47. C

9. D

22. B

35. A

48. C

10. B

23. C

36. E

49. A

11. C

24. C

37. E

50. E

12. A

25. D

38. B

51. B

13. A

26. C

39. A

52. C
77

FR. #1: ( 15 pts. for each section…total of 45 pts.)
A. In the US the move of the wealthy and middle class to the suburbs has left the older houses and apartments near the CBD empty.
This has lowered their value to the point where the poor can afford these dwellings and have made these neighborhoods their
homes. The poor can not pay for upkeep of these dwellings, or to pay high taxes. The lack of upkeep and tax money to repair the
roads and schools, adds to the downward spiral of the neighborhood. With little spending money for shopping, the poor do not
spend much in the stores. This causes many stores to close and move to the suburbs where the spending customers and money
went. The closing of the stores adds to the poverty of the area by taking away some of the jobs that were in the neighborhood. This
becomes a vicious cycle of poverty and deterioration. (15 points)

B. There are few retail stores and groceries is the area because the poor do not have money to shop. The lack of spending forces
many stores out of business or forces them to move to better locations. There also can be higher crime in these areas and the
crime often takes place at the stores. This is another reason for the stores to move out of the neighborhood. (15 points)
C. Neighborhoods in European and Latin American cities are different from those of US cities. In Europe and Latin America, the
wealthy and middle class still live near or in the CBD. The higher tax base and more spending ability of the upper and middle
classes, keeps the CBD area flourishing with jobs and in constant repair and upkeep of the cities’ physical condition. (15 points)

FR #2: (10 total points.)
You will need to judge how effectively you displayed you school
in the Multiple Nuclei Model. Refer to the model itself to help you
determine your success and grade.
School’s main office
78

Calculating your grade on test 13.
Add how many you got correct on the multiple choice part (55 possible) to how many
points you scored on the FR portion (55 possible)…110 total.
The following scale will show the approximate score if this test were the real AP exam. Remember that this
is an approximation. While 65-74% is normally the range for a 3 on the test, it is not definite. Over the
years I have seen scores as low as 60% be the low portion of a 3 score.

Out of 110 possible points:
72-83 is most likely a 3
84-94 is most likely a 4

95-110 is most likely a 5

Now lets start our review for the national exam by
reviewing the 33 key models and theories of the
course…the next PowerPoint.


Slide 42

Key topic/chapter 13…Urban Patterns
Key terms:
Annexation
Concentric zone model
Density gradient
Edge cities
Filtering
Galactic city
Gentrification
Greenbelts
Megalopolis
MSA
Multiple nuclei model
Peripheral model

Public housing
Redlining
Renovated housing
Scattered site
Squatter settlement
Sector model
Smart growth
Sprawl
Underclass
Urban renewal
Zone in transition
Zoning
1

Chapter 13…Urban Areas.
How are Cities planned?
Why

are cities where they are?
How are they organized?
Why are some areas of a city
different from
other areas of the same city?
What is the future of cities?
2

Settlement


Settlement - permanent collections of buildings,
where people live, work, and obtain services

3

ORIGINS OF SETTLEMENTS


Religious - graves, churches, temples



Cultural - schools, libraries



Political/Military - leader’s house, walls



Economic - stores, food
4

TYPES OF SETTLEMENTS


Rural Settlements - agriculture as the
predominant occupation.



Urban settlements - principal industries are
secondary and tertiary.

5

RURAL SETTLEMENTS
Clustered rural settlements –grouped
settlements in rural areas to minimize travel

Dispersed rural Settlements - isolated farms
with enclosed continuous fields (Found only in
N. America and Britain).

6

Urban Geographers want to know the global distribution of urban
settlements. MDC’s have a high percentage of people living in urban
areas because of the shift from agriculture-manufacturing-services.
Geographers are also interested in where people and activities are
distributed within urban spaces. What are the differences between the
inner-city and suburban areas and why?
As we saw in the last chapter, many downtowns are unique and can
often be recognized in photos where the suburbs often look very
much alike (Placelessness). Why? Suburbs offer the chance to avoid
some of the city problems (crime, tight living area, expensive
land/rent, noise, age of buildings) while still keeping a connection with
the goods and services of the city: jobs, sports teams, culture, shops,
recreation, etc.
7

Where is this place?

8

Today’s cities are evolving and changing. Although different internal
situations characterize urban areas in the US and elsewhere, the
problems arising from current spatial trends are quite similar in all cities.
Where have urban areas grown: in the early 1800’s only 3% of the earth’s
people lived in cities and only Beijing China had more than 1 million
people. Today over ½ of the world’s people live in cities and we have over
400 cities of at least 1 million people.

Urbanization: is the process by which city population grows.
Cities population growth is measured in 2 dimensions;
1. An increase in the number of people living in the cities.
2. An increase in the percentage of people living in the cities.
This distinction is important because they happen for different reason and
have different global distributions.
9

Increasing Percentage of People in Cities: a large percentage of people living in urban
areas is a measure of a country’s level of development. In MDC’s about ¾ of the people
live in urban areas compared to about 2/5 of people in LDC’s. (Except in Latin America
where the level is closer to MDC’s.)
The higher percentage of people in urban areas comes from the changes that have
occurred in the last 200 years as we went from agriculture (primary jobs) to industrial
(secondary jobs) and now service jobs, all created by the Industrial Revolution of the
1800’s.
People moved to the cities for industrial jobs, but in MDC’s this process has largely
ended because nearly everyone interested in moving to the cities from farms has already
done so.
In LDC’s the percentage of people living in urban areas is growing as people are pushed
off of their farms and replaced by machines and as people move to cities looking/hoping
for industrial jobs.
10

Increasing Number of People in Cities: MDC’s have a higher percentage of
people living in urban settlements but LDC’s have more of the very large urban
settlements (Primate cities). (Rank-size rule, primate cities, chapter 12.)

This is interesting because typically the large cities are created from the
improvements brought by the Industrial Revolution. This is not the case with the
large LDC cities. Migration to the primate city in LDC’s is happening even though
job opportunities may not be available. Increasing the population growth in LDC
cities is the fact that medical services are better in these cities, thus the child
mortality rate is lower.
Defining Urban Settlements: defining where urban areas end and rural areas
begin is not easy. Geographers have formulated definitions that distinguish
between urban and rural areas in two ways: Social differences and Physical
differences.
11

Percent Urban Population

Percent of the population living in urban areas is usually higher in MDCs
than in LDCs.

12

The most populated cities in the world

Of the top
20, only
Moscow,
Tokyo and
New York
are in MDC’s

Shanghai China has 14,608,512 people
13

14

15

Social Differences Between Urban and Rural Settlements: it is fair to say that rural
people and urban people follow different ways of life. A city can be defined as having 3
characteristics:
1. Large size. People in rural settlements know most of the other people in the
settlement. Not true in big cities. Social relationships are often described as “colder” in
urban areas because you only see some people at work instead of growing up with
them in the settlement.
2. High Density. Having lots of people in a tiny area creates social consequences. A
high density of people living in a small area can only be supported if the people
specialize (they can’t all be farmers). People are encouraged to compete for jobs, room,
and survival in a tightly limited space. Social groups compete to occupy the same space
(ethnic/ race problems). Rural settlements have very little of this problem.
3. Social Heterogeneity. The larger the settlement, the greater the variety of people.
Being “unusual” in a large settlement is more likely to be accepted than in a small rural
one. But despite the freedom to be different that large urban settlements give you,
people living there often feel alone because so many people are different from them.
There is a stronger feeling of belonging together in small rural settlements.
16

These 3 differences do not fully answer the question of where urban settlements
begin and rural ones end because in today’s MDC’s most everyone has access to
cars, telephones, televisions, and “urban type” jobs which reduce the differences
between urban and rural lifestyles. “City folk” and “Country folk” are more alike
today than they are different. To help distinguish between urban and rural areas we
need to add the physical definition of rural and urban to the equation.
Physical Definitions of Urban Settlements: In ancient time, cities had defensive
walls for protection which clearly defined the physical boundaries of the city. Today
the walls are gone but we can still define the physical boundaries in 3 ways:
1. Legal boundary. These are the official boundaries of a city as recognized by
the government of the country or state. These “city limits” have been officially given
to the city and are physically marked on official maps. The local government of the
city has authority to make laws and protect the people inside the city boundaries.
17

2. Urbanized area. This is the city plus its suburbs or urbanized area that
surrounds the city. About 70 percent of US residents live in urbanized areas with
40% being in the suburbs and 30% inside the city limits. The suburbs may have
their own city governments but the huge central city dominates what happens in
the entire area.
3. Metropolitan Statistical Area. Cities have an even bigger influence on people
than just those living in their city limits and surrounding urbanized areas. People
from far away come to shop, use the services, support the sports teams, read
the newspapers and watch the television broadcasts of the city. Thus the city
has a “functional area” which is its total zone of influence. The US Bureau of
Census has created a method of measuring the functional area of the city.
Known as the Metropolitan statistical area (MSA) this area includes:
•An urbanized area with a population of at least 50,000
•The county within which the city is located.
•Adjacent counties with a high population density and a large percentage of
residents working in the central city’s county.
18

Metropolitan Area of Philadelphia

City of
Philadelphia

Urbanized
area
(suburbs)
Metropolitan
Statistical
Area

The metropolitan area of Philadelphia is
spread over several counties and four states.
It is also a diversified trade center, given its
position on the Delaware river.

19

20

21

Micropolitan Statistical Areas: Smaller areas with between
10,000 and 50,000 people, the county where it is found, and
adjacent counties tied to the city. This would be a small town and
the area dominated by it.
Overlapping Metropolitan Areas: Some adjacent MSA’s overlap.
A county between two central cities may send a large number of
commuters to jobs in both cities. In some areas the cities are so
close that they form one continuous urban complex. This is
known as a Megalopolis (great city).
In a megalopolis, the downtown CBD often has its own
distinctive look and the urban areas are visually separated by
parks, open spaces, and dairy/truck farms. But at the periphery
of the urban areas, the boundaries overlap.
22

Colorado Springs, population 431,000

Ocala, Florida, population 56,000

Florala, Alabama, population 1,900

23

Megalopolis, from northern Va. To Maine.
This Illustrates the
difference between
strict city proper
definitions and broader
urban agglomerations.
To define urbanized
areas, the U.S. Census
Bureau uses the term
Metropolitan Statistical
Area (MSA) or
Consolidated MSA
(CMSA) if two or more of
them overlap.
24

Where are People Distributed within Urban Areas? People are not
just distributed at random in urban areas. For the most part they
concentrate in particular neighborhoods depending on their social
characteristics. Geographers want to see where people with
particular characteristics are likely to live and why.

Three models which try to explain the growth of a city:

The Burgess Model

The Hoyt Sector Model

The Harris and Ullman
multiple Nuclei Model
25

Burgess Concentric Zone Model

In the concentric zone model, a city grows in a series of rings surrounding the CBD.

Burgess Concentric Zone Model: This is the first used to explain the
distributions of different social groups within urban areas. It says that a
city grows outward from a central place in a series of concentric rings.
The precise size and width of the rings vary from one city to another, but
some basic types of rings appear in all cities in the same order (see chart
above).
26

•Hoyt Sector Model: In this model the city develops in a
series of sectors not rings. Certain areas of the city are
more attractive for various activities, originally because
of an environmental factor (or even pure chance). As the
city grows, activities extend outward in a wedge shape.
For example, once a wealthy neighborhood is built the
next wealthy neighborhood will extend from the first
neighborhood further outward from the center. In this
way, the best housing is found in a corridor extending
outward from the center to the outer edge (see chart on
the next page).
27

The Hoyt Sector Model

In the sector model, a city grows in a series of
wedges or corridors extending out from the
CBD.
28

•Harris and Ullman’s Multiple Nuclei Model: According
to this model, a city is a complex structure that includes
more than one center around which activities revolve.
Examples of these nodes include a port, parks,
stadium, neighborhood business center, university, and
airport (see chart). This theory states that some
activities are attracted to particular nodes, whereas
others try to avoid them. A university node may attract
well educated people and bookstores while the port will
attract hotels and warehouses. Heavy industry and
expensive houses rarely are found together. This
model shows the effect of the automobile more than
any other model.
29

The Harris and Ullman Multiple Nuclei model

The multiple nuclei model views a city as a
collection of individual centers, around which
different people and activities cluster.

30

Applications of the Models: The three models help explain where and in some
cases, why people live where they do. None of the models by themselves fully
explains why and where different types of people live, but combined they give
you as good a look as possible at the “Why” of “Where.” Effective use of the
models depends on getting good data on the areas. Most countries take a
census every 10 years to help determine useful data about the people and
places of the country. In our country we divide the census data into areas
known as census tracts of about 5,000 people. Each census tract has the data
that summarizes the characteristics of the people living within that tract. This
information includes things like the race, income, age, and education of the
people living in that tract.
Social Area Analysis: The data from the census tracts can all be plotted onto
maps to show the characteristics of the people living in that tract. This map is
known as a social area analysis.
31

Using Census tract information…Seattle, Washington
Each lined area is a
census tract of about 5000
people in Seattle
Washington. These maps
show average household
income for 1990 and
2000…note the changes in
income in some areas
between 1990 and 2000.
Using this information, a
business can make
decisions about where
they want to locate a new
store or the future of
existing stores.
You can find census tract
information on many topics
such as; age, education
level, race, ethnicity, crime
rate, and land ownership.
Note the areas with
incomes over
$63,000.

All can be very valuable
information to people
looking to open
businesses.

32

Examine the changes
between 1990 and
2000.

Oakland, California’s Ethnic neighborhoods
The small bordered areas are census tracks of 5000 people.

33

Use of the Models Outside of North America: The 3 models will also work in other
places in the world; however social groups in other countries may not have the
same reasons for selecting particular neighborhoods as Americans do.
European Cities: As in the US, wealthier people in European cities cluster along a
sector extending outward from the CBD, however unlike the US, wealthy and
middle class Europeans still live in the inner rings of the neighborhoods near the
CBD not out in the suburbs. In the past, poorer people lived in the center of the
city. Before electricity, social segregation was vertical: richer people lived on the
first or second floor of a building while the poorer people lived in the basement or
upper floors. In the Industrial Revolution, housing for the poor was constructed
near the factories and away from the rich.
Today poorer Europeans are less likely to live in the inner-city. Poor quality
housing has been renovated for the rich or turned into office buildings. Poorer
Europeans tend to live in the outskirts of the city. Vast suburbs with dozens of high
rise apartments house the poor. They face long commutes to reach their jobs in
the city.
34

European cities generally do not have the “suburban
sprawl” that US cities have. European cities tend to be
more pedestrian friendly with more parks downtown as
Europeans tend to still live downtown.
US cities have taller buildings as European cities tend to
be older and more historic.

American cities have more ethnic neighborhoods than
European cities. Ethnic neighborhoods that do exist in
European cities tend to be in the suburbs. WHY?
Because the established richer neighborhoods tend to be
downtown in European cities.
35

Less Developed Countries: Like Europe, most LDC’s accommodate their poor in the
suburbs with their middle class and rich living near the center of the city. LDC’s have
passed through 3 periods of city building: before the Europeans arrived, during the
period of European colonialism, and since independence from European control.

Pre-colonial Cities: Before the Europeans arrived few cities existed in Africa, Asia, and
Latin America and most people lived in small rural settlements. Those cities that existed
were mostly laid out surrounding a religious center; with the rest of the city laid out in a
hieratical concentric pattern (like the Burgess model) from government buildings,
homes of the wealthy, and businesses related to the religion out to other businesses
and shops.
Colonial cities: When the Europeans took over these lands, they changed the cities by
adding services to help the Europeans control the conquered people. Often a new
European style city would be build next to the existing native one. The new European
cities contained wider streets, a public square, larger houses and a much lower density.
The Spanish used the “Law of the Indies” which was a city plan designed specifically to
build cities in a “Spanish” style. (Gridiron pattern for streets centered on a church and
central plaza, walls around individual houses and neighborhoods centered around
smaller plazas and more churches.)
36

Early Mexico city was laid out in a grid pattern of streets. This followed
the Spanish “Law of the Indies.”

37

Central Plaza in Mexico City 1920 photo. Typical Colonial City plan.

Part of downtown Mexico city today still shows the
building plan of the “Law of the Indies.”

38

Cities since Independence: Following independence, cities have become
the focal point of the development of most LDC’s. Millions of people have
migrated to the cities (Primate cities) looking for jobs and services. Some
capitals have been moved to isolated areas in an attempt to help develop
that area of the country (Brasília) This is know as a forward capital. Latin
American cities have developed their own unique style.
Squatter settlements: The LDC’s are unable to house the rapidly growing
number of poor who are flowing into the cities. Because of the housing
shortages, the poor have constructed their own settlements around the city.
These settlements have few services because neither the city nor the
residents can afford them. Squatters have two basic choices for housing.
1. Illegally move into empty real houses located in the city or,
2. Rent slum housing.
(85% of the population of Addis Ababa in Ethiopia lives in squatter
settlements, slums or other illegal housing.)
39

Squatter shacks in Manila, the Philippines

40

Squatter settlement in Ethiopia

41

Zimbabwe, Africa

42

Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

43

Latin American City Model:
In many Latin
American cities,
the wealthy live in
the inner city and
in a sector
extending along a
commercial spine.
In situ accretion- businesses
and homes constantly under
construction/repair.
Zone of maturity-2nd best
housing in the city.
The poor live in squatter settlements on the
periphery of the city.

Disamenity- unpleasant area
used by the poor to get to the
market.

44

The City Outline of Rio de Janeiro
The rich tourist areas and expensive condo apartments are along the coast
and beach while the poor live in squatter shacks in the hills.

45

City problems:
Inner-City Physical Problems: Most US inner cities were constructed before the 1950’s
(people began to move to the suburbs in the 1950’s so new construction moved out of
the city).
Process of Deterioration (how a city deteriorates): A city doesn’t suddenly become old
and full of slummy areas. It happens over time. When a group of low-income people
inhabit an area of a city, nearby neighborhoods will often look to move out. They sell or
rent to more low-income occupants thus expanding the low-income area. Two processes
cause/speed up the devaluation of areas:
1. Filtering, 2. Redlining.
Filtering: Large houses and buildings that once housed rich downtown workers (who
moved to the suburbs) are taken over by landlords who don’t live in that area (they
moved to the suburbs too). Rents are low so the landlord doesn’t take as good care of
the property as they should and the property becomes run down or abandoned. Stores
close, or move, due to lack of sales. 100 years ago these neighborhoods would be used
by immigrants and ethnic businesses would succeed in those areas. Now, with a decline
in immigration, these neighborhoods have shrunk and so have schools, businesses and
other services. Thousands of vacant houses and buildings stand empty in inner cities
across America.

46

Redlining: Some banks refuse to give loans in what they consider
risky neighborhoods. They draw a red line on a map around areas
where they will not give loans. Without loans, these neighborhoods
have a hard time rebuilding/remodeling. Though illegal, this still
happens. Bankers just don’t put these “no-loan” areas on a map.

Urban Renewal: This is the series of projects to improve European
and N. American cities by buying up the blighted neighborhoods,
moving the people to new government built housing projects, and
building new roads, and other projects to make the inner city
attractive for business again. National and State government grants
help pay for these projects.
47

Public housing: Housing for the poor, built with government funding as part of
urban renewal. In the US this is only about 2% of the housing while in some
countries it may be more (Britain is 30%). Public housing built in the 50’s & 60’s
were largely high rise apartments, but those are seen as being unsatisfactory.
Problems arise from cramming large numbers of poor people into one area.
Today most public housing projects are one to three story buildings with many of
them being scattered around different parts of the city rather than clustered into
one area.
Because urban renewal has been criticized for destroying the social cohesion of
older neighborhoods, many governments (like the US) have stopped funding
most projects since the 1970’s. What do we do instead?
Renovated Housing: An alternative often used since the 70’s is to renovate a
building instead of urban renewal. The process where middle-class people
move into inner-city neighborhoods and renovate them is called gentrification.
Gentrified inner-city neighborhoods also attract middle-class people who work
downtown. Living close to work saves the hassle of commuting and rejuvenates
run down inner-city neighborhoods
48

Gentrified building downtown Harlem, NY. Note the supermarket.

49

Inner-City Social Problems: Inner-city residents are often referred to as the
permanent underclass because they are trapped in an unending cycle of
economic and social problems. High unemployment, alcoholism, drug
addiction, literacy, juvenile delinquency, and crime all exist at a higher rate
among those who live in the inner-city. Lack of jobs means lack of tax dollars
to pay for police and fire protection as well as good schools. Lack of job skills
and homelessness are also tremendous problems.
Culture of Poverty: Inner-city residents are trapped in a permanent underclass
culture that reproduces itself. In the US, unwed mothers give birth to 2/3 of the
babies in the inner-city. 90% of these children live with only one parent and it
is real hard for one parent to keep a job and take care of children. Both suffer
and a shortage of care and daily attention by the parent contributes to the kids
not learning the skills necessary to do well in school which leads to poor jobs
for their futures. Poverty leads to more poverty. Many families on welfare have
only one parent because it is financially better if one parent is gone, that way
the single parent gets food stamps and other services from the government
that they would not get if it was a 2 family household.
50

Crime: Trapped in a hopeless environment, some inner-city
residents turn to drugs. Drug use is a problem in inner-city
areas and the suburbs, but rates of drug use in inner-cities
are the highest.
Ethnic and Racial Segregation: As seen in chapter 7, many
neighborhoods in the US are segregated by ethnicity with
African Americans and Hispanics concentrated in one or two
continuous areas and whites living in the suburbs. Even small
cities display a strong distinction among neighborhoods. A
frequent division is between the east and west or north and
south side of town, or the railroad tracks. A family seeking a
new residence will seek the areas where the characteristics
of the people meet their own.

51

The exodus
from the
American city.
This has
happened in
many American
cities since the
1960’s.

52

Changes in Cities in the U.S.
U.S. population has been moving out of the city centers to the suburbs:
suburbanization and counter urbanization

Developed Countries: suburbanization

 wealthy move to suburbs
 automobiles and roads; ‘American
Dream’ of the home in the suburbs.
 better services
 wealthy move to suburbs
Counter urbanization

idyllic settings
cost of land for retirement
slow pace, yet high tech
connections to services and markets
53

U.S. intraregional migration during 1990s.

Inner city economic problems: the concentration of low income
residents in inner cities has caused economic problems. These
people require public services but can pay very little in taxes to
support the services. They need stores and jobs but have little
money to spend in the store and few skills for jobs (so the stores
close). To try to fight these problems many local and state
governments use tax monies to try to renovate these areas, but this
shifts tax money needed for other areas to the inner city (votes on
election day).
Annexation: Many cities could help their tax problem by adding the
new suburbs to be part of their city (annexation). After all, many of
these suburban people use the city for its’ jobs etc., so why not add
them into the city? Today, most people in the suburbs do not want
to be annexed into the city and so they do not vote to be annexed.
54

The Peripheral Model: According to this model, an urban area
consists of an inner city surrounded by large suburban residential
and business areas (MSA) tied together by a beltway or highway
that circles the city. Around the beltway are nodes of consumer
and business services called edge cities (see diagram of multiple
nuclei model). These edge cities sprang up to provide services
and jobs to the people in the suburbs.
Density Gradient: As you travel outward from the center of the
city, the density of people declines. Inner city has big apartments
of 250 of more people per acre. Suburbs have fewer people per
acre (but lots of acres) and finally you leave the cities periphery
you find few people. The number of houses per unit of land
diminishes as distance from the center of the city increases.
55

The Edge cities (bedroom communities) of Houston

The central city is surrounded by a ring road, around which are
suburban areas and edge cities, shopping malls, office parks,
industrial areas, and service complexes.

Known as
bedroom
communities
because
people live
there but
mostly don’t
work there.
They drive
into the city
for work.
56

As you move from the center of the city outward, the density of the population
changes. This is know as the density gradient. Two big changes have occurred in
the density gradient of today’s cities:
1. The number of people living in the center has decreased.
2. The density difference between the inner city and the suburbs is declining
because the inner city density is dropping and the suburban density is growing
due to more large apartments being built in the suburbs.
Cost of Suburban or Urban Sprawl: Urban Sprawl is the progressive spread of
development over the landscape. As long as we Americans want single-family
detached houses, land on the fringe of urban areas will be converted from open
space to residential use. The cost of this growth is more than the loss of land, it is
also the cost of new roads, utilities, building stores and offices and the cost of
automobiles to move these people over even longer distances. Lots of these new
developments are built on what was once farmland. Wonderful productive soil now
under concrete.

Greenbelts: are areas where, by law, the open space can not be used for any
construction. This is mostly found in Europe.

57

Once farmland that is being converted to suburbs and cities.

58

Tyson’s Corner Virginia in 1940

59

Washington, DC. MSA.

Tyson’s Corner Virginia
today.
Washington D.C. is off
In the distance.

60

Suburban Segregation: The “new” segregation.
Suburban segregation takes two forms:
1. Residents are separated from commercial and manufacturing activities
which are confined someplace else. (The whole neighborhood is
nothing but houses because they drive for services.)
2. The price of the house eliminates some from being able to live there. This
creates a homogeneous suburb of the same economic class of people.
This never existed before in history. Where we once had vertical
segregation of the classes we now we have horizontal segregation.
3. But this may be reversing as new statistics show that people are beginning
to move back to the city. Why? Cost of transportation.
Zoning Ordinances: This idea developed in Europe and later America in the
early decades of the 20th century. This means that businesses are allowed only
in certain areas of the settlement. (No all night taco stands inside your single
family neighborhood.)
Motor vehicles: The wide use of the automobile is largely responsible for the
American movement to the suburbs. Not only did people move out but 1/4 of
the land inside all American cities are now roads, streets, and parking lots.

61

Public Transportation: Because few US workers live within walking distance
of their jobs, urban areas are characterized by extensive commuting and the
problems that come with it. As much as 40% of all trips made into or out from
a city during the day takes place within just 4 hours. (2 in the morning and 2 in
the late afternoon). RUSH HOUR!!! In large cities, public transportation, like
subways and busses, are better suited to move people but Americans still
prefer their own cars. Public transportation is cheaper, cleaner, and more
energy efficient than personal cars, yet in the US only 5% of city travel is
done using public transit systems. American’s love their personal car too
much.
Local Government Fragmentation: Because of the large number of local
governments in the US (look at the settlements in Pinellas County) it is
difficult to solve some of the regional problems like garbage disposal, water
management, traffic and public housing.
62

Metropolitan government: This idea tries to put many local governments into a
larger unit that can better handle the urban problems. The 2 ways to do this
are:
1. Federations in which the individual settlements have their own police,
firemen, and tax collection but they all agree to be part of a second
government which handles transportation, water, sewage, parks and
welfare for all the communities.
2. Consolidations: In this method, several cities and the county may form one
government. Jacksonville’s government runs not only the town but the
county too, this makes Jacksonville the largest city, in land size, in the US.
Smart growth: A new movement by many states to curb suburban sprawl by
limiting where new construction can take place. Smart growth laws require that
land near cities be used up before any land further out can be developed. So
far, this is only being done an a few parts of our country.
63

The new
US as
some
people
see it.

64

Quiz Yourself:
1. The process where middle-class people move into inner city neighborhoods and
renovate them is called ____________
2. ____________ happens when banks refuse to give loans in what they consider
risky neighborhoods.
3. Because of the housing shortages, the poor have constructed their own settlements
around the city known as __________ _________

4. Businesses are allowed only in certain areas of the settlement because of
____________ ____________
5. Areas known as _____ _______ are areas of about 5,000 people. The data from
that area is used to help define needed services for that area.
6. When cities are so close that they form one continuous band of development this is
known as a ____________
65

7. Social relationships are often described as “colder” in urban areas because…
8. In this model the city develops in a series of sectors not rings. _______

9. ______ (LDC’s or MDC’s) have a higher percentage of people living in urban
settlements but ________ (LDC’s or MDC’s) have more of the very large urban
settlements.
10. _____________ was the first model developed to explain the distributions
of different social groups within urban areas.
11. New cities which develop around the beltway are nodes of consumer and
business services known as ________ _________.

12. When the Europeans took over lands around the world, they changed the
cities by adding services to help the Europeans control the conquered people.
These European planned cities are known as __________ cities.
66

Answer Key:
1.

Gentrification

2.

Redlining

3.

Squatter Settlements

4.

Zoning ordinances

5.

Census tracks

6.

Megalopolis

7. There is a stronger feeling of belonging together in small rural settlements.
8. Hoyt sector model
9. MDC, LDC
10. Burgess Concentric Zone model
11. Edge cities
12. Colonial cities
67

Test Key topic/chapter 13:
These questions come from a combination of our slides, your text book, and common knowledge you should
have discussed in your AP classroom. They are very typical of what you will see on the National Exam.
1) The multiple nuclei theory best explains why different neighborhoods of a city attract people of different… A) ages.
B) ethnic origin C) income D) marital status.
2) Sprawl is the… A) change in density within an urban area from the center to the periphery B) development of new
housing sites not contiguous to the existing built-up area. C) land maintained as open space surrounding an urban area.
D) period in the morning and evening with the heaviest volumes of traffic.
3) People are attracted to suburbs in part because suburbs are characterized by…A) heavy traffic. B) lower opportunity
for home ownership. C) private land surrounding the house. D) row houses and apartments.
4) Megalopolis refers to… A) adjacent, overlapping Metropolitan Statistical Areas. B) central cities. C) consolidated
Metropolitan Statistical Areas. D) central cities plus urbanized areas.
5) Which statement best describes the relationship between urbanization and the Industrial Revolution? A) Urbanization
promoted the Industrial Revolution. B) The Industrial Revolution promoted urbanization. C) Urbanization preceded the
Industrial Revolution by thousands of years. D) Urbanization and the Industrial Revolution are no longer related.
6) The process of legally adding land area to a city in the United States is… A) annexation. B) accreditation. C) an
application of eminent domain. D) defined by urbanized area.

68

7) The process of change in the use of a house, from single-family owner occupancy to abandonment, is… A) blockbusting.
B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining.
8) A process by which banks designate an area within which they refuse to lend money for improvements is… A) blockbusting.
B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining.
9) A recent change in the density gradient has been… A) the elimination of the gap traditionally found in the center. B) an
increase in the extremes between the inner and outer areas. C) an increase in the number of people living in the center.
D) a reduction in the differences in densities found within an urban area.
10) U.S. central cities face fiscal problems because… A) federal and state funds are available. B) low-income people are
concentrated there. C) middle-class families are attracted there. D) redlining is no longer legal.
11) A legal form of segregation in U.S. cities is achieved through...A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) zoning. D) greenbelts.
12) Factories have moved to suburban locations in part because of… A) access to main highways. B) adequate space to build
vertical structures. C) availability of large tracts of high-priced land. D) good rail connections.
13) According to the sector model, the best housing is located in…A) a corridor from downtown to the edge of the city.
B) an outer ring surrounding the city. C) nodes near universities and parks. D) renovated inner-city neighborhoods.
14) Ramshackle houses on the periphery of cities in less developed countries are known as… A) squatter settlements. B) council
estates. C) public housing. D) zone in transition.
15) Higher income people tend to live near the center of the city in all but which of the following regions? A) Latin America
B) North America C) South Asia D) Western Europe

16) The wide boulevards built in cities in less developed countries were most likely built during what era? A) pre-colonial
B) colonial C) independence D) all of the above equally

69

17) According to the multiple nuclei model, an airport is likely to attract nearby… A) industries. B) residences. C) shops.
D) universities.
18) The largest percentage of the U.S. population lives in…A) central cities. B) suburbs. C) non-metropolitan areas. D) all of the
above
19) In U.S. cities, the underclass is… A) clustered in inner-city neighborhoods. B) dispersed throughout the city. C) clustered in
suburbs. D) distributed uniformly in the city.

20) A process of converting a neighborhood from low-income to middle-class is…A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) gentrification.
D) redlining.
21) Higher social heterogeneity in urban settlements means that… A) the people with whom you relax are probably the same ones you
see at work. B) you play a specialized role in the urban economy. C) you compete for limited space. D) you may feel lonely and
isolated in a crowd.
22) The city plus its contiguous built-up suburbs is the… A) central city. B) urbanized area.
D) consolidated metropolitan statistical area

C) metropolitan statistical area.

23) The process whereby an increasing percentage of people live in an urban area is known as… A) demographic transition.
B) rank-size rule. C) urbanization. D) central place theory.
24) Of the ten largest urban areas in the world, how many are in More Developed Countries today? A) 1 B) 4 C) 7 D) 10 E) 2
25) Public housing is…A) conversion of low-income housing to middle-class housing. B) illegally established low-income housing.
C) housing that has changed from single-family owner occupancy to abandonment. D) low-income government-owned housing.
26) According to the concentric zone model, a city develops in a series of… A) corridors. B) nodes. C) rings. D) all of the above

70

27) Chicago is a good location in which to develop urban models because it is located… A) at the hub of the nation's transportation
system. B) in the center of the country. C) on a flat prairie. D) on the shore of Lake Michigan.
28) According to the sector model, the best housing is located in… A) a corridor from downtown to the edge of the city. B) an outer
ring surrounding the city. C) nodes near universities and parks. D) renovated inner-city neighborhoods.
29) The zone of transition in US cities generally contain…A) warehouses B) wealthy neighborhoods C) transportation hubs
D) universities and hospitals E) suburban homes
30) The attractions of shopping malls include all but which of the following? A) frequent concerts and exhibitions B) generous
parking lots C) place to meet friends D) walking distance from homes
The following questions are written at the high school level. You will find some questions from part one often rewritten
here. This is all designed to help you transition to the college/AP style of written questions. Any question preceded with ***
are questions that have been on the national exam before.
31. Most Latin American cities are focused on a…A) central plaza B) government housing project C) zone of heavy industry
D) skyscraper office building E) squatter settlement
32. The multiple-nuclei model of a city structure tends to be most applicable to…A) small cities B) traditional C) Latin American
cities D) newer, fast growing cities E) cities with homogeneous land use
33. ***Locational advantages important to the development of the earliest cities include…A) availability of good harbors for large
ships B) productive agricultural land and defensible sites C) temperate climate and proximity to coal mines D) good
connections by road and canal E) proximity to manufacturing areas

34. In cities, the CBD’s often show uniqueness while the suburbs usually show…A) a large hinterland. B) placelessness C) more
than one node. D) newer zones of transition.

71

35. Many LDC’s have tried to help a previously under-developed part of their country develop by moving their capital
city to that area. This new capital is known as a…A) forward capital B) new development zone C) enterprise zone
D) neocolonial city
36. Today the greatest number of urban dwellers is found in…A) North America
D) Europe E) Asia

B) South America C) Africa

37. ***All of the following have helped create ghettos in North American cities except…A)blockbusting and racial
steering B) redlining by financial institutions C) concentration of public housing and social services D) fixed school
districts E) Economic Enterprise Zones

38. Which of the following is NOT as reason for rapid suburbanization in the US after WW2? A) Mass production of
the automobile B) Reduction of long distance commuting C) Expansion of home construction D) Expansion of the
interstate highway system E) Availability of low down payment terms and long-term mortgages.
39. New cities which developed in the hinterland of large urban areas because of the automobile, are known as…
A) edge cities B) census tracts C) suburban sprawl D) squatter settlements. E) none of these
40. Gentrification refers to… A) moving the homeless into inner city shelters B) The “White Flight” from the urban city
C) losing tax revenue because of stores closing in downtown areas D) middle-class people moving into and renovating
inner city neighborhoods E) the creation of “beltway cities” around the city.

72

4
7
3

5

1
6

2

41-48 all use the sketch above.
41. The sketch in box A above represents which model of the inner structure of urban areas?
C) multiple nuclei model D) Burgess concentric zone model E) peripheral model
42. The models in boxes B and C represent A) Concentric zone and multiple nuclei
concentric zone D) peripheral and concentric zone E) Von Thunen and peripheral

A) Hoyt sector model B) VonThunen’s model

B) Multiple nuclei and Hoyt sector C) Hoyt sector and

43. In which ring (1, 2, etc.) of sketch A above would high-status households in North American cities likely live? A) 1 B) 2 C) 3 D) 4&5
44. In which ring (1, 2, etc.) of sketch A above would high status households in a European city likely live? A) 1

B) 2

C) 3

D) 4&5

45. In model B, zone # 2 is where it is likely because of: A) greenbelting B) squatter settling C) the culture of poverty D) transportation
E) no one knows
46. The model in sketch B is the; A) Hoyt sector model B) Burgess model C) multiple nuclei model D) peripheral model
47. The model in sketch C is the; A) Hoyt sector model B) Burgess model C) multiple nuclei model D) peripheral model
48. Which of these models best describes what has happened in US cities in the last 40 years? A)

B)

C)

73

49.*** In the U.S. a city plus its contiguous built-up suburbs is known as an…A) urbanized area B) zoned area
C) census tract D) Squatter settlement E) none of these
50. Done mostly in Europe, these are areas where land is kept as parks, farms or other kinds of open space and urban
sprawl is not allowed. A) Smart growth
B) zoning
C) filtering
D) census tracts E) greenbelts
51. Which statement best describes the relationship between urbanization and the Industrial Revolution?
A) Urbanization promoted the Industrial Revolution. B) The Industrial Revolution promoted urbanization.
C) Urbanization preceded the Industrial Revolution by thousands of years. D) Urbanization and the Industrial
Revolution are no longer related.
52. The process whereby an increasing percentage of people live in an urban area is known as…
A) Demographic transition. B) rank-size rule. C) Urbanization. D) Central place theory.
53. The city (if it has 50,000 or more people) plus its contiguous built-up suburbs AND the county it is in as well as any
other counties it influences, is known as the ...A) central city B) urbanized area
C) metropolitan statistical area
D) consolidated metropolitan area E) micropolitan statistical area
54. ***Higher social heterogeneity in urban settlements means that …A) the people with whom you relax are probably
the same ones you see at work. B) you play a specialized role in the urban economy. C) you compete for limited
space. D) you may feel lonely and isolated in a crowd.

55. The process of change in the use of a house, from single-family owner occupancy to smaller dwellings for the poor
and then sometimes to abandonment, is…A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining. E) none of
these

74

Free Response #1:
The Bid Rent theory says that the closer you get to the
CBD the higher the cost for land, yet in most American
cities you find the poorest people living near the
expensive CBD and the richest living further away.
Explain:
A. Why neighborhoods near the CBD are often poor and
run down?
B. Why are there few grocery and other retail stores in
these neighborhoods?
C. Why is this not really true in European and Latin
American countries?

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75

FR #2:
Think of the map of your school, explain the
layout of your school using the Multiple Nuclei
Model
The main office is the CBD.
Completely explain your answer using specific
buildings and/or land areas in your explanation
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76

Answer Key:
1. B

14. A

27. C

40. D

53. C

2. B

15. B

28. A

41. D

54. D

3. C

16. B

29. A

42. B

55. B

4. A

17. A

30. D

43. D

5. B

18. B

31. A

44. A

6. A

19. A

32. D

45. D

7. B

20. C

33. B

46. A

8. D

21. D

34. B

47. C

9. D

22. B

35. A

48. C

10. B

23. C

36. E

49. A

11. C

24. C

37. E

50. E

12. A

25. D

38. B

51. B

13. A

26. C

39. A

52. C
77

FR. #1: ( 15 pts. for each section…total of 45 pts.)
A. In the US the move of the wealthy and middle class to the suburbs has left the older houses and apartments near the CBD empty.
This has lowered their value to the point where the poor can afford these dwellings and have made these neighborhoods their
homes. The poor can not pay for upkeep of these dwellings, or to pay high taxes. The lack of upkeep and tax money to repair the
roads and schools, adds to the downward spiral of the neighborhood. With little spending money for shopping, the poor do not
spend much in the stores. This causes many stores to close and move to the suburbs where the spending customers and money
went. The closing of the stores adds to the poverty of the area by taking away some of the jobs that were in the neighborhood. This
becomes a vicious cycle of poverty and deterioration. (15 points)

B. There are few retail stores and groceries is the area because the poor do not have money to shop. The lack of spending forces
many stores out of business or forces them to move to better locations. There also can be higher crime in these areas and the
crime often takes place at the stores. This is another reason for the stores to move out of the neighborhood. (15 points)
C. Neighborhoods in European and Latin American cities are different from those of US cities. In Europe and Latin America, the
wealthy and middle class still live near or in the CBD. The higher tax base and more spending ability of the upper and middle
classes, keeps the CBD area flourishing with jobs and in constant repair and upkeep of the cities’ physical condition. (15 points)

FR #2: (10 total points.)
You will need to judge how effectively you displayed you school
in the Multiple Nuclei Model. Refer to the model itself to help you
determine your success and grade.
School’s main office
78

Calculating your grade on test 13.
Add how many you got correct on the multiple choice part (55 possible) to how many
points you scored on the FR portion (55 possible)…110 total.
The following scale will show the approximate score if this test were the real AP exam. Remember that this
is an approximation. While 65-74% is normally the range for a 3 on the test, it is not definite. Over the
years I have seen scores as low as 60% be the low portion of a 3 score.

Out of 110 possible points:
72-83 is most likely a 3
84-94 is most likely a 4

95-110 is most likely a 5

Now lets start our review for the national exam by
reviewing the 33 key models and theories of the
course…the next PowerPoint.


Slide 43

Key topic/chapter 13…Urban Patterns
Key terms:
Annexation
Concentric zone model
Density gradient
Edge cities
Filtering
Galactic city
Gentrification
Greenbelts
Megalopolis
MSA
Multiple nuclei model
Peripheral model

Public housing
Redlining
Renovated housing
Scattered site
Squatter settlement
Sector model
Smart growth
Sprawl
Underclass
Urban renewal
Zone in transition
Zoning
1

Chapter 13…Urban Areas.
How are Cities planned?
Why

are cities where they are?
How are they organized?
Why are some areas of a city
different from
other areas of the same city?
What is the future of cities?
2

Settlement


Settlement - permanent collections of buildings,
where people live, work, and obtain services

3

ORIGINS OF SETTLEMENTS


Religious - graves, churches, temples



Cultural - schools, libraries



Political/Military - leader’s house, walls



Economic - stores, food
4

TYPES OF SETTLEMENTS


Rural Settlements - agriculture as the
predominant occupation.



Urban settlements - principal industries are
secondary and tertiary.

5

RURAL SETTLEMENTS
Clustered rural settlements –grouped
settlements in rural areas to minimize travel

Dispersed rural Settlements - isolated farms
with enclosed continuous fields (Found only in
N. America and Britain).

6

Urban Geographers want to know the global distribution of urban
settlements. MDC’s have a high percentage of people living in urban
areas because of the shift from agriculture-manufacturing-services.
Geographers are also interested in where people and activities are
distributed within urban spaces. What are the differences between the
inner-city and suburban areas and why?
As we saw in the last chapter, many downtowns are unique and can
often be recognized in photos where the suburbs often look very
much alike (Placelessness). Why? Suburbs offer the chance to avoid
some of the city problems (crime, tight living area, expensive
land/rent, noise, age of buildings) while still keeping a connection with
the goods and services of the city: jobs, sports teams, culture, shops,
recreation, etc.
7

Where is this place?

8

Today’s cities are evolving and changing. Although different internal
situations characterize urban areas in the US and elsewhere, the
problems arising from current spatial trends are quite similar in all cities.
Where have urban areas grown: in the early 1800’s only 3% of the earth’s
people lived in cities and only Beijing China had more than 1 million
people. Today over ½ of the world’s people live in cities and we have over
400 cities of at least 1 million people.

Urbanization: is the process by which city population grows.
Cities population growth is measured in 2 dimensions;
1. An increase in the number of people living in the cities.
2. An increase in the percentage of people living in the cities.
This distinction is important because they happen for different reason and
have different global distributions.
9

Increasing Percentage of People in Cities: a large percentage of people living in urban
areas is a measure of a country’s level of development. In MDC’s about ¾ of the people
live in urban areas compared to about 2/5 of people in LDC’s. (Except in Latin America
where the level is closer to MDC’s.)
The higher percentage of people in urban areas comes from the changes that have
occurred in the last 200 years as we went from agriculture (primary jobs) to industrial
(secondary jobs) and now service jobs, all created by the Industrial Revolution of the
1800’s.
People moved to the cities for industrial jobs, but in MDC’s this process has largely
ended because nearly everyone interested in moving to the cities from farms has already
done so.
In LDC’s the percentage of people living in urban areas is growing as people are pushed
off of their farms and replaced by machines and as people move to cities looking/hoping
for industrial jobs.
10

Increasing Number of People in Cities: MDC’s have a higher percentage of
people living in urban settlements but LDC’s have more of the very large urban
settlements (Primate cities). (Rank-size rule, primate cities, chapter 12.)

This is interesting because typically the large cities are created from the
improvements brought by the Industrial Revolution. This is not the case with the
large LDC cities. Migration to the primate city in LDC’s is happening even though
job opportunities may not be available. Increasing the population growth in LDC
cities is the fact that medical services are better in these cities, thus the child
mortality rate is lower.
Defining Urban Settlements: defining where urban areas end and rural areas
begin is not easy. Geographers have formulated definitions that distinguish
between urban and rural areas in two ways: Social differences and Physical
differences.
11

Percent Urban Population

Percent of the population living in urban areas is usually higher in MDCs
than in LDCs.

12

The most populated cities in the world

Of the top
20, only
Moscow,
Tokyo and
New York
are in MDC’s

Shanghai China has 14,608,512 people
13

14

15

Social Differences Between Urban and Rural Settlements: it is fair to say that rural
people and urban people follow different ways of life. A city can be defined as having 3
characteristics:
1. Large size. People in rural settlements know most of the other people in the
settlement. Not true in big cities. Social relationships are often described as “colder” in
urban areas because you only see some people at work instead of growing up with
them in the settlement.
2. High Density. Having lots of people in a tiny area creates social consequences. A
high density of people living in a small area can only be supported if the people
specialize (they can’t all be farmers). People are encouraged to compete for jobs, room,
and survival in a tightly limited space. Social groups compete to occupy the same space
(ethnic/ race problems). Rural settlements have very little of this problem.
3. Social Heterogeneity. The larger the settlement, the greater the variety of people.
Being “unusual” in a large settlement is more likely to be accepted than in a small rural
one. But despite the freedom to be different that large urban settlements give you,
people living there often feel alone because so many people are different from them.
There is a stronger feeling of belonging together in small rural settlements.
16

These 3 differences do not fully answer the question of where urban settlements
begin and rural ones end because in today’s MDC’s most everyone has access to
cars, telephones, televisions, and “urban type” jobs which reduce the differences
between urban and rural lifestyles. “City folk” and “Country folk” are more alike
today than they are different. To help distinguish between urban and rural areas we
need to add the physical definition of rural and urban to the equation.
Physical Definitions of Urban Settlements: In ancient time, cities had defensive
walls for protection which clearly defined the physical boundaries of the city. Today
the walls are gone but we can still define the physical boundaries in 3 ways:
1. Legal boundary. These are the official boundaries of a city as recognized by
the government of the country or state. These “city limits” have been officially given
to the city and are physically marked on official maps. The local government of the
city has authority to make laws and protect the people inside the city boundaries.
17

2. Urbanized area. This is the city plus its suburbs or urbanized area that
surrounds the city. About 70 percent of US residents live in urbanized areas with
40% being in the suburbs and 30% inside the city limits. The suburbs may have
their own city governments but the huge central city dominates what happens in
the entire area.
3. Metropolitan Statistical Area. Cities have an even bigger influence on people
than just those living in their city limits and surrounding urbanized areas. People
from far away come to shop, use the services, support the sports teams, read
the newspapers and watch the television broadcasts of the city. Thus the city
has a “functional area” which is its total zone of influence. The US Bureau of
Census has created a method of measuring the functional area of the city.
Known as the Metropolitan statistical area (MSA) this area includes:
•An urbanized area with a population of at least 50,000
•The county within which the city is located.
•Adjacent counties with a high population density and a large percentage of
residents working in the central city’s county.
18

Metropolitan Area of Philadelphia

City of
Philadelphia

Urbanized
area
(suburbs)
Metropolitan
Statistical
Area

The metropolitan area of Philadelphia is
spread over several counties and four states.
It is also a diversified trade center, given its
position on the Delaware river.

19

20

21

Micropolitan Statistical Areas: Smaller areas with between
10,000 and 50,000 people, the county where it is found, and
adjacent counties tied to the city. This would be a small town and
the area dominated by it.
Overlapping Metropolitan Areas: Some adjacent MSA’s overlap.
A county between two central cities may send a large number of
commuters to jobs in both cities. In some areas the cities are so
close that they form one continuous urban complex. This is
known as a Megalopolis (great city).
In a megalopolis, the downtown CBD often has its own
distinctive look and the urban areas are visually separated by
parks, open spaces, and dairy/truck farms. But at the periphery
of the urban areas, the boundaries overlap.
22

Colorado Springs, population 431,000

Ocala, Florida, population 56,000

Florala, Alabama, population 1,900

23

Megalopolis, from northern Va. To Maine.
This Illustrates the
difference between
strict city proper
definitions and broader
urban agglomerations.
To define urbanized
areas, the U.S. Census
Bureau uses the term
Metropolitan Statistical
Area (MSA) or
Consolidated MSA
(CMSA) if two or more of
them overlap.
24

Where are People Distributed within Urban Areas? People are not
just distributed at random in urban areas. For the most part they
concentrate in particular neighborhoods depending on their social
characteristics. Geographers want to see where people with
particular characteristics are likely to live and why.

Three models which try to explain the growth of a city:

The Burgess Model

The Hoyt Sector Model

The Harris and Ullman
multiple Nuclei Model
25

Burgess Concentric Zone Model

In the concentric zone model, a city grows in a series of rings surrounding the CBD.

Burgess Concentric Zone Model: This is the first used to explain the
distributions of different social groups within urban areas. It says that a
city grows outward from a central place in a series of concentric rings.
The precise size and width of the rings vary from one city to another, but
some basic types of rings appear in all cities in the same order (see chart
above).
26

•Hoyt Sector Model: In this model the city develops in a
series of sectors not rings. Certain areas of the city are
more attractive for various activities, originally because
of an environmental factor (or even pure chance). As the
city grows, activities extend outward in a wedge shape.
For example, once a wealthy neighborhood is built the
next wealthy neighborhood will extend from the first
neighborhood further outward from the center. In this
way, the best housing is found in a corridor extending
outward from the center to the outer edge (see chart on
the next page).
27

The Hoyt Sector Model

In the sector model, a city grows in a series of
wedges or corridors extending out from the
CBD.
28

•Harris and Ullman’s Multiple Nuclei Model: According
to this model, a city is a complex structure that includes
more than one center around which activities revolve.
Examples of these nodes include a port, parks,
stadium, neighborhood business center, university, and
airport (see chart). This theory states that some
activities are attracted to particular nodes, whereas
others try to avoid them. A university node may attract
well educated people and bookstores while the port will
attract hotels and warehouses. Heavy industry and
expensive houses rarely are found together. This
model shows the effect of the automobile more than
any other model.
29

The Harris and Ullman Multiple Nuclei model

The multiple nuclei model views a city as a
collection of individual centers, around which
different people and activities cluster.

30

Applications of the Models: The three models help explain where and in some
cases, why people live where they do. None of the models by themselves fully
explains why and where different types of people live, but combined they give
you as good a look as possible at the “Why” of “Where.” Effective use of the
models depends on getting good data on the areas. Most countries take a
census every 10 years to help determine useful data about the people and
places of the country. In our country we divide the census data into areas
known as census tracts of about 5,000 people. Each census tract has the data
that summarizes the characteristics of the people living within that tract. This
information includes things like the race, income, age, and education of the
people living in that tract.
Social Area Analysis: The data from the census tracts can all be plotted onto
maps to show the characteristics of the people living in that tract. This map is
known as a social area analysis.
31

Using Census tract information…Seattle, Washington
Each lined area is a
census tract of about 5000
people in Seattle
Washington. These maps
show average household
income for 1990 and
2000…note the changes in
income in some areas
between 1990 and 2000.
Using this information, a
business can make
decisions about where
they want to locate a new
store or the future of
existing stores.
You can find census tract
information on many topics
such as; age, education
level, race, ethnicity, crime
rate, and land ownership.
Note the areas with
incomes over
$63,000.

All can be very valuable
information to people
looking to open
businesses.

32

Examine the changes
between 1990 and
2000.

Oakland, California’s Ethnic neighborhoods
The small bordered areas are census tracks of 5000 people.

33

Use of the Models Outside of North America: The 3 models will also work in other
places in the world; however social groups in other countries may not have the
same reasons for selecting particular neighborhoods as Americans do.
European Cities: As in the US, wealthier people in European cities cluster along a
sector extending outward from the CBD, however unlike the US, wealthy and
middle class Europeans still live in the inner rings of the neighborhoods near the
CBD not out in the suburbs. In the past, poorer people lived in the center of the
city. Before electricity, social segregation was vertical: richer people lived on the
first or second floor of a building while the poorer people lived in the basement or
upper floors. In the Industrial Revolution, housing for the poor was constructed
near the factories and away from the rich.
Today poorer Europeans are less likely to live in the inner-city. Poor quality
housing has been renovated for the rich or turned into office buildings. Poorer
Europeans tend to live in the outskirts of the city. Vast suburbs with dozens of high
rise apartments house the poor. They face long commutes to reach their jobs in
the city.
34

European cities generally do not have the “suburban
sprawl” that US cities have. European cities tend to be
more pedestrian friendly with more parks downtown as
Europeans tend to still live downtown.
US cities have taller buildings as European cities tend to
be older and more historic.

American cities have more ethnic neighborhoods than
European cities. Ethnic neighborhoods that do exist in
European cities tend to be in the suburbs. WHY?
Because the established richer neighborhoods tend to be
downtown in European cities.
35

Less Developed Countries: Like Europe, most LDC’s accommodate their poor in the
suburbs with their middle class and rich living near the center of the city. LDC’s have
passed through 3 periods of city building: before the Europeans arrived, during the
period of European colonialism, and since independence from European control.

Pre-colonial Cities: Before the Europeans arrived few cities existed in Africa, Asia, and
Latin America and most people lived in small rural settlements. Those cities that existed
were mostly laid out surrounding a religious center; with the rest of the city laid out in a
hieratical concentric pattern (like the Burgess model) from government buildings,
homes of the wealthy, and businesses related to the religion out to other businesses
and shops.
Colonial cities: When the Europeans took over these lands, they changed the cities by
adding services to help the Europeans control the conquered people. Often a new
European style city would be build next to the existing native one. The new European
cities contained wider streets, a public square, larger houses and a much lower density.
The Spanish used the “Law of the Indies” which was a city plan designed specifically to
build cities in a “Spanish” style. (Gridiron pattern for streets centered on a church and
central plaza, walls around individual houses and neighborhoods centered around
smaller plazas and more churches.)
36

Early Mexico city was laid out in a grid pattern of streets. This followed
the Spanish “Law of the Indies.”

37

Central Plaza in Mexico City 1920 photo. Typical Colonial City plan.

Part of downtown Mexico city today still shows the
building plan of the “Law of the Indies.”

38

Cities since Independence: Following independence, cities have become
the focal point of the development of most LDC’s. Millions of people have
migrated to the cities (Primate cities) looking for jobs and services. Some
capitals have been moved to isolated areas in an attempt to help develop
that area of the country (Brasília) This is know as a forward capital. Latin
American cities have developed their own unique style.
Squatter settlements: The LDC’s are unable to house the rapidly growing
number of poor who are flowing into the cities. Because of the housing
shortages, the poor have constructed their own settlements around the city.
These settlements have few services because neither the city nor the
residents can afford them. Squatters have two basic choices for housing.
1. Illegally move into empty real houses located in the city or,
2. Rent slum housing.
(85% of the population of Addis Ababa in Ethiopia lives in squatter
settlements, slums or other illegal housing.)
39

Squatter shacks in Manila, the Philippines

40

Squatter settlement in Ethiopia

41

Zimbabwe, Africa

42

Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

43

Latin American City Model:
In many Latin
American cities,
the wealthy live in
the inner city and
in a sector
extending along a
commercial spine.
In situ accretion- businesses
and homes constantly under
construction/repair.
Zone of maturity-2nd best
housing in the city.
The poor live in squatter settlements on the
periphery of the city.

Disamenity- unpleasant area
used by the poor to get to the
market.

44

The City Outline of Rio de Janeiro
The rich tourist areas and expensive condo apartments are along the coast
and beach while the poor live in squatter shacks in the hills.

45

City problems:
Inner-City Physical Problems: Most US inner cities were constructed before the 1950’s
(people began to move to the suburbs in the 1950’s so new construction moved out of
the city).
Process of Deterioration (how a city deteriorates): A city doesn’t suddenly become old
and full of slummy areas. It happens over time. When a group of low-income people
inhabit an area of a city, nearby neighborhoods will often look to move out. They sell or
rent to more low-income occupants thus expanding the low-income area. Two processes
cause/speed up the devaluation of areas:
1. Filtering, 2. Redlining.
Filtering: Large houses and buildings that once housed rich downtown workers (who
moved to the suburbs) are taken over by landlords who don’t live in that area (they
moved to the suburbs too). Rents are low so the landlord doesn’t take as good care of
the property as they should and the property becomes run down or abandoned. Stores
close, or move, due to lack of sales. 100 years ago these neighborhoods would be used
by immigrants and ethnic businesses would succeed in those areas. Now, with a decline
in immigration, these neighborhoods have shrunk and so have schools, businesses and
other services. Thousands of vacant houses and buildings stand empty in inner cities
across America.

46

Redlining: Some banks refuse to give loans in what they consider
risky neighborhoods. They draw a red line on a map around areas
where they will not give loans. Without loans, these neighborhoods
have a hard time rebuilding/remodeling. Though illegal, this still
happens. Bankers just don’t put these “no-loan” areas on a map.

Urban Renewal: This is the series of projects to improve European
and N. American cities by buying up the blighted neighborhoods,
moving the people to new government built housing projects, and
building new roads, and other projects to make the inner city
attractive for business again. National and State government grants
help pay for these projects.
47

Public housing: Housing for the poor, built with government funding as part of
urban renewal. In the US this is only about 2% of the housing while in some
countries it may be more (Britain is 30%). Public housing built in the 50’s & 60’s
were largely high rise apartments, but those are seen as being unsatisfactory.
Problems arise from cramming large numbers of poor people into one area.
Today most public housing projects are one to three story buildings with many of
them being scattered around different parts of the city rather than clustered into
one area.
Because urban renewal has been criticized for destroying the social cohesion of
older neighborhoods, many governments (like the US) have stopped funding
most projects since the 1970’s. What do we do instead?
Renovated Housing: An alternative often used since the 70’s is to renovate a
building instead of urban renewal. The process where middle-class people
move into inner-city neighborhoods and renovate them is called gentrification.
Gentrified inner-city neighborhoods also attract middle-class people who work
downtown. Living close to work saves the hassle of commuting and rejuvenates
run down inner-city neighborhoods
48

Gentrified building downtown Harlem, NY. Note the supermarket.

49

Inner-City Social Problems: Inner-city residents are often referred to as the
permanent underclass because they are trapped in an unending cycle of
economic and social problems. High unemployment, alcoholism, drug
addiction, literacy, juvenile delinquency, and crime all exist at a higher rate
among those who live in the inner-city. Lack of jobs means lack of tax dollars
to pay for police and fire protection as well as good schools. Lack of job skills
and homelessness are also tremendous problems.
Culture of Poverty: Inner-city residents are trapped in a permanent underclass
culture that reproduces itself. In the US, unwed mothers give birth to 2/3 of the
babies in the inner-city. 90% of these children live with only one parent and it
is real hard for one parent to keep a job and take care of children. Both suffer
and a shortage of care and daily attention by the parent contributes to the kids
not learning the skills necessary to do well in school which leads to poor jobs
for their futures. Poverty leads to more poverty. Many families on welfare have
only one parent because it is financially better if one parent is gone, that way
the single parent gets food stamps and other services from the government
that they would not get if it was a 2 family household.
50

Crime: Trapped in a hopeless environment, some inner-city
residents turn to drugs. Drug use is a problem in inner-city
areas and the suburbs, but rates of drug use in inner-cities
are the highest.
Ethnic and Racial Segregation: As seen in chapter 7, many
neighborhoods in the US are segregated by ethnicity with
African Americans and Hispanics concentrated in one or two
continuous areas and whites living in the suburbs. Even small
cities display a strong distinction among neighborhoods. A
frequent division is between the east and west or north and
south side of town, or the railroad tracks. A family seeking a
new residence will seek the areas where the characteristics
of the people meet their own.

51

The exodus
from the
American city.
This has
happened in
many American
cities since the
1960’s.

52

Changes in Cities in the U.S.
U.S. population has been moving out of the city centers to the suburbs:
suburbanization and counter urbanization

Developed Countries: suburbanization

 wealthy move to suburbs
 automobiles and roads; ‘American
Dream’ of the home in the suburbs.
 better services
 wealthy move to suburbs
Counter urbanization

idyllic settings
cost of land for retirement
slow pace, yet high tech
connections to services and markets
53

U.S. intraregional migration during 1990s.

Inner city economic problems: the concentration of low income
residents in inner cities has caused economic problems. These
people require public services but can pay very little in taxes to
support the services. They need stores and jobs but have little
money to spend in the store and few skills for jobs (so the stores
close). To try to fight these problems many local and state
governments use tax monies to try to renovate these areas, but this
shifts tax money needed for other areas to the inner city (votes on
election day).
Annexation: Many cities could help their tax problem by adding the
new suburbs to be part of their city (annexation). After all, many of
these suburban people use the city for its’ jobs etc., so why not add
them into the city? Today, most people in the suburbs do not want
to be annexed into the city and so they do not vote to be annexed.
54

The Peripheral Model: According to this model, an urban area
consists of an inner city surrounded by large suburban residential
and business areas (MSA) tied together by a beltway or highway
that circles the city. Around the beltway are nodes of consumer
and business services called edge cities (see diagram of multiple
nuclei model). These edge cities sprang up to provide services
and jobs to the people in the suburbs.
Density Gradient: As you travel outward from the center of the
city, the density of people declines. Inner city has big apartments
of 250 of more people per acre. Suburbs have fewer people per
acre (but lots of acres) and finally you leave the cities periphery
you find few people. The number of houses per unit of land
diminishes as distance from the center of the city increases.
55

The Edge cities (bedroom communities) of Houston

The central city is surrounded by a ring road, around which are
suburban areas and edge cities, shopping malls, office parks,
industrial areas, and service complexes.

Known as
bedroom
communities
because
people live
there but
mostly don’t
work there.
They drive
into the city
for work.
56

As you move from the center of the city outward, the density of the population
changes. This is know as the density gradient. Two big changes have occurred in
the density gradient of today’s cities:
1. The number of people living in the center has decreased.
2. The density difference between the inner city and the suburbs is declining
because the inner city density is dropping and the suburban density is growing
due to more large apartments being built in the suburbs.
Cost of Suburban or Urban Sprawl: Urban Sprawl is the progressive spread of
development over the landscape. As long as we Americans want single-family
detached houses, land on the fringe of urban areas will be converted from open
space to residential use. The cost of this growth is more than the loss of land, it is
also the cost of new roads, utilities, building stores and offices and the cost of
automobiles to move these people over even longer distances. Lots of these new
developments are built on what was once farmland. Wonderful productive soil now
under concrete.

Greenbelts: are areas where, by law, the open space can not be used for any
construction. This is mostly found in Europe.

57

Once farmland that is being converted to suburbs and cities.

58

Tyson’s Corner Virginia in 1940

59

Washington, DC. MSA.

Tyson’s Corner Virginia
today.
Washington D.C. is off
In the distance.

60

Suburban Segregation: The “new” segregation.
Suburban segregation takes two forms:
1. Residents are separated from commercial and manufacturing activities
which are confined someplace else. (The whole neighborhood is
nothing but houses because they drive for services.)
2. The price of the house eliminates some from being able to live there. This
creates a homogeneous suburb of the same economic class of people.
This never existed before in history. Where we once had vertical
segregation of the classes we now we have horizontal segregation.
3. But this may be reversing as new statistics show that people are beginning
to move back to the city. Why? Cost of transportation.
Zoning Ordinances: This idea developed in Europe and later America in the
early decades of the 20th century. This means that businesses are allowed only
in certain areas of the settlement. (No all night taco stands inside your single
family neighborhood.)
Motor vehicles: The wide use of the automobile is largely responsible for the
American movement to the suburbs. Not only did people move out but 1/4 of
the land inside all American cities are now roads, streets, and parking lots.

61

Public Transportation: Because few US workers live within walking distance
of their jobs, urban areas are characterized by extensive commuting and the
problems that come with it. As much as 40% of all trips made into or out from
a city during the day takes place within just 4 hours. (2 in the morning and 2 in
the late afternoon). RUSH HOUR!!! In large cities, public transportation, like
subways and busses, are better suited to move people but Americans still
prefer their own cars. Public transportation is cheaper, cleaner, and more
energy efficient than personal cars, yet in the US only 5% of city travel is
done using public transit systems. American’s love their personal car too
much.
Local Government Fragmentation: Because of the large number of local
governments in the US (look at the settlements in Pinellas County) it is
difficult to solve some of the regional problems like garbage disposal, water
management, traffic and public housing.
62

Metropolitan government: This idea tries to put many local governments into a
larger unit that can better handle the urban problems. The 2 ways to do this
are:
1. Federations in which the individual settlements have their own police,
firemen, and tax collection but they all agree to be part of a second
government which handles transportation, water, sewage, parks and
welfare for all the communities.
2. Consolidations: In this method, several cities and the county may form one
government. Jacksonville’s government runs not only the town but the
county too, this makes Jacksonville the largest city, in land size, in the US.
Smart growth: A new movement by many states to curb suburban sprawl by
limiting where new construction can take place. Smart growth laws require that
land near cities be used up before any land further out can be developed. So
far, this is only being done an a few parts of our country.
63

The new
US as
some
people
see it.

64

Quiz Yourself:
1. The process where middle-class people move into inner city neighborhoods and
renovate them is called ____________
2. ____________ happens when banks refuse to give loans in what they consider
risky neighborhoods.
3. Because of the housing shortages, the poor have constructed their own settlements
around the city known as __________ _________

4. Businesses are allowed only in certain areas of the settlement because of
____________ ____________
5. Areas known as _____ _______ are areas of about 5,000 people. The data from
that area is used to help define needed services for that area.
6. When cities are so close that they form one continuous band of development this is
known as a ____________
65

7. Social relationships are often described as “colder” in urban areas because…
8. In this model the city develops in a series of sectors not rings. _______

9. ______ (LDC’s or MDC’s) have a higher percentage of people living in urban
settlements but ________ (LDC’s or MDC’s) have more of the very large urban
settlements.
10. _____________ was the first model developed to explain the distributions
of different social groups within urban areas.
11. New cities which develop around the beltway are nodes of consumer and
business services known as ________ _________.

12. When the Europeans took over lands around the world, they changed the
cities by adding services to help the Europeans control the conquered people.
These European planned cities are known as __________ cities.
66

Answer Key:
1.

Gentrification

2.

Redlining

3.

Squatter Settlements

4.

Zoning ordinances

5.

Census tracks

6.

Megalopolis

7. There is a stronger feeling of belonging together in small rural settlements.
8. Hoyt sector model
9. MDC, LDC
10. Burgess Concentric Zone model
11. Edge cities
12. Colonial cities
67

Test Key topic/chapter 13:
These questions come from a combination of our slides, your text book, and common knowledge you should
have discussed in your AP classroom. They are very typical of what you will see on the National Exam.
1) The multiple nuclei theory best explains why different neighborhoods of a city attract people of different… A) ages.
B) ethnic origin C) income D) marital status.
2) Sprawl is the… A) change in density within an urban area from the center to the periphery B) development of new
housing sites not contiguous to the existing built-up area. C) land maintained as open space surrounding an urban area.
D) period in the morning and evening with the heaviest volumes of traffic.
3) People are attracted to suburbs in part because suburbs are characterized by…A) heavy traffic. B) lower opportunity
for home ownership. C) private land surrounding the house. D) row houses and apartments.
4) Megalopolis refers to… A) adjacent, overlapping Metropolitan Statistical Areas. B) central cities. C) consolidated
Metropolitan Statistical Areas. D) central cities plus urbanized areas.
5) Which statement best describes the relationship between urbanization and the Industrial Revolution? A) Urbanization
promoted the Industrial Revolution. B) The Industrial Revolution promoted urbanization. C) Urbanization preceded the
Industrial Revolution by thousands of years. D) Urbanization and the Industrial Revolution are no longer related.
6) The process of legally adding land area to a city in the United States is… A) annexation. B) accreditation. C) an
application of eminent domain. D) defined by urbanized area.

68

7) The process of change in the use of a house, from single-family owner occupancy to abandonment, is… A) blockbusting.
B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining.
8) A process by which banks designate an area within which they refuse to lend money for improvements is… A) blockbusting.
B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining.
9) A recent change in the density gradient has been… A) the elimination of the gap traditionally found in the center. B) an
increase in the extremes between the inner and outer areas. C) an increase in the number of people living in the center.
D) a reduction in the differences in densities found within an urban area.
10) U.S. central cities face fiscal problems because… A) federal and state funds are available. B) low-income people are
concentrated there. C) middle-class families are attracted there. D) redlining is no longer legal.
11) A legal form of segregation in U.S. cities is achieved through...A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) zoning. D) greenbelts.
12) Factories have moved to suburban locations in part because of… A) access to main highways. B) adequate space to build
vertical structures. C) availability of large tracts of high-priced land. D) good rail connections.
13) According to the sector model, the best housing is located in…A) a corridor from downtown to the edge of the city.
B) an outer ring surrounding the city. C) nodes near universities and parks. D) renovated inner-city neighborhoods.
14) Ramshackle houses on the periphery of cities in less developed countries are known as… A) squatter settlements. B) council
estates. C) public housing. D) zone in transition.
15) Higher income people tend to live near the center of the city in all but which of the following regions? A) Latin America
B) North America C) South Asia D) Western Europe

16) The wide boulevards built in cities in less developed countries were most likely built during what era? A) pre-colonial
B) colonial C) independence D) all of the above equally

69

17) According to the multiple nuclei model, an airport is likely to attract nearby… A) industries. B) residences. C) shops.
D) universities.
18) The largest percentage of the U.S. population lives in…A) central cities. B) suburbs. C) non-metropolitan areas. D) all of the
above
19) In U.S. cities, the underclass is… A) clustered in inner-city neighborhoods. B) dispersed throughout the city. C) clustered in
suburbs. D) distributed uniformly in the city.

20) A process of converting a neighborhood from low-income to middle-class is…A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) gentrification.
D) redlining.
21) Higher social heterogeneity in urban settlements means that… A) the people with whom you relax are probably the same ones you
see at work. B) you play a specialized role in the urban economy. C) you compete for limited space. D) you may feel lonely and
isolated in a crowd.
22) The city plus its contiguous built-up suburbs is the… A) central city. B) urbanized area.
D) consolidated metropolitan statistical area

C) metropolitan statistical area.

23) The process whereby an increasing percentage of people live in an urban area is known as… A) demographic transition.
B) rank-size rule. C) urbanization. D) central place theory.
24) Of the ten largest urban areas in the world, how many are in More Developed Countries today? A) 1 B) 4 C) 7 D) 10 E) 2
25) Public housing is…A) conversion of low-income housing to middle-class housing. B) illegally established low-income housing.
C) housing that has changed from single-family owner occupancy to abandonment. D) low-income government-owned housing.
26) According to the concentric zone model, a city develops in a series of… A) corridors. B) nodes. C) rings. D) all of the above

70

27) Chicago is a good location in which to develop urban models because it is located… A) at the hub of the nation's transportation
system. B) in the center of the country. C) on a flat prairie. D) on the shore of Lake Michigan.
28) According to the sector model, the best housing is located in… A) a corridor from downtown to the edge of the city. B) an outer
ring surrounding the city. C) nodes near universities and parks. D) renovated inner-city neighborhoods.
29) The zone of transition in US cities generally contain…A) warehouses B) wealthy neighborhoods C) transportation hubs
D) universities and hospitals E) suburban homes
30) The attractions of shopping malls include all but which of the following? A) frequent concerts and exhibitions B) generous
parking lots C) place to meet friends D) walking distance from homes
The following questions are written at the high school level. You will find some questions from part one often rewritten
here. This is all designed to help you transition to the college/AP style of written questions. Any question preceded with ***
are questions that have been on the national exam before.
31. Most Latin American cities are focused on a…A) central plaza B) government housing project C) zone of heavy industry
D) skyscraper office building E) squatter settlement
32. The multiple-nuclei model of a city structure tends to be most applicable to…A) small cities B) traditional C) Latin American
cities D) newer, fast growing cities E) cities with homogeneous land use
33. ***Locational advantages important to the development of the earliest cities include…A) availability of good harbors for large
ships B) productive agricultural land and defensible sites C) temperate climate and proximity to coal mines D) good
connections by road and canal E) proximity to manufacturing areas

34. In cities, the CBD’s often show uniqueness while the suburbs usually show…A) a large hinterland. B) placelessness C) more
than one node. D) newer zones of transition.

71

35. Many LDC’s have tried to help a previously under-developed part of their country develop by moving their capital
city to that area. This new capital is known as a…A) forward capital B) new development zone C) enterprise zone
D) neocolonial city
36. Today the greatest number of urban dwellers is found in…A) North America
D) Europe E) Asia

B) South America C) Africa

37. ***All of the following have helped create ghettos in North American cities except…A)blockbusting and racial
steering B) redlining by financial institutions C) concentration of public housing and social services D) fixed school
districts E) Economic Enterprise Zones

38. Which of the following is NOT as reason for rapid suburbanization in the US after WW2? A) Mass production of
the automobile B) Reduction of long distance commuting C) Expansion of home construction D) Expansion of the
interstate highway system E) Availability of low down payment terms and long-term mortgages.
39. New cities which developed in the hinterland of large urban areas because of the automobile, are known as…
A) edge cities B) census tracts C) suburban sprawl D) squatter settlements. E) none of these
40. Gentrification refers to… A) moving the homeless into inner city shelters B) The “White Flight” from the urban city
C) losing tax revenue because of stores closing in downtown areas D) middle-class people moving into and renovating
inner city neighborhoods E) the creation of “beltway cities” around the city.

72

4
7
3

5

1
6

2

41-48 all use the sketch above.
41. The sketch in box A above represents which model of the inner structure of urban areas?
C) multiple nuclei model D) Burgess concentric zone model E) peripheral model
42. The models in boxes B and C represent A) Concentric zone and multiple nuclei
concentric zone D) peripheral and concentric zone E) Von Thunen and peripheral

A) Hoyt sector model B) VonThunen’s model

B) Multiple nuclei and Hoyt sector C) Hoyt sector and

43. In which ring (1, 2, etc.) of sketch A above would high-status households in North American cities likely live? A) 1 B) 2 C) 3 D) 4&5
44. In which ring (1, 2, etc.) of sketch A above would high status households in a European city likely live? A) 1

B) 2

C) 3

D) 4&5

45. In model B, zone # 2 is where it is likely because of: A) greenbelting B) squatter settling C) the culture of poverty D) transportation
E) no one knows
46. The model in sketch B is the; A) Hoyt sector model B) Burgess model C) multiple nuclei model D) peripheral model
47. The model in sketch C is the; A) Hoyt sector model B) Burgess model C) multiple nuclei model D) peripheral model
48. Which of these models best describes what has happened in US cities in the last 40 years? A)

B)

C)

73

49.*** In the U.S. a city plus its contiguous built-up suburbs is known as an…A) urbanized area B) zoned area
C) census tract D) Squatter settlement E) none of these
50. Done mostly in Europe, these are areas where land is kept as parks, farms or other kinds of open space and urban
sprawl is not allowed. A) Smart growth
B) zoning
C) filtering
D) census tracts E) greenbelts
51. Which statement best describes the relationship between urbanization and the Industrial Revolution?
A) Urbanization promoted the Industrial Revolution. B) The Industrial Revolution promoted urbanization.
C) Urbanization preceded the Industrial Revolution by thousands of years. D) Urbanization and the Industrial
Revolution are no longer related.
52. The process whereby an increasing percentage of people live in an urban area is known as…
A) Demographic transition. B) rank-size rule. C) Urbanization. D) Central place theory.
53. The city (if it has 50,000 or more people) plus its contiguous built-up suburbs AND the county it is in as well as any
other counties it influences, is known as the ...A) central city B) urbanized area
C) metropolitan statistical area
D) consolidated metropolitan area E) micropolitan statistical area
54. ***Higher social heterogeneity in urban settlements means that …A) the people with whom you relax are probably
the same ones you see at work. B) you play a specialized role in the urban economy. C) you compete for limited
space. D) you may feel lonely and isolated in a crowd.

55. The process of change in the use of a house, from single-family owner occupancy to smaller dwellings for the poor
and then sometimes to abandonment, is…A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining. E) none of
these

74

Free Response #1:
The Bid Rent theory says that the closer you get to the
CBD the higher the cost for land, yet in most American
cities you find the poorest people living near the
expensive CBD and the richest living further away.
Explain:
A. Why neighborhoods near the CBD are often poor and
run down?
B. Why are there few grocery and other retail stores in
these neighborhoods?
C. Why is this not really true in European and Latin
American countries?

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FR #2:
Think of the map of your school, explain the
layout of your school using the Multiple Nuclei
Model
The main office is the CBD.
Completely explain your answer using specific
buildings and/or land areas in your explanation
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Answer Key:
1. B

14. A

27. C

40. D

53. C

2. B

15. B

28. A

41. D

54. D

3. C

16. B

29. A

42. B

55. B

4. A

17. A

30. D

43. D

5. B

18. B

31. A

44. A

6. A

19. A

32. D

45. D

7. B

20. C

33. B

46. A

8. D

21. D

34. B

47. C

9. D

22. B

35. A

48. C

10. B

23. C

36. E

49. A

11. C

24. C

37. E

50. E

12. A

25. D

38. B

51. B

13. A

26. C

39. A

52. C
77

FR. #1: ( 15 pts. for each section…total of 45 pts.)
A. In the US the move of the wealthy and middle class to the suburbs has left the older houses and apartments near the CBD empty.
This has lowered their value to the point where the poor can afford these dwellings and have made these neighborhoods their
homes. The poor can not pay for upkeep of these dwellings, or to pay high taxes. The lack of upkeep and tax money to repair the
roads and schools, adds to the downward spiral of the neighborhood. With little spending money for shopping, the poor do not
spend much in the stores. This causes many stores to close and move to the suburbs where the spending customers and money
went. The closing of the stores adds to the poverty of the area by taking away some of the jobs that were in the neighborhood. This
becomes a vicious cycle of poverty and deterioration. (15 points)

B. There are few retail stores and groceries is the area because the poor do not have money to shop. The lack of spending forces
many stores out of business or forces them to move to better locations. There also can be higher crime in these areas and the
crime often takes place at the stores. This is another reason for the stores to move out of the neighborhood. (15 points)
C. Neighborhoods in European and Latin American cities are different from those of US cities. In Europe and Latin America, the
wealthy and middle class still live near or in the CBD. The higher tax base and more spending ability of the upper and middle
classes, keeps the CBD area flourishing with jobs and in constant repair and upkeep of the cities’ physical condition. (15 points)

FR #2: (10 total points.)
You will need to judge how effectively you displayed you school
in the Multiple Nuclei Model. Refer to the model itself to help you
determine your success and grade.
School’s main office
78

Calculating your grade on test 13.
Add how many you got correct on the multiple choice part (55 possible) to how many
points you scored on the FR portion (55 possible)…110 total.
The following scale will show the approximate score if this test were the real AP exam. Remember that this
is an approximation. While 65-74% is normally the range for a 3 on the test, it is not definite. Over the
years I have seen scores as low as 60% be the low portion of a 3 score.

Out of 110 possible points:
72-83 is most likely a 3
84-94 is most likely a 4

95-110 is most likely a 5

Now lets start our review for the national exam by
reviewing the 33 key models and theories of the
course…the next PowerPoint.


Slide 44

Key topic/chapter 13…Urban Patterns
Key terms:
Annexation
Concentric zone model
Density gradient
Edge cities
Filtering
Galactic city
Gentrification
Greenbelts
Megalopolis
MSA
Multiple nuclei model
Peripheral model

Public housing
Redlining
Renovated housing
Scattered site
Squatter settlement
Sector model
Smart growth
Sprawl
Underclass
Urban renewal
Zone in transition
Zoning
1

Chapter 13…Urban Areas.
How are Cities planned?
Why

are cities where they are?
How are they organized?
Why are some areas of a city
different from
other areas of the same city?
What is the future of cities?
2

Settlement


Settlement - permanent collections of buildings,
where people live, work, and obtain services

3

ORIGINS OF SETTLEMENTS


Religious - graves, churches, temples



Cultural - schools, libraries



Political/Military - leader’s house, walls



Economic - stores, food
4

TYPES OF SETTLEMENTS


Rural Settlements - agriculture as the
predominant occupation.



Urban settlements - principal industries are
secondary and tertiary.

5

RURAL SETTLEMENTS
Clustered rural settlements –grouped
settlements in rural areas to minimize travel

Dispersed rural Settlements - isolated farms
with enclosed continuous fields (Found only in
N. America and Britain).

6

Urban Geographers want to know the global distribution of urban
settlements. MDC’s have a high percentage of people living in urban
areas because of the shift from agriculture-manufacturing-services.
Geographers are also interested in where people and activities are
distributed within urban spaces. What are the differences between the
inner-city and suburban areas and why?
As we saw in the last chapter, many downtowns are unique and can
often be recognized in photos where the suburbs often look very
much alike (Placelessness). Why? Suburbs offer the chance to avoid
some of the city problems (crime, tight living area, expensive
land/rent, noise, age of buildings) while still keeping a connection with
the goods and services of the city: jobs, sports teams, culture, shops,
recreation, etc.
7

Where is this place?

8

Today’s cities are evolving and changing. Although different internal
situations characterize urban areas in the US and elsewhere, the
problems arising from current spatial trends are quite similar in all cities.
Where have urban areas grown: in the early 1800’s only 3% of the earth’s
people lived in cities and only Beijing China had more than 1 million
people. Today over ½ of the world’s people live in cities and we have over
400 cities of at least 1 million people.

Urbanization: is the process by which city population grows.
Cities population growth is measured in 2 dimensions;
1. An increase in the number of people living in the cities.
2. An increase in the percentage of people living in the cities.
This distinction is important because they happen for different reason and
have different global distributions.
9

Increasing Percentage of People in Cities: a large percentage of people living in urban
areas is a measure of a country’s level of development. In MDC’s about ¾ of the people
live in urban areas compared to about 2/5 of people in LDC’s. (Except in Latin America
where the level is closer to MDC’s.)
The higher percentage of people in urban areas comes from the changes that have
occurred in the last 200 years as we went from agriculture (primary jobs) to industrial
(secondary jobs) and now service jobs, all created by the Industrial Revolution of the
1800’s.
People moved to the cities for industrial jobs, but in MDC’s this process has largely
ended because nearly everyone interested in moving to the cities from farms has already
done so.
In LDC’s the percentage of people living in urban areas is growing as people are pushed
off of their farms and replaced by machines and as people move to cities looking/hoping
for industrial jobs.
10

Increasing Number of People in Cities: MDC’s have a higher percentage of
people living in urban settlements but LDC’s have more of the very large urban
settlements (Primate cities). (Rank-size rule, primate cities, chapter 12.)

This is interesting because typically the large cities are created from the
improvements brought by the Industrial Revolution. This is not the case with the
large LDC cities. Migration to the primate city in LDC’s is happening even though
job opportunities may not be available. Increasing the population growth in LDC
cities is the fact that medical services are better in these cities, thus the child
mortality rate is lower.
Defining Urban Settlements: defining where urban areas end and rural areas
begin is not easy. Geographers have formulated definitions that distinguish
between urban and rural areas in two ways: Social differences and Physical
differences.
11

Percent Urban Population

Percent of the population living in urban areas is usually higher in MDCs
than in LDCs.

12

The most populated cities in the world

Of the top
20, only
Moscow,
Tokyo and
New York
are in MDC’s

Shanghai China has 14,608,512 people
13

14

15

Social Differences Between Urban and Rural Settlements: it is fair to say that rural
people and urban people follow different ways of life. A city can be defined as having 3
characteristics:
1. Large size. People in rural settlements know most of the other people in the
settlement. Not true in big cities. Social relationships are often described as “colder” in
urban areas because you only see some people at work instead of growing up with
them in the settlement.
2. High Density. Having lots of people in a tiny area creates social consequences. A
high density of people living in a small area can only be supported if the people
specialize (they can’t all be farmers). People are encouraged to compete for jobs, room,
and survival in a tightly limited space. Social groups compete to occupy the same space
(ethnic/ race problems). Rural settlements have very little of this problem.
3. Social Heterogeneity. The larger the settlement, the greater the variety of people.
Being “unusual” in a large settlement is more likely to be accepted than in a small rural
one. But despite the freedom to be different that large urban settlements give you,
people living there often feel alone because so many people are different from them.
There is a stronger feeling of belonging together in small rural settlements.
16

These 3 differences do not fully answer the question of where urban settlements
begin and rural ones end because in today’s MDC’s most everyone has access to
cars, telephones, televisions, and “urban type” jobs which reduce the differences
between urban and rural lifestyles. “City folk” and “Country folk” are more alike
today than they are different. To help distinguish between urban and rural areas we
need to add the physical definition of rural and urban to the equation.
Physical Definitions of Urban Settlements: In ancient time, cities had defensive
walls for protection which clearly defined the physical boundaries of the city. Today
the walls are gone but we can still define the physical boundaries in 3 ways:
1. Legal boundary. These are the official boundaries of a city as recognized by
the government of the country or state. These “city limits” have been officially given
to the city and are physically marked on official maps. The local government of the
city has authority to make laws and protect the people inside the city boundaries.
17

2. Urbanized area. This is the city plus its suburbs or urbanized area that
surrounds the city. About 70 percent of US residents live in urbanized areas with
40% being in the suburbs and 30% inside the city limits. The suburbs may have
their own city governments but the huge central city dominates what happens in
the entire area.
3. Metropolitan Statistical Area. Cities have an even bigger influence on people
than just those living in their city limits and surrounding urbanized areas. People
from far away come to shop, use the services, support the sports teams, read
the newspapers and watch the television broadcasts of the city. Thus the city
has a “functional area” which is its total zone of influence. The US Bureau of
Census has created a method of measuring the functional area of the city.
Known as the Metropolitan statistical area (MSA) this area includes:
•An urbanized area with a population of at least 50,000
•The county within which the city is located.
•Adjacent counties with a high population density and a large percentage of
residents working in the central city’s county.
18

Metropolitan Area of Philadelphia

City of
Philadelphia

Urbanized
area
(suburbs)
Metropolitan
Statistical
Area

The metropolitan area of Philadelphia is
spread over several counties and four states.
It is also a diversified trade center, given its
position on the Delaware river.

19

20

21

Micropolitan Statistical Areas: Smaller areas with between
10,000 and 50,000 people, the county where it is found, and
adjacent counties tied to the city. This would be a small town and
the area dominated by it.
Overlapping Metropolitan Areas: Some adjacent MSA’s overlap.
A county between two central cities may send a large number of
commuters to jobs in both cities. In some areas the cities are so
close that they form one continuous urban complex. This is
known as a Megalopolis (great city).
In a megalopolis, the downtown CBD often has its own
distinctive look and the urban areas are visually separated by
parks, open spaces, and dairy/truck farms. But at the periphery
of the urban areas, the boundaries overlap.
22

Colorado Springs, population 431,000

Ocala, Florida, population 56,000

Florala, Alabama, population 1,900

23

Megalopolis, from northern Va. To Maine.
This Illustrates the
difference between
strict city proper
definitions and broader
urban agglomerations.
To define urbanized
areas, the U.S. Census
Bureau uses the term
Metropolitan Statistical
Area (MSA) or
Consolidated MSA
(CMSA) if two or more of
them overlap.
24

Where are People Distributed within Urban Areas? People are not
just distributed at random in urban areas. For the most part they
concentrate in particular neighborhoods depending on their social
characteristics. Geographers want to see where people with
particular characteristics are likely to live and why.

Three models which try to explain the growth of a city:

The Burgess Model

The Hoyt Sector Model

The Harris and Ullman
multiple Nuclei Model
25

Burgess Concentric Zone Model

In the concentric zone model, a city grows in a series of rings surrounding the CBD.

Burgess Concentric Zone Model: This is the first used to explain the
distributions of different social groups within urban areas. It says that a
city grows outward from a central place in a series of concentric rings.
The precise size and width of the rings vary from one city to another, but
some basic types of rings appear in all cities in the same order (see chart
above).
26

•Hoyt Sector Model: In this model the city develops in a
series of sectors not rings. Certain areas of the city are
more attractive for various activities, originally because
of an environmental factor (or even pure chance). As the
city grows, activities extend outward in a wedge shape.
For example, once a wealthy neighborhood is built the
next wealthy neighborhood will extend from the first
neighborhood further outward from the center. In this
way, the best housing is found in a corridor extending
outward from the center to the outer edge (see chart on
the next page).
27

The Hoyt Sector Model

In the sector model, a city grows in a series of
wedges or corridors extending out from the
CBD.
28

•Harris and Ullman’s Multiple Nuclei Model: According
to this model, a city is a complex structure that includes
more than one center around which activities revolve.
Examples of these nodes include a port, parks,
stadium, neighborhood business center, university, and
airport (see chart). This theory states that some
activities are attracted to particular nodes, whereas
others try to avoid them. A university node may attract
well educated people and bookstores while the port will
attract hotels and warehouses. Heavy industry and
expensive houses rarely are found together. This
model shows the effect of the automobile more than
any other model.
29

The Harris and Ullman Multiple Nuclei model

The multiple nuclei model views a city as a
collection of individual centers, around which
different people and activities cluster.

30

Applications of the Models: The three models help explain where and in some
cases, why people live where they do. None of the models by themselves fully
explains why and where different types of people live, but combined they give
you as good a look as possible at the “Why” of “Where.” Effective use of the
models depends on getting good data on the areas. Most countries take a
census every 10 years to help determine useful data about the people and
places of the country. In our country we divide the census data into areas
known as census tracts of about 5,000 people. Each census tract has the data
that summarizes the characteristics of the people living within that tract. This
information includes things like the race, income, age, and education of the
people living in that tract.
Social Area Analysis: The data from the census tracts can all be plotted onto
maps to show the characteristics of the people living in that tract. This map is
known as a social area analysis.
31

Using Census tract information…Seattle, Washington
Each lined area is a
census tract of about 5000
people in Seattle
Washington. These maps
show average household
income for 1990 and
2000…note the changes in
income in some areas
between 1990 and 2000.
Using this information, a
business can make
decisions about where
they want to locate a new
store or the future of
existing stores.
You can find census tract
information on many topics
such as; age, education
level, race, ethnicity, crime
rate, and land ownership.
Note the areas with
incomes over
$63,000.

All can be very valuable
information to people
looking to open
businesses.

32

Examine the changes
between 1990 and
2000.

Oakland, California’s Ethnic neighborhoods
The small bordered areas are census tracks of 5000 people.

33

Use of the Models Outside of North America: The 3 models will also work in other
places in the world; however social groups in other countries may not have the
same reasons for selecting particular neighborhoods as Americans do.
European Cities: As in the US, wealthier people in European cities cluster along a
sector extending outward from the CBD, however unlike the US, wealthy and
middle class Europeans still live in the inner rings of the neighborhoods near the
CBD not out in the suburbs. In the past, poorer people lived in the center of the
city. Before electricity, social segregation was vertical: richer people lived on the
first or second floor of a building while the poorer people lived in the basement or
upper floors. In the Industrial Revolution, housing for the poor was constructed
near the factories and away from the rich.
Today poorer Europeans are less likely to live in the inner-city. Poor quality
housing has been renovated for the rich or turned into office buildings. Poorer
Europeans tend to live in the outskirts of the city. Vast suburbs with dozens of high
rise apartments house the poor. They face long commutes to reach their jobs in
the city.
34

European cities generally do not have the “suburban
sprawl” that US cities have. European cities tend to be
more pedestrian friendly with more parks downtown as
Europeans tend to still live downtown.
US cities have taller buildings as European cities tend to
be older and more historic.

American cities have more ethnic neighborhoods than
European cities. Ethnic neighborhoods that do exist in
European cities tend to be in the suburbs. WHY?
Because the established richer neighborhoods tend to be
downtown in European cities.
35

Less Developed Countries: Like Europe, most LDC’s accommodate their poor in the
suburbs with their middle class and rich living near the center of the city. LDC’s have
passed through 3 periods of city building: before the Europeans arrived, during the
period of European colonialism, and since independence from European control.

Pre-colonial Cities: Before the Europeans arrived few cities existed in Africa, Asia, and
Latin America and most people lived in small rural settlements. Those cities that existed
were mostly laid out surrounding a religious center; with the rest of the city laid out in a
hieratical concentric pattern (like the Burgess model) from government buildings,
homes of the wealthy, and businesses related to the religion out to other businesses
and shops.
Colonial cities: When the Europeans took over these lands, they changed the cities by
adding services to help the Europeans control the conquered people. Often a new
European style city would be build next to the existing native one. The new European
cities contained wider streets, a public square, larger houses and a much lower density.
The Spanish used the “Law of the Indies” which was a city plan designed specifically to
build cities in a “Spanish” style. (Gridiron pattern for streets centered on a church and
central plaza, walls around individual houses and neighborhoods centered around
smaller plazas and more churches.)
36

Early Mexico city was laid out in a grid pattern of streets. This followed
the Spanish “Law of the Indies.”

37

Central Plaza in Mexico City 1920 photo. Typical Colonial City plan.

Part of downtown Mexico city today still shows the
building plan of the “Law of the Indies.”

38

Cities since Independence: Following independence, cities have become
the focal point of the development of most LDC’s. Millions of people have
migrated to the cities (Primate cities) looking for jobs and services. Some
capitals have been moved to isolated areas in an attempt to help develop
that area of the country (Brasília) This is know as a forward capital. Latin
American cities have developed their own unique style.
Squatter settlements: The LDC’s are unable to house the rapidly growing
number of poor who are flowing into the cities. Because of the housing
shortages, the poor have constructed their own settlements around the city.
These settlements have few services because neither the city nor the
residents can afford them. Squatters have two basic choices for housing.
1. Illegally move into empty real houses located in the city or,
2. Rent slum housing.
(85% of the population of Addis Ababa in Ethiopia lives in squatter
settlements, slums or other illegal housing.)
39

Squatter shacks in Manila, the Philippines

40

Squatter settlement in Ethiopia

41

Zimbabwe, Africa

42

Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

43

Latin American City Model:
In many Latin
American cities,
the wealthy live in
the inner city and
in a sector
extending along a
commercial spine.
In situ accretion- businesses
and homes constantly under
construction/repair.
Zone of maturity-2nd best
housing in the city.
The poor live in squatter settlements on the
periphery of the city.

Disamenity- unpleasant area
used by the poor to get to the
market.

44

The City Outline of Rio de Janeiro
The rich tourist areas and expensive condo apartments are along the coast
and beach while the poor live in squatter shacks in the hills.

45

City problems:
Inner-City Physical Problems: Most US inner cities were constructed before the 1950’s
(people began to move to the suburbs in the 1950’s so new construction moved out of
the city).
Process of Deterioration (how a city deteriorates): A city doesn’t suddenly become old
and full of slummy areas. It happens over time. When a group of low-income people
inhabit an area of a city, nearby neighborhoods will often look to move out. They sell or
rent to more low-income occupants thus expanding the low-income area. Two processes
cause/speed up the devaluation of areas:
1. Filtering, 2. Redlining.
Filtering: Large houses and buildings that once housed rich downtown workers (who
moved to the suburbs) are taken over by landlords who don’t live in that area (they
moved to the suburbs too). Rents are low so the landlord doesn’t take as good care of
the property as they should and the property becomes run down or abandoned. Stores
close, or move, due to lack of sales. 100 years ago these neighborhoods would be used
by immigrants and ethnic businesses would succeed in those areas. Now, with a decline
in immigration, these neighborhoods have shrunk and so have schools, businesses and
other services. Thousands of vacant houses and buildings stand empty in inner cities
across America.

46

Redlining: Some banks refuse to give loans in what they consider
risky neighborhoods. They draw a red line on a map around areas
where they will not give loans. Without loans, these neighborhoods
have a hard time rebuilding/remodeling. Though illegal, this still
happens. Bankers just don’t put these “no-loan” areas on a map.

Urban Renewal: This is the series of projects to improve European
and N. American cities by buying up the blighted neighborhoods,
moving the people to new government built housing projects, and
building new roads, and other projects to make the inner city
attractive for business again. National and State government grants
help pay for these projects.
47

Public housing: Housing for the poor, built with government funding as part of
urban renewal. In the US this is only about 2% of the housing while in some
countries it may be more (Britain is 30%). Public housing built in the 50’s & 60’s
were largely high rise apartments, but those are seen as being unsatisfactory.
Problems arise from cramming large numbers of poor people into one area.
Today most public housing projects are one to three story buildings with many of
them being scattered around different parts of the city rather than clustered into
one area.
Because urban renewal has been criticized for destroying the social cohesion of
older neighborhoods, many governments (like the US) have stopped funding
most projects since the 1970’s. What do we do instead?
Renovated Housing: An alternative often used since the 70’s is to renovate a
building instead of urban renewal. The process where middle-class people
move into inner-city neighborhoods and renovate them is called gentrification.
Gentrified inner-city neighborhoods also attract middle-class people who work
downtown. Living close to work saves the hassle of commuting and rejuvenates
run down inner-city neighborhoods
48

Gentrified building downtown Harlem, NY. Note the supermarket.

49

Inner-City Social Problems: Inner-city residents are often referred to as the
permanent underclass because they are trapped in an unending cycle of
economic and social problems. High unemployment, alcoholism, drug
addiction, literacy, juvenile delinquency, and crime all exist at a higher rate
among those who live in the inner-city. Lack of jobs means lack of tax dollars
to pay for police and fire protection as well as good schools. Lack of job skills
and homelessness are also tremendous problems.
Culture of Poverty: Inner-city residents are trapped in a permanent underclass
culture that reproduces itself. In the US, unwed mothers give birth to 2/3 of the
babies in the inner-city. 90% of these children live with only one parent and it
is real hard for one parent to keep a job and take care of children. Both suffer
and a shortage of care and daily attention by the parent contributes to the kids
not learning the skills necessary to do well in school which leads to poor jobs
for their futures. Poverty leads to more poverty. Many families on welfare have
only one parent because it is financially better if one parent is gone, that way
the single parent gets food stamps and other services from the government
that they would not get if it was a 2 family household.
50

Crime: Trapped in a hopeless environment, some inner-city
residents turn to drugs. Drug use is a problem in inner-city
areas and the suburbs, but rates of drug use in inner-cities
are the highest.
Ethnic and Racial Segregation: As seen in chapter 7, many
neighborhoods in the US are segregated by ethnicity with
African Americans and Hispanics concentrated in one or two
continuous areas and whites living in the suburbs. Even small
cities display a strong distinction among neighborhoods. A
frequent division is between the east and west or north and
south side of town, or the railroad tracks. A family seeking a
new residence will seek the areas where the characteristics
of the people meet their own.

51

The exodus
from the
American city.
This has
happened in
many American
cities since the
1960’s.

52

Changes in Cities in the U.S.
U.S. population has been moving out of the city centers to the suburbs:
suburbanization and counter urbanization

Developed Countries: suburbanization

 wealthy move to suburbs
 automobiles and roads; ‘American
Dream’ of the home in the suburbs.
 better services
 wealthy move to suburbs
Counter urbanization

idyllic settings
cost of land for retirement
slow pace, yet high tech
connections to services and markets
53

U.S. intraregional migration during 1990s.

Inner city economic problems: the concentration of low income
residents in inner cities has caused economic problems. These
people require public services but can pay very little in taxes to
support the services. They need stores and jobs but have little
money to spend in the store and few skills for jobs (so the stores
close). To try to fight these problems many local and state
governments use tax monies to try to renovate these areas, but this
shifts tax money needed for other areas to the inner city (votes on
election day).
Annexation: Many cities could help their tax problem by adding the
new suburbs to be part of their city (annexation). After all, many of
these suburban people use the city for its’ jobs etc., so why not add
them into the city? Today, most people in the suburbs do not want
to be annexed into the city and so they do not vote to be annexed.
54

The Peripheral Model: According to this model, an urban area
consists of an inner city surrounded by large suburban residential
and business areas (MSA) tied together by a beltway or highway
that circles the city. Around the beltway are nodes of consumer
and business services called edge cities (see diagram of multiple
nuclei model). These edge cities sprang up to provide services
and jobs to the people in the suburbs.
Density Gradient: As you travel outward from the center of the
city, the density of people declines. Inner city has big apartments
of 250 of more people per acre. Suburbs have fewer people per
acre (but lots of acres) and finally you leave the cities periphery
you find few people. The number of houses per unit of land
diminishes as distance from the center of the city increases.
55

The Edge cities (bedroom communities) of Houston

The central city is surrounded by a ring road, around which are
suburban areas and edge cities, shopping malls, office parks,
industrial areas, and service complexes.

Known as
bedroom
communities
because
people live
there but
mostly don’t
work there.
They drive
into the city
for work.
56

As you move from the center of the city outward, the density of the population
changes. This is know as the density gradient. Two big changes have occurred in
the density gradient of today’s cities:
1. The number of people living in the center has decreased.
2. The density difference between the inner city and the suburbs is declining
because the inner city density is dropping and the suburban density is growing
due to more large apartments being built in the suburbs.
Cost of Suburban or Urban Sprawl: Urban Sprawl is the progressive spread of
development over the landscape. As long as we Americans want single-family
detached houses, land on the fringe of urban areas will be converted from open
space to residential use. The cost of this growth is more than the loss of land, it is
also the cost of new roads, utilities, building stores and offices and the cost of
automobiles to move these people over even longer distances. Lots of these new
developments are built on what was once farmland. Wonderful productive soil now
under concrete.

Greenbelts: are areas where, by law, the open space can not be used for any
construction. This is mostly found in Europe.

57

Once farmland that is being converted to suburbs and cities.

58

Tyson’s Corner Virginia in 1940

59

Washington, DC. MSA.

Tyson’s Corner Virginia
today.
Washington D.C. is off
In the distance.

60

Suburban Segregation: The “new” segregation.
Suburban segregation takes two forms:
1. Residents are separated from commercial and manufacturing activities
which are confined someplace else. (The whole neighborhood is
nothing but houses because they drive for services.)
2. The price of the house eliminates some from being able to live there. This
creates a homogeneous suburb of the same economic class of people.
This never existed before in history. Where we once had vertical
segregation of the classes we now we have horizontal segregation.
3. But this may be reversing as new statistics show that people are beginning
to move back to the city. Why? Cost of transportation.
Zoning Ordinances: This idea developed in Europe and later America in the
early decades of the 20th century. This means that businesses are allowed only
in certain areas of the settlement. (No all night taco stands inside your single
family neighborhood.)
Motor vehicles: The wide use of the automobile is largely responsible for the
American movement to the suburbs. Not only did people move out but 1/4 of
the land inside all American cities are now roads, streets, and parking lots.

61

Public Transportation: Because few US workers live within walking distance
of their jobs, urban areas are characterized by extensive commuting and the
problems that come with it. As much as 40% of all trips made into or out from
a city during the day takes place within just 4 hours. (2 in the morning and 2 in
the late afternoon). RUSH HOUR!!! In large cities, public transportation, like
subways and busses, are better suited to move people but Americans still
prefer their own cars. Public transportation is cheaper, cleaner, and more
energy efficient than personal cars, yet in the US only 5% of city travel is
done using public transit systems. American’s love their personal car too
much.
Local Government Fragmentation: Because of the large number of local
governments in the US (look at the settlements in Pinellas County) it is
difficult to solve some of the regional problems like garbage disposal, water
management, traffic and public housing.
62

Metropolitan government: This idea tries to put many local governments into a
larger unit that can better handle the urban problems. The 2 ways to do this
are:
1. Federations in which the individual settlements have their own police,
firemen, and tax collection but they all agree to be part of a second
government which handles transportation, water, sewage, parks and
welfare for all the communities.
2. Consolidations: In this method, several cities and the county may form one
government. Jacksonville’s government runs not only the town but the
county too, this makes Jacksonville the largest city, in land size, in the US.
Smart growth: A new movement by many states to curb suburban sprawl by
limiting where new construction can take place. Smart growth laws require that
land near cities be used up before any land further out can be developed. So
far, this is only being done an a few parts of our country.
63

The new
US as
some
people
see it.

64

Quiz Yourself:
1. The process where middle-class people move into inner city neighborhoods and
renovate them is called ____________
2. ____________ happens when banks refuse to give loans in what they consider
risky neighborhoods.
3. Because of the housing shortages, the poor have constructed their own settlements
around the city known as __________ _________

4. Businesses are allowed only in certain areas of the settlement because of
____________ ____________
5. Areas known as _____ _______ are areas of about 5,000 people. The data from
that area is used to help define needed services for that area.
6. When cities are so close that they form one continuous band of development this is
known as a ____________
65

7. Social relationships are often described as “colder” in urban areas because…
8. In this model the city develops in a series of sectors not rings. _______

9. ______ (LDC’s or MDC’s) have a higher percentage of people living in urban
settlements but ________ (LDC’s or MDC’s) have more of the very large urban
settlements.
10. _____________ was the first model developed to explain the distributions
of different social groups within urban areas.
11. New cities which develop around the beltway are nodes of consumer and
business services known as ________ _________.

12. When the Europeans took over lands around the world, they changed the
cities by adding services to help the Europeans control the conquered people.
These European planned cities are known as __________ cities.
66

Answer Key:
1.

Gentrification

2.

Redlining

3.

Squatter Settlements

4.

Zoning ordinances

5.

Census tracks

6.

Megalopolis

7. There is a stronger feeling of belonging together in small rural settlements.
8. Hoyt sector model
9. MDC, LDC
10. Burgess Concentric Zone model
11. Edge cities
12. Colonial cities
67

Test Key topic/chapter 13:
These questions come from a combination of our slides, your text book, and common knowledge you should
have discussed in your AP classroom. They are very typical of what you will see on the National Exam.
1) The multiple nuclei theory best explains why different neighborhoods of a city attract people of different… A) ages.
B) ethnic origin C) income D) marital status.
2) Sprawl is the… A) change in density within an urban area from the center to the periphery B) development of new
housing sites not contiguous to the existing built-up area. C) land maintained as open space surrounding an urban area.
D) period in the morning and evening with the heaviest volumes of traffic.
3) People are attracted to suburbs in part because suburbs are characterized by…A) heavy traffic. B) lower opportunity
for home ownership. C) private land surrounding the house. D) row houses and apartments.
4) Megalopolis refers to… A) adjacent, overlapping Metropolitan Statistical Areas. B) central cities. C) consolidated
Metropolitan Statistical Areas. D) central cities plus urbanized areas.
5) Which statement best describes the relationship between urbanization and the Industrial Revolution? A) Urbanization
promoted the Industrial Revolution. B) The Industrial Revolution promoted urbanization. C) Urbanization preceded the
Industrial Revolution by thousands of years. D) Urbanization and the Industrial Revolution are no longer related.
6) The process of legally adding land area to a city in the United States is… A) annexation. B) accreditation. C) an
application of eminent domain. D) defined by urbanized area.

68

7) The process of change in the use of a house, from single-family owner occupancy to abandonment, is… A) blockbusting.
B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining.
8) A process by which banks designate an area within which they refuse to lend money for improvements is… A) blockbusting.
B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining.
9) A recent change in the density gradient has been… A) the elimination of the gap traditionally found in the center. B) an
increase in the extremes between the inner and outer areas. C) an increase in the number of people living in the center.
D) a reduction in the differences in densities found within an urban area.
10) U.S. central cities face fiscal problems because… A) federal and state funds are available. B) low-income people are
concentrated there. C) middle-class families are attracted there. D) redlining is no longer legal.
11) A legal form of segregation in U.S. cities is achieved through...A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) zoning. D) greenbelts.
12) Factories have moved to suburban locations in part because of… A) access to main highways. B) adequate space to build
vertical structures. C) availability of large tracts of high-priced land. D) good rail connections.
13) According to the sector model, the best housing is located in…A) a corridor from downtown to the edge of the city.
B) an outer ring surrounding the city. C) nodes near universities and parks. D) renovated inner-city neighborhoods.
14) Ramshackle houses on the periphery of cities in less developed countries are known as… A) squatter settlements. B) council
estates. C) public housing. D) zone in transition.
15) Higher income people tend to live near the center of the city in all but which of the following regions? A) Latin America
B) North America C) South Asia D) Western Europe

16) The wide boulevards built in cities in less developed countries were most likely built during what era? A) pre-colonial
B) colonial C) independence D) all of the above equally

69

17) According to the multiple nuclei model, an airport is likely to attract nearby… A) industries. B) residences. C) shops.
D) universities.
18) The largest percentage of the U.S. population lives in…A) central cities. B) suburbs. C) non-metropolitan areas. D) all of the
above
19) In U.S. cities, the underclass is… A) clustered in inner-city neighborhoods. B) dispersed throughout the city. C) clustered in
suburbs. D) distributed uniformly in the city.

20) A process of converting a neighborhood from low-income to middle-class is…A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) gentrification.
D) redlining.
21) Higher social heterogeneity in urban settlements means that… A) the people with whom you relax are probably the same ones you
see at work. B) you play a specialized role in the urban economy. C) you compete for limited space. D) you may feel lonely and
isolated in a crowd.
22) The city plus its contiguous built-up suburbs is the… A) central city. B) urbanized area.
D) consolidated metropolitan statistical area

C) metropolitan statistical area.

23) The process whereby an increasing percentage of people live in an urban area is known as… A) demographic transition.
B) rank-size rule. C) urbanization. D) central place theory.
24) Of the ten largest urban areas in the world, how many are in More Developed Countries today? A) 1 B) 4 C) 7 D) 10 E) 2
25) Public housing is…A) conversion of low-income housing to middle-class housing. B) illegally established low-income housing.
C) housing that has changed from single-family owner occupancy to abandonment. D) low-income government-owned housing.
26) According to the concentric zone model, a city develops in a series of… A) corridors. B) nodes. C) rings. D) all of the above

70

27) Chicago is a good location in which to develop urban models because it is located… A) at the hub of the nation's transportation
system. B) in the center of the country. C) on a flat prairie. D) on the shore of Lake Michigan.
28) According to the sector model, the best housing is located in… A) a corridor from downtown to the edge of the city. B) an outer
ring surrounding the city. C) nodes near universities and parks. D) renovated inner-city neighborhoods.
29) The zone of transition in US cities generally contain…A) warehouses B) wealthy neighborhoods C) transportation hubs
D) universities and hospitals E) suburban homes
30) The attractions of shopping malls include all but which of the following? A) frequent concerts and exhibitions B) generous
parking lots C) place to meet friends D) walking distance from homes
The following questions are written at the high school level. You will find some questions from part one often rewritten
here. This is all designed to help you transition to the college/AP style of written questions. Any question preceded with ***
are questions that have been on the national exam before.
31. Most Latin American cities are focused on a…A) central plaza B) government housing project C) zone of heavy industry
D) skyscraper office building E) squatter settlement
32. The multiple-nuclei model of a city structure tends to be most applicable to…A) small cities B) traditional C) Latin American
cities D) newer, fast growing cities E) cities with homogeneous land use
33. ***Locational advantages important to the development of the earliest cities include…A) availability of good harbors for large
ships B) productive agricultural land and defensible sites C) temperate climate and proximity to coal mines D) good
connections by road and canal E) proximity to manufacturing areas

34. In cities, the CBD’s often show uniqueness while the suburbs usually show…A) a large hinterland. B) placelessness C) more
than one node. D) newer zones of transition.

71

35. Many LDC’s have tried to help a previously under-developed part of their country develop by moving their capital
city to that area. This new capital is known as a…A) forward capital B) new development zone C) enterprise zone
D) neocolonial city
36. Today the greatest number of urban dwellers is found in…A) North America
D) Europe E) Asia

B) South America C) Africa

37. ***All of the following have helped create ghettos in North American cities except…A)blockbusting and racial
steering B) redlining by financial institutions C) concentration of public housing and social services D) fixed school
districts E) Economic Enterprise Zones

38. Which of the following is NOT as reason for rapid suburbanization in the US after WW2? A) Mass production of
the automobile B) Reduction of long distance commuting C) Expansion of home construction D) Expansion of the
interstate highway system E) Availability of low down payment terms and long-term mortgages.
39. New cities which developed in the hinterland of large urban areas because of the automobile, are known as…
A) edge cities B) census tracts C) suburban sprawl D) squatter settlements. E) none of these
40. Gentrification refers to… A) moving the homeless into inner city shelters B) The “White Flight” from the urban city
C) losing tax revenue because of stores closing in downtown areas D) middle-class people moving into and renovating
inner city neighborhoods E) the creation of “beltway cities” around the city.

72

4
7
3

5

1
6

2

41-48 all use the sketch above.
41. The sketch in box A above represents which model of the inner structure of urban areas?
C) multiple nuclei model D) Burgess concentric zone model E) peripheral model
42. The models in boxes B and C represent A) Concentric zone and multiple nuclei
concentric zone D) peripheral and concentric zone E) Von Thunen and peripheral

A) Hoyt sector model B) VonThunen’s model

B) Multiple nuclei and Hoyt sector C) Hoyt sector and

43. In which ring (1, 2, etc.) of sketch A above would high-status households in North American cities likely live? A) 1 B) 2 C) 3 D) 4&5
44. In which ring (1, 2, etc.) of sketch A above would high status households in a European city likely live? A) 1

B) 2

C) 3

D) 4&5

45. In model B, zone # 2 is where it is likely because of: A) greenbelting B) squatter settling C) the culture of poverty D) transportation
E) no one knows
46. The model in sketch B is the; A) Hoyt sector model B) Burgess model C) multiple nuclei model D) peripheral model
47. The model in sketch C is the; A) Hoyt sector model B) Burgess model C) multiple nuclei model D) peripheral model
48. Which of these models best describes what has happened in US cities in the last 40 years? A)

B)

C)

73

49.*** In the U.S. a city plus its contiguous built-up suburbs is known as an…A) urbanized area B) zoned area
C) census tract D) Squatter settlement E) none of these
50. Done mostly in Europe, these are areas where land is kept as parks, farms or other kinds of open space and urban
sprawl is not allowed. A) Smart growth
B) zoning
C) filtering
D) census tracts E) greenbelts
51. Which statement best describes the relationship between urbanization and the Industrial Revolution?
A) Urbanization promoted the Industrial Revolution. B) The Industrial Revolution promoted urbanization.
C) Urbanization preceded the Industrial Revolution by thousands of years. D) Urbanization and the Industrial
Revolution are no longer related.
52. The process whereby an increasing percentage of people live in an urban area is known as…
A) Demographic transition. B) rank-size rule. C) Urbanization. D) Central place theory.
53. The city (if it has 50,000 or more people) plus its contiguous built-up suburbs AND the county it is in as well as any
other counties it influences, is known as the ...A) central city B) urbanized area
C) metropolitan statistical area
D) consolidated metropolitan area E) micropolitan statistical area
54. ***Higher social heterogeneity in urban settlements means that …A) the people with whom you relax are probably
the same ones you see at work. B) you play a specialized role in the urban economy. C) you compete for limited
space. D) you may feel lonely and isolated in a crowd.

55. The process of change in the use of a house, from single-family owner occupancy to smaller dwellings for the poor
and then sometimes to abandonment, is…A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining. E) none of
these

74

Free Response #1:
The Bid Rent theory says that the closer you get to the
CBD the higher the cost for land, yet in most American
cities you find the poorest people living near the
expensive CBD and the richest living further away.
Explain:
A. Why neighborhoods near the CBD are often poor and
run down?
B. Why are there few grocery and other retail stores in
these neighborhoods?
C. Why is this not really true in European and Latin
American countries?

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75

FR #2:
Think of the map of your school, explain the
layout of your school using the Multiple Nuclei
Model
The main office is the CBD.
Completely explain your answer using specific
buildings and/or land areas in your explanation
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76

Answer Key:
1. B

14. A

27. C

40. D

53. C

2. B

15. B

28. A

41. D

54. D

3. C

16. B

29. A

42. B

55. B

4. A

17. A

30. D

43. D

5. B

18. B

31. A

44. A

6. A

19. A

32. D

45. D

7. B

20. C

33. B

46. A

8. D

21. D

34. B

47. C

9. D

22. B

35. A

48. C

10. B

23. C

36. E

49. A

11. C

24. C

37. E

50. E

12. A

25. D

38. B

51. B

13. A

26. C

39. A

52. C
77

FR. #1: ( 15 pts. for each section…total of 45 pts.)
A. In the US the move of the wealthy and middle class to the suburbs has left the older houses and apartments near the CBD empty.
This has lowered their value to the point where the poor can afford these dwellings and have made these neighborhoods their
homes. The poor can not pay for upkeep of these dwellings, or to pay high taxes. The lack of upkeep and tax money to repair the
roads and schools, adds to the downward spiral of the neighborhood. With little spending money for shopping, the poor do not
spend much in the stores. This causes many stores to close and move to the suburbs where the spending customers and money
went. The closing of the stores adds to the poverty of the area by taking away some of the jobs that were in the neighborhood. This
becomes a vicious cycle of poverty and deterioration. (15 points)

B. There are few retail stores and groceries is the area because the poor do not have money to shop. The lack of spending forces
many stores out of business or forces them to move to better locations. There also can be higher crime in these areas and the
crime often takes place at the stores. This is another reason for the stores to move out of the neighborhood. (15 points)
C. Neighborhoods in European and Latin American cities are different from those of US cities. In Europe and Latin America, the
wealthy and middle class still live near or in the CBD. The higher tax base and more spending ability of the upper and middle
classes, keeps the CBD area flourishing with jobs and in constant repair and upkeep of the cities’ physical condition. (15 points)

FR #2: (10 total points.)
You will need to judge how effectively you displayed you school
in the Multiple Nuclei Model. Refer to the model itself to help you
determine your success and grade.
School’s main office
78

Calculating your grade on test 13.
Add how many you got correct on the multiple choice part (55 possible) to how many
points you scored on the FR portion (55 possible)…110 total.
The following scale will show the approximate score if this test were the real AP exam. Remember that this
is an approximation. While 65-74% is normally the range for a 3 on the test, it is not definite. Over the
years I have seen scores as low as 60% be the low portion of a 3 score.

Out of 110 possible points:
72-83 is most likely a 3
84-94 is most likely a 4

95-110 is most likely a 5

Now lets start our review for the national exam by
reviewing the 33 key models and theories of the
course…the next PowerPoint.


Slide 45

Key topic/chapter 13…Urban Patterns
Key terms:
Annexation
Concentric zone model
Density gradient
Edge cities
Filtering
Galactic city
Gentrification
Greenbelts
Megalopolis
MSA
Multiple nuclei model
Peripheral model

Public housing
Redlining
Renovated housing
Scattered site
Squatter settlement
Sector model
Smart growth
Sprawl
Underclass
Urban renewal
Zone in transition
Zoning
1

Chapter 13…Urban Areas.
How are Cities planned?
Why

are cities where they are?
How are they organized?
Why are some areas of a city
different from
other areas of the same city?
What is the future of cities?
2

Settlement


Settlement - permanent collections of buildings,
where people live, work, and obtain services

3

ORIGINS OF SETTLEMENTS


Religious - graves, churches, temples



Cultural - schools, libraries



Political/Military - leader’s house, walls



Economic - stores, food
4

TYPES OF SETTLEMENTS


Rural Settlements - agriculture as the
predominant occupation.



Urban settlements - principal industries are
secondary and tertiary.

5

RURAL SETTLEMENTS
Clustered rural settlements –grouped
settlements in rural areas to minimize travel

Dispersed rural Settlements - isolated farms
with enclosed continuous fields (Found only in
N. America and Britain).

6

Urban Geographers want to know the global distribution of urban
settlements. MDC’s have a high percentage of people living in urban
areas because of the shift from agriculture-manufacturing-services.
Geographers are also interested in where people and activities are
distributed within urban spaces. What are the differences between the
inner-city and suburban areas and why?
As we saw in the last chapter, many downtowns are unique and can
often be recognized in photos where the suburbs often look very
much alike (Placelessness). Why? Suburbs offer the chance to avoid
some of the city problems (crime, tight living area, expensive
land/rent, noise, age of buildings) while still keeping a connection with
the goods and services of the city: jobs, sports teams, culture, shops,
recreation, etc.
7

Where is this place?

8

Today’s cities are evolving and changing. Although different internal
situations characterize urban areas in the US and elsewhere, the
problems arising from current spatial trends are quite similar in all cities.
Where have urban areas grown: in the early 1800’s only 3% of the earth’s
people lived in cities and only Beijing China had more than 1 million
people. Today over ½ of the world’s people live in cities and we have over
400 cities of at least 1 million people.

Urbanization: is the process by which city population grows.
Cities population growth is measured in 2 dimensions;
1. An increase in the number of people living in the cities.
2. An increase in the percentage of people living in the cities.
This distinction is important because they happen for different reason and
have different global distributions.
9

Increasing Percentage of People in Cities: a large percentage of people living in urban
areas is a measure of a country’s level of development. In MDC’s about ¾ of the people
live in urban areas compared to about 2/5 of people in LDC’s. (Except in Latin America
where the level is closer to MDC’s.)
The higher percentage of people in urban areas comes from the changes that have
occurred in the last 200 years as we went from agriculture (primary jobs) to industrial
(secondary jobs) and now service jobs, all created by the Industrial Revolution of the
1800’s.
People moved to the cities for industrial jobs, but in MDC’s this process has largely
ended because nearly everyone interested in moving to the cities from farms has already
done so.
In LDC’s the percentage of people living in urban areas is growing as people are pushed
off of their farms and replaced by machines and as people move to cities looking/hoping
for industrial jobs.
10

Increasing Number of People in Cities: MDC’s have a higher percentage of
people living in urban settlements but LDC’s have more of the very large urban
settlements (Primate cities). (Rank-size rule, primate cities, chapter 12.)

This is interesting because typically the large cities are created from the
improvements brought by the Industrial Revolution. This is not the case with the
large LDC cities. Migration to the primate city in LDC’s is happening even though
job opportunities may not be available. Increasing the population growth in LDC
cities is the fact that medical services are better in these cities, thus the child
mortality rate is lower.
Defining Urban Settlements: defining where urban areas end and rural areas
begin is not easy. Geographers have formulated definitions that distinguish
between urban and rural areas in two ways: Social differences and Physical
differences.
11

Percent Urban Population

Percent of the population living in urban areas is usually higher in MDCs
than in LDCs.

12

The most populated cities in the world

Of the top
20, only
Moscow,
Tokyo and
New York
are in MDC’s

Shanghai China has 14,608,512 people
13

14

15

Social Differences Between Urban and Rural Settlements: it is fair to say that rural
people and urban people follow different ways of life. A city can be defined as having 3
characteristics:
1. Large size. People in rural settlements know most of the other people in the
settlement. Not true in big cities. Social relationships are often described as “colder” in
urban areas because you only see some people at work instead of growing up with
them in the settlement.
2. High Density. Having lots of people in a tiny area creates social consequences. A
high density of people living in a small area can only be supported if the people
specialize (they can’t all be farmers). People are encouraged to compete for jobs, room,
and survival in a tightly limited space. Social groups compete to occupy the same space
(ethnic/ race problems). Rural settlements have very little of this problem.
3. Social Heterogeneity. The larger the settlement, the greater the variety of people.
Being “unusual” in a large settlement is more likely to be accepted than in a small rural
one. But despite the freedom to be different that large urban settlements give you,
people living there often feel alone because so many people are different from them.
There is a stronger feeling of belonging together in small rural settlements.
16

These 3 differences do not fully answer the question of where urban settlements
begin and rural ones end because in today’s MDC’s most everyone has access to
cars, telephones, televisions, and “urban type” jobs which reduce the differences
between urban and rural lifestyles. “City folk” and “Country folk” are more alike
today than they are different. To help distinguish between urban and rural areas we
need to add the physical definition of rural and urban to the equation.
Physical Definitions of Urban Settlements: In ancient time, cities had defensive
walls for protection which clearly defined the physical boundaries of the city. Today
the walls are gone but we can still define the physical boundaries in 3 ways:
1. Legal boundary. These are the official boundaries of a city as recognized by
the government of the country or state. These “city limits” have been officially given
to the city and are physically marked on official maps. The local government of the
city has authority to make laws and protect the people inside the city boundaries.
17

2. Urbanized area. This is the city plus its suburbs or urbanized area that
surrounds the city. About 70 percent of US residents live in urbanized areas with
40% being in the suburbs and 30% inside the city limits. The suburbs may have
their own city governments but the huge central city dominates what happens in
the entire area.
3. Metropolitan Statistical Area. Cities have an even bigger influence on people
than just those living in their city limits and surrounding urbanized areas. People
from far away come to shop, use the services, support the sports teams, read
the newspapers and watch the television broadcasts of the city. Thus the city
has a “functional area” which is its total zone of influence. The US Bureau of
Census has created a method of measuring the functional area of the city.
Known as the Metropolitan statistical area (MSA) this area includes:
•An urbanized area with a population of at least 50,000
•The county within which the city is located.
•Adjacent counties with a high population density and a large percentage of
residents working in the central city’s county.
18

Metropolitan Area of Philadelphia

City of
Philadelphia

Urbanized
area
(suburbs)
Metropolitan
Statistical
Area

The metropolitan area of Philadelphia is
spread over several counties and four states.
It is also a diversified trade center, given its
position on the Delaware river.

19

20

21

Micropolitan Statistical Areas: Smaller areas with between
10,000 and 50,000 people, the county where it is found, and
adjacent counties tied to the city. This would be a small town and
the area dominated by it.
Overlapping Metropolitan Areas: Some adjacent MSA’s overlap.
A county between two central cities may send a large number of
commuters to jobs in both cities. In some areas the cities are so
close that they form one continuous urban complex. This is
known as a Megalopolis (great city).
In a megalopolis, the downtown CBD often has its own
distinctive look and the urban areas are visually separated by
parks, open spaces, and dairy/truck farms. But at the periphery
of the urban areas, the boundaries overlap.
22

Colorado Springs, population 431,000

Ocala, Florida, population 56,000

Florala, Alabama, population 1,900

23

Megalopolis, from northern Va. To Maine.
This Illustrates the
difference between
strict city proper
definitions and broader
urban agglomerations.
To define urbanized
areas, the U.S. Census
Bureau uses the term
Metropolitan Statistical
Area (MSA) or
Consolidated MSA
(CMSA) if two or more of
them overlap.
24

Where are People Distributed within Urban Areas? People are not
just distributed at random in urban areas. For the most part they
concentrate in particular neighborhoods depending on their social
characteristics. Geographers want to see where people with
particular characteristics are likely to live and why.

Three models which try to explain the growth of a city:

The Burgess Model

The Hoyt Sector Model

The Harris and Ullman
multiple Nuclei Model
25

Burgess Concentric Zone Model

In the concentric zone model, a city grows in a series of rings surrounding the CBD.

Burgess Concentric Zone Model: This is the first used to explain the
distributions of different social groups within urban areas. It says that a
city grows outward from a central place in a series of concentric rings.
The precise size and width of the rings vary from one city to another, but
some basic types of rings appear in all cities in the same order (see chart
above).
26

•Hoyt Sector Model: In this model the city develops in a
series of sectors not rings. Certain areas of the city are
more attractive for various activities, originally because
of an environmental factor (or even pure chance). As the
city grows, activities extend outward in a wedge shape.
For example, once a wealthy neighborhood is built the
next wealthy neighborhood will extend from the first
neighborhood further outward from the center. In this
way, the best housing is found in a corridor extending
outward from the center to the outer edge (see chart on
the next page).
27

The Hoyt Sector Model

In the sector model, a city grows in a series of
wedges or corridors extending out from the
CBD.
28

•Harris and Ullman’s Multiple Nuclei Model: According
to this model, a city is a complex structure that includes
more than one center around which activities revolve.
Examples of these nodes include a port, parks,
stadium, neighborhood business center, university, and
airport (see chart). This theory states that some
activities are attracted to particular nodes, whereas
others try to avoid them. A university node may attract
well educated people and bookstores while the port will
attract hotels and warehouses. Heavy industry and
expensive houses rarely are found together. This
model shows the effect of the automobile more than
any other model.
29

The Harris and Ullman Multiple Nuclei model

The multiple nuclei model views a city as a
collection of individual centers, around which
different people and activities cluster.

30

Applications of the Models: The three models help explain where and in some
cases, why people live where they do. None of the models by themselves fully
explains why and where different types of people live, but combined they give
you as good a look as possible at the “Why” of “Where.” Effective use of the
models depends on getting good data on the areas. Most countries take a
census every 10 years to help determine useful data about the people and
places of the country. In our country we divide the census data into areas
known as census tracts of about 5,000 people. Each census tract has the data
that summarizes the characteristics of the people living within that tract. This
information includes things like the race, income, age, and education of the
people living in that tract.
Social Area Analysis: The data from the census tracts can all be plotted onto
maps to show the characteristics of the people living in that tract. This map is
known as a social area analysis.
31

Using Census tract information…Seattle, Washington
Each lined area is a
census tract of about 5000
people in Seattle
Washington. These maps
show average household
income for 1990 and
2000…note the changes in
income in some areas
between 1990 and 2000.
Using this information, a
business can make
decisions about where
they want to locate a new
store or the future of
existing stores.
You can find census tract
information on many topics
such as; age, education
level, race, ethnicity, crime
rate, and land ownership.
Note the areas with
incomes over
$63,000.

All can be very valuable
information to people
looking to open
businesses.

32

Examine the changes
between 1990 and
2000.

Oakland, California’s Ethnic neighborhoods
The small bordered areas are census tracks of 5000 people.

33

Use of the Models Outside of North America: The 3 models will also work in other
places in the world; however social groups in other countries may not have the
same reasons for selecting particular neighborhoods as Americans do.
European Cities: As in the US, wealthier people in European cities cluster along a
sector extending outward from the CBD, however unlike the US, wealthy and
middle class Europeans still live in the inner rings of the neighborhoods near the
CBD not out in the suburbs. In the past, poorer people lived in the center of the
city. Before electricity, social segregation was vertical: richer people lived on the
first or second floor of a building while the poorer people lived in the basement or
upper floors. In the Industrial Revolution, housing for the poor was constructed
near the factories and away from the rich.
Today poorer Europeans are less likely to live in the inner-city. Poor quality
housing has been renovated for the rich or turned into office buildings. Poorer
Europeans tend to live in the outskirts of the city. Vast suburbs with dozens of high
rise apartments house the poor. They face long commutes to reach their jobs in
the city.
34

European cities generally do not have the “suburban
sprawl” that US cities have. European cities tend to be
more pedestrian friendly with more parks downtown as
Europeans tend to still live downtown.
US cities have taller buildings as European cities tend to
be older and more historic.

American cities have more ethnic neighborhoods than
European cities. Ethnic neighborhoods that do exist in
European cities tend to be in the suburbs. WHY?
Because the established richer neighborhoods tend to be
downtown in European cities.
35

Less Developed Countries: Like Europe, most LDC’s accommodate their poor in the
suburbs with their middle class and rich living near the center of the city. LDC’s have
passed through 3 periods of city building: before the Europeans arrived, during the
period of European colonialism, and since independence from European control.

Pre-colonial Cities: Before the Europeans arrived few cities existed in Africa, Asia, and
Latin America and most people lived in small rural settlements. Those cities that existed
were mostly laid out surrounding a religious center; with the rest of the city laid out in a
hieratical concentric pattern (like the Burgess model) from government buildings,
homes of the wealthy, and businesses related to the religion out to other businesses
and shops.
Colonial cities: When the Europeans took over these lands, they changed the cities by
adding services to help the Europeans control the conquered people. Often a new
European style city would be build next to the existing native one. The new European
cities contained wider streets, a public square, larger houses and a much lower density.
The Spanish used the “Law of the Indies” which was a city plan designed specifically to
build cities in a “Spanish” style. (Gridiron pattern for streets centered on a church and
central plaza, walls around individual houses and neighborhoods centered around
smaller plazas and more churches.)
36

Early Mexico city was laid out in a grid pattern of streets. This followed
the Spanish “Law of the Indies.”

37

Central Plaza in Mexico City 1920 photo. Typical Colonial City plan.

Part of downtown Mexico city today still shows the
building plan of the “Law of the Indies.”

38

Cities since Independence: Following independence, cities have become
the focal point of the development of most LDC’s. Millions of people have
migrated to the cities (Primate cities) looking for jobs and services. Some
capitals have been moved to isolated areas in an attempt to help develop
that area of the country (Brasília) This is know as a forward capital. Latin
American cities have developed their own unique style.
Squatter settlements: The LDC’s are unable to house the rapidly growing
number of poor who are flowing into the cities. Because of the housing
shortages, the poor have constructed their own settlements around the city.
These settlements have few services because neither the city nor the
residents can afford them. Squatters have two basic choices for housing.
1. Illegally move into empty real houses located in the city or,
2. Rent slum housing.
(85% of the population of Addis Ababa in Ethiopia lives in squatter
settlements, slums or other illegal housing.)
39

Squatter shacks in Manila, the Philippines

40

Squatter settlement in Ethiopia

41

Zimbabwe, Africa

42

Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

43

Latin American City Model:
In many Latin
American cities,
the wealthy live in
the inner city and
in a sector
extending along a
commercial spine.
In situ accretion- businesses
and homes constantly under
construction/repair.
Zone of maturity-2nd best
housing in the city.
The poor live in squatter settlements on the
periphery of the city.

Disamenity- unpleasant area
used by the poor to get to the
market.

44

The City Outline of Rio de Janeiro
The rich tourist areas and expensive condo apartments are along the coast
and beach while the poor live in squatter shacks in the hills.

45

City problems:
Inner-City Physical Problems: Most US inner cities were constructed before the 1950’s
(people began to move to the suburbs in the 1950’s so new construction moved out of
the city).
Process of Deterioration (how a city deteriorates): A city doesn’t suddenly become old
and full of slummy areas. It happens over time. When a group of low-income people
inhabit an area of a city, nearby neighborhoods will often look to move out. They sell or
rent to more low-income occupants thus expanding the low-income area. Two processes
cause/speed up the devaluation of areas:
1. Filtering, 2. Redlining.
Filtering: Large houses and buildings that once housed rich downtown workers (who
moved to the suburbs) are taken over by landlords who don’t live in that area (they
moved to the suburbs too). Rents are low so the landlord doesn’t take as good care of
the property as they should and the property becomes run down or abandoned. Stores
close, or move, due to lack of sales. 100 years ago these neighborhoods would be used
by immigrants and ethnic businesses would succeed in those areas. Now, with a decline
in immigration, these neighborhoods have shrunk and so have schools, businesses and
other services. Thousands of vacant houses and buildings stand empty in inner cities
across America.

46

Redlining: Some banks refuse to give loans in what they consider
risky neighborhoods. They draw a red line on a map around areas
where they will not give loans. Without loans, these neighborhoods
have a hard time rebuilding/remodeling. Though illegal, this still
happens. Bankers just don’t put these “no-loan” areas on a map.

Urban Renewal: This is the series of projects to improve European
and N. American cities by buying up the blighted neighborhoods,
moving the people to new government built housing projects, and
building new roads, and other projects to make the inner city
attractive for business again. National and State government grants
help pay for these projects.
47

Public housing: Housing for the poor, built with government funding as part of
urban renewal. In the US this is only about 2% of the housing while in some
countries it may be more (Britain is 30%). Public housing built in the 50’s & 60’s
were largely high rise apartments, but those are seen as being unsatisfactory.
Problems arise from cramming large numbers of poor people into one area.
Today most public housing projects are one to three story buildings with many of
them being scattered around different parts of the city rather than clustered into
one area.
Because urban renewal has been criticized for destroying the social cohesion of
older neighborhoods, many governments (like the US) have stopped funding
most projects since the 1970’s. What do we do instead?
Renovated Housing: An alternative often used since the 70’s is to renovate a
building instead of urban renewal. The process where middle-class people
move into inner-city neighborhoods and renovate them is called gentrification.
Gentrified inner-city neighborhoods also attract middle-class people who work
downtown. Living close to work saves the hassle of commuting and rejuvenates
run down inner-city neighborhoods
48

Gentrified building downtown Harlem, NY. Note the supermarket.

49

Inner-City Social Problems: Inner-city residents are often referred to as the
permanent underclass because they are trapped in an unending cycle of
economic and social problems. High unemployment, alcoholism, drug
addiction, literacy, juvenile delinquency, and crime all exist at a higher rate
among those who live in the inner-city. Lack of jobs means lack of tax dollars
to pay for police and fire protection as well as good schools. Lack of job skills
and homelessness are also tremendous problems.
Culture of Poverty: Inner-city residents are trapped in a permanent underclass
culture that reproduces itself. In the US, unwed mothers give birth to 2/3 of the
babies in the inner-city. 90% of these children live with only one parent and it
is real hard for one parent to keep a job and take care of children. Both suffer
and a shortage of care and daily attention by the parent contributes to the kids
not learning the skills necessary to do well in school which leads to poor jobs
for their futures. Poverty leads to more poverty. Many families on welfare have
only one parent because it is financially better if one parent is gone, that way
the single parent gets food stamps and other services from the government
that they would not get if it was a 2 family household.
50

Crime: Trapped in a hopeless environment, some inner-city
residents turn to drugs. Drug use is a problem in inner-city
areas and the suburbs, but rates of drug use in inner-cities
are the highest.
Ethnic and Racial Segregation: As seen in chapter 7, many
neighborhoods in the US are segregated by ethnicity with
African Americans and Hispanics concentrated in one or two
continuous areas and whites living in the suburbs. Even small
cities display a strong distinction among neighborhoods. A
frequent division is between the east and west or north and
south side of town, or the railroad tracks. A family seeking a
new residence will seek the areas where the characteristics
of the people meet their own.

51

The exodus
from the
American city.
This has
happened in
many American
cities since the
1960’s.

52

Changes in Cities in the U.S.
U.S. population has been moving out of the city centers to the suburbs:
suburbanization and counter urbanization

Developed Countries: suburbanization

 wealthy move to suburbs
 automobiles and roads; ‘American
Dream’ of the home in the suburbs.
 better services
 wealthy move to suburbs
Counter urbanization

idyllic settings
cost of land for retirement
slow pace, yet high tech
connections to services and markets
53

U.S. intraregional migration during 1990s.

Inner city economic problems: the concentration of low income
residents in inner cities has caused economic problems. These
people require public services but can pay very little in taxes to
support the services. They need stores and jobs but have little
money to spend in the store and few skills for jobs (so the stores
close). To try to fight these problems many local and state
governments use tax monies to try to renovate these areas, but this
shifts tax money needed for other areas to the inner city (votes on
election day).
Annexation: Many cities could help their tax problem by adding the
new suburbs to be part of their city (annexation). After all, many of
these suburban people use the city for its’ jobs etc., so why not add
them into the city? Today, most people in the suburbs do not want
to be annexed into the city and so they do not vote to be annexed.
54

The Peripheral Model: According to this model, an urban area
consists of an inner city surrounded by large suburban residential
and business areas (MSA) tied together by a beltway or highway
that circles the city. Around the beltway are nodes of consumer
and business services called edge cities (see diagram of multiple
nuclei model). These edge cities sprang up to provide services
and jobs to the people in the suburbs.
Density Gradient: As you travel outward from the center of the
city, the density of people declines. Inner city has big apartments
of 250 of more people per acre. Suburbs have fewer people per
acre (but lots of acres) and finally you leave the cities periphery
you find few people. The number of houses per unit of land
diminishes as distance from the center of the city increases.
55

The Edge cities (bedroom communities) of Houston

The central city is surrounded by a ring road, around which are
suburban areas and edge cities, shopping malls, office parks,
industrial areas, and service complexes.

Known as
bedroom
communities
because
people live
there but
mostly don’t
work there.
They drive
into the city
for work.
56

As you move from the center of the city outward, the density of the population
changes. This is know as the density gradient. Two big changes have occurred in
the density gradient of today’s cities:
1. The number of people living in the center has decreased.
2. The density difference between the inner city and the suburbs is declining
because the inner city density is dropping and the suburban density is growing
due to more large apartments being built in the suburbs.
Cost of Suburban or Urban Sprawl: Urban Sprawl is the progressive spread of
development over the landscape. As long as we Americans want single-family
detached houses, land on the fringe of urban areas will be converted from open
space to residential use. The cost of this growth is more than the loss of land, it is
also the cost of new roads, utilities, building stores and offices and the cost of
automobiles to move these people over even longer distances. Lots of these new
developments are built on what was once farmland. Wonderful productive soil now
under concrete.

Greenbelts: are areas where, by law, the open space can not be used for any
construction. This is mostly found in Europe.

57

Once farmland that is being converted to suburbs and cities.

58

Tyson’s Corner Virginia in 1940

59

Washington, DC. MSA.

Tyson’s Corner Virginia
today.
Washington D.C. is off
In the distance.

60

Suburban Segregation: The “new” segregation.
Suburban segregation takes two forms:
1. Residents are separated from commercial and manufacturing activities
which are confined someplace else. (The whole neighborhood is
nothing but houses because they drive for services.)
2. The price of the house eliminates some from being able to live there. This
creates a homogeneous suburb of the same economic class of people.
This never existed before in history. Where we once had vertical
segregation of the classes we now we have horizontal segregation.
3. But this may be reversing as new statistics show that people are beginning
to move back to the city. Why? Cost of transportation.
Zoning Ordinances: This idea developed in Europe and later America in the
early decades of the 20th century. This means that businesses are allowed only
in certain areas of the settlement. (No all night taco stands inside your single
family neighborhood.)
Motor vehicles: The wide use of the automobile is largely responsible for the
American movement to the suburbs. Not only did people move out but 1/4 of
the land inside all American cities are now roads, streets, and parking lots.

61

Public Transportation: Because few US workers live within walking distance
of their jobs, urban areas are characterized by extensive commuting and the
problems that come with it. As much as 40% of all trips made into or out from
a city during the day takes place within just 4 hours. (2 in the morning and 2 in
the late afternoon). RUSH HOUR!!! In large cities, public transportation, like
subways and busses, are better suited to move people but Americans still
prefer their own cars. Public transportation is cheaper, cleaner, and more
energy efficient than personal cars, yet in the US only 5% of city travel is
done using public transit systems. American’s love their personal car too
much.
Local Government Fragmentation: Because of the large number of local
governments in the US (look at the settlements in Pinellas County) it is
difficult to solve some of the regional problems like garbage disposal, water
management, traffic and public housing.
62

Metropolitan government: This idea tries to put many local governments into a
larger unit that can better handle the urban problems. The 2 ways to do this
are:
1. Federations in which the individual settlements have their own police,
firemen, and tax collection but they all agree to be part of a second
government which handles transportation, water, sewage, parks and
welfare for all the communities.
2. Consolidations: In this method, several cities and the county may form one
government. Jacksonville’s government runs not only the town but the
county too, this makes Jacksonville the largest city, in land size, in the US.
Smart growth: A new movement by many states to curb suburban sprawl by
limiting where new construction can take place. Smart growth laws require that
land near cities be used up before any land further out can be developed. So
far, this is only being done an a few parts of our country.
63

The new
US as
some
people
see it.

64

Quiz Yourself:
1. The process where middle-class people move into inner city neighborhoods and
renovate them is called ____________
2. ____________ happens when banks refuse to give loans in what they consider
risky neighborhoods.
3. Because of the housing shortages, the poor have constructed their own settlements
around the city known as __________ _________

4. Businesses are allowed only in certain areas of the settlement because of
____________ ____________
5. Areas known as _____ _______ are areas of about 5,000 people. The data from
that area is used to help define needed services for that area.
6. When cities are so close that they form one continuous band of development this is
known as a ____________
65

7. Social relationships are often described as “colder” in urban areas because…
8. In this model the city develops in a series of sectors not rings. _______

9. ______ (LDC’s or MDC’s) have a higher percentage of people living in urban
settlements but ________ (LDC’s or MDC’s) have more of the very large urban
settlements.
10. _____________ was the first model developed to explain the distributions
of different social groups within urban areas.
11. New cities which develop around the beltway are nodes of consumer and
business services known as ________ _________.

12. When the Europeans took over lands around the world, they changed the
cities by adding services to help the Europeans control the conquered people.
These European planned cities are known as __________ cities.
66

Answer Key:
1.

Gentrification

2.

Redlining

3.

Squatter Settlements

4.

Zoning ordinances

5.

Census tracks

6.

Megalopolis

7. There is a stronger feeling of belonging together in small rural settlements.
8. Hoyt sector model
9. MDC, LDC
10. Burgess Concentric Zone model
11. Edge cities
12. Colonial cities
67

Test Key topic/chapter 13:
These questions come from a combination of our slides, your text book, and common knowledge you should
have discussed in your AP classroom. They are very typical of what you will see on the National Exam.
1) The multiple nuclei theory best explains why different neighborhoods of a city attract people of different… A) ages.
B) ethnic origin C) income D) marital status.
2) Sprawl is the… A) change in density within an urban area from the center to the periphery B) development of new
housing sites not contiguous to the existing built-up area. C) land maintained as open space surrounding an urban area.
D) period in the morning and evening with the heaviest volumes of traffic.
3) People are attracted to suburbs in part because suburbs are characterized by…A) heavy traffic. B) lower opportunity
for home ownership. C) private land surrounding the house. D) row houses and apartments.
4) Megalopolis refers to… A) adjacent, overlapping Metropolitan Statistical Areas. B) central cities. C) consolidated
Metropolitan Statistical Areas. D) central cities plus urbanized areas.
5) Which statement best describes the relationship between urbanization and the Industrial Revolution? A) Urbanization
promoted the Industrial Revolution. B) The Industrial Revolution promoted urbanization. C) Urbanization preceded the
Industrial Revolution by thousands of years. D) Urbanization and the Industrial Revolution are no longer related.
6) The process of legally adding land area to a city in the United States is… A) annexation. B) accreditation. C) an
application of eminent domain. D) defined by urbanized area.

68

7) The process of change in the use of a house, from single-family owner occupancy to abandonment, is… A) blockbusting.
B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining.
8) A process by which banks designate an area within which they refuse to lend money for improvements is… A) blockbusting.
B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining.
9) A recent change in the density gradient has been… A) the elimination of the gap traditionally found in the center. B) an
increase in the extremes between the inner and outer areas. C) an increase in the number of people living in the center.
D) a reduction in the differences in densities found within an urban area.
10) U.S. central cities face fiscal problems because… A) federal and state funds are available. B) low-income people are
concentrated there. C) middle-class families are attracted there. D) redlining is no longer legal.
11) A legal form of segregation in U.S. cities is achieved through...A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) zoning. D) greenbelts.
12) Factories have moved to suburban locations in part because of… A) access to main highways. B) adequate space to build
vertical structures. C) availability of large tracts of high-priced land. D) good rail connections.
13) According to the sector model, the best housing is located in…A) a corridor from downtown to the edge of the city.
B) an outer ring surrounding the city. C) nodes near universities and parks. D) renovated inner-city neighborhoods.
14) Ramshackle houses on the periphery of cities in less developed countries are known as… A) squatter settlements. B) council
estates. C) public housing. D) zone in transition.
15) Higher income people tend to live near the center of the city in all but which of the following regions? A) Latin America
B) North America C) South Asia D) Western Europe

16) The wide boulevards built in cities in less developed countries were most likely built during what era? A) pre-colonial
B) colonial C) independence D) all of the above equally

69

17) According to the multiple nuclei model, an airport is likely to attract nearby… A) industries. B) residences. C) shops.
D) universities.
18) The largest percentage of the U.S. population lives in…A) central cities. B) suburbs. C) non-metropolitan areas. D) all of the
above
19) In U.S. cities, the underclass is… A) clustered in inner-city neighborhoods. B) dispersed throughout the city. C) clustered in
suburbs. D) distributed uniformly in the city.

20) A process of converting a neighborhood from low-income to middle-class is…A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) gentrification.
D) redlining.
21) Higher social heterogeneity in urban settlements means that… A) the people with whom you relax are probably the same ones you
see at work. B) you play a specialized role in the urban economy. C) you compete for limited space. D) you may feel lonely and
isolated in a crowd.
22) The city plus its contiguous built-up suburbs is the… A) central city. B) urbanized area.
D) consolidated metropolitan statistical area

C) metropolitan statistical area.

23) The process whereby an increasing percentage of people live in an urban area is known as… A) demographic transition.
B) rank-size rule. C) urbanization. D) central place theory.
24) Of the ten largest urban areas in the world, how many are in More Developed Countries today? A) 1 B) 4 C) 7 D) 10 E) 2
25) Public housing is…A) conversion of low-income housing to middle-class housing. B) illegally established low-income housing.
C) housing that has changed from single-family owner occupancy to abandonment. D) low-income government-owned housing.
26) According to the concentric zone model, a city develops in a series of… A) corridors. B) nodes. C) rings. D) all of the above

70

27) Chicago is a good location in which to develop urban models because it is located… A) at the hub of the nation's transportation
system. B) in the center of the country. C) on a flat prairie. D) on the shore of Lake Michigan.
28) According to the sector model, the best housing is located in… A) a corridor from downtown to the edge of the city. B) an outer
ring surrounding the city. C) nodes near universities and parks. D) renovated inner-city neighborhoods.
29) The zone of transition in US cities generally contain…A) warehouses B) wealthy neighborhoods C) transportation hubs
D) universities and hospitals E) suburban homes
30) The attractions of shopping malls include all but which of the following? A) frequent concerts and exhibitions B) generous
parking lots C) place to meet friends D) walking distance from homes
The following questions are written at the high school level. You will find some questions from part one often rewritten
here. This is all designed to help you transition to the college/AP style of written questions. Any question preceded with ***
are questions that have been on the national exam before.
31. Most Latin American cities are focused on a…A) central plaza B) government housing project C) zone of heavy industry
D) skyscraper office building E) squatter settlement
32. The multiple-nuclei model of a city structure tends to be most applicable to…A) small cities B) traditional C) Latin American
cities D) newer, fast growing cities E) cities with homogeneous land use
33. ***Locational advantages important to the development of the earliest cities include…A) availability of good harbors for large
ships B) productive agricultural land and defensible sites C) temperate climate and proximity to coal mines D) good
connections by road and canal E) proximity to manufacturing areas

34. In cities, the CBD’s often show uniqueness while the suburbs usually show…A) a large hinterland. B) placelessness C) more
than one node. D) newer zones of transition.

71

35. Many LDC’s have tried to help a previously under-developed part of their country develop by moving their capital
city to that area. This new capital is known as a…A) forward capital B) new development zone C) enterprise zone
D) neocolonial city
36. Today the greatest number of urban dwellers is found in…A) North America
D) Europe E) Asia

B) South America C) Africa

37. ***All of the following have helped create ghettos in North American cities except…A)blockbusting and racial
steering B) redlining by financial institutions C) concentration of public housing and social services D) fixed school
districts E) Economic Enterprise Zones

38. Which of the following is NOT as reason for rapid suburbanization in the US after WW2? A) Mass production of
the automobile B) Reduction of long distance commuting C) Expansion of home construction D) Expansion of the
interstate highway system E) Availability of low down payment terms and long-term mortgages.
39. New cities which developed in the hinterland of large urban areas because of the automobile, are known as…
A) edge cities B) census tracts C) suburban sprawl D) squatter settlements. E) none of these
40. Gentrification refers to… A) moving the homeless into inner city shelters B) The “White Flight” from the urban city
C) losing tax revenue because of stores closing in downtown areas D) middle-class people moving into and renovating
inner city neighborhoods E) the creation of “beltway cities” around the city.

72

4
7
3

5

1
6

2

41-48 all use the sketch above.
41. The sketch in box A above represents which model of the inner structure of urban areas?
C) multiple nuclei model D) Burgess concentric zone model E) peripheral model
42. The models in boxes B and C represent A) Concentric zone and multiple nuclei
concentric zone D) peripheral and concentric zone E) Von Thunen and peripheral

A) Hoyt sector model B) VonThunen’s model

B) Multiple nuclei and Hoyt sector C) Hoyt sector and

43. In which ring (1, 2, etc.) of sketch A above would high-status households in North American cities likely live? A) 1 B) 2 C) 3 D) 4&5
44. In which ring (1, 2, etc.) of sketch A above would high status households in a European city likely live? A) 1

B) 2

C) 3

D) 4&5

45. In model B, zone # 2 is where it is likely because of: A) greenbelting B) squatter settling C) the culture of poverty D) transportation
E) no one knows
46. The model in sketch B is the; A) Hoyt sector model B) Burgess model C) multiple nuclei model D) peripheral model
47. The model in sketch C is the; A) Hoyt sector model B) Burgess model C) multiple nuclei model D) peripheral model
48. Which of these models best describes what has happened in US cities in the last 40 years? A)

B)

C)

73

49.*** In the U.S. a city plus its contiguous built-up suburbs is known as an…A) urbanized area B) zoned area
C) census tract D) Squatter settlement E) none of these
50. Done mostly in Europe, these are areas where land is kept as parks, farms or other kinds of open space and urban
sprawl is not allowed. A) Smart growth
B) zoning
C) filtering
D) census tracts E) greenbelts
51. Which statement best describes the relationship between urbanization and the Industrial Revolution?
A) Urbanization promoted the Industrial Revolution. B) The Industrial Revolution promoted urbanization.
C) Urbanization preceded the Industrial Revolution by thousands of years. D) Urbanization and the Industrial
Revolution are no longer related.
52. The process whereby an increasing percentage of people live in an urban area is known as…
A) Demographic transition. B) rank-size rule. C) Urbanization. D) Central place theory.
53. The city (if it has 50,000 or more people) plus its contiguous built-up suburbs AND the county it is in as well as any
other counties it influences, is known as the ...A) central city B) urbanized area
C) metropolitan statistical area
D) consolidated metropolitan area E) micropolitan statistical area
54. ***Higher social heterogeneity in urban settlements means that …A) the people with whom you relax are probably
the same ones you see at work. B) you play a specialized role in the urban economy. C) you compete for limited
space. D) you may feel lonely and isolated in a crowd.

55. The process of change in the use of a house, from single-family owner occupancy to smaller dwellings for the poor
and then sometimes to abandonment, is…A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining. E) none of
these

74

Free Response #1:
The Bid Rent theory says that the closer you get to the
CBD the higher the cost for land, yet in most American
cities you find the poorest people living near the
expensive CBD and the richest living further away.
Explain:
A. Why neighborhoods near the CBD are often poor and
run down?
B. Why are there few grocery and other retail stores in
these neighborhoods?
C. Why is this not really true in European and Latin
American countries?

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75

FR #2:
Think of the map of your school, explain the
layout of your school using the Multiple Nuclei
Model
The main office is the CBD.
Completely explain your answer using specific
buildings and/or land areas in your explanation
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76

Answer Key:
1. B

14. A

27. C

40. D

53. C

2. B

15. B

28. A

41. D

54. D

3. C

16. B

29. A

42. B

55. B

4. A

17. A

30. D

43. D

5. B

18. B

31. A

44. A

6. A

19. A

32. D

45. D

7. B

20. C

33. B

46. A

8. D

21. D

34. B

47. C

9. D

22. B

35. A

48. C

10. B

23. C

36. E

49. A

11. C

24. C

37. E

50. E

12. A

25. D

38. B

51. B

13. A

26. C

39. A

52. C
77

FR. #1: ( 15 pts. for each section…total of 45 pts.)
A. In the US the move of the wealthy and middle class to the suburbs has left the older houses and apartments near the CBD empty.
This has lowered their value to the point where the poor can afford these dwellings and have made these neighborhoods their
homes. The poor can not pay for upkeep of these dwellings, or to pay high taxes. The lack of upkeep and tax money to repair the
roads and schools, adds to the downward spiral of the neighborhood. With little spending money for shopping, the poor do not
spend much in the stores. This causes many stores to close and move to the suburbs where the spending customers and money
went. The closing of the stores adds to the poverty of the area by taking away some of the jobs that were in the neighborhood. This
becomes a vicious cycle of poverty and deterioration. (15 points)

B. There are few retail stores and groceries is the area because the poor do not have money to shop. The lack of spending forces
many stores out of business or forces them to move to better locations. There also can be higher crime in these areas and the
crime often takes place at the stores. This is another reason for the stores to move out of the neighborhood. (15 points)
C. Neighborhoods in European and Latin American cities are different from those of US cities. In Europe and Latin America, the
wealthy and middle class still live near or in the CBD. The higher tax base and more spending ability of the upper and middle
classes, keeps the CBD area flourishing with jobs and in constant repair and upkeep of the cities’ physical condition. (15 points)

FR #2: (10 total points.)
You will need to judge how effectively you displayed you school
in the Multiple Nuclei Model. Refer to the model itself to help you
determine your success and grade.
School’s main office
78

Calculating your grade on test 13.
Add how many you got correct on the multiple choice part (55 possible) to how many
points you scored on the FR portion (55 possible)…110 total.
The following scale will show the approximate score if this test were the real AP exam. Remember that this
is an approximation. While 65-74% is normally the range for a 3 on the test, it is not definite. Over the
years I have seen scores as low as 60% be the low portion of a 3 score.

Out of 110 possible points:
72-83 is most likely a 3
84-94 is most likely a 4

95-110 is most likely a 5

Now lets start our review for the national exam by
reviewing the 33 key models and theories of the
course…the next PowerPoint.


Slide 46

Key topic/chapter 13…Urban Patterns
Key terms:
Annexation
Concentric zone model
Density gradient
Edge cities
Filtering
Galactic city
Gentrification
Greenbelts
Megalopolis
MSA
Multiple nuclei model
Peripheral model

Public housing
Redlining
Renovated housing
Scattered site
Squatter settlement
Sector model
Smart growth
Sprawl
Underclass
Urban renewal
Zone in transition
Zoning
1

Chapter 13…Urban Areas.
How are Cities planned?
Why

are cities where they are?
How are they organized?
Why are some areas of a city
different from
other areas of the same city?
What is the future of cities?
2

Settlement


Settlement - permanent collections of buildings,
where people live, work, and obtain services

3

ORIGINS OF SETTLEMENTS


Religious - graves, churches, temples



Cultural - schools, libraries



Political/Military - leader’s house, walls



Economic - stores, food
4

TYPES OF SETTLEMENTS


Rural Settlements - agriculture as the
predominant occupation.



Urban settlements - principal industries are
secondary and tertiary.

5

RURAL SETTLEMENTS
Clustered rural settlements –grouped
settlements in rural areas to minimize travel

Dispersed rural Settlements - isolated farms
with enclosed continuous fields (Found only in
N. America and Britain).

6

Urban Geographers want to know the global distribution of urban
settlements. MDC’s have a high percentage of people living in urban
areas because of the shift from agriculture-manufacturing-services.
Geographers are also interested in where people and activities are
distributed within urban spaces. What are the differences between the
inner-city and suburban areas and why?
As we saw in the last chapter, many downtowns are unique and can
often be recognized in photos where the suburbs often look very
much alike (Placelessness). Why? Suburbs offer the chance to avoid
some of the city problems (crime, tight living area, expensive
land/rent, noise, age of buildings) while still keeping a connection with
the goods and services of the city: jobs, sports teams, culture, shops,
recreation, etc.
7

Where is this place?

8

Today’s cities are evolving and changing. Although different internal
situations characterize urban areas in the US and elsewhere, the
problems arising from current spatial trends are quite similar in all cities.
Where have urban areas grown: in the early 1800’s only 3% of the earth’s
people lived in cities and only Beijing China had more than 1 million
people. Today over ½ of the world’s people live in cities and we have over
400 cities of at least 1 million people.

Urbanization: is the process by which city population grows.
Cities population growth is measured in 2 dimensions;
1. An increase in the number of people living in the cities.
2. An increase in the percentage of people living in the cities.
This distinction is important because they happen for different reason and
have different global distributions.
9

Increasing Percentage of People in Cities: a large percentage of people living in urban
areas is a measure of a country’s level of development. In MDC’s about ¾ of the people
live in urban areas compared to about 2/5 of people in LDC’s. (Except in Latin America
where the level is closer to MDC’s.)
The higher percentage of people in urban areas comes from the changes that have
occurred in the last 200 years as we went from agriculture (primary jobs) to industrial
(secondary jobs) and now service jobs, all created by the Industrial Revolution of the
1800’s.
People moved to the cities for industrial jobs, but in MDC’s this process has largely
ended because nearly everyone interested in moving to the cities from farms has already
done so.
In LDC’s the percentage of people living in urban areas is growing as people are pushed
off of their farms and replaced by machines and as people move to cities looking/hoping
for industrial jobs.
10

Increasing Number of People in Cities: MDC’s have a higher percentage of
people living in urban settlements but LDC’s have more of the very large urban
settlements (Primate cities). (Rank-size rule, primate cities, chapter 12.)

This is interesting because typically the large cities are created from the
improvements brought by the Industrial Revolution. This is not the case with the
large LDC cities. Migration to the primate city in LDC’s is happening even though
job opportunities may not be available. Increasing the population growth in LDC
cities is the fact that medical services are better in these cities, thus the child
mortality rate is lower.
Defining Urban Settlements: defining where urban areas end and rural areas
begin is not easy. Geographers have formulated definitions that distinguish
between urban and rural areas in two ways: Social differences and Physical
differences.
11

Percent Urban Population

Percent of the population living in urban areas is usually higher in MDCs
than in LDCs.

12

The most populated cities in the world

Of the top
20, only
Moscow,
Tokyo and
New York
are in MDC’s

Shanghai China has 14,608,512 people
13

14

15

Social Differences Between Urban and Rural Settlements: it is fair to say that rural
people and urban people follow different ways of life. A city can be defined as having 3
characteristics:
1. Large size. People in rural settlements know most of the other people in the
settlement. Not true in big cities. Social relationships are often described as “colder” in
urban areas because you only see some people at work instead of growing up with
them in the settlement.
2. High Density. Having lots of people in a tiny area creates social consequences. A
high density of people living in a small area can only be supported if the people
specialize (they can’t all be farmers). People are encouraged to compete for jobs, room,
and survival in a tightly limited space. Social groups compete to occupy the same space
(ethnic/ race problems). Rural settlements have very little of this problem.
3. Social Heterogeneity. The larger the settlement, the greater the variety of people.
Being “unusual” in a large settlement is more likely to be accepted than in a small rural
one. But despite the freedom to be different that large urban settlements give you,
people living there often feel alone because so many people are different from them.
There is a stronger feeling of belonging together in small rural settlements.
16

These 3 differences do not fully answer the question of where urban settlements
begin and rural ones end because in today’s MDC’s most everyone has access to
cars, telephones, televisions, and “urban type” jobs which reduce the differences
between urban and rural lifestyles. “City folk” and “Country folk” are more alike
today than they are different. To help distinguish between urban and rural areas we
need to add the physical definition of rural and urban to the equation.
Physical Definitions of Urban Settlements: In ancient time, cities had defensive
walls for protection which clearly defined the physical boundaries of the city. Today
the walls are gone but we can still define the physical boundaries in 3 ways:
1. Legal boundary. These are the official boundaries of a city as recognized by
the government of the country or state. These “city limits” have been officially given
to the city and are physically marked on official maps. The local government of the
city has authority to make laws and protect the people inside the city boundaries.
17

2. Urbanized area. This is the city plus its suburbs or urbanized area that
surrounds the city. About 70 percent of US residents live in urbanized areas with
40% being in the suburbs and 30% inside the city limits. The suburbs may have
their own city governments but the huge central city dominates what happens in
the entire area.
3. Metropolitan Statistical Area. Cities have an even bigger influence on people
than just those living in their city limits and surrounding urbanized areas. People
from far away come to shop, use the services, support the sports teams, read
the newspapers and watch the television broadcasts of the city. Thus the city
has a “functional area” which is its total zone of influence. The US Bureau of
Census has created a method of measuring the functional area of the city.
Known as the Metropolitan statistical area (MSA) this area includes:
•An urbanized area with a population of at least 50,000
•The county within which the city is located.
•Adjacent counties with a high population density and a large percentage of
residents working in the central city’s county.
18

Metropolitan Area of Philadelphia

City of
Philadelphia

Urbanized
area
(suburbs)
Metropolitan
Statistical
Area

The metropolitan area of Philadelphia is
spread over several counties and four states.
It is also a diversified trade center, given its
position on the Delaware river.

19

20

21

Micropolitan Statistical Areas: Smaller areas with between
10,000 and 50,000 people, the county where it is found, and
adjacent counties tied to the city. This would be a small town and
the area dominated by it.
Overlapping Metropolitan Areas: Some adjacent MSA’s overlap.
A county between two central cities may send a large number of
commuters to jobs in both cities. In some areas the cities are so
close that they form one continuous urban complex. This is
known as a Megalopolis (great city).
In a megalopolis, the downtown CBD often has its own
distinctive look and the urban areas are visually separated by
parks, open spaces, and dairy/truck farms. But at the periphery
of the urban areas, the boundaries overlap.
22

Colorado Springs, population 431,000

Ocala, Florida, population 56,000

Florala, Alabama, population 1,900

23

Megalopolis, from northern Va. To Maine.
This Illustrates the
difference between
strict city proper
definitions and broader
urban agglomerations.
To define urbanized
areas, the U.S. Census
Bureau uses the term
Metropolitan Statistical
Area (MSA) or
Consolidated MSA
(CMSA) if two or more of
them overlap.
24

Where are People Distributed within Urban Areas? People are not
just distributed at random in urban areas. For the most part they
concentrate in particular neighborhoods depending on their social
characteristics. Geographers want to see where people with
particular characteristics are likely to live and why.

Three models which try to explain the growth of a city:

The Burgess Model

The Hoyt Sector Model

The Harris and Ullman
multiple Nuclei Model
25

Burgess Concentric Zone Model

In the concentric zone model, a city grows in a series of rings surrounding the CBD.

Burgess Concentric Zone Model: This is the first used to explain the
distributions of different social groups within urban areas. It says that a
city grows outward from a central place in a series of concentric rings.
The precise size and width of the rings vary from one city to another, but
some basic types of rings appear in all cities in the same order (see chart
above).
26

•Hoyt Sector Model: In this model the city develops in a
series of sectors not rings. Certain areas of the city are
more attractive for various activities, originally because
of an environmental factor (or even pure chance). As the
city grows, activities extend outward in a wedge shape.
For example, once a wealthy neighborhood is built the
next wealthy neighborhood will extend from the first
neighborhood further outward from the center. In this
way, the best housing is found in a corridor extending
outward from the center to the outer edge (see chart on
the next page).
27

The Hoyt Sector Model

In the sector model, a city grows in a series of
wedges or corridors extending out from the
CBD.
28

•Harris and Ullman’s Multiple Nuclei Model: According
to this model, a city is a complex structure that includes
more than one center around which activities revolve.
Examples of these nodes include a port, parks,
stadium, neighborhood business center, university, and
airport (see chart). This theory states that some
activities are attracted to particular nodes, whereas
others try to avoid them. A university node may attract
well educated people and bookstores while the port will
attract hotels and warehouses. Heavy industry and
expensive houses rarely are found together. This
model shows the effect of the automobile more than
any other model.
29

The Harris and Ullman Multiple Nuclei model

The multiple nuclei model views a city as a
collection of individual centers, around which
different people and activities cluster.

30

Applications of the Models: The three models help explain where and in some
cases, why people live where they do. None of the models by themselves fully
explains why and where different types of people live, but combined they give
you as good a look as possible at the “Why” of “Where.” Effective use of the
models depends on getting good data on the areas. Most countries take a
census every 10 years to help determine useful data about the people and
places of the country. In our country we divide the census data into areas
known as census tracts of about 5,000 people. Each census tract has the data
that summarizes the characteristics of the people living within that tract. This
information includes things like the race, income, age, and education of the
people living in that tract.
Social Area Analysis: The data from the census tracts can all be plotted onto
maps to show the characteristics of the people living in that tract. This map is
known as a social area analysis.
31

Using Census tract information…Seattle, Washington
Each lined area is a
census tract of about 5000
people in Seattle
Washington. These maps
show average household
income for 1990 and
2000…note the changes in
income in some areas
between 1990 and 2000.
Using this information, a
business can make
decisions about where
they want to locate a new
store or the future of
existing stores.
You can find census tract
information on many topics
such as; age, education
level, race, ethnicity, crime
rate, and land ownership.
Note the areas with
incomes over
$63,000.

All can be very valuable
information to people
looking to open
businesses.

32

Examine the changes
between 1990 and
2000.

Oakland, California’s Ethnic neighborhoods
The small bordered areas are census tracks of 5000 people.

33

Use of the Models Outside of North America: The 3 models will also work in other
places in the world; however social groups in other countries may not have the
same reasons for selecting particular neighborhoods as Americans do.
European Cities: As in the US, wealthier people in European cities cluster along a
sector extending outward from the CBD, however unlike the US, wealthy and
middle class Europeans still live in the inner rings of the neighborhoods near the
CBD not out in the suburbs. In the past, poorer people lived in the center of the
city. Before electricity, social segregation was vertical: richer people lived on the
first or second floor of a building while the poorer people lived in the basement or
upper floors. In the Industrial Revolution, housing for the poor was constructed
near the factories and away from the rich.
Today poorer Europeans are less likely to live in the inner-city. Poor quality
housing has been renovated for the rich or turned into office buildings. Poorer
Europeans tend to live in the outskirts of the city. Vast suburbs with dozens of high
rise apartments house the poor. They face long commutes to reach their jobs in
the city.
34

European cities generally do not have the “suburban
sprawl” that US cities have. European cities tend to be
more pedestrian friendly with more parks downtown as
Europeans tend to still live downtown.
US cities have taller buildings as European cities tend to
be older and more historic.

American cities have more ethnic neighborhoods than
European cities. Ethnic neighborhoods that do exist in
European cities tend to be in the suburbs. WHY?
Because the established richer neighborhoods tend to be
downtown in European cities.
35

Less Developed Countries: Like Europe, most LDC’s accommodate their poor in the
suburbs with their middle class and rich living near the center of the city. LDC’s have
passed through 3 periods of city building: before the Europeans arrived, during the
period of European colonialism, and since independence from European control.

Pre-colonial Cities: Before the Europeans arrived few cities existed in Africa, Asia, and
Latin America and most people lived in small rural settlements. Those cities that existed
were mostly laid out surrounding a religious center; with the rest of the city laid out in a
hieratical concentric pattern (like the Burgess model) from government buildings,
homes of the wealthy, and businesses related to the religion out to other businesses
and shops.
Colonial cities: When the Europeans took over these lands, they changed the cities by
adding services to help the Europeans control the conquered people. Often a new
European style city would be build next to the existing native one. The new European
cities contained wider streets, a public square, larger houses and a much lower density.
The Spanish used the “Law of the Indies” which was a city plan designed specifically to
build cities in a “Spanish” style. (Gridiron pattern for streets centered on a church and
central plaza, walls around individual houses and neighborhoods centered around
smaller plazas and more churches.)
36

Early Mexico city was laid out in a grid pattern of streets. This followed
the Spanish “Law of the Indies.”

37

Central Plaza in Mexico City 1920 photo. Typical Colonial City plan.

Part of downtown Mexico city today still shows the
building plan of the “Law of the Indies.”

38

Cities since Independence: Following independence, cities have become
the focal point of the development of most LDC’s. Millions of people have
migrated to the cities (Primate cities) looking for jobs and services. Some
capitals have been moved to isolated areas in an attempt to help develop
that area of the country (Brasília) This is know as a forward capital. Latin
American cities have developed their own unique style.
Squatter settlements: The LDC’s are unable to house the rapidly growing
number of poor who are flowing into the cities. Because of the housing
shortages, the poor have constructed their own settlements around the city.
These settlements have few services because neither the city nor the
residents can afford them. Squatters have two basic choices for housing.
1. Illegally move into empty real houses located in the city or,
2. Rent slum housing.
(85% of the population of Addis Ababa in Ethiopia lives in squatter
settlements, slums or other illegal housing.)
39

Squatter shacks in Manila, the Philippines

40

Squatter settlement in Ethiopia

41

Zimbabwe, Africa

42

Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

43

Latin American City Model:
In many Latin
American cities,
the wealthy live in
the inner city and
in a sector
extending along a
commercial spine.
In situ accretion- businesses
and homes constantly under
construction/repair.
Zone of maturity-2nd best
housing in the city.
The poor live in squatter settlements on the
periphery of the city.

Disamenity- unpleasant area
used by the poor to get to the
market.

44

The City Outline of Rio de Janeiro
The rich tourist areas and expensive condo apartments are along the coast
and beach while the poor live in squatter shacks in the hills.

45

City problems:
Inner-City Physical Problems: Most US inner cities were constructed before the 1950’s
(people began to move to the suburbs in the 1950’s so new construction moved out of
the city).
Process of Deterioration (how a city deteriorates): A city doesn’t suddenly become old
and full of slummy areas. It happens over time. When a group of low-income people
inhabit an area of a city, nearby neighborhoods will often look to move out. They sell or
rent to more low-income occupants thus expanding the low-income area. Two processes
cause/speed up the devaluation of areas:
1. Filtering, 2. Redlining.
Filtering: Large houses and buildings that once housed rich downtown workers (who
moved to the suburbs) are taken over by landlords who don’t live in that area (they
moved to the suburbs too). Rents are low so the landlord doesn’t take as good care of
the property as they should and the property becomes run down or abandoned. Stores
close, or move, due to lack of sales. 100 years ago these neighborhoods would be used
by immigrants and ethnic businesses would succeed in those areas. Now, with a decline
in immigration, these neighborhoods have shrunk and so have schools, businesses and
other services. Thousands of vacant houses and buildings stand empty in inner cities
across America.

46

Redlining: Some banks refuse to give loans in what they consider
risky neighborhoods. They draw a red line on a map around areas
where they will not give loans. Without loans, these neighborhoods
have a hard time rebuilding/remodeling. Though illegal, this still
happens. Bankers just don’t put these “no-loan” areas on a map.

Urban Renewal: This is the series of projects to improve European
and N. American cities by buying up the blighted neighborhoods,
moving the people to new government built housing projects, and
building new roads, and other projects to make the inner city
attractive for business again. National and State government grants
help pay for these projects.
47

Public housing: Housing for the poor, built with government funding as part of
urban renewal. In the US this is only about 2% of the housing while in some
countries it may be more (Britain is 30%). Public housing built in the 50’s & 60’s
were largely high rise apartments, but those are seen as being unsatisfactory.
Problems arise from cramming large numbers of poor people into one area.
Today most public housing projects are one to three story buildings with many of
them being scattered around different parts of the city rather than clustered into
one area.
Because urban renewal has been criticized for destroying the social cohesion of
older neighborhoods, many governments (like the US) have stopped funding
most projects since the 1970’s. What do we do instead?
Renovated Housing: An alternative often used since the 70’s is to renovate a
building instead of urban renewal. The process where middle-class people
move into inner-city neighborhoods and renovate them is called gentrification.
Gentrified inner-city neighborhoods also attract middle-class people who work
downtown. Living close to work saves the hassle of commuting and rejuvenates
run down inner-city neighborhoods
48

Gentrified building downtown Harlem, NY. Note the supermarket.

49

Inner-City Social Problems: Inner-city residents are often referred to as the
permanent underclass because they are trapped in an unending cycle of
economic and social problems. High unemployment, alcoholism, drug
addiction, literacy, juvenile delinquency, and crime all exist at a higher rate
among those who live in the inner-city. Lack of jobs means lack of tax dollars
to pay for police and fire protection as well as good schools. Lack of job skills
and homelessness are also tremendous problems.
Culture of Poverty: Inner-city residents are trapped in a permanent underclass
culture that reproduces itself. In the US, unwed mothers give birth to 2/3 of the
babies in the inner-city. 90% of these children live with only one parent and it
is real hard for one parent to keep a job and take care of children. Both suffer
and a shortage of care and daily attention by the parent contributes to the kids
not learning the skills necessary to do well in school which leads to poor jobs
for their futures. Poverty leads to more poverty. Many families on welfare have
only one parent because it is financially better if one parent is gone, that way
the single parent gets food stamps and other services from the government
that they would not get if it was a 2 family household.
50

Crime: Trapped in a hopeless environment, some inner-city
residents turn to drugs. Drug use is a problem in inner-city
areas and the suburbs, but rates of drug use in inner-cities
are the highest.
Ethnic and Racial Segregation: As seen in chapter 7, many
neighborhoods in the US are segregated by ethnicity with
African Americans and Hispanics concentrated in one or two
continuous areas and whites living in the suburbs. Even small
cities display a strong distinction among neighborhoods. A
frequent division is between the east and west or north and
south side of town, or the railroad tracks. A family seeking a
new residence will seek the areas where the characteristics
of the people meet their own.

51

The exodus
from the
American city.
This has
happened in
many American
cities since the
1960’s.

52

Changes in Cities in the U.S.
U.S. population has been moving out of the city centers to the suburbs:
suburbanization and counter urbanization

Developed Countries: suburbanization

 wealthy move to suburbs
 automobiles and roads; ‘American
Dream’ of the home in the suburbs.
 better services
 wealthy move to suburbs
Counter urbanization

idyllic settings
cost of land for retirement
slow pace, yet high tech
connections to services and markets
53

U.S. intraregional migration during 1990s.

Inner city economic problems: the concentration of low income
residents in inner cities has caused economic problems. These
people require public services but can pay very little in taxes to
support the services. They need stores and jobs but have little
money to spend in the store and few skills for jobs (so the stores
close). To try to fight these problems many local and state
governments use tax monies to try to renovate these areas, but this
shifts tax money needed for other areas to the inner city (votes on
election day).
Annexation: Many cities could help their tax problem by adding the
new suburbs to be part of their city (annexation). After all, many of
these suburban people use the city for its’ jobs etc., so why not add
them into the city? Today, most people in the suburbs do not want
to be annexed into the city and so they do not vote to be annexed.
54

The Peripheral Model: According to this model, an urban area
consists of an inner city surrounded by large suburban residential
and business areas (MSA) tied together by a beltway or highway
that circles the city. Around the beltway are nodes of consumer
and business services called edge cities (see diagram of multiple
nuclei model). These edge cities sprang up to provide services
and jobs to the people in the suburbs.
Density Gradient: As you travel outward from the center of the
city, the density of people declines. Inner city has big apartments
of 250 of more people per acre. Suburbs have fewer people per
acre (but lots of acres) and finally you leave the cities periphery
you find few people. The number of houses per unit of land
diminishes as distance from the center of the city increases.
55

The Edge cities (bedroom communities) of Houston

The central city is surrounded by a ring road, around which are
suburban areas and edge cities, shopping malls, office parks,
industrial areas, and service complexes.

Known as
bedroom
communities
because
people live
there but
mostly don’t
work there.
They drive
into the city
for work.
56

As you move from the center of the city outward, the density of the population
changes. This is know as the density gradient. Two big changes have occurred in
the density gradient of today’s cities:
1. The number of people living in the center has decreased.
2. The density difference between the inner city and the suburbs is declining
because the inner city density is dropping and the suburban density is growing
due to more large apartments being built in the suburbs.
Cost of Suburban or Urban Sprawl: Urban Sprawl is the progressive spread of
development over the landscape. As long as we Americans want single-family
detached houses, land on the fringe of urban areas will be converted from open
space to residential use. The cost of this growth is more than the loss of land, it is
also the cost of new roads, utilities, building stores and offices and the cost of
automobiles to move these people over even longer distances. Lots of these new
developments are built on what was once farmland. Wonderful productive soil now
under concrete.

Greenbelts: are areas where, by law, the open space can not be used for any
construction. This is mostly found in Europe.

57

Once farmland that is being converted to suburbs and cities.

58

Tyson’s Corner Virginia in 1940

59

Washington, DC. MSA.

Tyson’s Corner Virginia
today.
Washington D.C. is off
In the distance.

60

Suburban Segregation: The “new” segregation.
Suburban segregation takes two forms:
1. Residents are separated from commercial and manufacturing activities
which are confined someplace else. (The whole neighborhood is
nothing but houses because they drive for services.)
2. The price of the house eliminates some from being able to live there. This
creates a homogeneous suburb of the same economic class of people.
This never existed before in history. Where we once had vertical
segregation of the classes we now we have horizontal segregation.
3. But this may be reversing as new statistics show that people are beginning
to move back to the city. Why? Cost of transportation.
Zoning Ordinances: This idea developed in Europe and later America in the
early decades of the 20th century. This means that businesses are allowed only
in certain areas of the settlement. (No all night taco stands inside your single
family neighborhood.)
Motor vehicles: The wide use of the automobile is largely responsible for the
American movement to the suburbs. Not only did people move out but 1/4 of
the land inside all American cities are now roads, streets, and parking lots.

61

Public Transportation: Because few US workers live within walking distance
of their jobs, urban areas are characterized by extensive commuting and the
problems that come with it. As much as 40% of all trips made into or out from
a city during the day takes place within just 4 hours. (2 in the morning and 2 in
the late afternoon). RUSH HOUR!!! In large cities, public transportation, like
subways and busses, are better suited to move people but Americans still
prefer their own cars. Public transportation is cheaper, cleaner, and more
energy efficient than personal cars, yet in the US only 5% of city travel is
done using public transit systems. American’s love their personal car too
much.
Local Government Fragmentation: Because of the large number of local
governments in the US (look at the settlements in Pinellas County) it is
difficult to solve some of the regional problems like garbage disposal, water
management, traffic and public housing.
62

Metropolitan government: This idea tries to put many local governments into a
larger unit that can better handle the urban problems. The 2 ways to do this
are:
1. Federations in which the individual settlements have their own police,
firemen, and tax collection but they all agree to be part of a second
government which handles transportation, water, sewage, parks and
welfare for all the communities.
2. Consolidations: In this method, several cities and the county may form one
government. Jacksonville’s government runs not only the town but the
county too, this makes Jacksonville the largest city, in land size, in the US.
Smart growth: A new movement by many states to curb suburban sprawl by
limiting where new construction can take place. Smart growth laws require that
land near cities be used up before any land further out can be developed. So
far, this is only being done an a few parts of our country.
63

The new
US as
some
people
see it.

64

Quiz Yourself:
1. The process where middle-class people move into inner city neighborhoods and
renovate them is called ____________
2. ____________ happens when banks refuse to give loans in what they consider
risky neighborhoods.
3. Because of the housing shortages, the poor have constructed their own settlements
around the city known as __________ _________

4. Businesses are allowed only in certain areas of the settlement because of
____________ ____________
5. Areas known as _____ _______ are areas of about 5,000 people. The data from
that area is used to help define needed services for that area.
6. When cities are so close that they form one continuous band of development this is
known as a ____________
65

7. Social relationships are often described as “colder” in urban areas because…
8. In this model the city develops in a series of sectors not rings. _______

9. ______ (LDC’s or MDC’s) have a higher percentage of people living in urban
settlements but ________ (LDC’s or MDC’s) have more of the very large urban
settlements.
10. _____________ was the first model developed to explain the distributions
of different social groups within urban areas.
11. New cities which develop around the beltway are nodes of consumer and
business services known as ________ _________.

12. When the Europeans took over lands around the world, they changed the
cities by adding services to help the Europeans control the conquered people.
These European planned cities are known as __________ cities.
66

Answer Key:
1.

Gentrification

2.

Redlining

3.

Squatter Settlements

4.

Zoning ordinances

5.

Census tracks

6.

Megalopolis

7. There is a stronger feeling of belonging together in small rural settlements.
8. Hoyt sector model
9. MDC, LDC
10. Burgess Concentric Zone model
11. Edge cities
12. Colonial cities
67

Test Key topic/chapter 13:
These questions come from a combination of our slides, your text book, and common knowledge you should
have discussed in your AP classroom. They are very typical of what you will see on the National Exam.
1) The multiple nuclei theory best explains why different neighborhoods of a city attract people of different… A) ages.
B) ethnic origin C) income D) marital status.
2) Sprawl is the… A) change in density within an urban area from the center to the periphery B) development of new
housing sites not contiguous to the existing built-up area. C) land maintained as open space surrounding an urban area.
D) period in the morning and evening with the heaviest volumes of traffic.
3) People are attracted to suburbs in part because suburbs are characterized by…A) heavy traffic. B) lower opportunity
for home ownership. C) private land surrounding the house. D) row houses and apartments.
4) Megalopolis refers to… A) adjacent, overlapping Metropolitan Statistical Areas. B) central cities. C) consolidated
Metropolitan Statistical Areas. D) central cities plus urbanized areas.
5) Which statement best describes the relationship between urbanization and the Industrial Revolution? A) Urbanization
promoted the Industrial Revolution. B) The Industrial Revolution promoted urbanization. C) Urbanization preceded the
Industrial Revolution by thousands of years. D) Urbanization and the Industrial Revolution are no longer related.
6) The process of legally adding land area to a city in the United States is… A) annexation. B) accreditation. C) an
application of eminent domain. D) defined by urbanized area.

68

7) The process of change in the use of a house, from single-family owner occupancy to abandonment, is… A) blockbusting.
B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining.
8) A process by which banks designate an area within which they refuse to lend money for improvements is… A) blockbusting.
B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining.
9) A recent change in the density gradient has been… A) the elimination of the gap traditionally found in the center. B) an
increase in the extremes between the inner and outer areas. C) an increase in the number of people living in the center.
D) a reduction in the differences in densities found within an urban area.
10) U.S. central cities face fiscal problems because… A) federal and state funds are available. B) low-income people are
concentrated there. C) middle-class families are attracted there. D) redlining is no longer legal.
11) A legal form of segregation in U.S. cities is achieved through...A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) zoning. D) greenbelts.
12) Factories have moved to suburban locations in part because of… A) access to main highways. B) adequate space to build
vertical structures. C) availability of large tracts of high-priced land. D) good rail connections.
13) According to the sector model, the best housing is located in…A) a corridor from downtown to the edge of the city.
B) an outer ring surrounding the city. C) nodes near universities and parks. D) renovated inner-city neighborhoods.
14) Ramshackle houses on the periphery of cities in less developed countries are known as… A) squatter settlements. B) council
estates. C) public housing. D) zone in transition.
15) Higher income people tend to live near the center of the city in all but which of the following regions? A) Latin America
B) North America C) South Asia D) Western Europe

16) The wide boulevards built in cities in less developed countries were most likely built during what era? A) pre-colonial
B) colonial C) independence D) all of the above equally

69

17) According to the multiple nuclei model, an airport is likely to attract nearby… A) industries. B) residences. C) shops.
D) universities.
18) The largest percentage of the U.S. population lives in…A) central cities. B) suburbs. C) non-metropolitan areas. D) all of the
above
19) In U.S. cities, the underclass is… A) clustered in inner-city neighborhoods. B) dispersed throughout the city. C) clustered in
suburbs. D) distributed uniformly in the city.

20) A process of converting a neighborhood from low-income to middle-class is…A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) gentrification.
D) redlining.
21) Higher social heterogeneity in urban settlements means that… A) the people with whom you relax are probably the same ones you
see at work. B) you play a specialized role in the urban economy. C) you compete for limited space. D) you may feel lonely and
isolated in a crowd.
22) The city plus its contiguous built-up suburbs is the… A) central city. B) urbanized area.
D) consolidated metropolitan statistical area

C) metropolitan statistical area.

23) The process whereby an increasing percentage of people live in an urban area is known as… A) demographic transition.
B) rank-size rule. C) urbanization. D) central place theory.
24) Of the ten largest urban areas in the world, how many are in More Developed Countries today? A) 1 B) 4 C) 7 D) 10 E) 2
25) Public housing is…A) conversion of low-income housing to middle-class housing. B) illegally established low-income housing.
C) housing that has changed from single-family owner occupancy to abandonment. D) low-income government-owned housing.
26) According to the concentric zone model, a city develops in a series of… A) corridors. B) nodes. C) rings. D) all of the above

70

27) Chicago is a good location in which to develop urban models because it is located… A) at the hub of the nation's transportation
system. B) in the center of the country. C) on a flat prairie. D) on the shore of Lake Michigan.
28) According to the sector model, the best housing is located in… A) a corridor from downtown to the edge of the city. B) an outer
ring surrounding the city. C) nodes near universities and parks. D) renovated inner-city neighborhoods.
29) The zone of transition in US cities generally contain…A) warehouses B) wealthy neighborhoods C) transportation hubs
D) universities and hospitals E) suburban homes
30) The attractions of shopping malls include all but which of the following? A) frequent concerts and exhibitions B) generous
parking lots C) place to meet friends D) walking distance from homes
The following questions are written at the high school level. You will find some questions from part one often rewritten
here. This is all designed to help you transition to the college/AP style of written questions. Any question preceded with ***
are questions that have been on the national exam before.
31. Most Latin American cities are focused on a…A) central plaza B) government housing project C) zone of heavy industry
D) skyscraper office building E) squatter settlement
32. The multiple-nuclei model of a city structure tends to be most applicable to…A) small cities B) traditional C) Latin American
cities D) newer, fast growing cities E) cities with homogeneous land use
33. ***Locational advantages important to the development of the earliest cities include…A) availability of good harbors for large
ships B) productive agricultural land and defensible sites C) temperate climate and proximity to coal mines D) good
connections by road and canal E) proximity to manufacturing areas

34. In cities, the CBD’s often show uniqueness while the suburbs usually show…A) a large hinterland. B) placelessness C) more
than one node. D) newer zones of transition.

71

35. Many LDC’s have tried to help a previously under-developed part of their country develop by moving their capital
city to that area. This new capital is known as a…A) forward capital B) new development zone C) enterprise zone
D) neocolonial city
36. Today the greatest number of urban dwellers is found in…A) North America
D) Europe E) Asia

B) South America C) Africa

37. ***All of the following have helped create ghettos in North American cities except…A)blockbusting and racial
steering B) redlining by financial institutions C) concentration of public housing and social services D) fixed school
districts E) Economic Enterprise Zones

38. Which of the following is NOT as reason for rapid suburbanization in the US after WW2? A) Mass production of
the automobile B) Reduction of long distance commuting C) Expansion of home construction D) Expansion of the
interstate highway system E) Availability of low down payment terms and long-term mortgages.
39. New cities which developed in the hinterland of large urban areas because of the automobile, are known as…
A) edge cities B) census tracts C) suburban sprawl D) squatter settlements. E) none of these
40. Gentrification refers to… A) moving the homeless into inner city shelters B) The “White Flight” from the urban city
C) losing tax revenue because of stores closing in downtown areas D) middle-class people moving into and renovating
inner city neighborhoods E) the creation of “beltway cities” around the city.

72

4
7
3

5

1
6

2

41-48 all use the sketch above.
41. The sketch in box A above represents which model of the inner structure of urban areas?
C) multiple nuclei model D) Burgess concentric zone model E) peripheral model
42. The models in boxes B and C represent A) Concentric zone and multiple nuclei
concentric zone D) peripheral and concentric zone E) Von Thunen and peripheral

A) Hoyt sector model B) VonThunen’s model

B) Multiple nuclei and Hoyt sector C) Hoyt sector and

43. In which ring (1, 2, etc.) of sketch A above would high-status households in North American cities likely live? A) 1 B) 2 C) 3 D) 4&5
44. In which ring (1, 2, etc.) of sketch A above would high status households in a European city likely live? A) 1

B) 2

C) 3

D) 4&5

45. In model B, zone # 2 is where it is likely because of: A) greenbelting B) squatter settling C) the culture of poverty D) transportation
E) no one knows
46. The model in sketch B is the; A) Hoyt sector model B) Burgess model C) multiple nuclei model D) peripheral model
47. The model in sketch C is the; A) Hoyt sector model B) Burgess model C) multiple nuclei model D) peripheral model
48. Which of these models best describes what has happened in US cities in the last 40 years? A)

B)

C)

73

49.*** In the U.S. a city plus its contiguous built-up suburbs is known as an…A) urbanized area B) zoned area
C) census tract D) Squatter settlement E) none of these
50. Done mostly in Europe, these are areas where land is kept as parks, farms or other kinds of open space and urban
sprawl is not allowed. A) Smart growth
B) zoning
C) filtering
D) census tracts E) greenbelts
51. Which statement best describes the relationship between urbanization and the Industrial Revolution?
A) Urbanization promoted the Industrial Revolution. B) The Industrial Revolution promoted urbanization.
C) Urbanization preceded the Industrial Revolution by thousands of years. D) Urbanization and the Industrial
Revolution are no longer related.
52. The process whereby an increasing percentage of people live in an urban area is known as…
A) Demographic transition. B) rank-size rule. C) Urbanization. D) Central place theory.
53. The city (if it has 50,000 or more people) plus its contiguous built-up suburbs AND the county it is in as well as any
other counties it influences, is known as the ...A) central city B) urbanized area
C) metropolitan statistical area
D) consolidated metropolitan area E) micropolitan statistical area
54. ***Higher social heterogeneity in urban settlements means that …A) the people with whom you relax are probably
the same ones you see at work. B) you play a specialized role in the urban economy. C) you compete for limited
space. D) you may feel lonely and isolated in a crowd.

55. The process of change in the use of a house, from single-family owner occupancy to smaller dwellings for the poor
and then sometimes to abandonment, is…A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining. E) none of
these

74

Free Response #1:
The Bid Rent theory says that the closer you get to the
CBD the higher the cost for land, yet in most American
cities you find the poorest people living near the
expensive CBD and the richest living further away.
Explain:
A. Why neighborhoods near the CBD are often poor and
run down?
B. Why are there few grocery and other retail stores in
these neighborhoods?
C. Why is this not really true in European and Latin
American countries?

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75

FR #2:
Think of the map of your school, explain the
layout of your school using the Multiple Nuclei
Model
The main office is the CBD.
Completely explain your answer using specific
buildings and/or land areas in your explanation
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76

Answer Key:
1. B

14. A

27. C

40. D

53. C

2. B

15. B

28. A

41. D

54. D

3. C

16. B

29. A

42. B

55. B

4. A

17. A

30. D

43. D

5. B

18. B

31. A

44. A

6. A

19. A

32. D

45. D

7. B

20. C

33. B

46. A

8. D

21. D

34. B

47. C

9. D

22. B

35. A

48. C

10. B

23. C

36. E

49. A

11. C

24. C

37. E

50. E

12. A

25. D

38. B

51. B

13. A

26. C

39. A

52. C
77

FR. #1: ( 15 pts. for each section…total of 45 pts.)
A. In the US the move of the wealthy and middle class to the suburbs has left the older houses and apartments near the CBD empty.
This has lowered their value to the point where the poor can afford these dwellings and have made these neighborhoods their
homes. The poor can not pay for upkeep of these dwellings, or to pay high taxes. The lack of upkeep and tax money to repair the
roads and schools, adds to the downward spiral of the neighborhood. With little spending money for shopping, the poor do not
spend much in the stores. This causes many stores to close and move to the suburbs where the spending customers and money
went. The closing of the stores adds to the poverty of the area by taking away some of the jobs that were in the neighborhood. This
becomes a vicious cycle of poverty and deterioration. (15 points)

B. There are few retail stores and groceries is the area because the poor do not have money to shop. The lack of spending forces
many stores out of business or forces them to move to better locations. There also can be higher crime in these areas and the
crime often takes place at the stores. This is another reason for the stores to move out of the neighborhood. (15 points)
C. Neighborhoods in European and Latin American cities are different from those of US cities. In Europe and Latin America, the
wealthy and middle class still live near or in the CBD. The higher tax base and more spending ability of the upper and middle
classes, keeps the CBD area flourishing with jobs and in constant repair and upkeep of the cities’ physical condition. (15 points)

FR #2: (10 total points.)
You will need to judge how effectively you displayed you school
in the Multiple Nuclei Model. Refer to the model itself to help you
determine your success and grade.
School’s main office
78

Calculating your grade on test 13.
Add how many you got correct on the multiple choice part (55 possible) to how many
points you scored on the FR portion (55 possible)…110 total.
The following scale will show the approximate score if this test were the real AP exam. Remember that this
is an approximation. While 65-74% is normally the range for a 3 on the test, it is not definite. Over the
years I have seen scores as low as 60% be the low portion of a 3 score.

Out of 110 possible points:
72-83 is most likely a 3
84-94 is most likely a 4

95-110 is most likely a 5

Now lets start our review for the national exam by
reviewing the 33 key models and theories of the
course…the next PowerPoint.


Slide 47

Key topic/chapter 13…Urban Patterns
Key terms:
Annexation
Concentric zone model
Density gradient
Edge cities
Filtering
Galactic city
Gentrification
Greenbelts
Megalopolis
MSA
Multiple nuclei model
Peripheral model

Public housing
Redlining
Renovated housing
Scattered site
Squatter settlement
Sector model
Smart growth
Sprawl
Underclass
Urban renewal
Zone in transition
Zoning
1

Chapter 13…Urban Areas.
How are Cities planned?
Why

are cities where they are?
How are they organized?
Why are some areas of a city
different from
other areas of the same city?
What is the future of cities?
2

Settlement


Settlement - permanent collections of buildings,
where people live, work, and obtain services

3

ORIGINS OF SETTLEMENTS


Religious - graves, churches, temples



Cultural - schools, libraries



Political/Military - leader’s house, walls



Economic - stores, food
4

TYPES OF SETTLEMENTS


Rural Settlements - agriculture as the
predominant occupation.



Urban settlements - principal industries are
secondary and tertiary.

5

RURAL SETTLEMENTS
Clustered rural settlements –grouped
settlements in rural areas to minimize travel

Dispersed rural Settlements - isolated farms
with enclosed continuous fields (Found only in
N. America and Britain).

6

Urban Geographers want to know the global distribution of urban
settlements. MDC’s have a high percentage of people living in urban
areas because of the shift from agriculture-manufacturing-services.
Geographers are also interested in where people and activities are
distributed within urban spaces. What are the differences between the
inner-city and suburban areas and why?
As we saw in the last chapter, many downtowns are unique and can
often be recognized in photos where the suburbs often look very
much alike (Placelessness). Why? Suburbs offer the chance to avoid
some of the city problems (crime, tight living area, expensive
land/rent, noise, age of buildings) while still keeping a connection with
the goods and services of the city: jobs, sports teams, culture, shops,
recreation, etc.
7

Where is this place?

8

Today’s cities are evolving and changing. Although different internal
situations characterize urban areas in the US and elsewhere, the
problems arising from current spatial trends are quite similar in all cities.
Where have urban areas grown: in the early 1800’s only 3% of the earth’s
people lived in cities and only Beijing China had more than 1 million
people. Today over ½ of the world’s people live in cities and we have over
400 cities of at least 1 million people.

Urbanization: is the process by which city population grows.
Cities population growth is measured in 2 dimensions;
1. An increase in the number of people living in the cities.
2. An increase in the percentage of people living in the cities.
This distinction is important because they happen for different reason and
have different global distributions.
9

Increasing Percentage of People in Cities: a large percentage of people living in urban
areas is a measure of a country’s level of development. In MDC’s about ¾ of the people
live in urban areas compared to about 2/5 of people in LDC’s. (Except in Latin America
where the level is closer to MDC’s.)
The higher percentage of people in urban areas comes from the changes that have
occurred in the last 200 years as we went from agriculture (primary jobs) to industrial
(secondary jobs) and now service jobs, all created by the Industrial Revolution of the
1800’s.
People moved to the cities for industrial jobs, but in MDC’s this process has largely
ended because nearly everyone interested in moving to the cities from farms has already
done so.
In LDC’s the percentage of people living in urban areas is growing as people are pushed
off of their farms and replaced by machines and as people move to cities looking/hoping
for industrial jobs.
10

Increasing Number of People in Cities: MDC’s have a higher percentage of
people living in urban settlements but LDC’s have more of the very large urban
settlements (Primate cities). (Rank-size rule, primate cities, chapter 12.)

This is interesting because typically the large cities are created from the
improvements brought by the Industrial Revolution. This is not the case with the
large LDC cities. Migration to the primate city in LDC’s is happening even though
job opportunities may not be available. Increasing the population growth in LDC
cities is the fact that medical services are better in these cities, thus the child
mortality rate is lower.
Defining Urban Settlements: defining where urban areas end and rural areas
begin is not easy. Geographers have formulated definitions that distinguish
between urban and rural areas in two ways: Social differences and Physical
differences.
11

Percent Urban Population

Percent of the population living in urban areas is usually higher in MDCs
than in LDCs.

12

The most populated cities in the world

Of the top
20, only
Moscow,
Tokyo and
New York
are in MDC’s

Shanghai China has 14,608,512 people
13

14

15

Social Differences Between Urban and Rural Settlements: it is fair to say that rural
people and urban people follow different ways of life. A city can be defined as having 3
characteristics:
1. Large size. People in rural settlements know most of the other people in the
settlement. Not true in big cities. Social relationships are often described as “colder” in
urban areas because you only see some people at work instead of growing up with
them in the settlement.
2. High Density. Having lots of people in a tiny area creates social consequences. A
high density of people living in a small area can only be supported if the people
specialize (they can’t all be farmers). People are encouraged to compete for jobs, room,
and survival in a tightly limited space. Social groups compete to occupy the same space
(ethnic/ race problems). Rural settlements have very little of this problem.
3. Social Heterogeneity. The larger the settlement, the greater the variety of people.
Being “unusual” in a large settlement is more likely to be accepted than in a small rural
one. But despite the freedom to be different that large urban settlements give you,
people living there often feel alone because so many people are different from them.
There is a stronger feeling of belonging together in small rural settlements.
16

These 3 differences do not fully answer the question of where urban settlements
begin and rural ones end because in today’s MDC’s most everyone has access to
cars, telephones, televisions, and “urban type” jobs which reduce the differences
between urban and rural lifestyles. “City folk” and “Country folk” are more alike
today than they are different. To help distinguish between urban and rural areas we
need to add the physical definition of rural and urban to the equation.
Physical Definitions of Urban Settlements: In ancient time, cities had defensive
walls for protection which clearly defined the physical boundaries of the city. Today
the walls are gone but we can still define the physical boundaries in 3 ways:
1. Legal boundary. These are the official boundaries of a city as recognized by
the government of the country or state. These “city limits” have been officially given
to the city and are physically marked on official maps. The local government of the
city has authority to make laws and protect the people inside the city boundaries.
17

2. Urbanized area. This is the city plus its suburbs or urbanized area that
surrounds the city. About 70 percent of US residents live in urbanized areas with
40% being in the suburbs and 30% inside the city limits. The suburbs may have
their own city governments but the huge central city dominates what happens in
the entire area.
3. Metropolitan Statistical Area. Cities have an even bigger influence on people
than just those living in their city limits and surrounding urbanized areas. People
from far away come to shop, use the services, support the sports teams, read
the newspapers and watch the television broadcasts of the city. Thus the city
has a “functional area” which is its total zone of influence. The US Bureau of
Census has created a method of measuring the functional area of the city.
Known as the Metropolitan statistical area (MSA) this area includes:
•An urbanized area with a population of at least 50,000
•The county within which the city is located.
•Adjacent counties with a high population density and a large percentage of
residents working in the central city’s county.
18

Metropolitan Area of Philadelphia

City of
Philadelphia

Urbanized
area
(suburbs)
Metropolitan
Statistical
Area

The metropolitan area of Philadelphia is
spread over several counties and four states.
It is also a diversified trade center, given its
position on the Delaware river.

19

20

21

Micropolitan Statistical Areas: Smaller areas with between
10,000 and 50,000 people, the county where it is found, and
adjacent counties tied to the city. This would be a small town and
the area dominated by it.
Overlapping Metropolitan Areas: Some adjacent MSA’s overlap.
A county between two central cities may send a large number of
commuters to jobs in both cities. In some areas the cities are so
close that they form one continuous urban complex. This is
known as a Megalopolis (great city).
In a megalopolis, the downtown CBD often has its own
distinctive look and the urban areas are visually separated by
parks, open spaces, and dairy/truck farms. But at the periphery
of the urban areas, the boundaries overlap.
22

Colorado Springs, population 431,000

Ocala, Florida, population 56,000

Florala, Alabama, population 1,900

23

Megalopolis, from northern Va. To Maine.
This Illustrates the
difference between
strict city proper
definitions and broader
urban agglomerations.
To define urbanized
areas, the U.S. Census
Bureau uses the term
Metropolitan Statistical
Area (MSA) or
Consolidated MSA
(CMSA) if two or more of
them overlap.
24

Where are People Distributed within Urban Areas? People are not
just distributed at random in urban areas. For the most part they
concentrate in particular neighborhoods depending on their social
characteristics. Geographers want to see where people with
particular characteristics are likely to live and why.

Three models which try to explain the growth of a city:

The Burgess Model

The Hoyt Sector Model

The Harris and Ullman
multiple Nuclei Model
25

Burgess Concentric Zone Model

In the concentric zone model, a city grows in a series of rings surrounding the CBD.

Burgess Concentric Zone Model: This is the first used to explain the
distributions of different social groups within urban areas. It says that a
city grows outward from a central place in a series of concentric rings.
The precise size and width of the rings vary from one city to another, but
some basic types of rings appear in all cities in the same order (see chart
above).
26

•Hoyt Sector Model: In this model the city develops in a
series of sectors not rings. Certain areas of the city are
more attractive for various activities, originally because
of an environmental factor (or even pure chance). As the
city grows, activities extend outward in a wedge shape.
For example, once a wealthy neighborhood is built the
next wealthy neighborhood will extend from the first
neighborhood further outward from the center. In this
way, the best housing is found in a corridor extending
outward from the center to the outer edge (see chart on
the next page).
27

The Hoyt Sector Model

In the sector model, a city grows in a series of
wedges or corridors extending out from the
CBD.
28

•Harris and Ullman’s Multiple Nuclei Model: According
to this model, a city is a complex structure that includes
more than one center around which activities revolve.
Examples of these nodes include a port, parks,
stadium, neighborhood business center, university, and
airport (see chart). This theory states that some
activities are attracted to particular nodes, whereas
others try to avoid them. A university node may attract
well educated people and bookstores while the port will
attract hotels and warehouses. Heavy industry and
expensive houses rarely are found together. This
model shows the effect of the automobile more than
any other model.
29

The Harris and Ullman Multiple Nuclei model

The multiple nuclei model views a city as a
collection of individual centers, around which
different people and activities cluster.

30

Applications of the Models: The three models help explain where and in some
cases, why people live where they do. None of the models by themselves fully
explains why and where different types of people live, but combined they give
you as good a look as possible at the “Why” of “Where.” Effective use of the
models depends on getting good data on the areas. Most countries take a
census every 10 years to help determine useful data about the people and
places of the country. In our country we divide the census data into areas
known as census tracts of about 5,000 people. Each census tract has the data
that summarizes the characteristics of the people living within that tract. This
information includes things like the race, income, age, and education of the
people living in that tract.
Social Area Analysis: The data from the census tracts can all be plotted onto
maps to show the characteristics of the people living in that tract. This map is
known as a social area analysis.
31

Using Census tract information…Seattle, Washington
Each lined area is a
census tract of about 5000
people in Seattle
Washington. These maps
show average household
income for 1990 and
2000…note the changes in
income in some areas
between 1990 and 2000.
Using this information, a
business can make
decisions about where
they want to locate a new
store or the future of
existing stores.
You can find census tract
information on many topics
such as; age, education
level, race, ethnicity, crime
rate, and land ownership.
Note the areas with
incomes over
$63,000.

All can be very valuable
information to people
looking to open
businesses.

32

Examine the changes
between 1990 and
2000.

Oakland, California’s Ethnic neighborhoods
The small bordered areas are census tracks of 5000 people.

33

Use of the Models Outside of North America: The 3 models will also work in other
places in the world; however social groups in other countries may not have the
same reasons for selecting particular neighborhoods as Americans do.
European Cities: As in the US, wealthier people in European cities cluster along a
sector extending outward from the CBD, however unlike the US, wealthy and
middle class Europeans still live in the inner rings of the neighborhoods near the
CBD not out in the suburbs. In the past, poorer people lived in the center of the
city. Before electricity, social segregation was vertical: richer people lived on the
first or second floor of a building while the poorer people lived in the basement or
upper floors. In the Industrial Revolution, housing for the poor was constructed
near the factories and away from the rich.
Today poorer Europeans are less likely to live in the inner-city. Poor quality
housing has been renovated for the rich or turned into office buildings. Poorer
Europeans tend to live in the outskirts of the city. Vast suburbs with dozens of high
rise apartments house the poor. They face long commutes to reach their jobs in
the city.
34

European cities generally do not have the “suburban
sprawl” that US cities have. European cities tend to be
more pedestrian friendly with more parks downtown as
Europeans tend to still live downtown.
US cities have taller buildings as European cities tend to
be older and more historic.

American cities have more ethnic neighborhoods than
European cities. Ethnic neighborhoods that do exist in
European cities tend to be in the suburbs. WHY?
Because the established richer neighborhoods tend to be
downtown in European cities.
35

Less Developed Countries: Like Europe, most LDC’s accommodate their poor in the
suburbs with their middle class and rich living near the center of the city. LDC’s have
passed through 3 periods of city building: before the Europeans arrived, during the
period of European colonialism, and since independence from European control.

Pre-colonial Cities: Before the Europeans arrived few cities existed in Africa, Asia, and
Latin America and most people lived in small rural settlements. Those cities that existed
were mostly laid out surrounding a religious center; with the rest of the city laid out in a
hieratical concentric pattern (like the Burgess model) from government buildings,
homes of the wealthy, and businesses related to the religion out to other businesses
and shops.
Colonial cities: When the Europeans took over these lands, they changed the cities by
adding services to help the Europeans control the conquered people. Often a new
European style city would be build next to the existing native one. The new European
cities contained wider streets, a public square, larger houses and a much lower density.
The Spanish used the “Law of the Indies” which was a city plan designed specifically to
build cities in a “Spanish” style. (Gridiron pattern for streets centered on a church and
central plaza, walls around individual houses and neighborhoods centered around
smaller plazas and more churches.)
36

Early Mexico city was laid out in a grid pattern of streets. This followed
the Spanish “Law of the Indies.”

37

Central Plaza in Mexico City 1920 photo. Typical Colonial City plan.

Part of downtown Mexico city today still shows the
building plan of the “Law of the Indies.”

38

Cities since Independence: Following independence, cities have become
the focal point of the development of most LDC’s. Millions of people have
migrated to the cities (Primate cities) looking for jobs and services. Some
capitals have been moved to isolated areas in an attempt to help develop
that area of the country (Brasília) This is know as a forward capital. Latin
American cities have developed their own unique style.
Squatter settlements: The LDC’s are unable to house the rapidly growing
number of poor who are flowing into the cities. Because of the housing
shortages, the poor have constructed their own settlements around the city.
These settlements have few services because neither the city nor the
residents can afford them. Squatters have two basic choices for housing.
1. Illegally move into empty real houses located in the city or,
2. Rent slum housing.
(85% of the population of Addis Ababa in Ethiopia lives in squatter
settlements, slums or other illegal housing.)
39

Squatter shacks in Manila, the Philippines

40

Squatter settlement in Ethiopia

41

Zimbabwe, Africa

42

Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

43

Latin American City Model:
In many Latin
American cities,
the wealthy live in
the inner city and
in a sector
extending along a
commercial spine.
In situ accretion- businesses
and homes constantly under
construction/repair.
Zone of maturity-2nd best
housing in the city.
The poor live in squatter settlements on the
periphery of the city.

Disamenity- unpleasant area
used by the poor to get to the
market.

44

The City Outline of Rio de Janeiro
The rich tourist areas and expensive condo apartments are along the coast
and beach while the poor live in squatter shacks in the hills.

45

City problems:
Inner-City Physical Problems: Most US inner cities were constructed before the 1950’s
(people began to move to the suburbs in the 1950’s so new construction moved out of
the city).
Process of Deterioration (how a city deteriorates): A city doesn’t suddenly become old
and full of slummy areas. It happens over time. When a group of low-income people
inhabit an area of a city, nearby neighborhoods will often look to move out. They sell or
rent to more low-income occupants thus expanding the low-income area. Two processes
cause/speed up the devaluation of areas:
1. Filtering, 2. Redlining.
Filtering: Large houses and buildings that once housed rich downtown workers (who
moved to the suburbs) are taken over by landlords who don’t live in that area (they
moved to the suburbs too). Rents are low so the landlord doesn’t take as good care of
the property as they should and the property becomes run down or abandoned. Stores
close, or move, due to lack of sales. 100 years ago these neighborhoods would be used
by immigrants and ethnic businesses would succeed in those areas. Now, with a decline
in immigration, these neighborhoods have shrunk and so have schools, businesses and
other services. Thousands of vacant houses and buildings stand empty in inner cities
across America.

46

Redlining: Some banks refuse to give loans in what they consider
risky neighborhoods. They draw a red line on a map around areas
where they will not give loans. Without loans, these neighborhoods
have a hard time rebuilding/remodeling. Though illegal, this still
happens. Bankers just don’t put these “no-loan” areas on a map.

Urban Renewal: This is the series of projects to improve European
and N. American cities by buying up the blighted neighborhoods,
moving the people to new government built housing projects, and
building new roads, and other projects to make the inner city
attractive for business again. National and State government grants
help pay for these projects.
47

Public housing: Housing for the poor, built with government funding as part of
urban renewal. In the US this is only about 2% of the housing while in some
countries it may be more (Britain is 30%). Public housing built in the 50’s & 60’s
were largely high rise apartments, but those are seen as being unsatisfactory.
Problems arise from cramming large numbers of poor people into one area.
Today most public housing projects are one to three story buildings with many of
them being scattered around different parts of the city rather than clustered into
one area.
Because urban renewal has been criticized for destroying the social cohesion of
older neighborhoods, many governments (like the US) have stopped funding
most projects since the 1970’s. What do we do instead?
Renovated Housing: An alternative often used since the 70’s is to renovate a
building instead of urban renewal. The process where middle-class people
move into inner-city neighborhoods and renovate them is called gentrification.
Gentrified inner-city neighborhoods also attract middle-class people who work
downtown. Living close to work saves the hassle of commuting and rejuvenates
run down inner-city neighborhoods
48

Gentrified building downtown Harlem, NY. Note the supermarket.

49

Inner-City Social Problems: Inner-city residents are often referred to as the
permanent underclass because they are trapped in an unending cycle of
economic and social problems. High unemployment, alcoholism, drug
addiction, literacy, juvenile delinquency, and crime all exist at a higher rate
among those who live in the inner-city. Lack of jobs means lack of tax dollars
to pay for police and fire protection as well as good schools. Lack of job skills
and homelessness are also tremendous problems.
Culture of Poverty: Inner-city residents are trapped in a permanent underclass
culture that reproduces itself. In the US, unwed mothers give birth to 2/3 of the
babies in the inner-city. 90% of these children live with only one parent and it
is real hard for one parent to keep a job and take care of children. Both suffer
and a shortage of care and daily attention by the parent contributes to the kids
not learning the skills necessary to do well in school which leads to poor jobs
for their futures. Poverty leads to more poverty. Many families on welfare have
only one parent because it is financially better if one parent is gone, that way
the single parent gets food stamps and other services from the government
that they would not get if it was a 2 family household.
50

Crime: Trapped in a hopeless environment, some inner-city
residents turn to drugs. Drug use is a problem in inner-city
areas and the suburbs, but rates of drug use in inner-cities
are the highest.
Ethnic and Racial Segregation: As seen in chapter 7, many
neighborhoods in the US are segregated by ethnicity with
African Americans and Hispanics concentrated in one or two
continuous areas and whites living in the suburbs. Even small
cities display a strong distinction among neighborhoods. A
frequent division is between the east and west or north and
south side of town, or the railroad tracks. A family seeking a
new residence will seek the areas where the characteristics
of the people meet their own.

51

The exodus
from the
American city.
This has
happened in
many American
cities since the
1960’s.

52

Changes in Cities in the U.S.
U.S. population has been moving out of the city centers to the suburbs:
suburbanization and counter urbanization

Developed Countries: suburbanization

 wealthy move to suburbs
 automobiles and roads; ‘American
Dream’ of the home in the suburbs.
 better services
 wealthy move to suburbs
Counter urbanization

idyllic settings
cost of land for retirement
slow pace, yet high tech
connections to services and markets
53

U.S. intraregional migration during 1990s.

Inner city economic problems: the concentration of low income
residents in inner cities has caused economic problems. These
people require public services but can pay very little in taxes to
support the services. They need stores and jobs but have little
money to spend in the store and few skills for jobs (so the stores
close). To try to fight these problems many local and state
governments use tax monies to try to renovate these areas, but this
shifts tax money needed for other areas to the inner city (votes on
election day).
Annexation: Many cities could help their tax problem by adding the
new suburbs to be part of their city (annexation). After all, many of
these suburban people use the city for its’ jobs etc., so why not add
them into the city? Today, most people in the suburbs do not want
to be annexed into the city and so they do not vote to be annexed.
54

The Peripheral Model: According to this model, an urban area
consists of an inner city surrounded by large suburban residential
and business areas (MSA) tied together by a beltway or highway
that circles the city. Around the beltway are nodes of consumer
and business services called edge cities (see diagram of multiple
nuclei model). These edge cities sprang up to provide services
and jobs to the people in the suburbs.
Density Gradient: As you travel outward from the center of the
city, the density of people declines. Inner city has big apartments
of 250 of more people per acre. Suburbs have fewer people per
acre (but lots of acres) and finally you leave the cities periphery
you find few people. The number of houses per unit of land
diminishes as distance from the center of the city increases.
55

The Edge cities (bedroom communities) of Houston

The central city is surrounded by a ring road, around which are
suburban areas and edge cities, shopping malls, office parks,
industrial areas, and service complexes.

Known as
bedroom
communities
because
people live
there but
mostly don’t
work there.
They drive
into the city
for work.
56

As you move from the center of the city outward, the density of the population
changes. This is know as the density gradient. Two big changes have occurred in
the density gradient of today’s cities:
1. The number of people living in the center has decreased.
2. The density difference between the inner city and the suburbs is declining
because the inner city density is dropping and the suburban density is growing
due to more large apartments being built in the suburbs.
Cost of Suburban or Urban Sprawl: Urban Sprawl is the progressive spread of
development over the landscape. As long as we Americans want single-family
detached houses, land on the fringe of urban areas will be converted from open
space to residential use. The cost of this growth is more than the loss of land, it is
also the cost of new roads, utilities, building stores and offices and the cost of
automobiles to move these people over even longer distances. Lots of these new
developments are built on what was once farmland. Wonderful productive soil now
under concrete.

Greenbelts: are areas where, by law, the open space can not be used for any
construction. This is mostly found in Europe.

57

Once farmland that is being converted to suburbs and cities.

58

Tyson’s Corner Virginia in 1940

59

Washington, DC. MSA.

Tyson’s Corner Virginia
today.
Washington D.C. is off
In the distance.

60

Suburban Segregation: The “new” segregation.
Suburban segregation takes two forms:
1. Residents are separated from commercial and manufacturing activities
which are confined someplace else. (The whole neighborhood is
nothing but houses because they drive for services.)
2. The price of the house eliminates some from being able to live there. This
creates a homogeneous suburb of the same economic class of people.
This never existed before in history. Where we once had vertical
segregation of the classes we now we have horizontal segregation.
3. But this may be reversing as new statistics show that people are beginning
to move back to the city. Why? Cost of transportation.
Zoning Ordinances: This idea developed in Europe and later America in the
early decades of the 20th century. This means that businesses are allowed only
in certain areas of the settlement. (No all night taco stands inside your single
family neighborhood.)
Motor vehicles: The wide use of the automobile is largely responsible for the
American movement to the suburbs. Not only did people move out but 1/4 of
the land inside all American cities are now roads, streets, and parking lots.

61

Public Transportation: Because few US workers live within walking distance
of their jobs, urban areas are characterized by extensive commuting and the
problems that come with it. As much as 40% of all trips made into or out from
a city during the day takes place within just 4 hours. (2 in the morning and 2 in
the late afternoon). RUSH HOUR!!! In large cities, public transportation, like
subways and busses, are better suited to move people but Americans still
prefer their own cars. Public transportation is cheaper, cleaner, and more
energy efficient than personal cars, yet in the US only 5% of city travel is
done using public transit systems. American’s love their personal car too
much.
Local Government Fragmentation: Because of the large number of local
governments in the US (look at the settlements in Pinellas County) it is
difficult to solve some of the regional problems like garbage disposal, water
management, traffic and public housing.
62

Metropolitan government: This idea tries to put many local governments into a
larger unit that can better handle the urban problems. The 2 ways to do this
are:
1. Federations in which the individual settlements have their own police,
firemen, and tax collection but they all agree to be part of a second
government which handles transportation, water, sewage, parks and
welfare for all the communities.
2. Consolidations: In this method, several cities and the county may form one
government. Jacksonville’s government runs not only the town but the
county too, this makes Jacksonville the largest city, in land size, in the US.
Smart growth: A new movement by many states to curb suburban sprawl by
limiting where new construction can take place. Smart growth laws require that
land near cities be used up before any land further out can be developed. So
far, this is only being done an a few parts of our country.
63

The new
US as
some
people
see it.

64

Quiz Yourself:
1. The process where middle-class people move into inner city neighborhoods and
renovate them is called ____________
2. ____________ happens when banks refuse to give loans in what they consider
risky neighborhoods.
3. Because of the housing shortages, the poor have constructed their own settlements
around the city known as __________ _________

4. Businesses are allowed only in certain areas of the settlement because of
____________ ____________
5. Areas known as _____ _______ are areas of about 5,000 people. The data from
that area is used to help define needed services for that area.
6. When cities are so close that they form one continuous band of development this is
known as a ____________
65

7. Social relationships are often described as “colder” in urban areas because…
8. In this model the city develops in a series of sectors not rings. _______

9. ______ (LDC’s or MDC’s) have a higher percentage of people living in urban
settlements but ________ (LDC’s or MDC’s) have more of the very large urban
settlements.
10. _____________ was the first model developed to explain the distributions
of different social groups within urban areas.
11. New cities which develop around the beltway are nodes of consumer and
business services known as ________ _________.

12. When the Europeans took over lands around the world, they changed the
cities by adding services to help the Europeans control the conquered people.
These European planned cities are known as __________ cities.
66

Answer Key:
1.

Gentrification

2.

Redlining

3.

Squatter Settlements

4.

Zoning ordinances

5.

Census tracks

6.

Megalopolis

7. There is a stronger feeling of belonging together in small rural settlements.
8. Hoyt sector model
9. MDC, LDC
10. Burgess Concentric Zone model
11. Edge cities
12. Colonial cities
67

Test Key topic/chapter 13:
These questions come from a combination of our slides, your text book, and common knowledge you should
have discussed in your AP classroom. They are very typical of what you will see on the National Exam.
1) The multiple nuclei theory best explains why different neighborhoods of a city attract people of different… A) ages.
B) ethnic origin C) income D) marital status.
2) Sprawl is the… A) change in density within an urban area from the center to the periphery B) development of new
housing sites not contiguous to the existing built-up area. C) land maintained as open space surrounding an urban area.
D) period in the morning and evening with the heaviest volumes of traffic.
3) People are attracted to suburbs in part because suburbs are characterized by…A) heavy traffic. B) lower opportunity
for home ownership. C) private land surrounding the house. D) row houses and apartments.
4) Megalopolis refers to… A) adjacent, overlapping Metropolitan Statistical Areas. B) central cities. C) consolidated
Metropolitan Statistical Areas. D) central cities plus urbanized areas.
5) Which statement best describes the relationship between urbanization and the Industrial Revolution? A) Urbanization
promoted the Industrial Revolution. B) The Industrial Revolution promoted urbanization. C) Urbanization preceded the
Industrial Revolution by thousands of years. D) Urbanization and the Industrial Revolution are no longer related.
6) The process of legally adding land area to a city in the United States is… A) annexation. B) accreditation. C) an
application of eminent domain. D) defined by urbanized area.

68

7) The process of change in the use of a house, from single-family owner occupancy to abandonment, is… A) blockbusting.
B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining.
8) A process by which banks designate an area within which they refuse to lend money for improvements is… A) blockbusting.
B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining.
9) A recent change in the density gradient has been… A) the elimination of the gap traditionally found in the center. B) an
increase in the extremes between the inner and outer areas. C) an increase in the number of people living in the center.
D) a reduction in the differences in densities found within an urban area.
10) U.S. central cities face fiscal problems because… A) federal and state funds are available. B) low-income people are
concentrated there. C) middle-class families are attracted there. D) redlining is no longer legal.
11) A legal form of segregation in U.S. cities is achieved through...A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) zoning. D) greenbelts.
12) Factories have moved to suburban locations in part because of… A) access to main highways. B) adequate space to build
vertical structures. C) availability of large tracts of high-priced land. D) good rail connections.
13) According to the sector model, the best housing is located in…A) a corridor from downtown to the edge of the city.
B) an outer ring surrounding the city. C) nodes near universities and parks. D) renovated inner-city neighborhoods.
14) Ramshackle houses on the periphery of cities in less developed countries are known as… A) squatter settlements. B) council
estates. C) public housing. D) zone in transition.
15) Higher income people tend to live near the center of the city in all but which of the following regions? A) Latin America
B) North America C) South Asia D) Western Europe

16) The wide boulevards built in cities in less developed countries were most likely built during what era? A) pre-colonial
B) colonial C) independence D) all of the above equally

69

17) According to the multiple nuclei model, an airport is likely to attract nearby… A) industries. B) residences. C) shops.
D) universities.
18) The largest percentage of the U.S. population lives in…A) central cities. B) suburbs. C) non-metropolitan areas. D) all of the
above
19) In U.S. cities, the underclass is… A) clustered in inner-city neighborhoods. B) dispersed throughout the city. C) clustered in
suburbs. D) distributed uniformly in the city.

20) A process of converting a neighborhood from low-income to middle-class is…A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) gentrification.
D) redlining.
21) Higher social heterogeneity in urban settlements means that… A) the people with whom you relax are probably the same ones you
see at work. B) you play a specialized role in the urban economy. C) you compete for limited space. D) you may feel lonely and
isolated in a crowd.
22) The city plus its contiguous built-up suburbs is the… A) central city. B) urbanized area.
D) consolidated metropolitan statistical area

C) metropolitan statistical area.

23) The process whereby an increasing percentage of people live in an urban area is known as… A) demographic transition.
B) rank-size rule. C) urbanization. D) central place theory.
24) Of the ten largest urban areas in the world, how many are in More Developed Countries today? A) 1 B) 4 C) 7 D) 10 E) 2
25) Public housing is…A) conversion of low-income housing to middle-class housing. B) illegally established low-income housing.
C) housing that has changed from single-family owner occupancy to abandonment. D) low-income government-owned housing.
26) According to the concentric zone model, a city develops in a series of… A) corridors. B) nodes. C) rings. D) all of the above

70

27) Chicago is a good location in which to develop urban models because it is located… A) at the hub of the nation's transportation
system. B) in the center of the country. C) on a flat prairie. D) on the shore of Lake Michigan.
28) According to the sector model, the best housing is located in… A) a corridor from downtown to the edge of the city. B) an outer
ring surrounding the city. C) nodes near universities and parks. D) renovated inner-city neighborhoods.
29) The zone of transition in US cities generally contain…A) warehouses B) wealthy neighborhoods C) transportation hubs
D) universities and hospitals E) suburban homes
30) The attractions of shopping malls include all but which of the following? A) frequent concerts and exhibitions B) generous
parking lots C) place to meet friends D) walking distance from homes
The following questions are written at the high school level. You will find some questions from part one often rewritten
here. This is all designed to help you transition to the college/AP style of written questions. Any question preceded with ***
are questions that have been on the national exam before.
31. Most Latin American cities are focused on a…A) central plaza B) government housing project C) zone of heavy industry
D) skyscraper office building E) squatter settlement
32. The multiple-nuclei model of a city structure tends to be most applicable to…A) small cities B) traditional C) Latin American
cities D) newer, fast growing cities E) cities with homogeneous land use
33. ***Locational advantages important to the development of the earliest cities include…A) availability of good harbors for large
ships B) productive agricultural land and defensible sites C) temperate climate and proximity to coal mines D) good
connections by road and canal E) proximity to manufacturing areas

34. In cities, the CBD’s often show uniqueness while the suburbs usually show…A) a large hinterland. B) placelessness C) more
than one node. D) newer zones of transition.

71

35. Many LDC’s have tried to help a previously under-developed part of their country develop by moving their capital
city to that area. This new capital is known as a…A) forward capital B) new development zone C) enterprise zone
D) neocolonial city
36. Today the greatest number of urban dwellers is found in…A) North America
D) Europe E) Asia

B) South America C) Africa

37. ***All of the following have helped create ghettos in North American cities except…A)blockbusting and racial
steering B) redlining by financial institutions C) concentration of public housing and social services D) fixed school
districts E) Economic Enterprise Zones

38. Which of the following is NOT as reason for rapid suburbanization in the US after WW2? A) Mass production of
the automobile B) Reduction of long distance commuting C) Expansion of home construction D) Expansion of the
interstate highway system E) Availability of low down payment terms and long-term mortgages.
39. New cities which developed in the hinterland of large urban areas because of the automobile, are known as…
A) edge cities B) census tracts C) suburban sprawl D) squatter settlements. E) none of these
40. Gentrification refers to… A) moving the homeless into inner city shelters B) The “White Flight” from the urban city
C) losing tax revenue because of stores closing in downtown areas D) middle-class people moving into and renovating
inner city neighborhoods E) the creation of “beltway cities” around the city.

72

4
7
3

5

1
6

2

41-48 all use the sketch above.
41. The sketch in box A above represents which model of the inner structure of urban areas?
C) multiple nuclei model D) Burgess concentric zone model E) peripheral model
42. The models in boxes B and C represent A) Concentric zone and multiple nuclei
concentric zone D) peripheral and concentric zone E) Von Thunen and peripheral

A) Hoyt sector model B) VonThunen’s model

B) Multiple nuclei and Hoyt sector C) Hoyt sector and

43. In which ring (1, 2, etc.) of sketch A above would high-status households in North American cities likely live? A) 1 B) 2 C) 3 D) 4&5
44. In which ring (1, 2, etc.) of sketch A above would high status households in a European city likely live? A) 1

B) 2

C) 3

D) 4&5

45. In model B, zone # 2 is where it is likely because of: A) greenbelting B) squatter settling C) the culture of poverty D) transportation
E) no one knows
46. The model in sketch B is the; A) Hoyt sector model B) Burgess model C) multiple nuclei model D) peripheral model
47. The model in sketch C is the; A) Hoyt sector model B) Burgess model C) multiple nuclei model D) peripheral model
48. Which of these models best describes what has happened in US cities in the last 40 years? A)

B)

C)

73

49.*** In the U.S. a city plus its contiguous built-up suburbs is known as an…A) urbanized area B) zoned area
C) census tract D) Squatter settlement E) none of these
50. Done mostly in Europe, these are areas where land is kept as parks, farms or other kinds of open space and urban
sprawl is not allowed. A) Smart growth
B) zoning
C) filtering
D) census tracts E) greenbelts
51. Which statement best describes the relationship between urbanization and the Industrial Revolution?
A) Urbanization promoted the Industrial Revolution. B) The Industrial Revolution promoted urbanization.
C) Urbanization preceded the Industrial Revolution by thousands of years. D) Urbanization and the Industrial
Revolution are no longer related.
52. The process whereby an increasing percentage of people live in an urban area is known as…
A) Demographic transition. B) rank-size rule. C) Urbanization. D) Central place theory.
53. The city (if it has 50,000 or more people) plus its contiguous built-up suburbs AND the county it is in as well as any
other counties it influences, is known as the ...A) central city B) urbanized area
C) metropolitan statistical area
D) consolidated metropolitan area E) micropolitan statistical area
54. ***Higher social heterogeneity in urban settlements means that …A) the people with whom you relax are probably
the same ones you see at work. B) you play a specialized role in the urban economy. C) you compete for limited
space. D) you may feel lonely and isolated in a crowd.

55. The process of change in the use of a house, from single-family owner occupancy to smaller dwellings for the poor
and then sometimes to abandonment, is…A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining. E) none of
these

74

Free Response #1:
The Bid Rent theory says that the closer you get to the
CBD the higher the cost for land, yet in most American
cities you find the poorest people living near the
expensive CBD and the richest living further away.
Explain:
A. Why neighborhoods near the CBD are often poor and
run down?
B. Why are there few grocery and other retail stores in
these neighborhoods?
C. Why is this not really true in European and Latin
American countries?

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75

FR #2:
Think of the map of your school, explain the
layout of your school using the Multiple Nuclei
Model
The main office is the CBD.
Completely explain your answer using specific
buildings and/or land areas in your explanation
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76

Answer Key:
1. B

14. A

27. C

40. D

53. C

2. B

15. B

28. A

41. D

54. D

3. C

16. B

29. A

42. B

55. B

4. A

17. A

30. D

43. D

5. B

18. B

31. A

44. A

6. A

19. A

32. D

45. D

7. B

20. C

33. B

46. A

8. D

21. D

34. B

47. C

9. D

22. B

35. A

48. C

10. B

23. C

36. E

49. A

11. C

24. C

37. E

50. E

12. A

25. D

38. B

51. B

13. A

26. C

39. A

52. C
77

FR. #1: ( 15 pts. for each section…total of 45 pts.)
A. In the US the move of the wealthy and middle class to the suburbs has left the older houses and apartments near the CBD empty.
This has lowered their value to the point where the poor can afford these dwellings and have made these neighborhoods their
homes. The poor can not pay for upkeep of these dwellings, or to pay high taxes. The lack of upkeep and tax money to repair the
roads and schools, adds to the downward spiral of the neighborhood. With little spending money for shopping, the poor do not
spend much in the stores. This causes many stores to close and move to the suburbs where the spending customers and money
went. The closing of the stores adds to the poverty of the area by taking away some of the jobs that were in the neighborhood. This
becomes a vicious cycle of poverty and deterioration. (15 points)

B. There are few retail stores and groceries is the area because the poor do not have money to shop. The lack of spending forces
many stores out of business or forces them to move to better locations. There also can be higher crime in these areas and the
crime often takes place at the stores. This is another reason for the stores to move out of the neighborhood. (15 points)
C. Neighborhoods in European and Latin American cities are different from those of US cities. In Europe and Latin America, the
wealthy and middle class still live near or in the CBD. The higher tax base and more spending ability of the upper and middle
classes, keeps the CBD area flourishing with jobs and in constant repair and upkeep of the cities’ physical condition. (15 points)

FR #2: (10 total points.)
You will need to judge how effectively you displayed you school
in the Multiple Nuclei Model. Refer to the model itself to help you
determine your success and grade.
School’s main office
78

Calculating your grade on test 13.
Add how many you got correct on the multiple choice part (55 possible) to how many
points you scored on the FR portion (55 possible)…110 total.
The following scale will show the approximate score if this test were the real AP exam. Remember that this
is an approximation. While 65-74% is normally the range for a 3 on the test, it is not definite. Over the
years I have seen scores as low as 60% be the low portion of a 3 score.

Out of 110 possible points:
72-83 is most likely a 3
84-94 is most likely a 4

95-110 is most likely a 5

Now lets start our review for the national exam by
reviewing the 33 key models and theories of the
course…the next PowerPoint.


Slide 48

Key topic/chapter 13…Urban Patterns
Key terms:
Annexation
Concentric zone model
Density gradient
Edge cities
Filtering
Galactic city
Gentrification
Greenbelts
Megalopolis
MSA
Multiple nuclei model
Peripheral model

Public housing
Redlining
Renovated housing
Scattered site
Squatter settlement
Sector model
Smart growth
Sprawl
Underclass
Urban renewal
Zone in transition
Zoning
1

Chapter 13…Urban Areas.
How are Cities planned?
Why

are cities where they are?
How are they organized?
Why are some areas of a city
different from
other areas of the same city?
What is the future of cities?
2

Settlement


Settlement - permanent collections of buildings,
where people live, work, and obtain services

3

ORIGINS OF SETTLEMENTS


Religious - graves, churches, temples



Cultural - schools, libraries



Political/Military - leader’s house, walls



Economic - stores, food
4

TYPES OF SETTLEMENTS


Rural Settlements - agriculture as the
predominant occupation.



Urban settlements - principal industries are
secondary and tertiary.

5

RURAL SETTLEMENTS
Clustered rural settlements –grouped
settlements in rural areas to minimize travel

Dispersed rural Settlements - isolated farms
with enclosed continuous fields (Found only in
N. America and Britain).

6

Urban Geographers want to know the global distribution of urban
settlements. MDC’s have a high percentage of people living in urban
areas because of the shift from agriculture-manufacturing-services.
Geographers are also interested in where people and activities are
distributed within urban spaces. What are the differences between the
inner-city and suburban areas and why?
As we saw in the last chapter, many downtowns are unique and can
often be recognized in photos where the suburbs often look very
much alike (Placelessness). Why? Suburbs offer the chance to avoid
some of the city problems (crime, tight living area, expensive
land/rent, noise, age of buildings) while still keeping a connection with
the goods and services of the city: jobs, sports teams, culture, shops,
recreation, etc.
7

Where is this place?

8

Today’s cities are evolving and changing. Although different internal
situations characterize urban areas in the US and elsewhere, the
problems arising from current spatial trends are quite similar in all cities.
Where have urban areas grown: in the early 1800’s only 3% of the earth’s
people lived in cities and only Beijing China had more than 1 million
people. Today over ½ of the world’s people live in cities and we have over
400 cities of at least 1 million people.

Urbanization: is the process by which city population grows.
Cities population growth is measured in 2 dimensions;
1. An increase in the number of people living in the cities.
2. An increase in the percentage of people living in the cities.
This distinction is important because they happen for different reason and
have different global distributions.
9

Increasing Percentage of People in Cities: a large percentage of people living in urban
areas is a measure of a country’s level of development. In MDC’s about ¾ of the people
live in urban areas compared to about 2/5 of people in LDC’s. (Except in Latin America
where the level is closer to MDC’s.)
The higher percentage of people in urban areas comes from the changes that have
occurred in the last 200 years as we went from agriculture (primary jobs) to industrial
(secondary jobs) and now service jobs, all created by the Industrial Revolution of the
1800’s.
People moved to the cities for industrial jobs, but in MDC’s this process has largely
ended because nearly everyone interested in moving to the cities from farms has already
done so.
In LDC’s the percentage of people living in urban areas is growing as people are pushed
off of their farms and replaced by machines and as people move to cities looking/hoping
for industrial jobs.
10

Increasing Number of People in Cities: MDC’s have a higher percentage of
people living in urban settlements but LDC’s have more of the very large urban
settlements (Primate cities). (Rank-size rule, primate cities, chapter 12.)

This is interesting because typically the large cities are created from the
improvements brought by the Industrial Revolution. This is not the case with the
large LDC cities. Migration to the primate city in LDC’s is happening even though
job opportunities may not be available. Increasing the population growth in LDC
cities is the fact that medical services are better in these cities, thus the child
mortality rate is lower.
Defining Urban Settlements: defining where urban areas end and rural areas
begin is not easy. Geographers have formulated definitions that distinguish
between urban and rural areas in two ways: Social differences and Physical
differences.
11

Percent Urban Population

Percent of the population living in urban areas is usually higher in MDCs
than in LDCs.

12

The most populated cities in the world

Of the top
20, only
Moscow,
Tokyo and
New York
are in MDC’s

Shanghai China has 14,608,512 people
13

14

15

Social Differences Between Urban and Rural Settlements: it is fair to say that rural
people and urban people follow different ways of life. A city can be defined as having 3
characteristics:
1. Large size. People in rural settlements know most of the other people in the
settlement. Not true in big cities. Social relationships are often described as “colder” in
urban areas because you only see some people at work instead of growing up with
them in the settlement.
2. High Density. Having lots of people in a tiny area creates social consequences. A
high density of people living in a small area can only be supported if the people
specialize (they can’t all be farmers). People are encouraged to compete for jobs, room,
and survival in a tightly limited space. Social groups compete to occupy the same space
(ethnic/ race problems). Rural settlements have very little of this problem.
3. Social Heterogeneity. The larger the settlement, the greater the variety of people.
Being “unusual” in a large settlement is more likely to be accepted than in a small rural
one. But despite the freedom to be different that large urban settlements give you,
people living there often feel alone because so many people are different from them.
There is a stronger feeling of belonging together in small rural settlements.
16

These 3 differences do not fully answer the question of where urban settlements
begin and rural ones end because in today’s MDC’s most everyone has access to
cars, telephones, televisions, and “urban type” jobs which reduce the differences
between urban and rural lifestyles. “City folk” and “Country folk” are more alike
today than they are different. To help distinguish between urban and rural areas we
need to add the physical definition of rural and urban to the equation.
Physical Definitions of Urban Settlements: In ancient time, cities had defensive
walls for protection which clearly defined the physical boundaries of the city. Today
the walls are gone but we can still define the physical boundaries in 3 ways:
1. Legal boundary. These are the official boundaries of a city as recognized by
the government of the country or state. These “city limits” have been officially given
to the city and are physically marked on official maps. The local government of the
city has authority to make laws and protect the people inside the city boundaries.
17

2. Urbanized area. This is the city plus its suburbs or urbanized area that
surrounds the city. About 70 percent of US residents live in urbanized areas with
40% being in the suburbs and 30% inside the city limits. The suburbs may have
their own city governments but the huge central city dominates what happens in
the entire area.
3. Metropolitan Statistical Area. Cities have an even bigger influence on people
than just those living in their city limits and surrounding urbanized areas. People
from far away come to shop, use the services, support the sports teams, read
the newspapers and watch the television broadcasts of the city. Thus the city
has a “functional area” which is its total zone of influence. The US Bureau of
Census has created a method of measuring the functional area of the city.
Known as the Metropolitan statistical area (MSA) this area includes:
•An urbanized area with a population of at least 50,000
•The county within which the city is located.
•Adjacent counties with a high population density and a large percentage of
residents working in the central city’s county.
18

Metropolitan Area of Philadelphia

City of
Philadelphia

Urbanized
area
(suburbs)
Metropolitan
Statistical
Area

The metropolitan area of Philadelphia is
spread over several counties and four states.
It is also a diversified trade center, given its
position on the Delaware river.

19

20

21

Micropolitan Statistical Areas: Smaller areas with between
10,000 and 50,000 people, the county where it is found, and
adjacent counties tied to the city. This would be a small town and
the area dominated by it.
Overlapping Metropolitan Areas: Some adjacent MSA’s overlap.
A county between two central cities may send a large number of
commuters to jobs in both cities. In some areas the cities are so
close that they form one continuous urban complex. This is
known as a Megalopolis (great city).
In a megalopolis, the downtown CBD often has its own
distinctive look and the urban areas are visually separated by
parks, open spaces, and dairy/truck farms. But at the periphery
of the urban areas, the boundaries overlap.
22

Colorado Springs, population 431,000

Ocala, Florida, population 56,000

Florala, Alabama, population 1,900

23

Megalopolis, from northern Va. To Maine.
This Illustrates the
difference between
strict city proper
definitions and broader
urban agglomerations.
To define urbanized
areas, the U.S. Census
Bureau uses the term
Metropolitan Statistical
Area (MSA) or
Consolidated MSA
(CMSA) if two or more of
them overlap.
24

Where are People Distributed within Urban Areas? People are not
just distributed at random in urban areas. For the most part they
concentrate in particular neighborhoods depending on their social
characteristics. Geographers want to see where people with
particular characteristics are likely to live and why.

Three models which try to explain the growth of a city:

The Burgess Model

The Hoyt Sector Model

The Harris and Ullman
multiple Nuclei Model
25

Burgess Concentric Zone Model

In the concentric zone model, a city grows in a series of rings surrounding the CBD.

Burgess Concentric Zone Model: This is the first used to explain the
distributions of different social groups within urban areas. It says that a
city grows outward from a central place in a series of concentric rings.
The precise size and width of the rings vary from one city to another, but
some basic types of rings appear in all cities in the same order (see chart
above).
26

•Hoyt Sector Model: In this model the city develops in a
series of sectors not rings. Certain areas of the city are
more attractive for various activities, originally because
of an environmental factor (or even pure chance). As the
city grows, activities extend outward in a wedge shape.
For example, once a wealthy neighborhood is built the
next wealthy neighborhood will extend from the first
neighborhood further outward from the center. In this
way, the best housing is found in a corridor extending
outward from the center to the outer edge (see chart on
the next page).
27

The Hoyt Sector Model

In the sector model, a city grows in a series of
wedges or corridors extending out from the
CBD.
28

•Harris and Ullman’s Multiple Nuclei Model: According
to this model, a city is a complex structure that includes
more than one center around which activities revolve.
Examples of these nodes include a port, parks,
stadium, neighborhood business center, university, and
airport (see chart). This theory states that some
activities are attracted to particular nodes, whereas
others try to avoid them. A university node may attract
well educated people and bookstores while the port will
attract hotels and warehouses. Heavy industry and
expensive houses rarely are found together. This
model shows the effect of the automobile more than
any other model.
29

The Harris and Ullman Multiple Nuclei model

The multiple nuclei model views a city as a
collection of individual centers, around which
different people and activities cluster.

30

Applications of the Models: The three models help explain where and in some
cases, why people live where they do. None of the models by themselves fully
explains why and where different types of people live, but combined they give
you as good a look as possible at the “Why” of “Where.” Effective use of the
models depends on getting good data on the areas. Most countries take a
census every 10 years to help determine useful data about the people and
places of the country. In our country we divide the census data into areas
known as census tracts of about 5,000 people. Each census tract has the data
that summarizes the characteristics of the people living within that tract. This
information includes things like the race, income, age, and education of the
people living in that tract.
Social Area Analysis: The data from the census tracts can all be plotted onto
maps to show the characteristics of the people living in that tract. This map is
known as a social area analysis.
31

Using Census tract information…Seattle, Washington
Each lined area is a
census tract of about 5000
people in Seattle
Washington. These maps
show average household
income for 1990 and
2000…note the changes in
income in some areas
between 1990 and 2000.
Using this information, a
business can make
decisions about where
they want to locate a new
store or the future of
existing stores.
You can find census tract
information on many topics
such as; age, education
level, race, ethnicity, crime
rate, and land ownership.
Note the areas with
incomes over
$63,000.

All can be very valuable
information to people
looking to open
businesses.

32

Examine the changes
between 1990 and
2000.

Oakland, California’s Ethnic neighborhoods
The small bordered areas are census tracks of 5000 people.

33

Use of the Models Outside of North America: The 3 models will also work in other
places in the world; however social groups in other countries may not have the
same reasons for selecting particular neighborhoods as Americans do.
European Cities: As in the US, wealthier people in European cities cluster along a
sector extending outward from the CBD, however unlike the US, wealthy and
middle class Europeans still live in the inner rings of the neighborhoods near the
CBD not out in the suburbs. In the past, poorer people lived in the center of the
city. Before electricity, social segregation was vertical: richer people lived on the
first or second floor of a building while the poorer people lived in the basement or
upper floors. In the Industrial Revolution, housing for the poor was constructed
near the factories and away from the rich.
Today poorer Europeans are less likely to live in the inner-city. Poor quality
housing has been renovated for the rich or turned into office buildings. Poorer
Europeans tend to live in the outskirts of the city. Vast suburbs with dozens of high
rise apartments house the poor. They face long commutes to reach their jobs in
the city.
34

European cities generally do not have the “suburban
sprawl” that US cities have. European cities tend to be
more pedestrian friendly with more parks downtown as
Europeans tend to still live downtown.
US cities have taller buildings as European cities tend to
be older and more historic.

American cities have more ethnic neighborhoods than
European cities. Ethnic neighborhoods that do exist in
European cities tend to be in the suburbs. WHY?
Because the established richer neighborhoods tend to be
downtown in European cities.
35

Less Developed Countries: Like Europe, most LDC’s accommodate their poor in the
suburbs with their middle class and rich living near the center of the city. LDC’s have
passed through 3 periods of city building: before the Europeans arrived, during the
period of European colonialism, and since independence from European control.

Pre-colonial Cities: Before the Europeans arrived few cities existed in Africa, Asia, and
Latin America and most people lived in small rural settlements. Those cities that existed
were mostly laid out surrounding a religious center; with the rest of the city laid out in a
hieratical concentric pattern (like the Burgess model) from government buildings,
homes of the wealthy, and businesses related to the religion out to other businesses
and shops.
Colonial cities: When the Europeans took over these lands, they changed the cities by
adding services to help the Europeans control the conquered people. Often a new
European style city would be build next to the existing native one. The new European
cities contained wider streets, a public square, larger houses and a much lower density.
The Spanish used the “Law of the Indies” which was a city plan designed specifically to
build cities in a “Spanish” style. (Gridiron pattern for streets centered on a church and
central plaza, walls around individual houses and neighborhoods centered around
smaller plazas and more churches.)
36

Early Mexico city was laid out in a grid pattern of streets. This followed
the Spanish “Law of the Indies.”

37

Central Plaza in Mexico City 1920 photo. Typical Colonial City plan.

Part of downtown Mexico city today still shows the
building plan of the “Law of the Indies.”

38

Cities since Independence: Following independence, cities have become
the focal point of the development of most LDC’s. Millions of people have
migrated to the cities (Primate cities) looking for jobs and services. Some
capitals have been moved to isolated areas in an attempt to help develop
that area of the country (Brasília) This is know as a forward capital. Latin
American cities have developed their own unique style.
Squatter settlements: The LDC’s are unable to house the rapidly growing
number of poor who are flowing into the cities. Because of the housing
shortages, the poor have constructed their own settlements around the city.
These settlements have few services because neither the city nor the
residents can afford them. Squatters have two basic choices for housing.
1. Illegally move into empty real houses located in the city or,
2. Rent slum housing.
(85% of the population of Addis Ababa in Ethiopia lives in squatter
settlements, slums or other illegal housing.)
39

Squatter shacks in Manila, the Philippines

40

Squatter settlement in Ethiopia

41

Zimbabwe, Africa

42

Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

43

Latin American City Model:
In many Latin
American cities,
the wealthy live in
the inner city and
in a sector
extending along a
commercial spine.
In situ accretion- businesses
and homes constantly under
construction/repair.
Zone of maturity-2nd best
housing in the city.
The poor live in squatter settlements on the
periphery of the city.

Disamenity- unpleasant area
used by the poor to get to the
market.

44

The City Outline of Rio de Janeiro
The rich tourist areas and expensive condo apartments are along the coast
and beach while the poor live in squatter shacks in the hills.

45

City problems:
Inner-City Physical Problems: Most US inner cities were constructed before the 1950’s
(people began to move to the suburbs in the 1950’s so new construction moved out of
the city).
Process of Deterioration (how a city deteriorates): A city doesn’t suddenly become old
and full of slummy areas. It happens over time. When a group of low-income people
inhabit an area of a city, nearby neighborhoods will often look to move out. They sell or
rent to more low-income occupants thus expanding the low-income area. Two processes
cause/speed up the devaluation of areas:
1. Filtering, 2. Redlining.
Filtering: Large houses and buildings that once housed rich downtown workers (who
moved to the suburbs) are taken over by landlords who don’t live in that area (they
moved to the suburbs too). Rents are low so the landlord doesn’t take as good care of
the property as they should and the property becomes run down or abandoned. Stores
close, or move, due to lack of sales. 100 years ago these neighborhoods would be used
by immigrants and ethnic businesses would succeed in those areas. Now, with a decline
in immigration, these neighborhoods have shrunk and so have schools, businesses and
other services. Thousands of vacant houses and buildings stand empty in inner cities
across America.

46

Redlining: Some banks refuse to give loans in what they consider
risky neighborhoods. They draw a red line on a map around areas
where they will not give loans. Without loans, these neighborhoods
have a hard time rebuilding/remodeling. Though illegal, this still
happens. Bankers just don’t put these “no-loan” areas on a map.

Urban Renewal: This is the series of projects to improve European
and N. American cities by buying up the blighted neighborhoods,
moving the people to new government built housing projects, and
building new roads, and other projects to make the inner city
attractive for business again. National and State government grants
help pay for these projects.
47

Public housing: Housing for the poor, built with government funding as part of
urban renewal. In the US this is only about 2% of the housing while in some
countries it may be more (Britain is 30%). Public housing built in the 50’s & 60’s
were largely high rise apartments, but those are seen as being unsatisfactory.
Problems arise from cramming large numbers of poor people into one area.
Today most public housing projects are one to three story buildings with many of
them being scattered around different parts of the city rather than clustered into
one area.
Because urban renewal has been criticized for destroying the social cohesion of
older neighborhoods, many governments (like the US) have stopped funding
most projects since the 1970’s. What do we do instead?
Renovated Housing: An alternative often used since the 70’s is to renovate a
building instead of urban renewal. The process where middle-class people
move into inner-city neighborhoods and renovate them is called gentrification.
Gentrified inner-city neighborhoods also attract middle-class people who work
downtown. Living close to work saves the hassle of commuting and rejuvenates
run down inner-city neighborhoods
48

Gentrified building downtown Harlem, NY. Note the supermarket.

49

Inner-City Social Problems: Inner-city residents are often referred to as the
permanent underclass because they are trapped in an unending cycle of
economic and social problems. High unemployment, alcoholism, drug
addiction, literacy, juvenile delinquency, and crime all exist at a higher rate
among those who live in the inner-city. Lack of jobs means lack of tax dollars
to pay for police and fire protection as well as good schools. Lack of job skills
and homelessness are also tremendous problems.
Culture of Poverty: Inner-city residents are trapped in a permanent underclass
culture that reproduces itself. In the US, unwed mothers give birth to 2/3 of the
babies in the inner-city. 90% of these children live with only one parent and it
is real hard for one parent to keep a job and take care of children. Both suffer
and a shortage of care and daily attention by the parent contributes to the kids
not learning the skills necessary to do well in school which leads to poor jobs
for their futures. Poverty leads to more poverty. Many families on welfare have
only one parent because it is financially better if one parent is gone, that way
the single parent gets food stamps and other services from the government
that they would not get if it was a 2 family household.
50

Crime: Trapped in a hopeless environment, some inner-city
residents turn to drugs. Drug use is a problem in inner-city
areas and the suburbs, but rates of drug use in inner-cities
are the highest.
Ethnic and Racial Segregation: As seen in chapter 7, many
neighborhoods in the US are segregated by ethnicity with
African Americans and Hispanics concentrated in one or two
continuous areas and whites living in the suburbs. Even small
cities display a strong distinction among neighborhoods. A
frequent division is between the east and west or north and
south side of town, or the railroad tracks. A family seeking a
new residence will seek the areas where the characteristics
of the people meet their own.

51

The exodus
from the
American city.
This has
happened in
many American
cities since the
1960’s.

52

Changes in Cities in the U.S.
U.S. population has been moving out of the city centers to the suburbs:
suburbanization and counter urbanization

Developed Countries: suburbanization

 wealthy move to suburbs
 automobiles and roads; ‘American
Dream’ of the home in the suburbs.
 better services
 wealthy move to suburbs
Counter urbanization

idyllic settings
cost of land for retirement
slow pace, yet high tech
connections to services and markets
53

U.S. intraregional migration during 1990s.

Inner city economic problems: the concentration of low income
residents in inner cities has caused economic problems. These
people require public services but can pay very little in taxes to
support the services. They need stores and jobs but have little
money to spend in the store and few skills for jobs (so the stores
close). To try to fight these problems many local and state
governments use tax monies to try to renovate these areas, but this
shifts tax money needed for other areas to the inner city (votes on
election day).
Annexation: Many cities could help their tax problem by adding the
new suburbs to be part of their city (annexation). After all, many of
these suburban people use the city for its’ jobs etc., so why not add
them into the city? Today, most people in the suburbs do not want
to be annexed into the city and so they do not vote to be annexed.
54

The Peripheral Model: According to this model, an urban area
consists of an inner city surrounded by large suburban residential
and business areas (MSA) tied together by a beltway or highway
that circles the city. Around the beltway are nodes of consumer
and business services called edge cities (see diagram of multiple
nuclei model). These edge cities sprang up to provide services
and jobs to the people in the suburbs.
Density Gradient: As you travel outward from the center of the
city, the density of people declines. Inner city has big apartments
of 250 of more people per acre. Suburbs have fewer people per
acre (but lots of acres) and finally you leave the cities periphery
you find few people. The number of houses per unit of land
diminishes as distance from the center of the city increases.
55

The Edge cities (bedroom communities) of Houston

The central city is surrounded by a ring road, around which are
suburban areas and edge cities, shopping malls, office parks,
industrial areas, and service complexes.

Known as
bedroom
communities
because
people live
there but
mostly don’t
work there.
They drive
into the city
for work.
56

As you move from the center of the city outward, the density of the population
changes. This is know as the density gradient. Two big changes have occurred in
the density gradient of today’s cities:
1. The number of people living in the center has decreased.
2. The density difference between the inner city and the suburbs is declining
because the inner city density is dropping and the suburban density is growing
due to more large apartments being built in the suburbs.
Cost of Suburban or Urban Sprawl: Urban Sprawl is the progressive spread of
development over the landscape. As long as we Americans want single-family
detached houses, land on the fringe of urban areas will be converted from open
space to residential use. The cost of this growth is more than the loss of land, it is
also the cost of new roads, utilities, building stores and offices and the cost of
automobiles to move these people over even longer distances. Lots of these new
developments are built on what was once farmland. Wonderful productive soil now
under concrete.

Greenbelts: are areas where, by law, the open space can not be used for any
construction. This is mostly found in Europe.

57

Once farmland that is being converted to suburbs and cities.

58

Tyson’s Corner Virginia in 1940

59

Washington, DC. MSA.

Tyson’s Corner Virginia
today.
Washington D.C. is off
In the distance.

60

Suburban Segregation: The “new” segregation.
Suburban segregation takes two forms:
1. Residents are separated from commercial and manufacturing activities
which are confined someplace else. (The whole neighborhood is
nothing but houses because they drive for services.)
2. The price of the house eliminates some from being able to live there. This
creates a homogeneous suburb of the same economic class of people.
This never existed before in history. Where we once had vertical
segregation of the classes we now we have horizontal segregation.
3. But this may be reversing as new statistics show that people are beginning
to move back to the city. Why? Cost of transportation.
Zoning Ordinances: This idea developed in Europe and later America in the
early decades of the 20th century. This means that businesses are allowed only
in certain areas of the settlement. (No all night taco stands inside your single
family neighborhood.)
Motor vehicles: The wide use of the automobile is largely responsible for the
American movement to the suburbs. Not only did people move out but 1/4 of
the land inside all American cities are now roads, streets, and parking lots.

61

Public Transportation: Because few US workers live within walking distance
of their jobs, urban areas are characterized by extensive commuting and the
problems that come with it. As much as 40% of all trips made into or out from
a city during the day takes place within just 4 hours. (2 in the morning and 2 in
the late afternoon). RUSH HOUR!!! In large cities, public transportation, like
subways and busses, are better suited to move people but Americans still
prefer their own cars. Public transportation is cheaper, cleaner, and more
energy efficient than personal cars, yet in the US only 5% of city travel is
done using public transit systems. American’s love their personal car too
much.
Local Government Fragmentation: Because of the large number of local
governments in the US (look at the settlements in Pinellas County) it is
difficult to solve some of the regional problems like garbage disposal, water
management, traffic and public housing.
62

Metropolitan government: This idea tries to put many local governments into a
larger unit that can better handle the urban problems. The 2 ways to do this
are:
1. Federations in which the individual settlements have their own police,
firemen, and tax collection but they all agree to be part of a second
government which handles transportation, water, sewage, parks and
welfare for all the communities.
2. Consolidations: In this method, several cities and the county may form one
government. Jacksonville’s government runs not only the town but the
county too, this makes Jacksonville the largest city, in land size, in the US.
Smart growth: A new movement by many states to curb suburban sprawl by
limiting where new construction can take place. Smart growth laws require that
land near cities be used up before any land further out can be developed. So
far, this is only being done an a few parts of our country.
63

The new
US as
some
people
see it.

64

Quiz Yourself:
1. The process where middle-class people move into inner city neighborhoods and
renovate them is called ____________
2. ____________ happens when banks refuse to give loans in what they consider
risky neighborhoods.
3. Because of the housing shortages, the poor have constructed their own settlements
around the city known as __________ _________

4. Businesses are allowed only in certain areas of the settlement because of
____________ ____________
5. Areas known as _____ _______ are areas of about 5,000 people. The data from
that area is used to help define needed services for that area.
6. When cities are so close that they form one continuous band of development this is
known as a ____________
65

7. Social relationships are often described as “colder” in urban areas because…
8. In this model the city develops in a series of sectors not rings. _______

9. ______ (LDC’s or MDC’s) have a higher percentage of people living in urban
settlements but ________ (LDC’s or MDC’s) have more of the very large urban
settlements.
10. _____________ was the first model developed to explain the distributions
of different social groups within urban areas.
11. New cities which develop around the beltway are nodes of consumer and
business services known as ________ _________.

12. When the Europeans took over lands around the world, they changed the
cities by adding services to help the Europeans control the conquered people.
These European planned cities are known as __________ cities.
66

Answer Key:
1.

Gentrification

2.

Redlining

3.

Squatter Settlements

4.

Zoning ordinances

5.

Census tracks

6.

Megalopolis

7. There is a stronger feeling of belonging together in small rural settlements.
8. Hoyt sector model
9. MDC, LDC
10. Burgess Concentric Zone model
11. Edge cities
12. Colonial cities
67

Test Key topic/chapter 13:
These questions come from a combination of our slides, your text book, and common knowledge you should
have discussed in your AP classroom. They are very typical of what you will see on the National Exam.
1) The multiple nuclei theory best explains why different neighborhoods of a city attract people of different… A) ages.
B) ethnic origin C) income D) marital status.
2) Sprawl is the… A) change in density within an urban area from the center to the periphery B) development of new
housing sites not contiguous to the existing built-up area. C) land maintained as open space surrounding an urban area.
D) period in the morning and evening with the heaviest volumes of traffic.
3) People are attracted to suburbs in part because suburbs are characterized by…A) heavy traffic. B) lower opportunity
for home ownership. C) private land surrounding the house. D) row houses and apartments.
4) Megalopolis refers to… A) adjacent, overlapping Metropolitan Statistical Areas. B) central cities. C) consolidated
Metropolitan Statistical Areas. D) central cities plus urbanized areas.
5) Which statement best describes the relationship between urbanization and the Industrial Revolution? A) Urbanization
promoted the Industrial Revolution. B) The Industrial Revolution promoted urbanization. C) Urbanization preceded the
Industrial Revolution by thousands of years. D) Urbanization and the Industrial Revolution are no longer related.
6) The process of legally adding land area to a city in the United States is… A) annexation. B) accreditation. C) an
application of eminent domain. D) defined by urbanized area.

68

7) The process of change in the use of a house, from single-family owner occupancy to abandonment, is… A) blockbusting.
B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining.
8) A process by which banks designate an area within which they refuse to lend money for improvements is… A) blockbusting.
B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining.
9) A recent change in the density gradient has been… A) the elimination of the gap traditionally found in the center. B) an
increase in the extremes between the inner and outer areas. C) an increase in the number of people living in the center.
D) a reduction in the differences in densities found within an urban area.
10) U.S. central cities face fiscal problems because… A) federal and state funds are available. B) low-income people are
concentrated there. C) middle-class families are attracted there. D) redlining is no longer legal.
11) A legal form of segregation in U.S. cities is achieved through...A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) zoning. D) greenbelts.
12) Factories have moved to suburban locations in part because of… A) access to main highways. B) adequate space to build
vertical structures. C) availability of large tracts of high-priced land. D) good rail connections.
13) According to the sector model, the best housing is located in…A) a corridor from downtown to the edge of the city.
B) an outer ring surrounding the city. C) nodes near universities and parks. D) renovated inner-city neighborhoods.
14) Ramshackle houses on the periphery of cities in less developed countries are known as… A) squatter settlements. B) council
estates. C) public housing. D) zone in transition.
15) Higher income people tend to live near the center of the city in all but which of the following regions? A) Latin America
B) North America C) South Asia D) Western Europe

16) The wide boulevards built in cities in less developed countries were most likely built during what era? A) pre-colonial
B) colonial C) independence D) all of the above equally

69

17) According to the multiple nuclei model, an airport is likely to attract nearby… A) industries. B) residences. C) shops.
D) universities.
18) The largest percentage of the U.S. population lives in…A) central cities. B) suburbs. C) non-metropolitan areas. D) all of the
above
19) In U.S. cities, the underclass is… A) clustered in inner-city neighborhoods. B) dispersed throughout the city. C) clustered in
suburbs. D) distributed uniformly in the city.

20) A process of converting a neighborhood from low-income to middle-class is…A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) gentrification.
D) redlining.
21) Higher social heterogeneity in urban settlements means that… A) the people with whom you relax are probably the same ones you
see at work. B) you play a specialized role in the urban economy. C) you compete for limited space. D) you may feel lonely and
isolated in a crowd.
22) The city plus its contiguous built-up suburbs is the… A) central city. B) urbanized area.
D) consolidated metropolitan statistical area

C) metropolitan statistical area.

23) The process whereby an increasing percentage of people live in an urban area is known as… A) demographic transition.
B) rank-size rule. C) urbanization. D) central place theory.
24) Of the ten largest urban areas in the world, how many are in More Developed Countries today? A) 1 B) 4 C) 7 D) 10 E) 2
25) Public housing is…A) conversion of low-income housing to middle-class housing. B) illegally established low-income housing.
C) housing that has changed from single-family owner occupancy to abandonment. D) low-income government-owned housing.
26) According to the concentric zone model, a city develops in a series of… A) corridors. B) nodes. C) rings. D) all of the above

70

27) Chicago is a good location in which to develop urban models because it is located… A) at the hub of the nation's transportation
system. B) in the center of the country. C) on a flat prairie. D) on the shore of Lake Michigan.
28) According to the sector model, the best housing is located in… A) a corridor from downtown to the edge of the city. B) an outer
ring surrounding the city. C) nodes near universities and parks. D) renovated inner-city neighborhoods.
29) The zone of transition in US cities generally contain…A) warehouses B) wealthy neighborhoods C) transportation hubs
D) universities and hospitals E) suburban homes
30) The attractions of shopping malls include all but which of the following? A) frequent concerts and exhibitions B) generous
parking lots C) place to meet friends D) walking distance from homes
The following questions are written at the high school level. You will find some questions from part one often rewritten
here. This is all designed to help you transition to the college/AP style of written questions. Any question preceded with ***
are questions that have been on the national exam before.
31. Most Latin American cities are focused on a…A) central plaza B) government housing project C) zone of heavy industry
D) skyscraper office building E) squatter settlement
32. The multiple-nuclei model of a city structure tends to be most applicable to…A) small cities B) traditional C) Latin American
cities D) newer, fast growing cities E) cities with homogeneous land use
33. ***Locational advantages important to the development of the earliest cities include…A) availability of good harbors for large
ships B) productive agricultural land and defensible sites C) temperate climate and proximity to coal mines D) good
connections by road and canal E) proximity to manufacturing areas

34. In cities, the CBD’s often show uniqueness while the suburbs usually show…A) a large hinterland. B) placelessness C) more
than one node. D) newer zones of transition.

71

35. Many LDC’s have tried to help a previously under-developed part of their country develop by moving their capital
city to that area. This new capital is known as a…A) forward capital B) new development zone C) enterprise zone
D) neocolonial city
36. Today the greatest number of urban dwellers is found in…A) North America
D) Europe E) Asia

B) South America C) Africa

37. ***All of the following have helped create ghettos in North American cities except…A)blockbusting and racial
steering B) redlining by financial institutions C) concentration of public housing and social services D) fixed school
districts E) Economic Enterprise Zones

38. Which of the following is NOT as reason for rapid suburbanization in the US after WW2? A) Mass production of
the automobile B) Reduction of long distance commuting C) Expansion of home construction D) Expansion of the
interstate highway system E) Availability of low down payment terms and long-term mortgages.
39. New cities which developed in the hinterland of large urban areas because of the automobile, are known as…
A) edge cities B) census tracts C) suburban sprawl D) squatter settlements. E) none of these
40. Gentrification refers to… A) moving the homeless into inner city shelters B) The “White Flight” from the urban city
C) losing tax revenue because of stores closing in downtown areas D) middle-class people moving into and renovating
inner city neighborhoods E) the creation of “beltway cities” around the city.

72

4
7
3

5

1
6

2

41-48 all use the sketch above.
41. The sketch in box A above represents which model of the inner structure of urban areas?
C) multiple nuclei model D) Burgess concentric zone model E) peripheral model
42. The models in boxes B and C represent A) Concentric zone and multiple nuclei
concentric zone D) peripheral and concentric zone E) Von Thunen and peripheral

A) Hoyt sector model B) VonThunen’s model

B) Multiple nuclei and Hoyt sector C) Hoyt sector and

43. In which ring (1, 2, etc.) of sketch A above would high-status households in North American cities likely live? A) 1 B) 2 C) 3 D) 4&5
44. In which ring (1, 2, etc.) of sketch A above would high status households in a European city likely live? A) 1

B) 2

C) 3

D) 4&5

45. In model B, zone # 2 is where it is likely because of: A) greenbelting B) squatter settling C) the culture of poverty D) transportation
E) no one knows
46. The model in sketch B is the; A) Hoyt sector model B) Burgess model C) multiple nuclei model D) peripheral model
47. The model in sketch C is the; A) Hoyt sector model B) Burgess model C) multiple nuclei model D) peripheral model
48. Which of these models best describes what has happened in US cities in the last 40 years? A)

B)

C)

73

49.*** In the U.S. a city plus its contiguous built-up suburbs is known as an…A) urbanized area B) zoned area
C) census tract D) Squatter settlement E) none of these
50. Done mostly in Europe, these are areas where land is kept as parks, farms or other kinds of open space and urban
sprawl is not allowed. A) Smart growth
B) zoning
C) filtering
D) census tracts E) greenbelts
51. Which statement best describes the relationship between urbanization and the Industrial Revolution?
A) Urbanization promoted the Industrial Revolution. B) The Industrial Revolution promoted urbanization.
C) Urbanization preceded the Industrial Revolution by thousands of years. D) Urbanization and the Industrial
Revolution are no longer related.
52. The process whereby an increasing percentage of people live in an urban area is known as…
A) Demographic transition. B) rank-size rule. C) Urbanization. D) Central place theory.
53. The city (if it has 50,000 or more people) plus its contiguous built-up suburbs AND the county it is in as well as any
other counties it influences, is known as the ...A) central city B) urbanized area
C) metropolitan statistical area
D) consolidated metropolitan area E) micropolitan statistical area
54. ***Higher social heterogeneity in urban settlements means that …A) the people with whom you relax are probably
the same ones you see at work. B) you play a specialized role in the urban economy. C) you compete for limited
space. D) you may feel lonely and isolated in a crowd.

55. The process of change in the use of a house, from single-family owner occupancy to smaller dwellings for the poor
and then sometimes to abandonment, is…A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining. E) none of
these

74

Free Response #1:
The Bid Rent theory says that the closer you get to the
CBD the higher the cost for land, yet in most American
cities you find the poorest people living near the
expensive CBD and the richest living further away.
Explain:
A. Why neighborhoods near the CBD are often poor and
run down?
B. Why are there few grocery and other retail stores in
these neighborhoods?
C. Why is this not really true in European and Latin
American countries?

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FR #2:
Think of the map of your school, explain the
layout of your school using the Multiple Nuclei
Model
The main office is the CBD.
Completely explain your answer using specific
buildings and/or land areas in your explanation
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Answer Key:
1. B

14. A

27. C

40. D

53. C

2. B

15. B

28. A

41. D

54. D

3. C

16. B

29. A

42. B

55. B

4. A

17. A

30. D

43. D

5. B

18. B

31. A

44. A

6. A

19. A

32. D

45. D

7. B

20. C

33. B

46. A

8. D

21. D

34. B

47. C

9. D

22. B

35. A

48. C

10. B

23. C

36. E

49. A

11. C

24. C

37. E

50. E

12. A

25. D

38. B

51. B

13. A

26. C

39. A

52. C
77

FR. #1: ( 15 pts. for each section…total of 45 pts.)
A. In the US the move of the wealthy and middle class to the suburbs has left the older houses and apartments near the CBD empty.
This has lowered their value to the point where the poor can afford these dwellings and have made these neighborhoods their
homes. The poor can not pay for upkeep of these dwellings, or to pay high taxes. The lack of upkeep and tax money to repair the
roads and schools, adds to the downward spiral of the neighborhood. With little spending money for shopping, the poor do not
spend much in the stores. This causes many stores to close and move to the suburbs where the spending customers and money
went. The closing of the stores adds to the poverty of the area by taking away some of the jobs that were in the neighborhood. This
becomes a vicious cycle of poverty and deterioration. (15 points)

B. There are few retail stores and groceries is the area because the poor do not have money to shop. The lack of spending forces
many stores out of business or forces them to move to better locations. There also can be higher crime in these areas and the
crime often takes place at the stores. This is another reason for the stores to move out of the neighborhood. (15 points)
C. Neighborhoods in European and Latin American cities are different from those of US cities. In Europe and Latin America, the
wealthy and middle class still live near or in the CBD. The higher tax base and more spending ability of the upper and middle
classes, keeps the CBD area flourishing with jobs and in constant repair and upkeep of the cities’ physical condition. (15 points)

FR #2: (10 total points.)
You will need to judge how effectively you displayed you school
in the Multiple Nuclei Model. Refer to the model itself to help you
determine your success and grade.
School’s main office
78

Calculating your grade on test 13.
Add how many you got correct on the multiple choice part (55 possible) to how many
points you scored on the FR portion (55 possible)…110 total.
The following scale will show the approximate score if this test were the real AP exam. Remember that this
is an approximation. While 65-74% is normally the range for a 3 on the test, it is not definite. Over the
years I have seen scores as low as 60% be the low portion of a 3 score.

Out of 110 possible points:
72-83 is most likely a 3
84-94 is most likely a 4

95-110 is most likely a 5

Now lets start our review for the national exam by
reviewing the 33 key models and theories of the
course…the next PowerPoint.


Slide 49

Key topic/chapter 13…Urban Patterns
Key terms:
Annexation
Concentric zone model
Density gradient
Edge cities
Filtering
Galactic city
Gentrification
Greenbelts
Megalopolis
MSA
Multiple nuclei model
Peripheral model

Public housing
Redlining
Renovated housing
Scattered site
Squatter settlement
Sector model
Smart growth
Sprawl
Underclass
Urban renewal
Zone in transition
Zoning
1

Chapter 13…Urban Areas.
How are Cities planned?
Why

are cities where they are?
How are they organized?
Why are some areas of a city
different from
other areas of the same city?
What is the future of cities?
2

Settlement


Settlement - permanent collections of buildings,
where people live, work, and obtain services

3

ORIGINS OF SETTLEMENTS


Religious - graves, churches, temples



Cultural - schools, libraries



Political/Military - leader’s house, walls



Economic - stores, food
4

TYPES OF SETTLEMENTS


Rural Settlements - agriculture as the
predominant occupation.



Urban settlements - principal industries are
secondary and tertiary.

5

RURAL SETTLEMENTS
Clustered rural settlements –grouped
settlements in rural areas to minimize travel

Dispersed rural Settlements - isolated farms
with enclosed continuous fields (Found only in
N. America and Britain).

6

Urban Geographers want to know the global distribution of urban
settlements. MDC’s have a high percentage of people living in urban
areas because of the shift from agriculture-manufacturing-services.
Geographers are also interested in where people and activities are
distributed within urban spaces. What are the differences between the
inner-city and suburban areas and why?
As we saw in the last chapter, many downtowns are unique and can
often be recognized in photos where the suburbs often look very
much alike (Placelessness). Why? Suburbs offer the chance to avoid
some of the city problems (crime, tight living area, expensive
land/rent, noise, age of buildings) while still keeping a connection with
the goods and services of the city: jobs, sports teams, culture, shops,
recreation, etc.
7

Where is this place?

8

Today’s cities are evolving and changing. Although different internal
situations characterize urban areas in the US and elsewhere, the
problems arising from current spatial trends are quite similar in all cities.
Where have urban areas grown: in the early 1800’s only 3% of the earth’s
people lived in cities and only Beijing China had more than 1 million
people. Today over ½ of the world’s people live in cities and we have over
400 cities of at least 1 million people.

Urbanization: is the process by which city population grows.
Cities population growth is measured in 2 dimensions;
1. An increase in the number of people living in the cities.
2. An increase in the percentage of people living in the cities.
This distinction is important because they happen for different reason and
have different global distributions.
9

Increasing Percentage of People in Cities: a large percentage of people living in urban
areas is a measure of a country’s level of development. In MDC’s about ¾ of the people
live in urban areas compared to about 2/5 of people in LDC’s. (Except in Latin America
where the level is closer to MDC’s.)
The higher percentage of people in urban areas comes from the changes that have
occurred in the last 200 years as we went from agriculture (primary jobs) to industrial
(secondary jobs) and now service jobs, all created by the Industrial Revolution of the
1800’s.
People moved to the cities for industrial jobs, but in MDC’s this process has largely
ended because nearly everyone interested in moving to the cities from farms has already
done so.
In LDC’s the percentage of people living in urban areas is growing as people are pushed
off of their farms and replaced by machines and as people move to cities looking/hoping
for industrial jobs.
10

Increasing Number of People in Cities: MDC’s have a higher percentage of
people living in urban settlements but LDC’s have more of the very large urban
settlements (Primate cities). (Rank-size rule, primate cities, chapter 12.)

This is interesting because typically the large cities are created from the
improvements brought by the Industrial Revolution. This is not the case with the
large LDC cities. Migration to the primate city in LDC’s is happening even though
job opportunities may not be available. Increasing the population growth in LDC
cities is the fact that medical services are better in these cities, thus the child
mortality rate is lower.
Defining Urban Settlements: defining where urban areas end and rural areas
begin is not easy. Geographers have formulated definitions that distinguish
between urban and rural areas in two ways: Social differences and Physical
differences.
11

Percent Urban Population

Percent of the population living in urban areas is usually higher in MDCs
than in LDCs.

12

The most populated cities in the world

Of the top
20, only
Moscow,
Tokyo and
New York
are in MDC’s

Shanghai China has 14,608,512 people
13

14

15

Social Differences Between Urban and Rural Settlements: it is fair to say that rural
people and urban people follow different ways of life. A city can be defined as having 3
characteristics:
1. Large size. People in rural settlements know most of the other people in the
settlement. Not true in big cities. Social relationships are often described as “colder” in
urban areas because you only see some people at work instead of growing up with
them in the settlement.
2. High Density. Having lots of people in a tiny area creates social consequences. A
high density of people living in a small area can only be supported if the people
specialize (they can’t all be farmers). People are encouraged to compete for jobs, room,
and survival in a tightly limited space. Social groups compete to occupy the same space
(ethnic/ race problems). Rural settlements have very little of this problem.
3. Social Heterogeneity. The larger the settlement, the greater the variety of people.
Being “unusual” in a large settlement is more likely to be accepted than in a small rural
one. But despite the freedom to be different that large urban settlements give you,
people living there often feel alone because so many people are different from them.
There is a stronger feeling of belonging together in small rural settlements.
16

These 3 differences do not fully answer the question of where urban settlements
begin and rural ones end because in today’s MDC’s most everyone has access to
cars, telephones, televisions, and “urban type” jobs which reduce the differences
between urban and rural lifestyles. “City folk” and “Country folk” are more alike
today than they are different. To help distinguish between urban and rural areas we
need to add the physical definition of rural and urban to the equation.
Physical Definitions of Urban Settlements: In ancient time, cities had defensive
walls for protection which clearly defined the physical boundaries of the city. Today
the walls are gone but we can still define the physical boundaries in 3 ways:
1. Legal boundary. These are the official boundaries of a city as recognized by
the government of the country or state. These “city limits” have been officially given
to the city and are physically marked on official maps. The local government of the
city has authority to make laws and protect the people inside the city boundaries.
17

2. Urbanized area. This is the city plus its suburbs or urbanized area that
surrounds the city. About 70 percent of US residents live in urbanized areas with
40% being in the suburbs and 30% inside the city limits. The suburbs may have
their own city governments but the huge central city dominates what happens in
the entire area.
3. Metropolitan Statistical Area. Cities have an even bigger influence on people
than just those living in their city limits and surrounding urbanized areas. People
from far away come to shop, use the services, support the sports teams, read
the newspapers and watch the television broadcasts of the city. Thus the city
has a “functional area” which is its total zone of influence. The US Bureau of
Census has created a method of measuring the functional area of the city.
Known as the Metropolitan statistical area (MSA) this area includes:
•An urbanized area with a population of at least 50,000
•The county within which the city is located.
•Adjacent counties with a high population density and a large percentage of
residents working in the central city’s county.
18

Metropolitan Area of Philadelphia

City of
Philadelphia

Urbanized
area
(suburbs)
Metropolitan
Statistical
Area

The metropolitan area of Philadelphia is
spread over several counties and four states.
It is also a diversified trade center, given its
position on the Delaware river.

19

20

21

Micropolitan Statistical Areas: Smaller areas with between
10,000 and 50,000 people, the county where it is found, and
adjacent counties tied to the city. This would be a small town and
the area dominated by it.
Overlapping Metropolitan Areas: Some adjacent MSA’s overlap.
A county between two central cities may send a large number of
commuters to jobs in both cities. In some areas the cities are so
close that they form one continuous urban complex. This is
known as a Megalopolis (great city).
In a megalopolis, the downtown CBD often has its own
distinctive look and the urban areas are visually separated by
parks, open spaces, and dairy/truck farms. But at the periphery
of the urban areas, the boundaries overlap.
22

Colorado Springs, population 431,000

Ocala, Florida, population 56,000

Florala, Alabama, population 1,900

23

Megalopolis, from northern Va. To Maine.
This Illustrates the
difference between
strict city proper
definitions and broader
urban agglomerations.
To define urbanized
areas, the U.S. Census
Bureau uses the term
Metropolitan Statistical
Area (MSA) or
Consolidated MSA
(CMSA) if two or more of
them overlap.
24

Where are People Distributed within Urban Areas? People are not
just distributed at random in urban areas. For the most part they
concentrate in particular neighborhoods depending on their social
characteristics. Geographers want to see where people with
particular characteristics are likely to live and why.

Three models which try to explain the growth of a city:

The Burgess Model

The Hoyt Sector Model

The Harris and Ullman
multiple Nuclei Model
25

Burgess Concentric Zone Model

In the concentric zone model, a city grows in a series of rings surrounding the CBD.

Burgess Concentric Zone Model: This is the first used to explain the
distributions of different social groups within urban areas. It says that a
city grows outward from a central place in a series of concentric rings.
The precise size and width of the rings vary from one city to another, but
some basic types of rings appear in all cities in the same order (see chart
above).
26

•Hoyt Sector Model: In this model the city develops in a
series of sectors not rings. Certain areas of the city are
more attractive for various activities, originally because
of an environmental factor (or even pure chance). As the
city grows, activities extend outward in a wedge shape.
For example, once a wealthy neighborhood is built the
next wealthy neighborhood will extend from the first
neighborhood further outward from the center. In this
way, the best housing is found in a corridor extending
outward from the center to the outer edge (see chart on
the next page).
27

The Hoyt Sector Model

In the sector model, a city grows in a series of
wedges or corridors extending out from the
CBD.
28

•Harris and Ullman’s Multiple Nuclei Model: According
to this model, a city is a complex structure that includes
more than one center around which activities revolve.
Examples of these nodes include a port, parks,
stadium, neighborhood business center, university, and
airport (see chart). This theory states that some
activities are attracted to particular nodes, whereas
others try to avoid them. A university node may attract
well educated people and bookstores while the port will
attract hotels and warehouses. Heavy industry and
expensive houses rarely are found together. This
model shows the effect of the automobile more than
any other model.
29

The Harris and Ullman Multiple Nuclei model

The multiple nuclei model views a city as a
collection of individual centers, around which
different people and activities cluster.

30

Applications of the Models: The three models help explain where and in some
cases, why people live where they do. None of the models by themselves fully
explains why and where different types of people live, but combined they give
you as good a look as possible at the “Why” of “Where.” Effective use of the
models depends on getting good data on the areas. Most countries take a
census every 10 years to help determine useful data about the people and
places of the country. In our country we divide the census data into areas
known as census tracts of about 5,000 people. Each census tract has the data
that summarizes the characteristics of the people living within that tract. This
information includes things like the race, income, age, and education of the
people living in that tract.
Social Area Analysis: The data from the census tracts can all be plotted onto
maps to show the characteristics of the people living in that tract. This map is
known as a social area analysis.
31

Using Census tract information…Seattle, Washington
Each lined area is a
census tract of about 5000
people in Seattle
Washington. These maps
show average household
income for 1990 and
2000…note the changes in
income in some areas
between 1990 and 2000.
Using this information, a
business can make
decisions about where
they want to locate a new
store or the future of
existing stores.
You can find census tract
information on many topics
such as; age, education
level, race, ethnicity, crime
rate, and land ownership.
Note the areas with
incomes over
$63,000.

All can be very valuable
information to people
looking to open
businesses.

32

Examine the changes
between 1990 and
2000.

Oakland, California’s Ethnic neighborhoods
The small bordered areas are census tracks of 5000 people.

33

Use of the Models Outside of North America: The 3 models will also work in other
places in the world; however social groups in other countries may not have the
same reasons for selecting particular neighborhoods as Americans do.
European Cities: As in the US, wealthier people in European cities cluster along a
sector extending outward from the CBD, however unlike the US, wealthy and
middle class Europeans still live in the inner rings of the neighborhoods near the
CBD not out in the suburbs. In the past, poorer people lived in the center of the
city. Before electricity, social segregation was vertical: richer people lived on the
first or second floor of a building while the poorer people lived in the basement or
upper floors. In the Industrial Revolution, housing for the poor was constructed
near the factories and away from the rich.
Today poorer Europeans are less likely to live in the inner-city. Poor quality
housing has been renovated for the rich or turned into office buildings. Poorer
Europeans tend to live in the outskirts of the city. Vast suburbs with dozens of high
rise apartments house the poor. They face long commutes to reach their jobs in
the city.
34

European cities generally do not have the “suburban
sprawl” that US cities have. European cities tend to be
more pedestrian friendly with more parks downtown as
Europeans tend to still live downtown.
US cities have taller buildings as European cities tend to
be older and more historic.

American cities have more ethnic neighborhoods than
European cities. Ethnic neighborhoods that do exist in
European cities tend to be in the suburbs. WHY?
Because the established richer neighborhoods tend to be
downtown in European cities.
35

Less Developed Countries: Like Europe, most LDC’s accommodate their poor in the
suburbs with their middle class and rich living near the center of the city. LDC’s have
passed through 3 periods of city building: before the Europeans arrived, during the
period of European colonialism, and since independence from European control.

Pre-colonial Cities: Before the Europeans arrived few cities existed in Africa, Asia, and
Latin America and most people lived in small rural settlements. Those cities that existed
were mostly laid out surrounding a religious center; with the rest of the city laid out in a
hieratical concentric pattern (like the Burgess model) from government buildings,
homes of the wealthy, and businesses related to the religion out to other businesses
and shops.
Colonial cities: When the Europeans took over these lands, they changed the cities by
adding services to help the Europeans control the conquered people. Often a new
European style city would be build next to the existing native one. The new European
cities contained wider streets, a public square, larger houses and a much lower density.
The Spanish used the “Law of the Indies” which was a city plan designed specifically to
build cities in a “Spanish” style. (Gridiron pattern for streets centered on a church and
central plaza, walls around individual houses and neighborhoods centered around
smaller plazas and more churches.)
36

Early Mexico city was laid out in a grid pattern of streets. This followed
the Spanish “Law of the Indies.”

37

Central Plaza in Mexico City 1920 photo. Typical Colonial City plan.

Part of downtown Mexico city today still shows the
building plan of the “Law of the Indies.”

38

Cities since Independence: Following independence, cities have become
the focal point of the development of most LDC’s. Millions of people have
migrated to the cities (Primate cities) looking for jobs and services. Some
capitals have been moved to isolated areas in an attempt to help develop
that area of the country (Brasília) This is know as a forward capital. Latin
American cities have developed their own unique style.
Squatter settlements: The LDC’s are unable to house the rapidly growing
number of poor who are flowing into the cities. Because of the housing
shortages, the poor have constructed their own settlements around the city.
These settlements have few services because neither the city nor the
residents can afford them. Squatters have two basic choices for housing.
1. Illegally move into empty real houses located in the city or,
2. Rent slum housing.
(85% of the population of Addis Ababa in Ethiopia lives in squatter
settlements, slums or other illegal housing.)
39

Squatter shacks in Manila, the Philippines

40

Squatter settlement in Ethiopia

41

Zimbabwe, Africa

42

Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

43

Latin American City Model:
In many Latin
American cities,
the wealthy live in
the inner city and
in a sector
extending along a
commercial spine.
In situ accretion- businesses
and homes constantly under
construction/repair.
Zone of maturity-2nd best
housing in the city.
The poor live in squatter settlements on the
periphery of the city.

Disamenity- unpleasant area
used by the poor to get to the
market.

44

The City Outline of Rio de Janeiro
The rich tourist areas and expensive condo apartments are along the coast
and beach while the poor live in squatter shacks in the hills.

45

City problems:
Inner-City Physical Problems: Most US inner cities were constructed before the 1950’s
(people began to move to the suburbs in the 1950’s so new construction moved out of
the city).
Process of Deterioration (how a city deteriorates): A city doesn’t suddenly become old
and full of slummy areas. It happens over time. When a group of low-income people
inhabit an area of a city, nearby neighborhoods will often look to move out. They sell or
rent to more low-income occupants thus expanding the low-income area. Two processes
cause/speed up the devaluation of areas:
1. Filtering, 2. Redlining.
Filtering: Large houses and buildings that once housed rich downtown workers (who
moved to the suburbs) are taken over by landlords who don’t live in that area (they
moved to the suburbs too). Rents are low so the landlord doesn’t take as good care of
the property as they should and the property becomes run down or abandoned. Stores
close, or move, due to lack of sales. 100 years ago these neighborhoods would be used
by immigrants and ethnic businesses would succeed in those areas. Now, with a decline
in immigration, these neighborhoods have shrunk and so have schools, businesses and
other services. Thousands of vacant houses and buildings stand empty in inner cities
across America.

46

Redlining: Some banks refuse to give loans in what they consider
risky neighborhoods. They draw a red line on a map around areas
where they will not give loans. Without loans, these neighborhoods
have a hard time rebuilding/remodeling. Though illegal, this still
happens. Bankers just don’t put these “no-loan” areas on a map.

Urban Renewal: This is the series of projects to improve European
and N. American cities by buying up the blighted neighborhoods,
moving the people to new government built housing projects, and
building new roads, and other projects to make the inner city
attractive for business again. National and State government grants
help pay for these projects.
47

Public housing: Housing for the poor, built with government funding as part of
urban renewal. In the US this is only about 2% of the housing while in some
countries it may be more (Britain is 30%). Public housing built in the 50’s & 60’s
were largely high rise apartments, but those are seen as being unsatisfactory.
Problems arise from cramming large numbers of poor people into one area.
Today most public housing projects are one to three story buildings with many of
them being scattered around different parts of the city rather than clustered into
one area.
Because urban renewal has been criticized for destroying the social cohesion of
older neighborhoods, many governments (like the US) have stopped funding
most projects since the 1970’s. What do we do instead?
Renovated Housing: An alternative often used since the 70’s is to renovate a
building instead of urban renewal. The process where middle-class people
move into inner-city neighborhoods and renovate them is called gentrification.
Gentrified inner-city neighborhoods also attract middle-class people who work
downtown. Living close to work saves the hassle of commuting and rejuvenates
run down inner-city neighborhoods
48

Gentrified building downtown Harlem, NY. Note the supermarket.

49

Inner-City Social Problems: Inner-city residents are often referred to as the
permanent underclass because they are trapped in an unending cycle of
economic and social problems. High unemployment, alcoholism, drug
addiction, literacy, juvenile delinquency, and crime all exist at a higher rate
among those who live in the inner-city. Lack of jobs means lack of tax dollars
to pay for police and fire protection as well as good schools. Lack of job skills
and homelessness are also tremendous problems.
Culture of Poverty: Inner-city residents are trapped in a permanent underclass
culture that reproduces itself. In the US, unwed mothers give birth to 2/3 of the
babies in the inner-city. 90% of these children live with only one parent and it
is real hard for one parent to keep a job and take care of children. Both suffer
and a shortage of care and daily attention by the parent contributes to the kids
not learning the skills necessary to do well in school which leads to poor jobs
for their futures. Poverty leads to more poverty. Many families on welfare have
only one parent because it is financially better if one parent is gone, that way
the single parent gets food stamps and other services from the government
that they would not get if it was a 2 family household.
50

Crime: Trapped in a hopeless environment, some inner-city
residents turn to drugs. Drug use is a problem in inner-city
areas and the suburbs, but rates of drug use in inner-cities
are the highest.
Ethnic and Racial Segregation: As seen in chapter 7, many
neighborhoods in the US are segregated by ethnicity with
African Americans and Hispanics concentrated in one or two
continuous areas and whites living in the suburbs. Even small
cities display a strong distinction among neighborhoods. A
frequent division is between the east and west or north and
south side of town, or the railroad tracks. A family seeking a
new residence will seek the areas where the characteristics
of the people meet their own.

51

The exodus
from the
American city.
This has
happened in
many American
cities since the
1960’s.

52

Changes in Cities in the U.S.
U.S. population has been moving out of the city centers to the suburbs:
suburbanization and counter urbanization

Developed Countries: suburbanization

 wealthy move to suburbs
 automobiles and roads; ‘American
Dream’ of the home in the suburbs.
 better services
 wealthy move to suburbs
Counter urbanization

idyllic settings
cost of land for retirement
slow pace, yet high tech
connections to services and markets
53

U.S. intraregional migration during 1990s.

Inner city economic problems: the concentration of low income
residents in inner cities has caused economic problems. These
people require public services but can pay very little in taxes to
support the services. They need stores and jobs but have little
money to spend in the store and few skills for jobs (so the stores
close). To try to fight these problems many local and state
governments use tax monies to try to renovate these areas, but this
shifts tax money needed for other areas to the inner city (votes on
election day).
Annexation: Many cities could help their tax problem by adding the
new suburbs to be part of their city (annexation). After all, many of
these suburban people use the city for its’ jobs etc., so why not add
them into the city? Today, most people in the suburbs do not want
to be annexed into the city and so they do not vote to be annexed.
54

The Peripheral Model: According to this model, an urban area
consists of an inner city surrounded by large suburban residential
and business areas (MSA) tied together by a beltway or highway
that circles the city. Around the beltway are nodes of consumer
and business services called edge cities (see diagram of multiple
nuclei model). These edge cities sprang up to provide services
and jobs to the people in the suburbs.
Density Gradient: As you travel outward from the center of the
city, the density of people declines. Inner city has big apartments
of 250 of more people per acre. Suburbs have fewer people per
acre (but lots of acres) and finally you leave the cities periphery
you find few people. The number of houses per unit of land
diminishes as distance from the center of the city increases.
55

The Edge cities (bedroom communities) of Houston

The central city is surrounded by a ring road, around which are
suburban areas and edge cities, shopping malls, office parks,
industrial areas, and service complexes.

Known as
bedroom
communities
because
people live
there but
mostly don’t
work there.
They drive
into the city
for work.
56

As you move from the center of the city outward, the density of the population
changes. This is know as the density gradient. Two big changes have occurred in
the density gradient of today’s cities:
1. The number of people living in the center has decreased.
2. The density difference between the inner city and the suburbs is declining
because the inner city density is dropping and the suburban density is growing
due to more large apartments being built in the suburbs.
Cost of Suburban or Urban Sprawl: Urban Sprawl is the progressive spread of
development over the landscape. As long as we Americans want single-family
detached houses, land on the fringe of urban areas will be converted from open
space to residential use. The cost of this growth is more than the loss of land, it is
also the cost of new roads, utilities, building stores and offices and the cost of
automobiles to move these people over even longer distances. Lots of these new
developments are built on what was once farmland. Wonderful productive soil now
under concrete.

Greenbelts: are areas where, by law, the open space can not be used for any
construction. This is mostly found in Europe.

57

Once farmland that is being converted to suburbs and cities.

58

Tyson’s Corner Virginia in 1940

59

Washington, DC. MSA.

Tyson’s Corner Virginia
today.
Washington D.C. is off
In the distance.

60

Suburban Segregation: The “new” segregation.
Suburban segregation takes two forms:
1. Residents are separated from commercial and manufacturing activities
which are confined someplace else. (The whole neighborhood is
nothing but houses because they drive for services.)
2. The price of the house eliminates some from being able to live there. This
creates a homogeneous suburb of the same economic class of people.
This never existed before in history. Where we once had vertical
segregation of the classes we now we have horizontal segregation.
3. But this may be reversing as new statistics show that people are beginning
to move back to the city. Why? Cost of transportation.
Zoning Ordinances: This idea developed in Europe and later America in the
early decades of the 20th century. This means that businesses are allowed only
in certain areas of the settlement. (No all night taco stands inside your single
family neighborhood.)
Motor vehicles: The wide use of the automobile is largely responsible for the
American movement to the suburbs. Not only did people move out but 1/4 of
the land inside all American cities are now roads, streets, and parking lots.

61

Public Transportation: Because few US workers live within walking distance
of their jobs, urban areas are characterized by extensive commuting and the
problems that come with it. As much as 40% of all trips made into or out from
a city during the day takes place within just 4 hours. (2 in the morning and 2 in
the late afternoon). RUSH HOUR!!! In large cities, public transportation, like
subways and busses, are better suited to move people but Americans still
prefer their own cars. Public transportation is cheaper, cleaner, and more
energy efficient than personal cars, yet in the US only 5% of city travel is
done using public transit systems. American’s love their personal car too
much.
Local Government Fragmentation: Because of the large number of local
governments in the US (look at the settlements in Pinellas County) it is
difficult to solve some of the regional problems like garbage disposal, water
management, traffic and public housing.
62

Metropolitan government: This idea tries to put many local governments into a
larger unit that can better handle the urban problems. The 2 ways to do this
are:
1. Federations in which the individual settlements have their own police,
firemen, and tax collection but they all agree to be part of a second
government which handles transportation, water, sewage, parks and
welfare for all the communities.
2. Consolidations: In this method, several cities and the county may form one
government. Jacksonville’s government runs not only the town but the
county too, this makes Jacksonville the largest city, in land size, in the US.
Smart growth: A new movement by many states to curb suburban sprawl by
limiting where new construction can take place. Smart growth laws require that
land near cities be used up before any land further out can be developed. So
far, this is only being done an a few parts of our country.
63

The new
US as
some
people
see it.

64

Quiz Yourself:
1. The process where middle-class people move into inner city neighborhoods and
renovate them is called ____________
2. ____________ happens when banks refuse to give loans in what they consider
risky neighborhoods.
3. Because of the housing shortages, the poor have constructed their own settlements
around the city known as __________ _________

4. Businesses are allowed only in certain areas of the settlement because of
____________ ____________
5. Areas known as _____ _______ are areas of about 5,000 people. The data from
that area is used to help define needed services for that area.
6. When cities are so close that they form one continuous band of development this is
known as a ____________
65

7. Social relationships are often described as “colder” in urban areas because…
8. In this model the city develops in a series of sectors not rings. _______

9. ______ (LDC’s or MDC’s) have a higher percentage of people living in urban
settlements but ________ (LDC’s or MDC’s) have more of the very large urban
settlements.
10. _____________ was the first model developed to explain the distributions
of different social groups within urban areas.
11. New cities which develop around the beltway are nodes of consumer and
business services known as ________ _________.

12. When the Europeans took over lands around the world, they changed the
cities by adding services to help the Europeans control the conquered people.
These European planned cities are known as __________ cities.
66

Answer Key:
1.

Gentrification

2.

Redlining

3.

Squatter Settlements

4.

Zoning ordinances

5.

Census tracks

6.

Megalopolis

7. There is a stronger feeling of belonging together in small rural settlements.
8. Hoyt sector model
9. MDC, LDC
10. Burgess Concentric Zone model
11. Edge cities
12. Colonial cities
67

Test Key topic/chapter 13:
These questions come from a combination of our slides, your text book, and common knowledge you should
have discussed in your AP classroom. They are very typical of what you will see on the National Exam.
1) The multiple nuclei theory best explains why different neighborhoods of a city attract people of different… A) ages.
B) ethnic origin C) income D) marital status.
2) Sprawl is the… A) change in density within an urban area from the center to the periphery B) development of new
housing sites not contiguous to the existing built-up area. C) land maintained as open space surrounding an urban area.
D) period in the morning and evening with the heaviest volumes of traffic.
3) People are attracted to suburbs in part because suburbs are characterized by…A) heavy traffic. B) lower opportunity
for home ownership. C) private land surrounding the house. D) row houses and apartments.
4) Megalopolis refers to… A) adjacent, overlapping Metropolitan Statistical Areas. B) central cities. C) consolidated
Metropolitan Statistical Areas. D) central cities plus urbanized areas.
5) Which statement best describes the relationship between urbanization and the Industrial Revolution? A) Urbanization
promoted the Industrial Revolution. B) The Industrial Revolution promoted urbanization. C) Urbanization preceded the
Industrial Revolution by thousands of years. D) Urbanization and the Industrial Revolution are no longer related.
6) The process of legally adding land area to a city in the United States is… A) annexation. B) accreditation. C) an
application of eminent domain. D) defined by urbanized area.

68

7) The process of change in the use of a house, from single-family owner occupancy to abandonment, is… A) blockbusting.
B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining.
8) A process by which banks designate an area within which they refuse to lend money for improvements is… A) blockbusting.
B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining.
9) A recent change in the density gradient has been… A) the elimination of the gap traditionally found in the center. B) an
increase in the extremes between the inner and outer areas. C) an increase in the number of people living in the center.
D) a reduction in the differences in densities found within an urban area.
10) U.S. central cities face fiscal problems because… A) federal and state funds are available. B) low-income people are
concentrated there. C) middle-class families are attracted there. D) redlining is no longer legal.
11) A legal form of segregation in U.S. cities is achieved through...A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) zoning. D) greenbelts.
12) Factories have moved to suburban locations in part because of… A) access to main highways. B) adequate space to build
vertical structures. C) availability of large tracts of high-priced land. D) good rail connections.
13) According to the sector model, the best housing is located in…A) a corridor from downtown to the edge of the city.
B) an outer ring surrounding the city. C) nodes near universities and parks. D) renovated inner-city neighborhoods.
14) Ramshackle houses on the periphery of cities in less developed countries are known as… A) squatter settlements. B) council
estates. C) public housing. D) zone in transition.
15) Higher income people tend to live near the center of the city in all but which of the following regions? A) Latin America
B) North America C) South Asia D) Western Europe

16) The wide boulevards built in cities in less developed countries were most likely built during what era? A) pre-colonial
B) colonial C) independence D) all of the above equally

69

17) According to the multiple nuclei model, an airport is likely to attract nearby… A) industries. B) residences. C) shops.
D) universities.
18) The largest percentage of the U.S. population lives in…A) central cities. B) suburbs. C) non-metropolitan areas. D) all of the
above
19) In U.S. cities, the underclass is… A) clustered in inner-city neighborhoods. B) dispersed throughout the city. C) clustered in
suburbs. D) distributed uniformly in the city.

20) A process of converting a neighborhood from low-income to middle-class is…A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) gentrification.
D) redlining.
21) Higher social heterogeneity in urban settlements means that… A) the people with whom you relax are probably the same ones you
see at work. B) you play a specialized role in the urban economy. C) you compete for limited space. D) you may feel lonely and
isolated in a crowd.
22) The city plus its contiguous built-up suburbs is the… A) central city. B) urbanized area.
D) consolidated metropolitan statistical area

C) metropolitan statistical area.

23) The process whereby an increasing percentage of people live in an urban area is known as… A) demographic transition.
B) rank-size rule. C) urbanization. D) central place theory.
24) Of the ten largest urban areas in the world, how many are in More Developed Countries today? A) 1 B) 4 C) 7 D) 10 E) 2
25) Public housing is…A) conversion of low-income housing to middle-class housing. B) illegally established low-income housing.
C) housing that has changed from single-family owner occupancy to abandonment. D) low-income government-owned housing.
26) According to the concentric zone model, a city develops in a series of… A) corridors. B) nodes. C) rings. D) all of the above

70

27) Chicago is a good location in which to develop urban models because it is located… A) at the hub of the nation's transportation
system. B) in the center of the country. C) on a flat prairie. D) on the shore of Lake Michigan.
28) According to the sector model, the best housing is located in… A) a corridor from downtown to the edge of the city. B) an outer
ring surrounding the city. C) nodes near universities and parks. D) renovated inner-city neighborhoods.
29) The zone of transition in US cities generally contain…A) warehouses B) wealthy neighborhoods C) transportation hubs
D) universities and hospitals E) suburban homes
30) The attractions of shopping malls include all but which of the following? A) frequent concerts and exhibitions B) generous
parking lots C) place to meet friends D) walking distance from homes
The following questions are written at the high school level. You will find some questions from part one often rewritten
here. This is all designed to help you transition to the college/AP style of written questions. Any question preceded with ***
are questions that have been on the national exam before.
31. Most Latin American cities are focused on a…A) central plaza B) government housing project C) zone of heavy industry
D) skyscraper office building E) squatter settlement
32. The multiple-nuclei model of a city structure tends to be most applicable to…A) small cities B) traditional C) Latin American
cities D) newer, fast growing cities E) cities with homogeneous land use
33. ***Locational advantages important to the development of the earliest cities include…A) availability of good harbors for large
ships B) productive agricultural land and defensible sites C) temperate climate and proximity to coal mines D) good
connections by road and canal E) proximity to manufacturing areas

34. In cities, the CBD’s often show uniqueness while the suburbs usually show…A) a large hinterland. B) placelessness C) more
than one node. D) newer zones of transition.

71

35. Many LDC’s have tried to help a previously under-developed part of their country develop by moving their capital
city to that area. This new capital is known as a…A) forward capital B) new development zone C) enterprise zone
D) neocolonial city
36. Today the greatest number of urban dwellers is found in…A) North America
D) Europe E) Asia

B) South America C) Africa

37. ***All of the following have helped create ghettos in North American cities except…A)blockbusting and racial
steering B) redlining by financial institutions C) concentration of public housing and social services D) fixed school
districts E) Economic Enterprise Zones

38. Which of the following is NOT as reason for rapid suburbanization in the US after WW2? A) Mass production of
the automobile B) Reduction of long distance commuting C) Expansion of home construction D) Expansion of the
interstate highway system E) Availability of low down payment terms and long-term mortgages.
39. New cities which developed in the hinterland of large urban areas because of the automobile, are known as…
A) edge cities B) census tracts C) suburban sprawl D) squatter settlements. E) none of these
40. Gentrification refers to… A) moving the homeless into inner city shelters B) The “White Flight” from the urban city
C) losing tax revenue because of stores closing in downtown areas D) middle-class people moving into and renovating
inner city neighborhoods E) the creation of “beltway cities” around the city.

72

4
7
3

5

1
6

2

41-48 all use the sketch above.
41. The sketch in box A above represents which model of the inner structure of urban areas?
C) multiple nuclei model D) Burgess concentric zone model E) peripheral model
42. The models in boxes B and C represent A) Concentric zone and multiple nuclei
concentric zone D) peripheral and concentric zone E) Von Thunen and peripheral

A) Hoyt sector model B) VonThunen’s model

B) Multiple nuclei and Hoyt sector C) Hoyt sector and

43. In which ring (1, 2, etc.) of sketch A above would high-status households in North American cities likely live? A) 1 B) 2 C) 3 D) 4&5
44. In which ring (1, 2, etc.) of sketch A above would high status households in a European city likely live? A) 1

B) 2

C) 3

D) 4&5

45. In model B, zone # 2 is where it is likely because of: A) greenbelting B) squatter settling C) the culture of poverty D) transportation
E) no one knows
46. The model in sketch B is the; A) Hoyt sector model B) Burgess model C) multiple nuclei model D) peripheral model
47. The model in sketch C is the; A) Hoyt sector model B) Burgess model C) multiple nuclei model D) peripheral model
48. Which of these models best describes what has happened in US cities in the last 40 years? A)

B)

C)

73

49.*** In the U.S. a city plus its contiguous built-up suburbs is known as an…A) urbanized area B) zoned area
C) census tract D) Squatter settlement E) none of these
50. Done mostly in Europe, these are areas where land is kept as parks, farms or other kinds of open space and urban
sprawl is not allowed. A) Smart growth
B) zoning
C) filtering
D) census tracts E) greenbelts
51. Which statement best describes the relationship between urbanization and the Industrial Revolution?
A) Urbanization promoted the Industrial Revolution. B) The Industrial Revolution promoted urbanization.
C) Urbanization preceded the Industrial Revolution by thousands of years. D) Urbanization and the Industrial
Revolution are no longer related.
52. The process whereby an increasing percentage of people live in an urban area is known as…
A) Demographic transition. B) rank-size rule. C) Urbanization. D) Central place theory.
53. The city (if it has 50,000 or more people) plus its contiguous built-up suburbs AND the county it is in as well as any
other counties it influences, is known as the ...A) central city B) urbanized area
C) metropolitan statistical area
D) consolidated metropolitan area E) micropolitan statistical area
54. ***Higher social heterogeneity in urban settlements means that …A) the people with whom you relax are probably
the same ones you see at work. B) you play a specialized role in the urban economy. C) you compete for limited
space. D) you may feel lonely and isolated in a crowd.

55. The process of change in the use of a house, from single-family owner occupancy to smaller dwellings for the poor
and then sometimes to abandonment, is…A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining. E) none of
these

74

Free Response #1:
The Bid Rent theory says that the closer you get to the
CBD the higher the cost for land, yet in most American
cities you find the poorest people living near the
expensive CBD and the richest living further away.
Explain:
A. Why neighborhoods near the CBD are often poor and
run down?
B. Why are there few grocery and other retail stores in
these neighborhoods?
C. Why is this not really true in European and Latin
American countries?

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75

FR #2:
Think of the map of your school, explain the
layout of your school using the Multiple Nuclei
Model
The main office is the CBD.
Completely explain your answer using specific
buildings and/or land areas in your explanation
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76

Answer Key:
1. B

14. A

27. C

40. D

53. C

2. B

15. B

28. A

41. D

54. D

3. C

16. B

29. A

42. B

55. B

4. A

17. A

30. D

43. D

5. B

18. B

31. A

44. A

6. A

19. A

32. D

45. D

7. B

20. C

33. B

46. A

8. D

21. D

34. B

47. C

9. D

22. B

35. A

48. C

10. B

23. C

36. E

49. A

11. C

24. C

37. E

50. E

12. A

25. D

38. B

51. B

13. A

26. C

39. A

52. C
77

FR. #1: ( 15 pts. for each section…total of 45 pts.)
A. In the US the move of the wealthy and middle class to the suburbs has left the older houses and apartments near the CBD empty.
This has lowered their value to the point where the poor can afford these dwellings and have made these neighborhoods their
homes. The poor can not pay for upkeep of these dwellings, or to pay high taxes. The lack of upkeep and tax money to repair the
roads and schools, adds to the downward spiral of the neighborhood. With little spending money for shopping, the poor do not
spend much in the stores. This causes many stores to close and move to the suburbs where the spending customers and money
went. The closing of the stores adds to the poverty of the area by taking away some of the jobs that were in the neighborhood. This
becomes a vicious cycle of poverty and deterioration. (15 points)

B. There are few retail stores and groceries is the area because the poor do not have money to shop. The lack of spending forces
many stores out of business or forces them to move to better locations. There also can be higher crime in these areas and the
crime often takes place at the stores. This is another reason for the stores to move out of the neighborhood. (15 points)
C. Neighborhoods in European and Latin American cities are different from those of US cities. In Europe and Latin America, the
wealthy and middle class still live near or in the CBD. The higher tax base and more spending ability of the upper and middle
classes, keeps the CBD area flourishing with jobs and in constant repair and upkeep of the cities’ physical condition. (15 points)

FR #2: (10 total points.)
You will need to judge how effectively you displayed you school
in the Multiple Nuclei Model. Refer to the model itself to help you
determine your success and grade.
School’s main office
78

Calculating your grade on test 13.
Add how many you got correct on the multiple choice part (55 possible) to how many
points you scored on the FR portion (55 possible)…110 total.
The following scale will show the approximate score if this test were the real AP exam. Remember that this
is an approximation. While 65-74% is normally the range for a 3 on the test, it is not definite. Over the
years I have seen scores as low as 60% be the low portion of a 3 score.

Out of 110 possible points:
72-83 is most likely a 3
84-94 is most likely a 4

95-110 is most likely a 5

Now lets start our review for the national exam by
reviewing the 33 key models and theories of the
course…the next PowerPoint.


Slide 50

Key topic/chapter 13…Urban Patterns
Key terms:
Annexation
Concentric zone model
Density gradient
Edge cities
Filtering
Galactic city
Gentrification
Greenbelts
Megalopolis
MSA
Multiple nuclei model
Peripheral model

Public housing
Redlining
Renovated housing
Scattered site
Squatter settlement
Sector model
Smart growth
Sprawl
Underclass
Urban renewal
Zone in transition
Zoning
1

Chapter 13…Urban Areas.
How are Cities planned?
Why

are cities where they are?
How are they organized?
Why are some areas of a city
different from
other areas of the same city?
What is the future of cities?
2

Settlement


Settlement - permanent collections of buildings,
where people live, work, and obtain services

3

ORIGINS OF SETTLEMENTS


Religious - graves, churches, temples



Cultural - schools, libraries



Political/Military - leader’s house, walls



Economic - stores, food
4

TYPES OF SETTLEMENTS


Rural Settlements - agriculture as the
predominant occupation.



Urban settlements - principal industries are
secondary and tertiary.

5

RURAL SETTLEMENTS
Clustered rural settlements –grouped
settlements in rural areas to minimize travel

Dispersed rural Settlements - isolated farms
with enclosed continuous fields (Found only in
N. America and Britain).

6

Urban Geographers want to know the global distribution of urban
settlements. MDC’s have a high percentage of people living in urban
areas because of the shift from agriculture-manufacturing-services.
Geographers are also interested in where people and activities are
distributed within urban spaces. What are the differences between the
inner-city and suburban areas and why?
As we saw in the last chapter, many downtowns are unique and can
often be recognized in photos where the suburbs often look very
much alike (Placelessness). Why? Suburbs offer the chance to avoid
some of the city problems (crime, tight living area, expensive
land/rent, noise, age of buildings) while still keeping a connection with
the goods and services of the city: jobs, sports teams, culture, shops,
recreation, etc.
7

Where is this place?

8

Today’s cities are evolving and changing. Although different internal
situations characterize urban areas in the US and elsewhere, the
problems arising from current spatial trends are quite similar in all cities.
Where have urban areas grown: in the early 1800’s only 3% of the earth’s
people lived in cities and only Beijing China had more than 1 million
people. Today over ½ of the world’s people live in cities and we have over
400 cities of at least 1 million people.

Urbanization: is the process by which city population grows.
Cities population growth is measured in 2 dimensions;
1. An increase in the number of people living in the cities.
2. An increase in the percentage of people living in the cities.
This distinction is important because they happen for different reason and
have different global distributions.
9

Increasing Percentage of People in Cities: a large percentage of people living in urban
areas is a measure of a country’s level of development. In MDC’s about ¾ of the people
live in urban areas compared to about 2/5 of people in LDC’s. (Except in Latin America
where the level is closer to MDC’s.)
The higher percentage of people in urban areas comes from the changes that have
occurred in the last 200 years as we went from agriculture (primary jobs) to industrial
(secondary jobs) and now service jobs, all created by the Industrial Revolution of the
1800’s.
People moved to the cities for industrial jobs, but in MDC’s this process has largely
ended because nearly everyone interested in moving to the cities from farms has already
done so.
In LDC’s the percentage of people living in urban areas is growing as people are pushed
off of their farms and replaced by machines and as people move to cities looking/hoping
for industrial jobs.
10

Increasing Number of People in Cities: MDC’s have a higher percentage of
people living in urban settlements but LDC’s have more of the very large urban
settlements (Primate cities). (Rank-size rule, primate cities, chapter 12.)

This is interesting because typically the large cities are created from the
improvements brought by the Industrial Revolution. This is not the case with the
large LDC cities. Migration to the primate city in LDC’s is happening even though
job opportunities may not be available. Increasing the population growth in LDC
cities is the fact that medical services are better in these cities, thus the child
mortality rate is lower.
Defining Urban Settlements: defining where urban areas end and rural areas
begin is not easy. Geographers have formulated definitions that distinguish
between urban and rural areas in two ways: Social differences and Physical
differences.
11

Percent Urban Population

Percent of the population living in urban areas is usually higher in MDCs
than in LDCs.

12

The most populated cities in the world

Of the top
20, only
Moscow,
Tokyo and
New York
are in MDC’s

Shanghai China has 14,608,512 people
13

14

15

Social Differences Between Urban and Rural Settlements: it is fair to say that rural
people and urban people follow different ways of life. A city can be defined as having 3
characteristics:
1. Large size. People in rural settlements know most of the other people in the
settlement. Not true in big cities. Social relationships are often described as “colder” in
urban areas because you only see some people at work instead of growing up with
them in the settlement.
2. High Density. Having lots of people in a tiny area creates social consequences. A
high density of people living in a small area can only be supported if the people
specialize (they can’t all be farmers). People are encouraged to compete for jobs, room,
and survival in a tightly limited space. Social groups compete to occupy the same space
(ethnic/ race problems). Rural settlements have very little of this problem.
3. Social Heterogeneity. The larger the settlement, the greater the variety of people.
Being “unusual” in a large settlement is more likely to be accepted than in a small rural
one. But despite the freedom to be different that large urban settlements give you,
people living there often feel alone because so many people are different from them.
There is a stronger feeling of belonging together in small rural settlements.
16

These 3 differences do not fully answer the question of where urban settlements
begin and rural ones end because in today’s MDC’s most everyone has access to
cars, telephones, televisions, and “urban type” jobs which reduce the differences
between urban and rural lifestyles. “City folk” and “Country folk” are more alike
today than they are different. To help distinguish between urban and rural areas we
need to add the physical definition of rural and urban to the equation.
Physical Definitions of Urban Settlements: In ancient time, cities had defensive
walls for protection which clearly defined the physical boundaries of the city. Today
the walls are gone but we can still define the physical boundaries in 3 ways:
1. Legal boundary. These are the official boundaries of a city as recognized by
the government of the country or state. These “city limits” have been officially given
to the city and are physically marked on official maps. The local government of the
city has authority to make laws and protect the people inside the city boundaries.
17

2. Urbanized area. This is the city plus its suburbs or urbanized area that
surrounds the city. About 70 percent of US residents live in urbanized areas with
40% being in the suburbs and 30% inside the city limits. The suburbs may have
their own city governments but the huge central city dominates what happens in
the entire area.
3. Metropolitan Statistical Area. Cities have an even bigger influence on people
than just those living in their city limits and surrounding urbanized areas. People
from far away come to shop, use the services, support the sports teams, read
the newspapers and watch the television broadcasts of the city. Thus the city
has a “functional area” which is its total zone of influence. The US Bureau of
Census has created a method of measuring the functional area of the city.
Known as the Metropolitan statistical area (MSA) this area includes:
•An urbanized area with a population of at least 50,000
•The county within which the city is located.
•Adjacent counties with a high population density and a large percentage of
residents working in the central city’s county.
18

Metropolitan Area of Philadelphia

City of
Philadelphia

Urbanized
area
(suburbs)
Metropolitan
Statistical
Area

The metropolitan area of Philadelphia is
spread over several counties and four states.
It is also a diversified trade center, given its
position on the Delaware river.

19

20

21

Micropolitan Statistical Areas: Smaller areas with between
10,000 and 50,000 people, the county where it is found, and
adjacent counties tied to the city. This would be a small town and
the area dominated by it.
Overlapping Metropolitan Areas: Some adjacent MSA’s overlap.
A county between two central cities may send a large number of
commuters to jobs in both cities. In some areas the cities are so
close that they form one continuous urban complex. This is
known as a Megalopolis (great city).
In a megalopolis, the downtown CBD often has its own
distinctive look and the urban areas are visually separated by
parks, open spaces, and dairy/truck farms. But at the periphery
of the urban areas, the boundaries overlap.
22

Colorado Springs, population 431,000

Ocala, Florida, population 56,000

Florala, Alabama, population 1,900

23

Megalopolis, from northern Va. To Maine.
This Illustrates the
difference between
strict city proper
definitions and broader
urban agglomerations.
To define urbanized
areas, the U.S. Census
Bureau uses the term
Metropolitan Statistical
Area (MSA) or
Consolidated MSA
(CMSA) if two or more of
them overlap.
24

Where are People Distributed within Urban Areas? People are not
just distributed at random in urban areas. For the most part they
concentrate in particular neighborhoods depending on their social
characteristics. Geographers want to see where people with
particular characteristics are likely to live and why.

Three models which try to explain the growth of a city:

The Burgess Model

The Hoyt Sector Model

The Harris and Ullman
multiple Nuclei Model
25

Burgess Concentric Zone Model

In the concentric zone model, a city grows in a series of rings surrounding the CBD.

Burgess Concentric Zone Model: This is the first used to explain the
distributions of different social groups within urban areas. It says that a
city grows outward from a central place in a series of concentric rings.
The precise size and width of the rings vary from one city to another, but
some basic types of rings appear in all cities in the same order (see chart
above).
26

•Hoyt Sector Model: In this model the city develops in a
series of sectors not rings. Certain areas of the city are
more attractive for various activities, originally because
of an environmental factor (or even pure chance). As the
city grows, activities extend outward in a wedge shape.
For example, once a wealthy neighborhood is built the
next wealthy neighborhood will extend from the first
neighborhood further outward from the center. In this
way, the best housing is found in a corridor extending
outward from the center to the outer edge (see chart on
the next page).
27

The Hoyt Sector Model

In the sector model, a city grows in a series of
wedges or corridors extending out from the
CBD.
28

•Harris and Ullman’s Multiple Nuclei Model: According
to this model, a city is a complex structure that includes
more than one center around which activities revolve.
Examples of these nodes include a port, parks,
stadium, neighborhood business center, university, and
airport (see chart). This theory states that some
activities are attracted to particular nodes, whereas
others try to avoid them. A university node may attract
well educated people and bookstores while the port will
attract hotels and warehouses. Heavy industry and
expensive houses rarely are found together. This
model shows the effect of the automobile more than
any other model.
29

The Harris and Ullman Multiple Nuclei model

The multiple nuclei model views a city as a
collection of individual centers, around which
different people and activities cluster.

30

Applications of the Models: The three models help explain where and in some
cases, why people live where they do. None of the models by themselves fully
explains why and where different types of people live, but combined they give
you as good a look as possible at the “Why” of “Where.” Effective use of the
models depends on getting good data on the areas. Most countries take a
census every 10 years to help determine useful data about the people and
places of the country. In our country we divide the census data into areas
known as census tracts of about 5,000 people. Each census tract has the data
that summarizes the characteristics of the people living within that tract. This
information includes things like the race, income, age, and education of the
people living in that tract.
Social Area Analysis: The data from the census tracts can all be plotted onto
maps to show the characteristics of the people living in that tract. This map is
known as a social area analysis.
31

Using Census tract information…Seattle, Washington
Each lined area is a
census tract of about 5000
people in Seattle
Washington. These maps
show average household
income for 1990 and
2000…note the changes in
income in some areas
between 1990 and 2000.
Using this information, a
business can make
decisions about where
they want to locate a new
store or the future of
existing stores.
You can find census tract
information on many topics
such as; age, education
level, race, ethnicity, crime
rate, and land ownership.
Note the areas with
incomes over
$63,000.

All can be very valuable
information to people
looking to open
businesses.

32

Examine the changes
between 1990 and
2000.

Oakland, California’s Ethnic neighborhoods
The small bordered areas are census tracks of 5000 people.

33

Use of the Models Outside of North America: The 3 models will also work in other
places in the world; however social groups in other countries may not have the
same reasons for selecting particular neighborhoods as Americans do.
European Cities: As in the US, wealthier people in European cities cluster along a
sector extending outward from the CBD, however unlike the US, wealthy and
middle class Europeans still live in the inner rings of the neighborhoods near the
CBD not out in the suburbs. In the past, poorer people lived in the center of the
city. Before electricity, social segregation was vertical: richer people lived on the
first or second floor of a building while the poorer people lived in the basement or
upper floors. In the Industrial Revolution, housing for the poor was constructed
near the factories and away from the rich.
Today poorer Europeans are less likely to live in the inner-city. Poor quality
housing has been renovated for the rich or turned into office buildings. Poorer
Europeans tend to live in the outskirts of the city. Vast suburbs with dozens of high
rise apartments house the poor. They face long commutes to reach their jobs in
the city.
34

European cities generally do not have the “suburban
sprawl” that US cities have. European cities tend to be
more pedestrian friendly with more parks downtown as
Europeans tend to still live downtown.
US cities have taller buildings as European cities tend to
be older and more historic.

American cities have more ethnic neighborhoods than
European cities. Ethnic neighborhoods that do exist in
European cities tend to be in the suburbs. WHY?
Because the established richer neighborhoods tend to be
downtown in European cities.
35

Less Developed Countries: Like Europe, most LDC’s accommodate their poor in the
suburbs with their middle class and rich living near the center of the city. LDC’s have
passed through 3 periods of city building: before the Europeans arrived, during the
period of European colonialism, and since independence from European control.

Pre-colonial Cities: Before the Europeans arrived few cities existed in Africa, Asia, and
Latin America and most people lived in small rural settlements. Those cities that existed
were mostly laid out surrounding a religious center; with the rest of the city laid out in a
hieratical concentric pattern (like the Burgess model) from government buildings,
homes of the wealthy, and businesses related to the religion out to other businesses
and shops.
Colonial cities: When the Europeans took over these lands, they changed the cities by
adding services to help the Europeans control the conquered people. Often a new
European style city would be build next to the existing native one. The new European
cities contained wider streets, a public square, larger houses and a much lower density.
The Spanish used the “Law of the Indies” which was a city plan designed specifically to
build cities in a “Spanish” style. (Gridiron pattern for streets centered on a church and
central plaza, walls around individual houses and neighborhoods centered around
smaller plazas and more churches.)
36

Early Mexico city was laid out in a grid pattern of streets. This followed
the Spanish “Law of the Indies.”

37

Central Plaza in Mexico City 1920 photo. Typical Colonial City plan.

Part of downtown Mexico city today still shows the
building plan of the “Law of the Indies.”

38

Cities since Independence: Following independence, cities have become
the focal point of the development of most LDC’s. Millions of people have
migrated to the cities (Primate cities) looking for jobs and services. Some
capitals have been moved to isolated areas in an attempt to help develop
that area of the country (Brasília) This is know as a forward capital. Latin
American cities have developed their own unique style.
Squatter settlements: The LDC’s are unable to house the rapidly growing
number of poor who are flowing into the cities. Because of the housing
shortages, the poor have constructed their own settlements around the city.
These settlements have few services because neither the city nor the
residents can afford them. Squatters have two basic choices for housing.
1. Illegally move into empty real houses located in the city or,
2. Rent slum housing.
(85% of the population of Addis Ababa in Ethiopia lives in squatter
settlements, slums or other illegal housing.)
39

Squatter shacks in Manila, the Philippines

40

Squatter settlement in Ethiopia

41

Zimbabwe, Africa

42

Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

43

Latin American City Model:
In many Latin
American cities,
the wealthy live in
the inner city and
in a sector
extending along a
commercial spine.
In situ accretion- businesses
and homes constantly under
construction/repair.
Zone of maturity-2nd best
housing in the city.
The poor live in squatter settlements on the
periphery of the city.

Disamenity- unpleasant area
used by the poor to get to the
market.

44

The City Outline of Rio de Janeiro
The rich tourist areas and expensive condo apartments are along the coast
and beach while the poor live in squatter shacks in the hills.

45

City problems:
Inner-City Physical Problems: Most US inner cities were constructed before the 1950’s
(people began to move to the suburbs in the 1950’s so new construction moved out of
the city).
Process of Deterioration (how a city deteriorates): A city doesn’t suddenly become old
and full of slummy areas. It happens over time. When a group of low-income people
inhabit an area of a city, nearby neighborhoods will often look to move out. They sell or
rent to more low-income occupants thus expanding the low-income area. Two processes
cause/speed up the devaluation of areas:
1. Filtering, 2. Redlining.
Filtering: Large houses and buildings that once housed rich downtown workers (who
moved to the suburbs) are taken over by landlords who don’t live in that area (they
moved to the suburbs too). Rents are low so the landlord doesn’t take as good care of
the property as they should and the property becomes run down or abandoned. Stores
close, or move, due to lack of sales. 100 years ago these neighborhoods would be used
by immigrants and ethnic businesses would succeed in those areas. Now, with a decline
in immigration, these neighborhoods have shrunk and so have schools, businesses and
other services. Thousands of vacant houses and buildings stand empty in inner cities
across America.

46

Redlining: Some banks refuse to give loans in what they consider
risky neighborhoods. They draw a red line on a map around areas
where they will not give loans. Without loans, these neighborhoods
have a hard time rebuilding/remodeling. Though illegal, this still
happens. Bankers just don’t put these “no-loan” areas on a map.

Urban Renewal: This is the series of projects to improve European
and N. American cities by buying up the blighted neighborhoods,
moving the people to new government built housing projects, and
building new roads, and other projects to make the inner city
attractive for business again. National and State government grants
help pay for these projects.
47

Public housing: Housing for the poor, built with government funding as part of
urban renewal. In the US this is only about 2% of the housing while in some
countries it may be more (Britain is 30%). Public housing built in the 50’s & 60’s
were largely high rise apartments, but those are seen as being unsatisfactory.
Problems arise from cramming large numbers of poor people into one area.
Today most public housing projects are one to three story buildings with many of
them being scattered around different parts of the city rather than clustered into
one area.
Because urban renewal has been criticized for destroying the social cohesion of
older neighborhoods, many governments (like the US) have stopped funding
most projects since the 1970’s. What do we do instead?
Renovated Housing: An alternative often used since the 70’s is to renovate a
building instead of urban renewal. The process where middle-class people
move into inner-city neighborhoods and renovate them is called gentrification.
Gentrified inner-city neighborhoods also attract middle-class people who work
downtown. Living close to work saves the hassle of commuting and rejuvenates
run down inner-city neighborhoods
48

Gentrified building downtown Harlem, NY. Note the supermarket.

49

Inner-City Social Problems: Inner-city residents are often referred to as the
permanent underclass because they are trapped in an unending cycle of
economic and social problems. High unemployment, alcoholism, drug
addiction, literacy, juvenile delinquency, and crime all exist at a higher rate
among those who live in the inner-city. Lack of jobs means lack of tax dollars
to pay for police and fire protection as well as good schools. Lack of job skills
and homelessness are also tremendous problems.
Culture of Poverty: Inner-city residents are trapped in a permanent underclass
culture that reproduces itself. In the US, unwed mothers give birth to 2/3 of the
babies in the inner-city. 90% of these children live with only one parent and it
is real hard for one parent to keep a job and take care of children. Both suffer
and a shortage of care and daily attention by the parent contributes to the kids
not learning the skills necessary to do well in school which leads to poor jobs
for their futures. Poverty leads to more poverty. Many families on welfare have
only one parent because it is financially better if one parent is gone, that way
the single parent gets food stamps and other services from the government
that they would not get if it was a 2 family household.
50

Crime: Trapped in a hopeless environment, some inner-city
residents turn to drugs. Drug use is a problem in inner-city
areas and the suburbs, but rates of drug use in inner-cities
are the highest.
Ethnic and Racial Segregation: As seen in chapter 7, many
neighborhoods in the US are segregated by ethnicity with
African Americans and Hispanics concentrated in one or two
continuous areas and whites living in the suburbs. Even small
cities display a strong distinction among neighborhoods. A
frequent division is between the east and west or north and
south side of town, or the railroad tracks. A family seeking a
new residence will seek the areas where the characteristics
of the people meet their own.

51

The exodus
from the
American city.
This has
happened in
many American
cities since the
1960’s.

52

Changes in Cities in the U.S.
U.S. population has been moving out of the city centers to the suburbs:
suburbanization and counter urbanization

Developed Countries: suburbanization

 wealthy move to suburbs
 automobiles and roads; ‘American
Dream’ of the home in the suburbs.
 better services
 wealthy move to suburbs
Counter urbanization

idyllic settings
cost of land for retirement
slow pace, yet high tech
connections to services and markets
53

U.S. intraregional migration during 1990s.

Inner city economic problems: the concentration of low income
residents in inner cities has caused economic problems. These
people require public services but can pay very little in taxes to
support the services. They need stores and jobs but have little
money to spend in the store and few skills for jobs (so the stores
close). To try to fight these problems many local and state
governments use tax monies to try to renovate these areas, but this
shifts tax money needed for other areas to the inner city (votes on
election day).
Annexation: Many cities could help their tax problem by adding the
new suburbs to be part of their city (annexation). After all, many of
these suburban people use the city for its’ jobs etc., so why not add
them into the city? Today, most people in the suburbs do not want
to be annexed into the city and so they do not vote to be annexed.
54

The Peripheral Model: According to this model, an urban area
consists of an inner city surrounded by large suburban residential
and business areas (MSA) tied together by a beltway or highway
that circles the city. Around the beltway are nodes of consumer
and business services called edge cities (see diagram of multiple
nuclei model). These edge cities sprang up to provide services
and jobs to the people in the suburbs.
Density Gradient: As you travel outward from the center of the
city, the density of people declines. Inner city has big apartments
of 250 of more people per acre. Suburbs have fewer people per
acre (but lots of acres) and finally you leave the cities periphery
you find few people. The number of houses per unit of land
diminishes as distance from the center of the city increases.
55

The Edge cities (bedroom communities) of Houston

The central city is surrounded by a ring road, around which are
suburban areas and edge cities, shopping malls, office parks,
industrial areas, and service complexes.

Known as
bedroom
communities
because
people live
there but
mostly don’t
work there.
They drive
into the city
for work.
56

As you move from the center of the city outward, the density of the population
changes. This is know as the density gradient. Two big changes have occurred in
the density gradient of today’s cities:
1. The number of people living in the center has decreased.
2. The density difference between the inner city and the suburbs is declining
because the inner city density is dropping and the suburban density is growing
due to more large apartments being built in the suburbs.
Cost of Suburban or Urban Sprawl: Urban Sprawl is the progressive spread of
development over the landscape. As long as we Americans want single-family
detached houses, land on the fringe of urban areas will be converted from open
space to residential use. The cost of this growth is more than the loss of land, it is
also the cost of new roads, utilities, building stores and offices and the cost of
automobiles to move these people over even longer distances. Lots of these new
developments are built on what was once farmland. Wonderful productive soil now
under concrete.

Greenbelts: are areas where, by law, the open space can not be used for any
construction. This is mostly found in Europe.

57

Once farmland that is being converted to suburbs and cities.

58

Tyson’s Corner Virginia in 1940

59

Washington, DC. MSA.

Tyson’s Corner Virginia
today.
Washington D.C. is off
In the distance.

60

Suburban Segregation: The “new” segregation.
Suburban segregation takes two forms:
1. Residents are separated from commercial and manufacturing activities
which are confined someplace else. (The whole neighborhood is
nothing but houses because they drive for services.)
2. The price of the house eliminates some from being able to live there. This
creates a homogeneous suburb of the same economic class of people.
This never existed before in history. Where we once had vertical
segregation of the classes we now we have horizontal segregation.
3. But this may be reversing as new statistics show that people are beginning
to move back to the city. Why? Cost of transportation.
Zoning Ordinances: This idea developed in Europe and later America in the
early decades of the 20th century. This means that businesses are allowed only
in certain areas of the settlement. (No all night taco stands inside your single
family neighborhood.)
Motor vehicles: The wide use of the automobile is largely responsible for the
American movement to the suburbs. Not only did people move out but 1/4 of
the land inside all American cities are now roads, streets, and parking lots.

61

Public Transportation: Because few US workers live within walking distance
of their jobs, urban areas are characterized by extensive commuting and the
problems that come with it. As much as 40% of all trips made into or out from
a city during the day takes place within just 4 hours. (2 in the morning and 2 in
the late afternoon). RUSH HOUR!!! In large cities, public transportation, like
subways and busses, are better suited to move people but Americans still
prefer their own cars. Public transportation is cheaper, cleaner, and more
energy efficient than personal cars, yet in the US only 5% of city travel is
done using public transit systems. American’s love their personal car too
much.
Local Government Fragmentation: Because of the large number of local
governments in the US (look at the settlements in Pinellas County) it is
difficult to solve some of the regional problems like garbage disposal, water
management, traffic and public housing.
62

Metropolitan government: This idea tries to put many local governments into a
larger unit that can better handle the urban problems. The 2 ways to do this
are:
1. Federations in which the individual settlements have their own police,
firemen, and tax collection but they all agree to be part of a second
government which handles transportation, water, sewage, parks and
welfare for all the communities.
2. Consolidations: In this method, several cities and the county may form one
government. Jacksonville’s government runs not only the town but the
county too, this makes Jacksonville the largest city, in land size, in the US.
Smart growth: A new movement by many states to curb suburban sprawl by
limiting where new construction can take place. Smart growth laws require that
land near cities be used up before any land further out can be developed. So
far, this is only being done an a few parts of our country.
63

The new
US as
some
people
see it.

64

Quiz Yourself:
1. The process where middle-class people move into inner city neighborhoods and
renovate them is called ____________
2. ____________ happens when banks refuse to give loans in what they consider
risky neighborhoods.
3. Because of the housing shortages, the poor have constructed their own settlements
around the city known as __________ _________

4. Businesses are allowed only in certain areas of the settlement because of
____________ ____________
5. Areas known as _____ _______ are areas of about 5,000 people. The data from
that area is used to help define needed services for that area.
6. When cities are so close that they form one continuous band of development this is
known as a ____________
65

7. Social relationships are often described as “colder” in urban areas because…
8. In this model the city develops in a series of sectors not rings. _______

9. ______ (LDC’s or MDC’s) have a higher percentage of people living in urban
settlements but ________ (LDC’s or MDC’s) have more of the very large urban
settlements.
10. _____________ was the first model developed to explain the distributions
of different social groups within urban areas.
11. New cities which develop around the beltway are nodes of consumer and
business services known as ________ _________.

12. When the Europeans took over lands around the world, they changed the
cities by adding services to help the Europeans control the conquered people.
These European planned cities are known as __________ cities.
66

Answer Key:
1.

Gentrification

2.

Redlining

3.

Squatter Settlements

4.

Zoning ordinances

5.

Census tracks

6.

Megalopolis

7. There is a stronger feeling of belonging together in small rural settlements.
8. Hoyt sector model
9. MDC, LDC
10. Burgess Concentric Zone model
11. Edge cities
12. Colonial cities
67

Test Key topic/chapter 13:
These questions come from a combination of our slides, your text book, and common knowledge you should
have discussed in your AP classroom. They are very typical of what you will see on the National Exam.
1) The multiple nuclei theory best explains why different neighborhoods of a city attract people of different… A) ages.
B) ethnic origin C) income D) marital status.
2) Sprawl is the… A) change in density within an urban area from the center to the periphery B) development of new
housing sites not contiguous to the existing built-up area. C) land maintained as open space surrounding an urban area.
D) period in the morning and evening with the heaviest volumes of traffic.
3) People are attracted to suburbs in part because suburbs are characterized by…A) heavy traffic. B) lower opportunity
for home ownership. C) private land surrounding the house. D) row houses and apartments.
4) Megalopolis refers to… A) adjacent, overlapping Metropolitan Statistical Areas. B) central cities. C) consolidated
Metropolitan Statistical Areas. D) central cities plus urbanized areas.
5) Which statement best describes the relationship between urbanization and the Industrial Revolution? A) Urbanization
promoted the Industrial Revolution. B) The Industrial Revolution promoted urbanization. C) Urbanization preceded the
Industrial Revolution by thousands of years. D) Urbanization and the Industrial Revolution are no longer related.
6) The process of legally adding land area to a city in the United States is… A) annexation. B) accreditation. C) an
application of eminent domain. D) defined by urbanized area.

68

7) The process of change in the use of a house, from single-family owner occupancy to abandonment, is… A) blockbusting.
B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining.
8) A process by which banks designate an area within which they refuse to lend money for improvements is… A) blockbusting.
B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining.
9) A recent change in the density gradient has been… A) the elimination of the gap traditionally found in the center. B) an
increase in the extremes between the inner and outer areas. C) an increase in the number of people living in the center.
D) a reduction in the differences in densities found within an urban area.
10) U.S. central cities face fiscal problems because… A) federal and state funds are available. B) low-income people are
concentrated there. C) middle-class families are attracted there. D) redlining is no longer legal.
11) A legal form of segregation in U.S. cities is achieved through...A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) zoning. D) greenbelts.
12) Factories have moved to suburban locations in part because of… A) access to main highways. B) adequate space to build
vertical structures. C) availability of large tracts of high-priced land. D) good rail connections.
13) According to the sector model, the best housing is located in…A) a corridor from downtown to the edge of the city.
B) an outer ring surrounding the city. C) nodes near universities and parks. D) renovated inner-city neighborhoods.
14) Ramshackle houses on the periphery of cities in less developed countries are known as… A) squatter settlements. B) council
estates. C) public housing. D) zone in transition.
15) Higher income people tend to live near the center of the city in all but which of the following regions? A) Latin America
B) North America C) South Asia D) Western Europe

16) The wide boulevards built in cities in less developed countries were most likely built during what era? A) pre-colonial
B) colonial C) independence D) all of the above equally

69

17) According to the multiple nuclei model, an airport is likely to attract nearby… A) industries. B) residences. C) shops.
D) universities.
18) The largest percentage of the U.S. population lives in…A) central cities. B) suburbs. C) non-metropolitan areas. D) all of the
above
19) In U.S. cities, the underclass is… A) clustered in inner-city neighborhoods. B) dispersed throughout the city. C) clustered in
suburbs. D) distributed uniformly in the city.

20) A process of converting a neighborhood from low-income to middle-class is…A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) gentrification.
D) redlining.
21) Higher social heterogeneity in urban settlements means that… A) the people with whom you relax are probably the same ones you
see at work. B) you play a specialized role in the urban economy. C) you compete for limited space. D) you may feel lonely and
isolated in a crowd.
22) The city plus its contiguous built-up suburbs is the… A) central city. B) urbanized area.
D) consolidated metropolitan statistical area

C) metropolitan statistical area.

23) The process whereby an increasing percentage of people live in an urban area is known as… A) demographic transition.
B) rank-size rule. C) urbanization. D) central place theory.
24) Of the ten largest urban areas in the world, how many are in More Developed Countries today? A) 1 B) 4 C) 7 D) 10 E) 2
25) Public housing is…A) conversion of low-income housing to middle-class housing. B) illegally established low-income housing.
C) housing that has changed from single-family owner occupancy to abandonment. D) low-income government-owned housing.
26) According to the concentric zone model, a city develops in a series of… A) corridors. B) nodes. C) rings. D) all of the above

70

27) Chicago is a good location in which to develop urban models because it is located… A) at the hub of the nation's transportation
system. B) in the center of the country. C) on a flat prairie. D) on the shore of Lake Michigan.
28) According to the sector model, the best housing is located in… A) a corridor from downtown to the edge of the city. B) an outer
ring surrounding the city. C) nodes near universities and parks. D) renovated inner-city neighborhoods.
29) The zone of transition in US cities generally contain…A) warehouses B) wealthy neighborhoods C) transportation hubs
D) universities and hospitals E) suburban homes
30) The attractions of shopping malls include all but which of the following? A) frequent concerts and exhibitions B) generous
parking lots C) place to meet friends D) walking distance from homes
The following questions are written at the high school level. You will find some questions from part one often rewritten
here. This is all designed to help you transition to the college/AP style of written questions. Any question preceded with ***
are questions that have been on the national exam before.
31. Most Latin American cities are focused on a…A) central plaza B) government housing project C) zone of heavy industry
D) skyscraper office building E) squatter settlement
32. The multiple-nuclei model of a city structure tends to be most applicable to…A) small cities B) traditional C) Latin American
cities D) newer, fast growing cities E) cities with homogeneous land use
33. ***Locational advantages important to the development of the earliest cities include…A) availability of good harbors for large
ships B) productive agricultural land and defensible sites C) temperate climate and proximity to coal mines D) good
connections by road and canal E) proximity to manufacturing areas

34. In cities, the CBD’s often show uniqueness while the suburbs usually show…A) a large hinterland. B) placelessness C) more
than one node. D) newer zones of transition.

71

35. Many LDC’s have tried to help a previously under-developed part of their country develop by moving their capital
city to that area. This new capital is known as a…A) forward capital B) new development zone C) enterprise zone
D) neocolonial city
36. Today the greatest number of urban dwellers is found in…A) North America
D) Europe E) Asia

B) South America C) Africa

37. ***All of the following have helped create ghettos in North American cities except…A)blockbusting and racial
steering B) redlining by financial institutions C) concentration of public housing and social services D) fixed school
districts E) Economic Enterprise Zones

38. Which of the following is NOT as reason for rapid suburbanization in the US after WW2? A) Mass production of
the automobile B) Reduction of long distance commuting C) Expansion of home construction D) Expansion of the
interstate highway system E) Availability of low down payment terms and long-term mortgages.
39. New cities which developed in the hinterland of large urban areas because of the automobile, are known as…
A) edge cities B) census tracts C) suburban sprawl D) squatter settlements. E) none of these
40. Gentrification refers to… A) moving the homeless into inner city shelters B) The “White Flight” from the urban city
C) losing tax revenue because of stores closing in downtown areas D) middle-class people moving into and renovating
inner city neighborhoods E) the creation of “beltway cities” around the city.

72

4
7
3

5

1
6

2

41-48 all use the sketch above.
41. The sketch in box A above represents which model of the inner structure of urban areas?
C) multiple nuclei model D) Burgess concentric zone model E) peripheral model
42. The models in boxes B and C represent A) Concentric zone and multiple nuclei
concentric zone D) peripheral and concentric zone E) Von Thunen and peripheral

A) Hoyt sector model B) VonThunen’s model

B) Multiple nuclei and Hoyt sector C) Hoyt sector and

43. In which ring (1, 2, etc.) of sketch A above would high-status households in North American cities likely live? A) 1 B) 2 C) 3 D) 4&5
44. In which ring (1, 2, etc.) of sketch A above would high status households in a European city likely live? A) 1

B) 2

C) 3

D) 4&5

45. In model B, zone # 2 is where it is likely because of: A) greenbelting B) squatter settling C) the culture of poverty D) transportation
E) no one knows
46. The model in sketch B is the; A) Hoyt sector model B) Burgess model C) multiple nuclei model D) peripheral model
47. The model in sketch C is the; A) Hoyt sector model B) Burgess model C) multiple nuclei model D) peripheral model
48. Which of these models best describes what has happened in US cities in the last 40 years? A)

B)

C)

73

49.*** In the U.S. a city plus its contiguous built-up suburbs is known as an…A) urbanized area B) zoned area
C) census tract D) Squatter settlement E) none of these
50. Done mostly in Europe, these are areas where land is kept as parks, farms or other kinds of open space and urban
sprawl is not allowed. A) Smart growth
B) zoning
C) filtering
D) census tracts E) greenbelts
51. Which statement best describes the relationship between urbanization and the Industrial Revolution?
A) Urbanization promoted the Industrial Revolution. B) The Industrial Revolution promoted urbanization.
C) Urbanization preceded the Industrial Revolution by thousands of years. D) Urbanization and the Industrial
Revolution are no longer related.
52. The process whereby an increasing percentage of people live in an urban area is known as…
A) Demographic transition. B) rank-size rule. C) Urbanization. D) Central place theory.
53. The city (if it has 50,000 or more people) plus its contiguous built-up suburbs AND the county it is in as well as any
other counties it influences, is known as the ...A) central city B) urbanized area
C) metropolitan statistical area
D) consolidated metropolitan area E) micropolitan statistical area
54. ***Higher social heterogeneity in urban settlements means that …A) the people with whom you relax are probably
the same ones you see at work. B) you play a specialized role in the urban economy. C) you compete for limited
space. D) you may feel lonely and isolated in a crowd.

55. The process of change in the use of a house, from single-family owner occupancy to smaller dwellings for the poor
and then sometimes to abandonment, is…A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining. E) none of
these

74

Free Response #1:
The Bid Rent theory says that the closer you get to the
CBD the higher the cost for land, yet in most American
cities you find the poorest people living near the
expensive CBD and the richest living further away.
Explain:
A. Why neighborhoods near the CBD are often poor and
run down?
B. Why are there few grocery and other retail stores in
these neighborhoods?
C. Why is this not really true in European and Latin
American countries?

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75

FR #2:
Think of the map of your school, explain the
layout of your school using the Multiple Nuclei
Model
The main office is the CBD.
Completely explain your answer using specific
buildings and/or land areas in your explanation
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76

Answer Key:
1. B

14. A

27. C

40. D

53. C

2. B

15. B

28. A

41. D

54. D

3. C

16. B

29. A

42. B

55. B

4. A

17. A

30. D

43. D

5. B

18. B

31. A

44. A

6. A

19. A

32. D

45. D

7. B

20. C

33. B

46. A

8. D

21. D

34. B

47. C

9. D

22. B

35. A

48. C

10. B

23. C

36. E

49. A

11. C

24. C

37. E

50. E

12. A

25. D

38. B

51. B

13. A

26. C

39. A

52. C
77

FR. #1: ( 15 pts. for each section…total of 45 pts.)
A. In the US the move of the wealthy and middle class to the suburbs has left the older houses and apartments near the CBD empty.
This has lowered their value to the point where the poor can afford these dwellings and have made these neighborhoods their
homes. The poor can not pay for upkeep of these dwellings, or to pay high taxes. The lack of upkeep and tax money to repair the
roads and schools, adds to the downward spiral of the neighborhood. With little spending money for shopping, the poor do not
spend much in the stores. This causes many stores to close and move to the suburbs where the spending customers and money
went. The closing of the stores adds to the poverty of the area by taking away some of the jobs that were in the neighborhood. This
becomes a vicious cycle of poverty and deterioration. (15 points)

B. There are few retail stores and groceries is the area because the poor do not have money to shop. The lack of spending forces
many stores out of business or forces them to move to better locations. There also can be higher crime in these areas and the
crime often takes place at the stores. This is another reason for the stores to move out of the neighborhood. (15 points)
C. Neighborhoods in European and Latin American cities are different from those of US cities. In Europe and Latin America, the
wealthy and middle class still live near or in the CBD. The higher tax base and more spending ability of the upper and middle
classes, keeps the CBD area flourishing with jobs and in constant repair and upkeep of the cities’ physical condition. (15 points)

FR #2: (10 total points.)
You will need to judge how effectively you displayed you school
in the Multiple Nuclei Model. Refer to the model itself to help you
determine your success and grade.
School’s main office
78

Calculating your grade on test 13.
Add how many you got correct on the multiple choice part (55 possible) to how many
points you scored on the FR portion (55 possible)…110 total.
The following scale will show the approximate score if this test were the real AP exam. Remember that this
is an approximation. While 65-74% is normally the range for a 3 on the test, it is not definite. Over the
years I have seen scores as low as 60% be the low portion of a 3 score.

Out of 110 possible points:
72-83 is most likely a 3
84-94 is most likely a 4

95-110 is most likely a 5

Now lets start our review for the national exam by
reviewing the 33 key models and theories of the
course…the next PowerPoint.


Slide 51

Key topic/chapter 13…Urban Patterns
Key terms:
Annexation
Concentric zone model
Density gradient
Edge cities
Filtering
Galactic city
Gentrification
Greenbelts
Megalopolis
MSA
Multiple nuclei model
Peripheral model

Public housing
Redlining
Renovated housing
Scattered site
Squatter settlement
Sector model
Smart growth
Sprawl
Underclass
Urban renewal
Zone in transition
Zoning
1

Chapter 13…Urban Areas.
How are Cities planned?
Why

are cities where they are?
How are they organized?
Why are some areas of a city
different from
other areas of the same city?
What is the future of cities?
2

Settlement


Settlement - permanent collections of buildings,
where people live, work, and obtain services

3

ORIGINS OF SETTLEMENTS


Religious - graves, churches, temples



Cultural - schools, libraries



Political/Military - leader’s house, walls



Economic - stores, food
4

TYPES OF SETTLEMENTS


Rural Settlements - agriculture as the
predominant occupation.



Urban settlements - principal industries are
secondary and tertiary.

5

RURAL SETTLEMENTS
Clustered rural settlements –grouped
settlements in rural areas to minimize travel

Dispersed rural Settlements - isolated farms
with enclosed continuous fields (Found only in
N. America and Britain).

6

Urban Geographers want to know the global distribution of urban
settlements. MDC’s have a high percentage of people living in urban
areas because of the shift from agriculture-manufacturing-services.
Geographers are also interested in where people and activities are
distributed within urban spaces. What are the differences between the
inner-city and suburban areas and why?
As we saw in the last chapter, many downtowns are unique and can
often be recognized in photos where the suburbs often look very
much alike (Placelessness). Why? Suburbs offer the chance to avoid
some of the city problems (crime, tight living area, expensive
land/rent, noise, age of buildings) while still keeping a connection with
the goods and services of the city: jobs, sports teams, culture, shops,
recreation, etc.
7

Where is this place?

8

Today’s cities are evolving and changing. Although different internal
situations characterize urban areas in the US and elsewhere, the
problems arising from current spatial trends are quite similar in all cities.
Where have urban areas grown: in the early 1800’s only 3% of the earth’s
people lived in cities and only Beijing China had more than 1 million
people. Today over ½ of the world’s people live in cities and we have over
400 cities of at least 1 million people.

Urbanization: is the process by which city population grows.
Cities population growth is measured in 2 dimensions;
1. An increase in the number of people living in the cities.
2. An increase in the percentage of people living in the cities.
This distinction is important because they happen for different reason and
have different global distributions.
9

Increasing Percentage of People in Cities: a large percentage of people living in urban
areas is a measure of a country’s level of development. In MDC’s about ¾ of the people
live in urban areas compared to about 2/5 of people in LDC’s. (Except in Latin America
where the level is closer to MDC’s.)
The higher percentage of people in urban areas comes from the changes that have
occurred in the last 200 years as we went from agriculture (primary jobs) to industrial
(secondary jobs) and now service jobs, all created by the Industrial Revolution of the
1800’s.
People moved to the cities for industrial jobs, but in MDC’s this process has largely
ended because nearly everyone interested in moving to the cities from farms has already
done so.
In LDC’s the percentage of people living in urban areas is growing as people are pushed
off of their farms and replaced by machines and as people move to cities looking/hoping
for industrial jobs.
10

Increasing Number of People in Cities: MDC’s have a higher percentage of
people living in urban settlements but LDC’s have more of the very large urban
settlements (Primate cities). (Rank-size rule, primate cities, chapter 12.)

This is interesting because typically the large cities are created from the
improvements brought by the Industrial Revolution. This is not the case with the
large LDC cities. Migration to the primate city in LDC’s is happening even though
job opportunities may not be available. Increasing the population growth in LDC
cities is the fact that medical services are better in these cities, thus the child
mortality rate is lower.
Defining Urban Settlements: defining where urban areas end and rural areas
begin is not easy. Geographers have formulated definitions that distinguish
between urban and rural areas in two ways: Social differences and Physical
differences.
11

Percent Urban Population

Percent of the population living in urban areas is usually higher in MDCs
than in LDCs.

12

The most populated cities in the world

Of the top
20, only
Moscow,
Tokyo and
New York
are in MDC’s

Shanghai China has 14,608,512 people
13

14

15

Social Differences Between Urban and Rural Settlements: it is fair to say that rural
people and urban people follow different ways of life. A city can be defined as having 3
characteristics:
1. Large size. People in rural settlements know most of the other people in the
settlement. Not true in big cities. Social relationships are often described as “colder” in
urban areas because you only see some people at work instead of growing up with
them in the settlement.
2. High Density. Having lots of people in a tiny area creates social consequences. A
high density of people living in a small area can only be supported if the people
specialize (they can’t all be farmers). People are encouraged to compete for jobs, room,
and survival in a tightly limited space. Social groups compete to occupy the same space
(ethnic/ race problems). Rural settlements have very little of this problem.
3. Social Heterogeneity. The larger the settlement, the greater the variety of people.
Being “unusual” in a large settlement is more likely to be accepted than in a small rural
one. But despite the freedom to be different that large urban settlements give you,
people living there often feel alone because so many people are different from them.
There is a stronger feeling of belonging together in small rural settlements.
16

These 3 differences do not fully answer the question of where urban settlements
begin and rural ones end because in today’s MDC’s most everyone has access to
cars, telephones, televisions, and “urban type” jobs which reduce the differences
between urban and rural lifestyles. “City folk” and “Country folk” are more alike
today than they are different. To help distinguish between urban and rural areas we
need to add the physical definition of rural and urban to the equation.
Physical Definitions of Urban Settlements: In ancient time, cities had defensive
walls for protection which clearly defined the physical boundaries of the city. Today
the walls are gone but we can still define the physical boundaries in 3 ways:
1. Legal boundary. These are the official boundaries of a city as recognized by
the government of the country or state. These “city limits” have been officially given
to the city and are physically marked on official maps. The local government of the
city has authority to make laws and protect the people inside the city boundaries.
17

2. Urbanized area. This is the city plus its suburbs or urbanized area that
surrounds the city. About 70 percent of US residents live in urbanized areas with
40% being in the suburbs and 30% inside the city limits. The suburbs may have
their own city governments but the huge central city dominates what happens in
the entire area.
3. Metropolitan Statistical Area. Cities have an even bigger influence on people
than just those living in their city limits and surrounding urbanized areas. People
from far away come to shop, use the services, support the sports teams, read
the newspapers and watch the television broadcasts of the city. Thus the city
has a “functional area” which is its total zone of influence. The US Bureau of
Census has created a method of measuring the functional area of the city.
Known as the Metropolitan statistical area (MSA) this area includes:
•An urbanized area with a population of at least 50,000
•The county within which the city is located.
•Adjacent counties with a high population density and a large percentage of
residents working in the central city’s county.
18

Metropolitan Area of Philadelphia

City of
Philadelphia

Urbanized
area
(suburbs)
Metropolitan
Statistical
Area

The metropolitan area of Philadelphia is
spread over several counties and four states.
It is also a diversified trade center, given its
position on the Delaware river.

19

20

21

Micropolitan Statistical Areas: Smaller areas with between
10,000 and 50,000 people, the county where it is found, and
adjacent counties tied to the city. This would be a small town and
the area dominated by it.
Overlapping Metropolitan Areas: Some adjacent MSA’s overlap.
A county between two central cities may send a large number of
commuters to jobs in both cities. In some areas the cities are so
close that they form one continuous urban complex. This is
known as a Megalopolis (great city).
In a megalopolis, the downtown CBD often has its own
distinctive look and the urban areas are visually separated by
parks, open spaces, and dairy/truck farms. But at the periphery
of the urban areas, the boundaries overlap.
22

Colorado Springs, population 431,000

Ocala, Florida, population 56,000

Florala, Alabama, population 1,900

23

Megalopolis, from northern Va. To Maine.
This Illustrates the
difference between
strict city proper
definitions and broader
urban agglomerations.
To define urbanized
areas, the U.S. Census
Bureau uses the term
Metropolitan Statistical
Area (MSA) or
Consolidated MSA
(CMSA) if two or more of
them overlap.
24

Where are People Distributed within Urban Areas? People are not
just distributed at random in urban areas. For the most part they
concentrate in particular neighborhoods depending on their social
characteristics. Geographers want to see where people with
particular characteristics are likely to live and why.

Three models which try to explain the growth of a city:

The Burgess Model

The Hoyt Sector Model

The Harris and Ullman
multiple Nuclei Model
25

Burgess Concentric Zone Model

In the concentric zone model, a city grows in a series of rings surrounding the CBD.

Burgess Concentric Zone Model: This is the first used to explain the
distributions of different social groups within urban areas. It says that a
city grows outward from a central place in a series of concentric rings.
The precise size and width of the rings vary from one city to another, but
some basic types of rings appear in all cities in the same order (see chart
above).
26

•Hoyt Sector Model: In this model the city develops in a
series of sectors not rings. Certain areas of the city are
more attractive for various activities, originally because
of an environmental factor (or even pure chance). As the
city grows, activities extend outward in a wedge shape.
For example, once a wealthy neighborhood is built the
next wealthy neighborhood will extend from the first
neighborhood further outward from the center. In this
way, the best housing is found in a corridor extending
outward from the center to the outer edge (see chart on
the next page).
27

The Hoyt Sector Model

In the sector model, a city grows in a series of
wedges or corridors extending out from the
CBD.
28

•Harris and Ullman’s Multiple Nuclei Model: According
to this model, a city is a complex structure that includes
more than one center around which activities revolve.
Examples of these nodes include a port, parks,
stadium, neighborhood business center, university, and
airport (see chart). This theory states that some
activities are attracted to particular nodes, whereas
others try to avoid them. A university node may attract
well educated people and bookstores while the port will
attract hotels and warehouses. Heavy industry and
expensive houses rarely are found together. This
model shows the effect of the automobile more than
any other model.
29

The Harris and Ullman Multiple Nuclei model

The multiple nuclei model views a city as a
collection of individual centers, around which
different people and activities cluster.

30

Applications of the Models: The three models help explain where and in some
cases, why people live where they do. None of the models by themselves fully
explains why and where different types of people live, but combined they give
you as good a look as possible at the “Why” of “Where.” Effective use of the
models depends on getting good data on the areas. Most countries take a
census every 10 years to help determine useful data about the people and
places of the country. In our country we divide the census data into areas
known as census tracts of about 5,000 people. Each census tract has the data
that summarizes the characteristics of the people living within that tract. This
information includes things like the race, income, age, and education of the
people living in that tract.
Social Area Analysis: The data from the census tracts can all be plotted onto
maps to show the characteristics of the people living in that tract. This map is
known as a social area analysis.
31

Using Census tract information…Seattle, Washington
Each lined area is a
census tract of about 5000
people in Seattle
Washington. These maps
show average household
income for 1990 and
2000…note the changes in
income in some areas
between 1990 and 2000.
Using this information, a
business can make
decisions about where
they want to locate a new
store or the future of
existing stores.
You can find census tract
information on many topics
such as; age, education
level, race, ethnicity, crime
rate, and land ownership.
Note the areas with
incomes over
$63,000.

All can be very valuable
information to people
looking to open
businesses.

32

Examine the changes
between 1990 and
2000.

Oakland, California’s Ethnic neighborhoods
The small bordered areas are census tracks of 5000 people.

33

Use of the Models Outside of North America: The 3 models will also work in other
places in the world; however social groups in other countries may not have the
same reasons for selecting particular neighborhoods as Americans do.
European Cities: As in the US, wealthier people in European cities cluster along a
sector extending outward from the CBD, however unlike the US, wealthy and
middle class Europeans still live in the inner rings of the neighborhoods near the
CBD not out in the suburbs. In the past, poorer people lived in the center of the
city. Before electricity, social segregation was vertical: richer people lived on the
first or second floor of a building while the poorer people lived in the basement or
upper floors. In the Industrial Revolution, housing for the poor was constructed
near the factories and away from the rich.
Today poorer Europeans are less likely to live in the inner-city. Poor quality
housing has been renovated for the rich or turned into office buildings. Poorer
Europeans tend to live in the outskirts of the city. Vast suburbs with dozens of high
rise apartments house the poor. They face long commutes to reach their jobs in
the city.
34

European cities generally do not have the “suburban
sprawl” that US cities have. European cities tend to be
more pedestrian friendly with more parks downtown as
Europeans tend to still live downtown.
US cities have taller buildings as European cities tend to
be older and more historic.

American cities have more ethnic neighborhoods than
European cities. Ethnic neighborhoods that do exist in
European cities tend to be in the suburbs. WHY?
Because the established richer neighborhoods tend to be
downtown in European cities.
35

Less Developed Countries: Like Europe, most LDC’s accommodate their poor in the
suburbs with their middle class and rich living near the center of the city. LDC’s have
passed through 3 periods of city building: before the Europeans arrived, during the
period of European colonialism, and since independence from European control.

Pre-colonial Cities: Before the Europeans arrived few cities existed in Africa, Asia, and
Latin America and most people lived in small rural settlements. Those cities that existed
were mostly laid out surrounding a religious center; with the rest of the city laid out in a
hieratical concentric pattern (like the Burgess model) from government buildings,
homes of the wealthy, and businesses related to the religion out to other businesses
and shops.
Colonial cities: When the Europeans took over these lands, they changed the cities by
adding services to help the Europeans control the conquered people. Often a new
European style city would be build next to the existing native one. The new European
cities contained wider streets, a public square, larger houses and a much lower density.
The Spanish used the “Law of the Indies” which was a city plan designed specifically to
build cities in a “Spanish” style. (Gridiron pattern for streets centered on a church and
central plaza, walls around individual houses and neighborhoods centered around
smaller plazas and more churches.)
36

Early Mexico city was laid out in a grid pattern of streets. This followed
the Spanish “Law of the Indies.”

37

Central Plaza in Mexico City 1920 photo. Typical Colonial City plan.

Part of downtown Mexico city today still shows the
building plan of the “Law of the Indies.”

38

Cities since Independence: Following independence, cities have become
the focal point of the development of most LDC’s. Millions of people have
migrated to the cities (Primate cities) looking for jobs and services. Some
capitals have been moved to isolated areas in an attempt to help develop
that area of the country (Brasília) This is know as a forward capital. Latin
American cities have developed their own unique style.
Squatter settlements: The LDC’s are unable to house the rapidly growing
number of poor who are flowing into the cities. Because of the housing
shortages, the poor have constructed their own settlements around the city.
These settlements have few services because neither the city nor the
residents can afford them. Squatters have two basic choices for housing.
1. Illegally move into empty real houses located in the city or,
2. Rent slum housing.
(85% of the population of Addis Ababa in Ethiopia lives in squatter
settlements, slums or other illegal housing.)
39

Squatter shacks in Manila, the Philippines

40

Squatter settlement in Ethiopia

41

Zimbabwe, Africa

42

Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

43

Latin American City Model:
In many Latin
American cities,
the wealthy live in
the inner city and
in a sector
extending along a
commercial spine.
In situ accretion- businesses
and homes constantly under
construction/repair.
Zone of maturity-2nd best
housing in the city.
The poor live in squatter settlements on the
periphery of the city.

Disamenity- unpleasant area
used by the poor to get to the
market.

44

The City Outline of Rio de Janeiro
The rich tourist areas and expensive condo apartments are along the coast
and beach while the poor live in squatter shacks in the hills.

45

City problems:
Inner-City Physical Problems: Most US inner cities were constructed before the 1950’s
(people began to move to the suburbs in the 1950’s so new construction moved out of
the city).
Process of Deterioration (how a city deteriorates): A city doesn’t suddenly become old
and full of slummy areas. It happens over time. When a group of low-income people
inhabit an area of a city, nearby neighborhoods will often look to move out. They sell or
rent to more low-income occupants thus expanding the low-income area. Two processes
cause/speed up the devaluation of areas:
1. Filtering, 2. Redlining.
Filtering: Large houses and buildings that once housed rich downtown workers (who
moved to the suburbs) are taken over by landlords who don’t live in that area (they
moved to the suburbs too). Rents are low so the landlord doesn’t take as good care of
the property as they should and the property becomes run down or abandoned. Stores
close, or move, due to lack of sales. 100 years ago these neighborhoods would be used
by immigrants and ethnic businesses would succeed in those areas. Now, with a decline
in immigration, these neighborhoods have shrunk and so have schools, businesses and
other services. Thousands of vacant houses and buildings stand empty in inner cities
across America.

46

Redlining: Some banks refuse to give loans in what they consider
risky neighborhoods. They draw a red line on a map around areas
where they will not give loans. Without loans, these neighborhoods
have a hard time rebuilding/remodeling. Though illegal, this still
happens. Bankers just don’t put these “no-loan” areas on a map.

Urban Renewal: This is the series of projects to improve European
and N. American cities by buying up the blighted neighborhoods,
moving the people to new government built housing projects, and
building new roads, and other projects to make the inner city
attractive for business again. National and State government grants
help pay for these projects.
47

Public housing: Housing for the poor, built with government funding as part of
urban renewal. In the US this is only about 2% of the housing while in some
countries it may be more (Britain is 30%). Public housing built in the 50’s & 60’s
were largely high rise apartments, but those are seen as being unsatisfactory.
Problems arise from cramming large numbers of poor people into one area.
Today most public housing projects are one to three story buildings with many of
them being scattered around different parts of the city rather than clustered into
one area.
Because urban renewal has been criticized for destroying the social cohesion of
older neighborhoods, many governments (like the US) have stopped funding
most projects since the 1970’s. What do we do instead?
Renovated Housing: An alternative often used since the 70’s is to renovate a
building instead of urban renewal. The process where middle-class people
move into inner-city neighborhoods and renovate them is called gentrification.
Gentrified inner-city neighborhoods also attract middle-class people who work
downtown. Living close to work saves the hassle of commuting and rejuvenates
run down inner-city neighborhoods
48

Gentrified building downtown Harlem, NY. Note the supermarket.

49

Inner-City Social Problems: Inner-city residents are often referred to as the
permanent underclass because they are trapped in an unending cycle of
economic and social problems. High unemployment, alcoholism, drug
addiction, literacy, juvenile delinquency, and crime all exist at a higher rate
among those who live in the inner-city. Lack of jobs means lack of tax dollars
to pay for police and fire protection as well as good schools. Lack of job skills
and homelessness are also tremendous problems.
Culture of Poverty: Inner-city residents are trapped in a permanent underclass
culture that reproduces itself. In the US, unwed mothers give birth to 2/3 of the
babies in the inner-city. 90% of these children live with only one parent and it
is real hard for one parent to keep a job and take care of children. Both suffer
and a shortage of care and daily attention by the parent contributes to the kids
not learning the skills necessary to do well in school which leads to poor jobs
for their futures. Poverty leads to more poverty. Many families on welfare have
only one parent because it is financially better if one parent is gone, that way
the single parent gets food stamps and other services from the government
that they would not get if it was a 2 family household.
50

Crime: Trapped in a hopeless environment, some inner-city
residents turn to drugs. Drug use is a problem in inner-city
areas and the suburbs, but rates of drug use in inner-cities
are the highest.
Ethnic and Racial Segregation: As seen in chapter 7, many
neighborhoods in the US are segregated by ethnicity with
African Americans and Hispanics concentrated in one or two
continuous areas and whites living in the suburbs. Even small
cities display a strong distinction among neighborhoods. A
frequent division is between the east and west or north and
south side of town, or the railroad tracks. A family seeking a
new residence will seek the areas where the characteristics
of the people meet their own.

51

The exodus
from the
American city.
This has
happened in
many American
cities since the
1960’s.

52

Changes in Cities in the U.S.
U.S. population has been moving out of the city centers to the suburbs:
suburbanization and counter urbanization

Developed Countries: suburbanization

 wealthy move to suburbs
 automobiles and roads; ‘American
Dream’ of the home in the suburbs.
 better services
 wealthy move to suburbs
Counter urbanization

idyllic settings
cost of land for retirement
slow pace, yet high tech
connections to services and markets
53

U.S. intraregional migration during 1990s.

Inner city economic problems: the concentration of low income
residents in inner cities has caused economic problems. These
people require public services but can pay very little in taxes to
support the services. They need stores and jobs but have little
money to spend in the store and few skills for jobs (so the stores
close). To try to fight these problems many local and state
governments use tax monies to try to renovate these areas, but this
shifts tax money needed for other areas to the inner city (votes on
election day).
Annexation: Many cities could help their tax problem by adding the
new suburbs to be part of their city (annexation). After all, many of
these suburban people use the city for its’ jobs etc., so why not add
them into the city? Today, most people in the suburbs do not want
to be annexed into the city and so they do not vote to be annexed.
54

The Peripheral Model: According to this model, an urban area
consists of an inner city surrounded by large suburban residential
and business areas (MSA) tied together by a beltway or highway
that circles the city. Around the beltway are nodes of consumer
and business services called edge cities (see diagram of multiple
nuclei model). These edge cities sprang up to provide services
and jobs to the people in the suburbs.
Density Gradient: As you travel outward from the center of the
city, the density of people declines. Inner city has big apartments
of 250 of more people per acre. Suburbs have fewer people per
acre (but lots of acres) and finally you leave the cities periphery
you find few people. The number of houses per unit of land
diminishes as distance from the center of the city increases.
55

The Edge cities (bedroom communities) of Houston

The central city is surrounded by a ring road, around which are
suburban areas and edge cities, shopping malls, office parks,
industrial areas, and service complexes.

Known as
bedroom
communities
because
people live
there but
mostly don’t
work there.
They drive
into the city
for work.
56

As you move from the center of the city outward, the density of the population
changes. This is know as the density gradient. Two big changes have occurred in
the density gradient of today’s cities:
1. The number of people living in the center has decreased.
2. The density difference between the inner city and the suburbs is declining
because the inner city density is dropping and the suburban density is growing
due to more large apartments being built in the suburbs.
Cost of Suburban or Urban Sprawl: Urban Sprawl is the progressive spread of
development over the landscape. As long as we Americans want single-family
detached houses, land on the fringe of urban areas will be converted from open
space to residential use. The cost of this growth is more than the loss of land, it is
also the cost of new roads, utilities, building stores and offices and the cost of
automobiles to move these people over even longer distances. Lots of these new
developments are built on what was once farmland. Wonderful productive soil now
under concrete.

Greenbelts: are areas where, by law, the open space can not be used for any
construction. This is mostly found in Europe.

57

Once farmland that is being converted to suburbs and cities.

58

Tyson’s Corner Virginia in 1940

59

Washington, DC. MSA.

Tyson’s Corner Virginia
today.
Washington D.C. is off
In the distance.

60

Suburban Segregation: The “new” segregation.
Suburban segregation takes two forms:
1. Residents are separated from commercial and manufacturing activities
which are confined someplace else. (The whole neighborhood is
nothing but houses because they drive for services.)
2. The price of the house eliminates some from being able to live there. This
creates a homogeneous suburb of the same economic class of people.
This never existed before in history. Where we once had vertical
segregation of the classes we now we have horizontal segregation.
3. But this may be reversing as new statistics show that people are beginning
to move back to the city. Why? Cost of transportation.
Zoning Ordinances: This idea developed in Europe and later America in the
early decades of the 20th century. This means that businesses are allowed only
in certain areas of the settlement. (No all night taco stands inside your single
family neighborhood.)
Motor vehicles: The wide use of the automobile is largely responsible for the
American movement to the suburbs. Not only did people move out but 1/4 of
the land inside all American cities are now roads, streets, and parking lots.

61

Public Transportation: Because few US workers live within walking distance
of their jobs, urban areas are characterized by extensive commuting and the
problems that come with it. As much as 40% of all trips made into or out from
a city during the day takes place within just 4 hours. (2 in the morning and 2 in
the late afternoon). RUSH HOUR!!! In large cities, public transportation, like
subways and busses, are better suited to move people but Americans still
prefer their own cars. Public transportation is cheaper, cleaner, and more
energy efficient than personal cars, yet in the US only 5% of city travel is
done using public transit systems. American’s love their personal car too
much.
Local Government Fragmentation: Because of the large number of local
governments in the US (look at the settlements in Pinellas County) it is
difficult to solve some of the regional problems like garbage disposal, water
management, traffic and public housing.
62

Metropolitan government: This idea tries to put many local governments into a
larger unit that can better handle the urban problems. The 2 ways to do this
are:
1. Federations in which the individual settlements have their own police,
firemen, and tax collection but they all agree to be part of a second
government which handles transportation, water, sewage, parks and
welfare for all the communities.
2. Consolidations: In this method, several cities and the county may form one
government. Jacksonville’s government runs not only the town but the
county too, this makes Jacksonville the largest city, in land size, in the US.
Smart growth: A new movement by many states to curb suburban sprawl by
limiting where new construction can take place. Smart growth laws require that
land near cities be used up before any land further out can be developed. So
far, this is only being done an a few parts of our country.
63

The new
US as
some
people
see it.

64

Quiz Yourself:
1. The process where middle-class people move into inner city neighborhoods and
renovate them is called ____________
2. ____________ happens when banks refuse to give loans in what they consider
risky neighborhoods.
3. Because of the housing shortages, the poor have constructed their own settlements
around the city known as __________ _________

4. Businesses are allowed only in certain areas of the settlement because of
____________ ____________
5. Areas known as _____ _______ are areas of about 5,000 people. The data from
that area is used to help define needed services for that area.
6. When cities are so close that they form one continuous band of development this is
known as a ____________
65

7. Social relationships are often described as “colder” in urban areas because…
8. In this model the city develops in a series of sectors not rings. _______

9. ______ (LDC’s or MDC’s) have a higher percentage of people living in urban
settlements but ________ (LDC’s or MDC’s) have more of the very large urban
settlements.
10. _____________ was the first model developed to explain the distributions
of different social groups within urban areas.
11. New cities which develop around the beltway are nodes of consumer and
business services known as ________ _________.

12. When the Europeans took over lands around the world, they changed the
cities by adding services to help the Europeans control the conquered people.
These European planned cities are known as __________ cities.
66

Answer Key:
1.

Gentrification

2.

Redlining

3.

Squatter Settlements

4.

Zoning ordinances

5.

Census tracks

6.

Megalopolis

7. There is a stronger feeling of belonging together in small rural settlements.
8. Hoyt sector model
9. MDC, LDC
10. Burgess Concentric Zone model
11. Edge cities
12. Colonial cities
67

Test Key topic/chapter 13:
These questions come from a combination of our slides, your text book, and common knowledge you should
have discussed in your AP classroom. They are very typical of what you will see on the National Exam.
1) The multiple nuclei theory best explains why different neighborhoods of a city attract people of different… A) ages.
B) ethnic origin C) income D) marital status.
2) Sprawl is the… A) change in density within an urban area from the center to the periphery B) development of new
housing sites not contiguous to the existing built-up area. C) land maintained as open space surrounding an urban area.
D) period in the morning and evening with the heaviest volumes of traffic.
3) People are attracted to suburbs in part because suburbs are characterized by…A) heavy traffic. B) lower opportunity
for home ownership. C) private land surrounding the house. D) row houses and apartments.
4) Megalopolis refers to… A) adjacent, overlapping Metropolitan Statistical Areas. B) central cities. C) consolidated
Metropolitan Statistical Areas. D) central cities plus urbanized areas.
5) Which statement best describes the relationship between urbanization and the Industrial Revolution? A) Urbanization
promoted the Industrial Revolution. B) The Industrial Revolution promoted urbanization. C) Urbanization preceded the
Industrial Revolution by thousands of years. D) Urbanization and the Industrial Revolution are no longer related.
6) The process of legally adding land area to a city in the United States is… A) annexation. B) accreditation. C) an
application of eminent domain. D) defined by urbanized area.

68

7) The process of change in the use of a house, from single-family owner occupancy to abandonment, is… A) blockbusting.
B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining.
8) A process by which banks designate an area within which they refuse to lend money for improvements is… A) blockbusting.
B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining.
9) A recent change in the density gradient has been… A) the elimination of the gap traditionally found in the center. B) an
increase in the extremes between the inner and outer areas. C) an increase in the number of people living in the center.
D) a reduction in the differences in densities found within an urban area.
10) U.S. central cities face fiscal problems because… A) federal and state funds are available. B) low-income people are
concentrated there. C) middle-class families are attracted there. D) redlining is no longer legal.
11) A legal form of segregation in U.S. cities is achieved through...A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) zoning. D) greenbelts.
12) Factories have moved to suburban locations in part because of… A) access to main highways. B) adequate space to build
vertical structures. C) availability of large tracts of high-priced land. D) good rail connections.
13) According to the sector model, the best housing is located in…A) a corridor from downtown to the edge of the city.
B) an outer ring surrounding the city. C) nodes near universities and parks. D) renovated inner-city neighborhoods.
14) Ramshackle houses on the periphery of cities in less developed countries are known as… A) squatter settlements. B) council
estates. C) public housing. D) zone in transition.
15) Higher income people tend to live near the center of the city in all but which of the following regions? A) Latin America
B) North America C) South Asia D) Western Europe

16) The wide boulevards built in cities in less developed countries were most likely built during what era? A) pre-colonial
B) colonial C) independence D) all of the above equally

69

17) According to the multiple nuclei model, an airport is likely to attract nearby… A) industries. B) residences. C) shops.
D) universities.
18) The largest percentage of the U.S. population lives in…A) central cities. B) suburbs. C) non-metropolitan areas. D) all of the
above
19) In U.S. cities, the underclass is… A) clustered in inner-city neighborhoods. B) dispersed throughout the city. C) clustered in
suburbs. D) distributed uniformly in the city.

20) A process of converting a neighborhood from low-income to middle-class is…A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) gentrification.
D) redlining.
21) Higher social heterogeneity in urban settlements means that… A) the people with whom you relax are probably the same ones you
see at work. B) you play a specialized role in the urban economy. C) you compete for limited space. D) you may feel lonely and
isolated in a crowd.
22) The city plus its contiguous built-up suburbs is the… A) central city. B) urbanized area.
D) consolidated metropolitan statistical area

C) metropolitan statistical area.

23) The process whereby an increasing percentage of people live in an urban area is known as… A) demographic transition.
B) rank-size rule. C) urbanization. D) central place theory.
24) Of the ten largest urban areas in the world, how many are in More Developed Countries today? A) 1 B) 4 C) 7 D) 10 E) 2
25) Public housing is…A) conversion of low-income housing to middle-class housing. B) illegally established low-income housing.
C) housing that has changed from single-family owner occupancy to abandonment. D) low-income government-owned housing.
26) According to the concentric zone model, a city develops in a series of… A) corridors. B) nodes. C) rings. D) all of the above

70

27) Chicago is a good location in which to develop urban models because it is located… A) at the hub of the nation's transportation
system. B) in the center of the country. C) on a flat prairie. D) on the shore of Lake Michigan.
28) According to the sector model, the best housing is located in… A) a corridor from downtown to the edge of the city. B) an outer
ring surrounding the city. C) nodes near universities and parks. D) renovated inner-city neighborhoods.
29) The zone of transition in US cities generally contain…A) warehouses B) wealthy neighborhoods C) transportation hubs
D) universities and hospitals E) suburban homes
30) The attractions of shopping malls include all but which of the following? A) frequent concerts and exhibitions B) generous
parking lots C) place to meet friends D) walking distance from homes
The following questions are written at the high school level. You will find some questions from part one often rewritten
here. This is all designed to help you transition to the college/AP style of written questions. Any question preceded with ***
are questions that have been on the national exam before.
31. Most Latin American cities are focused on a…A) central plaza B) government housing project C) zone of heavy industry
D) skyscraper office building E) squatter settlement
32. The multiple-nuclei model of a city structure tends to be most applicable to…A) small cities B) traditional C) Latin American
cities D) newer, fast growing cities E) cities with homogeneous land use
33. ***Locational advantages important to the development of the earliest cities include…A) availability of good harbors for large
ships B) productive agricultural land and defensible sites C) temperate climate and proximity to coal mines D) good
connections by road and canal E) proximity to manufacturing areas

34. In cities, the CBD’s often show uniqueness while the suburbs usually show…A) a large hinterland. B) placelessness C) more
than one node. D) newer zones of transition.

71

35. Many LDC’s have tried to help a previously under-developed part of their country develop by moving their capital
city to that area. This new capital is known as a…A) forward capital B) new development zone C) enterprise zone
D) neocolonial city
36. Today the greatest number of urban dwellers is found in…A) North America
D) Europe E) Asia

B) South America C) Africa

37. ***All of the following have helped create ghettos in North American cities except…A)blockbusting and racial
steering B) redlining by financial institutions C) concentration of public housing and social services D) fixed school
districts E) Economic Enterprise Zones

38. Which of the following is NOT as reason for rapid suburbanization in the US after WW2? A) Mass production of
the automobile B) Reduction of long distance commuting C) Expansion of home construction D) Expansion of the
interstate highway system E) Availability of low down payment terms and long-term mortgages.
39. New cities which developed in the hinterland of large urban areas because of the automobile, are known as…
A) edge cities B) census tracts C) suburban sprawl D) squatter settlements. E) none of these
40. Gentrification refers to… A) moving the homeless into inner city shelters B) The “White Flight” from the urban city
C) losing tax revenue because of stores closing in downtown areas D) middle-class people moving into and renovating
inner city neighborhoods E) the creation of “beltway cities” around the city.

72

4
7
3

5

1
6

2

41-48 all use the sketch above.
41. The sketch in box A above represents which model of the inner structure of urban areas?
C) multiple nuclei model D) Burgess concentric zone model E) peripheral model
42. The models in boxes B and C represent A) Concentric zone and multiple nuclei
concentric zone D) peripheral and concentric zone E) Von Thunen and peripheral

A) Hoyt sector model B) VonThunen’s model

B) Multiple nuclei and Hoyt sector C) Hoyt sector and

43. In which ring (1, 2, etc.) of sketch A above would high-status households in North American cities likely live? A) 1 B) 2 C) 3 D) 4&5
44. In which ring (1, 2, etc.) of sketch A above would high status households in a European city likely live? A) 1

B) 2

C) 3

D) 4&5

45. In model B, zone # 2 is where it is likely because of: A) greenbelting B) squatter settling C) the culture of poverty D) transportation
E) no one knows
46. The model in sketch B is the; A) Hoyt sector model B) Burgess model C) multiple nuclei model D) peripheral model
47. The model in sketch C is the; A) Hoyt sector model B) Burgess model C) multiple nuclei model D) peripheral model
48. Which of these models best describes what has happened in US cities in the last 40 years? A)

B)

C)

73

49.*** In the U.S. a city plus its contiguous built-up suburbs is known as an…A) urbanized area B) zoned area
C) census tract D) Squatter settlement E) none of these
50. Done mostly in Europe, these are areas where land is kept as parks, farms or other kinds of open space and urban
sprawl is not allowed. A) Smart growth
B) zoning
C) filtering
D) census tracts E) greenbelts
51. Which statement best describes the relationship between urbanization and the Industrial Revolution?
A) Urbanization promoted the Industrial Revolution. B) The Industrial Revolution promoted urbanization.
C) Urbanization preceded the Industrial Revolution by thousands of years. D) Urbanization and the Industrial
Revolution are no longer related.
52. The process whereby an increasing percentage of people live in an urban area is known as…
A) Demographic transition. B) rank-size rule. C) Urbanization. D) Central place theory.
53. The city (if it has 50,000 or more people) plus its contiguous built-up suburbs AND the county it is in as well as any
other counties it influences, is known as the ...A) central city B) urbanized area
C) metropolitan statistical area
D) consolidated metropolitan area E) micropolitan statistical area
54. ***Higher social heterogeneity in urban settlements means that …A) the people with whom you relax are probably
the same ones you see at work. B) you play a specialized role in the urban economy. C) you compete for limited
space. D) you may feel lonely and isolated in a crowd.

55. The process of change in the use of a house, from single-family owner occupancy to smaller dwellings for the poor
and then sometimes to abandonment, is…A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining. E) none of
these

74

Free Response #1:
The Bid Rent theory says that the closer you get to the
CBD the higher the cost for land, yet in most American
cities you find the poorest people living near the
expensive CBD and the richest living further away.
Explain:
A. Why neighborhoods near the CBD are often poor and
run down?
B. Why are there few grocery and other retail stores in
these neighborhoods?
C. Why is this not really true in European and Latin
American countries?

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75

FR #2:
Think of the map of your school, explain the
layout of your school using the Multiple Nuclei
Model
The main office is the CBD.
Completely explain your answer using specific
buildings and/or land areas in your explanation
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76

Answer Key:
1. B

14. A

27. C

40. D

53. C

2. B

15. B

28. A

41. D

54. D

3. C

16. B

29. A

42. B

55. B

4. A

17. A

30. D

43. D

5. B

18. B

31. A

44. A

6. A

19. A

32. D

45. D

7. B

20. C

33. B

46. A

8. D

21. D

34. B

47. C

9. D

22. B

35. A

48. C

10. B

23. C

36. E

49. A

11. C

24. C

37. E

50. E

12. A

25. D

38. B

51. B

13. A

26. C

39. A

52. C
77

FR. #1: ( 15 pts. for each section…total of 45 pts.)
A. In the US the move of the wealthy and middle class to the suburbs has left the older houses and apartments near the CBD empty.
This has lowered their value to the point where the poor can afford these dwellings and have made these neighborhoods their
homes. The poor can not pay for upkeep of these dwellings, or to pay high taxes. The lack of upkeep and tax money to repair the
roads and schools, adds to the downward spiral of the neighborhood. With little spending money for shopping, the poor do not
spend much in the stores. This causes many stores to close and move to the suburbs where the spending customers and money
went. The closing of the stores adds to the poverty of the area by taking away some of the jobs that were in the neighborhood. This
becomes a vicious cycle of poverty and deterioration. (15 points)

B. There are few retail stores and groceries is the area because the poor do not have money to shop. The lack of spending forces
many stores out of business or forces them to move to better locations. There also can be higher crime in these areas and the
crime often takes place at the stores. This is another reason for the stores to move out of the neighborhood. (15 points)
C. Neighborhoods in European and Latin American cities are different from those of US cities. In Europe and Latin America, the
wealthy and middle class still live near or in the CBD. The higher tax base and more spending ability of the upper and middle
classes, keeps the CBD area flourishing with jobs and in constant repair and upkeep of the cities’ physical condition. (15 points)

FR #2: (10 total points.)
You will need to judge how effectively you displayed you school
in the Multiple Nuclei Model. Refer to the model itself to help you
determine your success and grade.
School’s main office
78

Calculating your grade on test 13.
Add how many you got correct on the multiple choice part (55 possible) to how many
points you scored on the FR portion (55 possible)…110 total.
The following scale will show the approximate score if this test were the real AP exam. Remember that this
is an approximation. While 65-74% is normally the range for a 3 on the test, it is not definite. Over the
years I have seen scores as low as 60% be the low portion of a 3 score.

Out of 110 possible points:
72-83 is most likely a 3
84-94 is most likely a 4

95-110 is most likely a 5

Now lets start our review for the national exam by
reviewing the 33 key models and theories of the
course…the next PowerPoint.


Slide 52

Key topic/chapter 13…Urban Patterns
Key terms:
Annexation
Concentric zone model
Density gradient
Edge cities
Filtering
Galactic city
Gentrification
Greenbelts
Megalopolis
MSA
Multiple nuclei model
Peripheral model

Public housing
Redlining
Renovated housing
Scattered site
Squatter settlement
Sector model
Smart growth
Sprawl
Underclass
Urban renewal
Zone in transition
Zoning
1

Chapter 13…Urban Areas.
How are Cities planned?
Why

are cities where they are?
How are they organized?
Why are some areas of a city
different from
other areas of the same city?
What is the future of cities?
2

Settlement


Settlement - permanent collections of buildings,
where people live, work, and obtain services

3

ORIGINS OF SETTLEMENTS


Religious - graves, churches, temples



Cultural - schools, libraries



Political/Military - leader’s house, walls



Economic - stores, food
4

TYPES OF SETTLEMENTS


Rural Settlements - agriculture as the
predominant occupation.



Urban settlements - principal industries are
secondary and tertiary.

5

RURAL SETTLEMENTS
Clustered rural settlements –grouped
settlements in rural areas to minimize travel

Dispersed rural Settlements - isolated farms
with enclosed continuous fields (Found only in
N. America and Britain).

6

Urban Geographers want to know the global distribution of urban
settlements. MDC’s have a high percentage of people living in urban
areas because of the shift from agriculture-manufacturing-services.
Geographers are also interested in where people and activities are
distributed within urban spaces. What are the differences between the
inner-city and suburban areas and why?
As we saw in the last chapter, many downtowns are unique and can
often be recognized in photos where the suburbs often look very
much alike (Placelessness). Why? Suburbs offer the chance to avoid
some of the city problems (crime, tight living area, expensive
land/rent, noise, age of buildings) while still keeping a connection with
the goods and services of the city: jobs, sports teams, culture, shops,
recreation, etc.
7

Where is this place?

8

Today’s cities are evolving and changing. Although different internal
situations characterize urban areas in the US and elsewhere, the
problems arising from current spatial trends are quite similar in all cities.
Where have urban areas grown: in the early 1800’s only 3% of the earth’s
people lived in cities and only Beijing China had more than 1 million
people. Today over ½ of the world’s people live in cities and we have over
400 cities of at least 1 million people.

Urbanization: is the process by which city population grows.
Cities population growth is measured in 2 dimensions;
1. An increase in the number of people living in the cities.
2. An increase in the percentage of people living in the cities.
This distinction is important because they happen for different reason and
have different global distributions.
9

Increasing Percentage of People in Cities: a large percentage of people living in urban
areas is a measure of a country’s level of development. In MDC’s about ¾ of the people
live in urban areas compared to about 2/5 of people in LDC’s. (Except in Latin America
where the level is closer to MDC’s.)
The higher percentage of people in urban areas comes from the changes that have
occurred in the last 200 years as we went from agriculture (primary jobs) to industrial
(secondary jobs) and now service jobs, all created by the Industrial Revolution of the
1800’s.
People moved to the cities for industrial jobs, but in MDC’s this process has largely
ended because nearly everyone interested in moving to the cities from farms has already
done so.
In LDC’s the percentage of people living in urban areas is growing as people are pushed
off of their farms and replaced by machines and as people move to cities looking/hoping
for industrial jobs.
10

Increasing Number of People in Cities: MDC’s have a higher percentage of
people living in urban settlements but LDC’s have more of the very large urban
settlements (Primate cities). (Rank-size rule, primate cities, chapter 12.)

This is interesting because typically the large cities are created from the
improvements brought by the Industrial Revolution. This is not the case with the
large LDC cities. Migration to the primate city in LDC’s is happening even though
job opportunities may not be available. Increasing the population growth in LDC
cities is the fact that medical services are better in these cities, thus the child
mortality rate is lower.
Defining Urban Settlements: defining where urban areas end and rural areas
begin is not easy. Geographers have formulated definitions that distinguish
between urban and rural areas in two ways: Social differences and Physical
differences.
11

Percent Urban Population

Percent of the population living in urban areas is usually higher in MDCs
than in LDCs.

12

The most populated cities in the world

Of the top
20, only
Moscow,
Tokyo and
New York
are in MDC’s

Shanghai China has 14,608,512 people
13

14

15

Social Differences Between Urban and Rural Settlements: it is fair to say that rural
people and urban people follow different ways of life. A city can be defined as having 3
characteristics:
1. Large size. People in rural settlements know most of the other people in the
settlement. Not true in big cities. Social relationships are often described as “colder” in
urban areas because you only see some people at work instead of growing up with
them in the settlement.
2. High Density. Having lots of people in a tiny area creates social consequences. A
high density of people living in a small area can only be supported if the people
specialize (they can’t all be farmers). People are encouraged to compete for jobs, room,
and survival in a tightly limited space. Social groups compete to occupy the same space
(ethnic/ race problems). Rural settlements have very little of this problem.
3. Social Heterogeneity. The larger the settlement, the greater the variety of people.
Being “unusual” in a large settlement is more likely to be accepted than in a small rural
one. But despite the freedom to be different that large urban settlements give you,
people living there often feel alone because so many people are different from them.
There is a stronger feeling of belonging together in small rural settlements.
16

These 3 differences do not fully answer the question of where urban settlements
begin and rural ones end because in today’s MDC’s most everyone has access to
cars, telephones, televisions, and “urban type” jobs which reduce the differences
between urban and rural lifestyles. “City folk” and “Country folk” are more alike
today than they are different. To help distinguish between urban and rural areas we
need to add the physical definition of rural and urban to the equation.
Physical Definitions of Urban Settlements: In ancient time, cities had defensive
walls for protection which clearly defined the physical boundaries of the city. Today
the walls are gone but we can still define the physical boundaries in 3 ways:
1. Legal boundary. These are the official boundaries of a city as recognized by
the government of the country or state. These “city limits” have been officially given
to the city and are physically marked on official maps. The local government of the
city has authority to make laws and protect the people inside the city boundaries.
17

2. Urbanized area. This is the city plus its suburbs or urbanized area that
surrounds the city. About 70 percent of US residents live in urbanized areas with
40% being in the suburbs and 30% inside the city limits. The suburbs may have
their own city governments but the huge central city dominates what happens in
the entire area.
3. Metropolitan Statistical Area. Cities have an even bigger influence on people
than just those living in their city limits and surrounding urbanized areas. People
from far away come to shop, use the services, support the sports teams, read
the newspapers and watch the television broadcasts of the city. Thus the city
has a “functional area” which is its total zone of influence. The US Bureau of
Census has created a method of measuring the functional area of the city.
Known as the Metropolitan statistical area (MSA) this area includes:
•An urbanized area with a population of at least 50,000
•The county within which the city is located.
•Adjacent counties with a high population density and a large percentage of
residents working in the central city’s county.
18

Metropolitan Area of Philadelphia

City of
Philadelphia

Urbanized
area
(suburbs)
Metropolitan
Statistical
Area

The metropolitan area of Philadelphia is
spread over several counties and four states.
It is also a diversified trade center, given its
position on the Delaware river.

19

20

21

Micropolitan Statistical Areas: Smaller areas with between
10,000 and 50,000 people, the county where it is found, and
adjacent counties tied to the city. This would be a small town and
the area dominated by it.
Overlapping Metropolitan Areas: Some adjacent MSA’s overlap.
A county between two central cities may send a large number of
commuters to jobs in both cities. In some areas the cities are so
close that they form one continuous urban complex. This is
known as a Megalopolis (great city).
In a megalopolis, the downtown CBD often has its own
distinctive look and the urban areas are visually separated by
parks, open spaces, and dairy/truck farms. But at the periphery
of the urban areas, the boundaries overlap.
22

Colorado Springs, population 431,000

Ocala, Florida, population 56,000

Florala, Alabama, population 1,900

23

Megalopolis, from northern Va. To Maine.
This Illustrates the
difference between
strict city proper
definitions and broader
urban agglomerations.
To define urbanized
areas, the U.S. Census
Bureau uses the term
Metropolitan Statistical
Area (MSA) or
Consolidated MSA
(CMSA) if two or more of
them overlap.
24

Where are People Distributed within Urban Areas? People are not
just distributed at random in urban areas. For the most part they
concentrate in particular neighborhoods depending on their social
characteristics. Geographers want to see where people with
particular characteristics are likely to live and why.

Three models which try to explain the growth of a city:

The Burgess Model

The Hoyt Sector Model

The Harris and Ullman
multiple Nuclei Model
25

Burgess Concentric Zone Model

In the concentric zone model, a city grows in a series of rings surrounding the CBD.

Burgess Concentric Zone Model: This is the first used to explain the
distributions of different social groups within urban areas. It says that a
city grows outward from a central place in a series of concentric rings.
The precise size and width of the rings vary from one city to another, but
some basic types of rings appear in all cities in the same order (see chart
above).
26

•Hoyt Sector Model: In this model the city develops in a
series of sectors not rings. Certain areas of the city are
more attractive for various activities, originally because
of an environmental factor (or even pure chance). As the
city grows, activities extend outward in a wedge shape.
For example, once a wealthy neighborhood is built the
next wealthy neighborhood will extend from the first
neighborhood further outward from the center. In this
way, the best housing is found in a corridor extending
outward from the center to the outer edge (see chart on
the next page).
27

The Hoyt Sector Model

In the sector model, a city grows in a series of
wedges or corridors extending out from the
CBD.
28

•Harris and Ullman’s Multiple Nuclei Model: According
to this model, a city is a complex structure that includes
more than one center around which activities revolve.
Examples of these nodes include a port, parks,
stadium, neighborhood business center, university, and
airport (see chart). This theory states that some
activities are attracted to particular nodes, whereas
others try to avoid them. A university node may attract
well educated people and bookstores while the port will
attract hotels and warehouses. Heavy industry and
expensive houses rarely are found together. This
model shows the effect of the automobile more than
any other model.
29

The Harris and Ullman Multiple Nuclei model

The multiple nuclei model views a city as a
collection of individual centers, around which
different people and activities cluster.

30

Applications of the Models: The three models help explain where and in some
cases, why people live where they do. None of the models by themselves fully
explains why and where different types of people live, but combined they give
you as good a look as possible at the “Why” of “Where.” Effective use of the
models depends on getting good data on the areas. Most countries take a
census every 10 years to help determine useful data about the people and
places of the country. In our country we divide the census data into areas
known as census tracts of about 5,000 people. Each census tract has the data
that summarizes the characteristics of the people living within that tract. This
information includes things like the race, income, age, and education of the
people living in that tract.
Social Area Analysis: The data from the census tracts can all be plotted onto
maps to show the characteristics of the people living in that tract. This map is
known as a social area analysis.
31

Using Census tract information…Seattle, Washington
Each lined area is a
census tract of about 5000
people in Seattle
Washington. These maps
show average household
income for 1990 and
2000…note the changes in
income in some areas
between 1990 and 2000.
Using this information, a
business can make
decisions about where
they want to locate a new
store or the future of
existing stores.
You can find census tract
information on many topics
such as; age, education
level, race, ethnicity, crime
rate, and land ownership.
Note the areas with
incomes over
$63,000.

All can be very valuable
information to people
looking to open
businesses.

32

Examine the changes
between 1990 and
2000.

Oakland, California’s Ethnic neighborhoods
The small bordered areas are census tracks of 5000 people.

33

Use of the Models Outside of North America: The 3 models will also work in other
places in the world; however social groups in other countries may not have the
same reasons for selecting particular neighborhoods as Americans do.
European Cities: As in the US, wealthier people in European cities cluster along a
sector extending outward from the CBD, however unlike the US, wealthy and
middle class Europeans still live in the inner rings of the neighborhoods near the
CBD not out in the suburbs. In the past, poorer people lived in the center of the
city. Before electricity, social segregation was vertical: richer people lived on the
first or second floor of a building while the poorer people lived in the basement or
upper floors. In the Industrial Revolution, housing for the poor was constructed
near the factories and away from the rich.
Today poorer Europeans are less likely to live in the inner-city. Poor quality
housing has been renovated for the rich or turned into office buildings. Poorer
Europeans tend to live in the outskirts of the city. Vast suburbs with dozens of high
rise apartments house the poor. They face long commutes to reach their jobs in
the city.
34

European cities generally do not have the “suburban
sprawl” that US cities have. European cities tend to be
more pedestrian friendly with more parks downtown as
Europeans tend to still live downtown.
US cities have taller buildings as European cities tend to
be older and more historic.

American cities have more ethnic neighborhoods than
European cities. Ethnic neighborhoods that do exist in
European cities tend to be in the suburbs. WHY?
Because the established richer neighborhoods tend to be
downtown in European cities.
35

Less Developed Countries: Like Europe, most LDC’s accommodate their poor in the
suburbs with their middle class and rich living near the center of the city. LDC’s have
passed through 3 periods of city building: before the Europeans arrived, during the
period of European colonialism, and since independence from European control.

Pre-colonial Cities: Before the Europeans arrived few cities existed in Africa, Asia, and
Latin America and most people lived in small rural settlements. Those cities that existed
were mostly laid out surrounding a religious center; with the rest of the city laid out in a
hieratical concentric pattern (like the Burgess model) from government buildings,
homes of the wealthy, and businesses related to the religion out to other businesses
and shops.
Colonial cities: When the Europeans took over these lands, they changed the cities by
adding services to help the Europeans control the conquered people. Often a new
European style city would be build next to the existing native one. The new European
cities contained wider streets, a public square, larger houses and a much lower density.
The Spanish used the “Law of the Indies” which was a city plan designed specifically to
build cities in a “Spanish” style. (Gridiron pattern for streets centered on a church and
central plaza, walls around individual houses and neighborhoods centered around
smaller plazas and more churches.)
36

Early Mexico city was laid out in a grid pattern of streets. This followed
the Spanish “Law of the Indies.”

37

Central Plaza in Mexico City 1920 photo. Typical Colonial City plan.

Part of downtown Mexico city today still shows the
building plan of the “Law of the Indies.”

38

Cities since Independence: Following independence, cities have become
the focal point of the development of most LDC’s. Millions of people have
migrated to the cities (Primate cities) looking for jobs and services. Some
capitals have been moved to isolated areas in an attempt to help develop
that area of the country (Brasília) This is know as a forward capital. Latin
American cities have developed their own unique style.
Squatter settlements: The LDC’s are unable to house the rapidly growing
number of poor who are flowing into the cities. Because of the housing
shortages, the poor have constructed their own settlements around the city.
These settlements have few services because neither the city nor the
residents can afford them. Squatters have two basic choices for housing.
1. Illegally move into empty real houses located in the city or,
2. Rent slum housing.
(85% of the population of Addis Ababa in Ethiopia lives in squatter
settlements, slums or other illegal housing.)
39

Squatter shacks in Manila, the Philippines

40

Squatter settlement in Ethiopia

41

Zimbabwe, Africa

42

Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

43

Latin American City Model:
In many Latin
American cities,
the wealthy live in
the inner city and
in a sector
extending along a
commercial spine.
In situ accretion- businesses
and homes constantly under
construction/repair.
Zone of maturity-2nd best
housing in the city.
The poor live in squatter settlements on the
periphery of the city.

Disamenity- unpleasant area
used by the poor to get to the
market.

44

The City Outline of Rio de Janeiro
The rich tourist areas and expensive condo apartments are along the coast
and beach while the poor live in squatter shacks in the hills.

45

City problems:
Inner-City Physical Problems: Most US inner cities were constructed before the 1950’s
(people began to move to the suburbs in the 1950’s so new construction moved out of
the city).
Process of Deterioration (how a city deteriorates): A city doesn’t suddenly become old
and full of slummy areas. It happens over time. When a group of low-income people
inhabit an area of a city, nearby neighborhoods will often look to move out. They sell or
rent to more low-income occupants thus expanding the low-income area. Two processes
cause/speed up the devaluation of areas:
1. Filtering, 2. Redlining.
Filtering: Large houses and buildings that once housed rich downtown workers (who
moved to the suburbs) are taken over by landlords who don’t live in that area (they
moved to the suburbs too). Rents are low so the landlord doesn’t take as good care of
the property as they should and the property becomes run down or abandoned. Stores
close, or move, due to lack of sales. 100 years ago these neighborhoods would be used
by immigrants and ethnic businesses would succeed in those areas. Now, with a decline
in immigration, these neighborhoods have shrunk and so have schools, businesses and
other services. Thousands of vacant houses and buildings stand empty in inner cities
across America.

46

Redlining: Some banks refuse to give loans in what they consider
risky neighborhoods. They draw a red line on a map around areas
where they will not give loans. Without loans, these neighborhoods
have a hard time rebuilding/remodeling. Though illegal, this still
happens. Bankers just don’t put these “no-loan” areas on a map.

Urban Renewal: This is the series of projects to improve European
and N. American cities by buying up the blighted neighborhoods,
moving the people to new government built housing projects, and
building new roads, and other projects to make the inner city
attractive for business again. National and State government grants
help pay for these projects.
47

Public housing: Housing for the poor, built with government funding as part of
urban renewal. In the US this is only about 2% of the housing while in some
countries it may be more (Britain is 30%). Public housing built in the 50’s & 60’s
were largely high rise apartments, but those are seen as being unsatisfactory.
Problems arise from cramming large numbers of poor people into one area.
Today most public housing projects are one to three story buildings with many of
them being scattered around different parts of the city rather than clustered into
one area.
Because urban renewal has been criticized for destroying the social cohesion of
older neighborhoods, many governments (like the US) have stopped funding
most projects since the 1970’s. What do we do instead?
Renovated Housing: An alternative often used since the 70’s is to renovate a
building instead of urban renewal. The process where middle-class people
move into inner-city neighborhoods and renovate them is called gentrification.
Gentrified inner-city neighborhoods also attract middle-class people who work
downtown. Living close to work saves the hassle of commuting and rejuvenates
run down inner-city neighborhoods
48

Gentrified building downtown Harlem, NY. Note the supermarket.

49

Inner-City Social Problems: Inner-city residents are often referred to as the
permanent underclass because they are trapped in an unending cycle of
economic and social problems. High unemployment, alcoholism, drug
addiction, literacy, juvenile delinquency, and crime all exist at a higher rate
among those who live in the inner-city. Lack of jobs means lack of tax dollars
to pay for police and fire protection as well as good schools. Lack of job skills
and homelessness are also tremendous problems.
Culture of Poverty: Inner-city residents are trapped in a permanent underclass
culture that reproduces itself. In the US, unwed mothers give birth to 2/3 of the
babies in the inner-city. 90% of these children live with only one parent and it
is real hard for one parent to keep a job and take care of children. Both suffer
and a shortage of care and daily attention by the parent contributes to the kids
not learning the skills necessary to do well in school which leads to poor jobs
for their futures. Poverty leads to more poverty. Many families on welfare have
only one parent because it is financially better if one parent is gone, that way
the single parent gets food stamps and other services from the government
that they would not get if it was a 2 family household.
50

Crime: Trapped in a hopeless environment, some inner-city
residents turn to drugs. Drug use is a problem in inner-city
areas and the suburbs, but rates of drug use in inner-cities
are the highest.
Ethnic and Racial Segregation: As seen in chapter 7, many
neighborhoods in the US are segregated by ethnicity with
African Americans and Hispanics concentrated in one or two
continuous areas and whites living in the suburbs. Even small
cities display a strong distinction among neighborhoods. A
frequent division is between the east and west or north and
south side of town, or the railroad tracks. A family seeking a
new residence will seek the areas where the characteristics
of the people meet their own.

51

The exodus
from the
American city.
This has
happened in
many American
cities since the
1960’s.

52

Changes in Cities in the U.S.
U.S. population has been moving out of the city centers to the suburbs:
suburbanization and counter urbanization

Developed Countries: suburbanization

 wealthy move to suburbs
 automobiles and roads; ‘American
Dream’ of the home in the suburbs.
 better services
 wealthy move to suburbs
Counter urbanization

idyllic settings
cost of land for retirement
slow pace, yet high tech
connections to services and markets
53

U.S. intraregional migration during 1990s.

Inner city economic problems: the concentration of low income
residents in inner cities has caused economic problems. These
people require public services but can pay very little in taxes to
support the services. They need stores and jobs but have little
money to spend in the store and few skills for jobs (so the stores
close). To try to fight these problems many local and state
governments use tax monies to try to renovate these areas, but this
shifts tax money needed for other areas to the inner city (votes on
election day).
Annexation: Many cities could help their tax problem by adding the
new suburbs to be part of their city (annexation). After all, many of
these suburban people use the city for its’ jobs etc., so why not add
them into the city? Today, most people in the suburbs do not want
to be annexed into the city and so they do not vote to be annexed.
54

The Peripheral Model: According to this model, an urban area
consists of an inner city surrounded by large suburban residential
and business areas (MSA) tied together by a beltway or highway
that circles the city. Around the beltway are nodes of consumer
and business services called edge cities (see diagram of multiple
nuclei model). These edge cities sprang up to provide services
and jobs to the people in the suburbs.
Density Gradient: As you travel outward from the center of the
city, the density of people declines. Inner city has big apartments
of 250 of more people per acre. Suburbs have fewer people per
acre (but lots of acres) and finally you leave the cities periphery
you find few people. The number of houses per unit of land
diminishes as distance from the center of the city increases.
55

The Edge cities (bedroom communities) of Houston

The central city is surrounded by a ring road, around which are
suburban areas and edge cities, shopping malls, office parks,
industrial areas, and service complexes.

Known as
bedroom
communities
because
people live
there but
mostly don’t
work there.
They drive
into the city
for work.
56

As you move from the center of the city outward, the density of the population
changes. This is know as the density gradient. Two big changes have occurred in
the density gradient of today’s cities:
1. The number of people living in the center has decreased.
2. The density difference between the inner city and the suburbs is declining
because the inner city density is dropping and the suburban density is growing
due to more large apartments being built in the suburbs.
Cost of Suburban or Urban Sprawl: Urban Sprawl is the progressive spread of
development over the landscape. As long as we Americans want single-family
detached houses, land on the fringe of urban areas will be converted from open
space to residential use. The cost of this growth is more than the loss of land, it is
also the cost of new roads, utilities, building stores and offices and the cost of
automobiles to move these people over even longer distances. Lots of these new
developments are built on what was once farmland. Wonderful productive soil now
under concrete.

Greenbelts: are areas where, by law, the open space can not be used for any
construction. This is mostly found in Europe.

57

Once farmland that is being converted to suburbs and cities.

58

Tyson’s Corner Virginia in 1940

59

Washington, DC. MSA.

Tyson’s Corner Virginia
today.
Washington D.C. is off
In the distance.

60

Suburban Segregation: The “new” segregation.
Suburban segregation takes two forms:
1. Residents are separated from commercial and manufacturing activities
which are confined someplace else. (The whole neighborhood is
nothing but houses because they drive for services.)
2. The price of the house eliminates some from being able to live there. This
creates a homogeneous suburb of the same economic class of people.
This never existed before in history. Where we once had vertical
segregation of the classes we now we have horizontal segregation.
3. But this may be reversing as new statistics show that people are beginning
to move back to the city. Why? Cost of transportation.
Zoning Ordinances: This idea developed in Europe and later America in the
early decades of the 20th century. This means that businesses are allowed only
in certain areas of the settlement. (No all night taco stands inside your single
family neighborhood.)
Motor vehicles: The wide use of the automobile is largely responsible for the
American movement to the suburbs. Not only did people move out but 1/4 of
the land inside all American cities are now roads, streets, and parking lots.

61

Public Transportation: Because few US workers live within walking distance
of their jobs, urban areas are characterized by extensive commuting and the
problems that come with it. As much as 40% of all trips made into or out from
a city during the day takes place within just 4 hours. (2 in the morning and 2 in
the late afternoon). RUSH HOUR!!! In large cities, public transportation, like
subways and busses, are better suited to move people but Americans still
prefer their own cars. Public transportation is cheaper, cleaner, and more
energy efficient than personal cars, yet in the US only 5% of city travel is
done using public transit systems. American’s love their personal car too
much.
Local Government Fragmentation: Because of the large number of local
governments in the US (look at the settlements in Pinellas County) it is
difficult to solve some of the regional problems like garbage disposal, water
management, traffic and public housing.
62

Metropolitan government: This idea tries to put many local governments into a
larger unit that can better handle the urban problems. The 2 ways to do this
are:
1. Federations in which the individual settlements have their own police,
firemen, and tax collection but they all agree to be part of a second
government which handles transportation, water, sewage, parks and
welfare for all the communities.
2. Consolidations: In this method, several cities and the county may form one
government. Jacksonville’s government runs not only the town but the
county too, this makes Jacksonville the largest city, in land size, in the US.
Smart growth: A new movement by many states to curb suburban sprawl by
limiting where new construction can take place. Smart growth laws require that
land near cities be used up before any land further out can be developed. So
far, this is only being done an a few parts of our country.
63

The new
US as
some
people
see it.

64

Quiz Yourself:
1. The process where middle-class people move into inner city neighborhoods and
renovate them is called ____________
2. ____________ happens when banks refuse to give loans in what they consider
risky neighborhoods.
3. Because of the housing shortages, the poor have constructed their own settlements
around the city known as __________ _________

4. Businesses are allowed only in certain areas of the settlement because of
____________ ____________
5. Areas known as _____ _______ are areas of about 5,000 people. The data from
that area is used to help define needed services for that area.
6. When cities are so close that they form one continuous band of development this is
known as a ____________
65

7. Social relationships are often described as “colder” in urban areas because…
8. In this model the city develops in a series of sectors not rings. _______

9. ______ (LDC’s or MDC’s) have a higher percentage of people living in urban
settlements but ________ (LDC’s or MDC’s) have more of the very large urban
settlements.
10. _____________ was the first model developed to explain the distributions
of different social groups within urban areas.
11. New cities which develop around the beltway are nodes of consumer and
business services known as ________ _________.

12. When the Europeans took over lands around the world, they changed the
cities by adding services to help the Europeans control the conquered people.
These European planned cities are known as __________ cities.
66

Answer Key:
1.

Gentrification

2.

Redlining

3.

Squatter Settlements

4.

Zoning ordinances

5.

Census tracks

6.

Megalopolis

7. There is a stronger feeling of belonging together in small rural settlements.
8. Hoyt sector model
9. MDC, LDC
10. Burgess Concentric Zone model
11. Edge cities
12. Colonial cities
67

Test Key topic/chapter 13:
These questions come from a combination of our slides, your text book, and common knowledge you should
have discussed in your AP classroom. They are very typical of what you will see on the National Exam.
1) The multiple nuclei theory best explains why different neighborhoods of a city attract people of different… A) ages.
B) ethnic origin C) income D) marital status.
2) Sprawl is the… A) change in density within an urban area from the center to the periphery B) development of new
housing sites not contiguous to the existing built-up area. C) land maintained as open space surrounding an urban area.
D) period in the morning and evening with the heaviest volumes of traffic.
3) People are attracted to suburbs in part because suburbs are characterized by…A) heavy traffic. B) lower opportunity
for home ownership. C) private land surrounding the house. D) row houses and apartments.
4) Megalopolis refers to… A) adjacent, overlapping Metropolitan Statistical Areas. B) central cities. C) consolidated
Metropolitan Statistical Areas. D) central cities plus urbanized areas.
5) Which statement best describes the relationship between urbanization and the Industrial Revolution? A) Urbanization
promoted the Industrial Revolution. B) The Industrial Revolution promoted urbanization. C) Urbanization preceded the
Industrial Revolution by thousands of years. D) Urbanization and the Industrial Revolution are no longer related.
6) The process of legally adding land area to a city in the United States is… A) annexation. B) accreditation. C) an
application of eminent domain. D) defined by urbanized area.

68

7) The process of change in the use of a house, from single-family owner occupancy to abandonment, is… A) blockbusting.
B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining.
8) A process by which banks designate an area within which they refuse to lend money for improvements is… A) blockbusting.
B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining.
9) A recent change in the density gradient has been… A) the elimination of the gap traditionally found in the center. B) an
increase in the extremes between the inner and outer areas. C) an increase in the number of people living in the center.
D) a reduction in the differences in densities found within an urban area.
10) U.S. central cities face fiscal problems because… A) federal and state funds are available. B) low-income people are
concentrated there. C) middle-class families are attracted there. D) redlining is no longer legal.
11) A legal form of segregation in U.S. cities is achieved through...A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) zoning. D) greenbelts.
12) Factories have moved to suburban locations in part because of… A) access to main highways. B) adequate space to build
vertical structures. C) availability of large tracts of high-priced land. D) good rail connections.
13) According to the sector model, the best housing is located in…A) a corridor from downtown to the edge of the city.
B) an outer ring surrounding the city. C) nodes near universities and parks. D) renovated inner-city neighborhoods.
14) Ramshackle houses on the periphery of cities in less developed countries are known as… A) squatter settlements. B) council
estates. C) public housing. D) zone in transition.
15) Higher income people tend to live near the center of the city in all but which of the following regions? A) Latin America
B) North America C) South Asia D) Western Europe

16) The wide boulevards built in cities in less developed countries were most likely built during what era? A) pre-colonial
B) colonial C) independence D) all of the above equally

69

17) According to the multiple nuclei model, an airport is likely to attract nearby… A) industries. B) residences. C) shops.
D) universities.
18) The largest percentage of the U.S. population lives in…A) central cities. B) suburbs. C) non-metropolitan areas. D) all of the
above
19) In U.S. cities, the underclass is… A) clustered in inner-city neighborhoods. B) dispersed throughout the city. C) clustered in
suburbs. D) distributed uniformly in the city.

20) A process of converting a neighborhood from low-income to middle-class is…A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) gentrification.
D) redlining.
21) Higher social heterogeneity in urban settlements means that… A) the people with whom you relax are probably the same ones you
see at work. B) you play a specialized role in the urban economy. C) you compete for limited space. D) you may feel lonely and
isolated in a crowd.
22) The city plus its contiguous built-up suburbs is the… A) central city. B) urbanized area.
D) consolidated metropolitan statistical area

C) metropolitan statistical area.

23) The process whereby an increasing percentage of people live in an urban area is known as… A) demographic transition.
B) rank-size rule. C) urbanization. D) central place theory.
24) Of the ten largest urban areas in the world, how many are in More Developed Countries today? A) 1 B) 4 C) 7 D) 10 E) 2
25) Public housing is…A) conversion of low-income housing to middle-class housing. B) illegally established low-income housing.
C) housing that has changed from single-family owner occupancy to abandonment. D) low-income government-owned housing.
26) According to the concentric zone model, a city develops in a series of… A) corridors. B) nodes. C) rings. D) all of the above

70

27) Chicago is a good location in which to develop urban models because it is located… A) at the hub of the nation's transportation
system. B) in the center of the country. C) on a flat prairie. D) on the shore of Lake Michigan.
28) According to the sector model, the best housing is located in… A) a corridor from downtown to the edge of the city. B) an outer
ring surrounding the city. C) nodes near universities and parks. D) renovated inner-city neighborhoods.
29) The zone of transition in US cities generally contain…A) warehouses B) wealthy neighborhoods C) transportation hubs
D) universities and hospitals E) suburban homes
30) The attractions of shopping malls include all but which of the following? A) frequent concerts and exhibitions B) generous
parking lots C) place to meet friends D) walking distance from homes
The following questions are written at the high school level. You will find some questions from part one often rewritten
here. This is all designed to help you transition to the college/AP style of written questions. Any question preceded with ***
are questions that have been on the national exam before.
31. Most Latin American cities are focused on a…A) central plaza B) government housing project C) zone of heavy industry
D) skyscraper office building E) squatter settlement
32. The multiple-nuclei model of a city structure tends to be most applicable to…A) small cities B) traditional C) Latin American
cities D) newer, fast growing cities E) cities with homogeneous land use
33. ***Locational advantages important to the development of the earliest cities include…A) availability of good harbors for large
ships B) productive agricultural land and defensible sites C) temperate climate and proximity to coal mines D) good
connections by road and canal E) proximity to manufacturing areas

34. In cities, the CBD’s often show uniqueness while the suburbs usually show…A) a large hinterland. B) placelessness C) more
than one node. D) newer zones of transition.

71

35. Many LDC’s have tried to help a previously under-developed part of their country develop by moving their capital
city to that area. This new capital is known as a…A) forward capital B) new development zone C) enterprise zone
D) neocolonial city
36. Today the greatest number of urban dwellers is found in…A) North America
D) Europe E) Asia

B) South America C) Africa

37. ***All of the following have helped create ghettos in North American cities except…A)blockbusting and racial
steering B) redlining by financial institutions C) concentration of public housing and social services D) fixed school
districts E) Economic Enterprise Zones

38. Which of the following is NOT as reason for rapid suburbanization in the US after WW2? A) Mass production of
the automobile B) Reduction of long distance commuting C) Expansion of home construction D) Expansion of the
interstate highway system E) Availability of low down payment terms and long-term mortgages.
39. New cities which developed in the hinterland of large urban areas because of the automobile, are known as…
A) edge cities B) census tracts C) suburban sprawl D) squatter settlements. E) none of these
40. Gentrification refers to… A) moving the homeless into inner city shelters B) The “White Flight” from the urban city
C) losing tax revenue because of stores closing in downtown areas D) middle-class people moving into and renovating
inner city neighborhoods E) the creation of “beltway cities” around the city.

72

4
7
3

5

1
6

2

41-48 all use the sketch above.
41. The sketch in box A above represents which model of the inner structure of urban areas?
C) multiple nuclei model D) Burgess concentric zone model E) peripheral model
42. The models in boxes B and C represent A) Concentric zone and multiple nuclei
concentric zone D) peripheral and concentric zone E) Von Thunen and peripheral

A) Hoyt sector model B) VonThunen’s model

B) Multiple nuclei and Hoyt sector C) Hoyt sector and

43. In which ring (1, 2, etc.) of sketch A above would high-status households in North American cities likely live? A) 1 B) 2 C) 3 D) 4&5
44. In which ring (1, 2, etc.) of sketch A above would high status households in a European city likely live? A) 1

B) 2

C) 3

D) 4&5

45. In model B, zone # 2 is where it is likely because of: A) greenbelting B) squatter settling C) the culture of poverty D) transportation
E) no one knows
46. The model in sketch B is the; A) Hoyt sector model B) Burgess model C) multiple nuclei model D) peripheral model
47. The model in sketch C is the; A) Hoyt sector model B) Burgess model C) multiple nuclei model D) peripheral model
48. Which of these models best describes what has happened in US cities in the last 40 years? A)

B)

C)

73

49.*** In the U.S. a city plus its contiguous built-up suburbs is known as an…A) urbanized area B) zoned area
C) census tract D) Squatter settlement E) none of these
50. Done mostly in Europe, these are areas where land is kept as parks, farms or other kinds of open space and urban
sprawl is not allowed. A) Smart growth
B) zoning
C) filtering
D) census tracts E) greenbelts
51. Which statement best describes the relationship between urbanization and the Industrial Revolution?
A) Urbanization promoted the Industrial Revolution. B) The Industrial Revolution promoted urbanization.
C) Urbanization preceded the Industrial Revolution by thousands of years. D) Urbanization and the Industrial
Revolution are no longer related.
52. The process whereby an increasing percentage of people live in an urban area is known as…
A) Demographic transition. B) rank-size rule. C) Urbanization. D) Central place theory.
53. The city (if it has 50,000 or more people) plus its contiguous built-up suburbs AND the county it is in as well as any
other counties it influences, is known as the ...A) central city B) urbanized area
C) metropolitan statistical area
D) consolidated metropolitan area E) micropolitan statistical area
54. ***Higher social heterogeneity in urban settlements means that …A) the people with whom you relax are probably
the same ones you see at work. B) you play a specialized role in the urban economy. C) you compete for limited
space. D) you may feel lonely and isolated in a crowd.

55. The process of change in the use of a house, from single-family owner occupancy to smaller dwellings for the poor
and then sometimes to abandonment, is…A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining. E) none of
these

74

Free Response #1:
The Bid Rent theory says that the closer you get to the
CBD the higher the cost for land, yet in most American
cities you find the poorest people living near the
expensive CBD and the richest living further away.
Explain:
A. Why neighborhoods near the CBD are often poor and
run down?
B. Why are there few grocery and other retail stores in
these neighborhoods?
C. Why is this not really true in European and Latin
American countries?

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75

FR #2:
Think of the map of your school, explain the
layout of your school using the Multiple Nuclei
Model
The main office is the CBD.
Completely explain your answer using specific
buildings and/or land areas in your explanation
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76

Answer Key:
1. B

14. A

27. C

40. D

53. C

2. B

15. B

28. A

41. D

54. D

3. C

16. B

29. A

42. B

55. B

4. A

17. A

30. D

43. D

5. B

18. B

31. A

44. A

6. A

19. A

32. D

45. D

7. B

20. C

33. B

46. A

8. D

21. D

34. B

47. C

9. D

22. B

35. A

48. C

10. B

23. C

36. E

49. A

11. C

24. C

37. E

50. E

12. A

25. D

38. B

51. B

13. A

26. C

39. A

52. C
77

FR. #1: ( 15 pts. for each section…total of 45 pts.)
A. In the US the move of the wealthy and middle class to the suburbs has left the older houses and apartments near the CBD empty.
This has lowered their value to the point where the poor can afford these dwellings and have made these neighborhoods their
homes. The poor can not pay for upkeep of these dwellings, or to pay high taxes. The lack of upkeep and tax money to repair the
roads and schools, adds to the downward spiral of the neighborhood. With little spending money for shopping, the poor do not
spend much in the stores. This causes many stores to close and move to the suburbs where the spending customers and money
went. The closing of the stores adds to the poverty of the area by taking away some of the jobs that were in the neighborhood. This
becomes a vicious cycle of poverty and deterioration. (15 points)

B. There are few retail stores and groceries is the area because the poor do not have money to shop. The lack of spending forces
many stores out of business or forces them to move to better locations. There also can be higher crime in these areas and the
crime often takes place at the stores. This is another reason for the stores to move out of the neighborhood. (15 points)
C. Neighborhoods in European and Latin American cities are different from those of US cities. In Europe and Latin America, the
wealthy and middle class still live near or in the CBD. The higher tax base and more spending ability of the upper and middle
classes, keeps the CBD area flourishing with jobs and in constant repair and upkeep of the cities’ physical condition. (15 points)

FR #2: (10 total points.)
You will need to judge how effectively you displayed you school
in the Multiple Nuclei Model. Refer to the model itself to help you
determine your success and grade.
School’s main office
78

Calculating your grade on test 13.
Add how many you got correct on the multiple choice part (55 possible) to how many
points you scored on the FR portion (55 possible)…110 total.
The following scale will show the approximate score if this test were the real AP exam. Remember that this
is an approximation. While 65-74% is normally the range for a 3 on the test, it is not definite. Over the
years I have seen scores as low as 60% be the low portion of a 3 score.

Out of 110 possible points:
72-83 is most likely a 3
84-94 is most likely a 4

95-110 is most likely a 5

Now lets start our review for the national exam by
reviewing the 33 key models and theories of the
course…the next PowerPoint.


Slide 53

Key topic/chapter 13…Urban Patterns
Key terms:
Annexation
Concentric zone model
Density gradient
Edge cities
Filtering
Galactic city
Gentrification
Greenbelts
Megalopolis
MSA
Multiple nuclei model
Peripheral model

Public housing
Redlining
Renovated housing
Scattered site
Squatter settlement
Sector model
Smart growth
Sprawl
Underclass
Urban renewal
Zone in transition
Zoning
1

Chapter 13…Urban Areas.
How are Cities planned?
Why

are cities where they are?
How are they organized?
Why are some areas of a city
different from
other areas of the same city?
What is the future of cities?
2

Settlement


Settlement - permanent collections of buildings,
where people live, work, and obtain services

3

ORIGINS OF SETTLEMENTS


Religious - graves, churches, temples



Cultural - schools, libraries



Political/Military - leader’s house, walls



Economic - stores, food
4

TYPES OF SETTLEMENTS


Rural Settlements - agriculture as the
predominant occupation.



Urban settlements - principal industries are
secondary and tertiary.

5

RURAL SETTLEMENTS
Clustered rural settlements –grouped
settlements in rural areas to minimize travel

Dispersed rural Settlements - isolated farms
with enclosed continuous fields (Found only in
N. America and Britain).

6

Urban Geographers want to know the global distribution of urban
settlements. MDC’s have a high percentage of people living in urban
areas because of the shift from agriculture-manufacturing-services.
Geographers are also interested in where people and activities are
distributed within urban spaces. What are the differences between the
inner-city and suburban areas and why?
As we saw in the last chapter, many downtowns are unique and can
often be recognized in photos where the suburbs often look very
much alike (Placelessness). Why? Suburbs offer the chance to avoid
some of the city problems (crime, tight living area, expensive
land/rent, noise, age of buildings) while still keeping a connection with
the goods and services of the city: jobs, sports teams, culture, shops,
recreation, etc.
7

Where is this place?

8

Today’s cities are evolving and changing. Although different internal
situations characterize urban areas in the US and elsewhere, the
problems arising from current spatial trends are quite similar in all cities.
Where have urban areas grown: in the early 1800’s only 3% of the earth’s
people lived in cities and only Beijing China had more than 1 million
people. Today over ½ of the world’s people live in cities and we have over
400 cities of at least 1 million people.

Urbanization: is the process by which city population grows.
Cities population growth is measured in 2 dimensions;
1. An increase in the number of people living in the cities.
2. An increase in the percentage of people living in the cities.
This distinction is important because they happen for different reason and
have different global distributions.
9

Increasing Percentage of People in Cities: a large percentage of people living in urban
areas is a measure of a country’s level of development. In MDC’s about ¾ of the people
live in urban areas compared to about 2/5 of people in LDC’s. (Except in Latin America
where the level is closer to MDC’s.)
The higher percentage of people in urban areas comes from the changes that have
occurred in the last 200 years as we went from agriculture (primary jobs) to industrial
(secondary jobs) and now service jobs, all created by the Industrial Revolution of the
1800’s.
People moved to the cities for industrial jobs, but in MDC’s this process has largely
ended because nearly everyone interested in moving to the cities from farms has already
done so.
In LDC’s the percentage of people living in urban areas is growing as people are pushed
off of their farms and replaced by machines and as people move to cities looking/hoping
for industrial jobs.
10

Increasing Number of People in Cities: MDC’s have a higher percentage of
people living in urban settlements but LDC’s have more of the very large urban
settlements (Primate cities). (Rank-size rule, primate cities, chapter 12.)

This is interesting because typically the large cities are created from the
improvements brought by the Industrial Revolution. This is not the case with the
large LDC cities. Migration to the primate city in LDC’s is happening even though
job opportunities may not be available. Increasing the population growth in LDC
cities is the fact that medical services are better in these cities, thus the child
mortality rate is lower.
Defining Urban Settlements: defining where urban areas end and rural areas
begin is not easy. Geographers have formulated definitions that distinguish
between urban and rural areas in two ways: Social differences and Physical
differences.
11

Percent Urban Population

Percent of the population living in urban areas is usually higher in MDCs
than in LDCs.

12

The most populated cities in the world

Of the top
20, only
Moscow,
Tokyo and
New York
are in MDC’s

Shanghai China has 14,608,512 people
13

14

15

Social Differences Between Urban and Rural Settlements: it is fair to say that rural
people and urban people follow different ways of life. A city can be defined as having 3
characteristics:
1. Large size. People in rural settlements know most of the other people in the
settlement. Not true in big cities. Social relationships are often described as “colder” in
urban areas because you only see some people at work instead of growing up with
them in the settlement.
2. High Density. Having lots of people in a tiny area creates social consequences. A
high density of people living in a small area can only be supported if the people
specialize (they can’t all be farmers). People are encouraged to compete for jobs, room,
and survival in a tightly limited space. Social groups compete to occupy the same space
(ethnic/ race problems). Rural settlements have very little of this problem.
3. Social Heterogeneity. The larger the settlement, the greater the variety of people.
Being “unusual” in a large settlement is more likely to be accepted than in a small rural
one. But despite the freedom to be different that large urban settlements give you,
people living there often feel alone because so many people are different from them.
There is a stronger feeling of belonging together in small rural settlements.
16

These 3 differences do not fully answer the question of where urban settlements
begin and rural ones end because in today’s MDC’s most everyone has access to
cars, telephones, televisions, and “urban type” jobs which reduce the differences
between urban and rural lifestyles. “City folk” and “Country folk” are more alike
today than they are different. To help distinguish between urban and rural areas we
need to add the physical definition of rural and urban to the equation.
Physical Definitions of Urban Settlements: In ancient time, cities had defensive
walls for protection which clearly defined the physical boundaries of the city. Today
the walls are gone but we can still define the physical boundaries in 3 ways:
1. Legal boundary. These are the official boundaries of a city as recognized by
the government of the country or state. These “city limits” have been officially given
to the city and are physically marked on official maps. The local government of the
city has authority to make laws and protect the people inside the city boundaries.
17

2. Urbanized area. This is the city plus its suburbs or urbanized area that
surrounds the city. About 70 percent of US residents live in urbanized areas with
40% being in the suburbs and 30% inside the city limits. The suburbs may have
their own city governments but the huge central city dominates what happens in
the entire area.
3. Metropolitan Statistical Area. Cities have an even bigger influence on people
than just those living in their city limits and surrounding urbanized areas. People
from far away come to shop, use the services, support the sports teams, read
the newspapers and watch the television broadcasts of the city. Thus the city
has a “functional area” which is its total zone of influence. The US Bureau of
Census has created a method of measuring the functional area of the city.
Known as the Metropolitan statistical area (MSA) this area includes:
•An urbanized area with a population of at least 50,000
•The county within which the city is located.
•Adjacent counties with a high population density and a large percentage of
residents working in the central city’s county.
18

Metropolitan Area of Philadelphia

City of
Philadelphia

Urbanized
area
(suburbs)
Metropolitan
Statistical
Area

The metropolitan area of Philadelphia is
spread over several counties and four states.
It is also a diversified trade center, given its
position on the Delaware river.

19

20

21

Micropolitan Statistical Areas: Smaller areas with between
10,000 and 50,000 people, the county where it is found, and
adjacent counties tied to the city. This would be a small town and
the area dominated by it.
Overlapping Metropolitan Areas: Some adjacent MSA’s overlap.
A county between two central cities may send a large number of
commuters to jobs in both cities. In some areas the cities are so
close that they form one continuous urban complex. This is
known as a Megalopolis (great city).
In a megalopolis, the downtown CBD often has its own
distinctive look and the urban areas are visually separated by
parks, open spaces, and dairy/truck farms. But at the periphery
of the urban areas, the boundaries overlap.
22

Colorado Springs, population 431,000

Ocala, Florida, population 56,000

Florala, Alabama, population 1,900

23

Megalopolis, from northern Va. To Maine.
This Illustrates the
difference between
strict city proper
definitions and broader
urban agglomerations.
To define urbanized
areas, the U.S. Census
Bureau uses the term
Metropolitan Statistical
Area (MSA) or
Consolidated MSA
(CMSA) if two or more of
them overlap.
24

Where are People Distributed within Urban Areas? People are not
just distributed at random in urban areas. For the most part they
concentrate in particular neighborhoods depending on their social
characteristics. Geographers want to see where people with
particular characteristics are likely to live and why.

Three models which try to explain the growth of a city:

The Burgess Model

The Hoyt Sector Model

The Harris and Ullman
multiple Nuclei Model
25

Burgess Concentric Zone Model

In the concentric zone model, a city grows in a series of rings surrounding the CBD.

Burgess Concentric Zone Model: This is the first used to explain the
distributions of different social groups within urban areas. It says that a
city grows outward from a central place in a series of concentric rings.
The precise size and width of the rings vary from one city to another, but
some basic types of rings appear in all cities in the same order (see chart
above).
26

•Hoyt Sector Model: In this model the city develops in a
series of sectors not rings. Certain areas of the city are
more attractive for various activities, originally because
of an environmental factor (or even pure chance). As the
city grows, activities extend outward in a wedge shape.
For example, once a wealthy neighborhood is built the
next wealthy neighborhood will extend from the first
neighborhood further outward from the center. In this
way, the best housing is found in a corridor extending
outward from the center to the outer edge (see chart on
the next page).
27

The Hoyt Sector Model

In the sector model, a city grows in a series of
wedges or corridors extending out from the
CBD.
28

•Harris and Ullman’s Multiple Nuclei Model: According
to this model, a city is a complex structure that includes
more than one center around which activities revolve.
Examples of these nodes include a port, parks,
stadium, neighborhood business center, university, and
airport (see chart). This theory states that some
activities are attracted to particular nodes, whereas
others try to avoid them. A university node may attract
well educated people and bookstores while the port will
attract hotels and warehouses. Heavy industry and
expensive houses rarely are found together. This
model shows the effect of the automobile more than
any other model.
29

The Harris and Ullman Multiple Nuclei model

The multiple nuclei model views a city as a
collection of individual centers, around which
different people and activities cluster.

30

Applications of the Models: The three models help explain where and in some
cases, why people live where they do. None of the models by themselves fully
explains why and where different types of people live, but combined they give
you as good a look as possible at the “Why” of “Where.” Effective use of the
models depends on getting good data on the areas. Most countries take a
census every 10 years to help determine useful data about the people and
places of the country. In our country we divide the census data into areas
known as census tracts of about 5,000 people. Each census tract has the data
that summarizes the characteristics of the people living within that tract. This
information includes things like the race, income, age, and education of the
people living in that tract.
Social Area Analysis: The data from the census tracts can all be plotted onto
maps to show the characteristics of the people living in that tract. This map is
known as a social area analysis.
31

Using Census tract information…Seattle, Washington
Each lined area is a
census tract of about 5000
people in Seattle
Washington. These maps
show average household
income for 1990 and
2000…note the changes in
income in some areas
between 1990 and 2000.
Using this information, a
business can make
decisions about where
they want to locate a new
store or the future of
existing stores.
You can find census tract
information on many topics
such as; age, education
level, race, ethnicity, crime
rate, and land ownership.
Note the areas with
incomes over
$63,000.

All can be very valuable
information to people
looking to open
businesses.

32

Examine the changes
between 1990 and
2000.

Oakland, California’s Ethnic neighborhoods
The small bordered areas are census tracks of 5000 people.

33

Use of the Models Outside of North America: The 3 models will also work in other
places in the world; however social groups in other countries may not have the
same reasons for selecting particular neighborhoods as Americans do.
European Cities: As in the US, wealthier people in European cities cluster along a
sector extending outward from the CBD, however unlike the US, wealthy and
middle class Europeans still live in the inner rings of the neighborhoods near the
CBD not out in the suburbs. In the past, poorer people lived in the center of the
city. Before electricity, social segregation was vertical: richer people lived on the
first or second floor of a building while the poorer people lived in the basement or
upper floors. In the Industrial Revolution, housing for the poor was constructed
near the factories and away from the rich.
Today poorer Europeans are less likely to live in the inner-city. Poor quality
housing has been renovated for the rich or turned into office buildings. Poorer
Europeans tend to live in the outskirts of the city. Vast suburbs with dozens of high
rise apartments house the poor. They face long commutes to reach their jobs in
the city.
34

European cities generally do not have the “suburban
sprawl” that US cities have. European cities tend to be
more pedestrian friendly with more parks downtown as
Europeans tend to still live downtown.
US cities have taller buildings as European cities tend to
be older and more historic.

American cities have more ethnic neighborhoods than
European cities. Ethnic neighborhoods that do exist in
European cities tend to be in the suburbs. WHY?
Because the established richer neighborhoods tend to be
downtown in European cities.
35

Less Developed Countries: Like Europe, most LDC’s accommodate their poor in the
suburbs with their middle class and rich living near the center of the city. LDC’s have
passed through 3 periods of city building: before the Europeans arrived, during the
period of European colonialism, and since independence from European control.

Pre-colonial Cities: Before the Europeans arrived few cities existed in Africa, Asia, and
Latin America and most people lived in small rural settlements. Those cities that existed
were mostly laid out surrounding a religious center; with the rest of the city laid out in a
hieratical concentric pattern (like the Burgess model) from government buildings,
homes of the wealthy, and businesses related to the religion out to other businesses
and shops.
Colonial cities: When the Europeans took over these lands, they changed the cities by
adding services to help the Europeans control the conquered people. Often a new
European style city would be build next to the existing native one. The new European
cities contained wider streets, a public square, larger houses and a much lower density.
The Spanish used the “Law of the Indies” which was a city plan designed specifically to
build cities in a “Spanish” style. (Gridiron pattern for streets centered on a church and
central plaza, walls around individual houses and neighborhoods centered around
smaller plazas and more churches.)
36

Early Mexico city was laid out in a grid pattern of streets. This followed
the Spanish “Law of the Indies.”

37

Central Plaza in Mexico City 1920 photo. Typical Colonial City plan.

Part of downtown Mexico city today still shows the
building plan of the “Law of the Indies.”

38

Cities since Independence: Following independence, cities have become
the focal point of the development of most LDC’s. Millions of people have
migrated to the cities (Primate cities) looking for jobs and services. Some
capitals have been moved to isolated areas in an attempt to help develop
that area of the country (Brasília) This is know as a forward capital. Latin
American cities have developed their own unique style.
Squatter settlements: The LDC’s are unable to house the rapidly growing
number of poor who are flowing into the cities. Because of the housing
shortages, the poor have constructed their own settlements around the city.
These settlements have few services because neither the city nor the
residents can afford them. Squatters have two basic choices for housing.
1. Illegally move into empty real houses located in the city or,
2. Rent slum housing.
(85% of the population of Addis Ababa in Ethiopia lives in squatter
settlements, slums or other illegal housing.)
39

Squatter shacks in Manila, the Philippines

40

Squatter settlement in Ethiopia

41

Zimbabwe, Africa

42

Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

43

Latin American City Model:
In many Latin
American cities,
the wealthy live in
the inner city and
in a sector
extending along a
commercial spine.
In situ accretion- businesses
and homes constantly under
construction/repair.
Zone of maturity-2nd best
housing in the city.
The poor live in squatter settlements on the
periphery of the city.

Disamenity- unpleasant area
used by the poor to get to the
market.

44

The City Outline of Rio de Janeiro
The rich tourist areas and expensive condo apartments are along the coast
and beach while the poor live in squatter shacks in the hills.

45

City problems:
Inner-City Physical Problems: Most US inner cities were constructed before the 1950’s
(people began to move to the suburbs in the 1950’s so new construction moved out of
the city).
Process of Deterioration (how a city deteriorates): A city doesn’t suddenly become old
and full of slummy areas. It happens over time. When a group of low-income people
inhabit an area of a city, nearby neighborhoods will often look to move out. They sell or
rent to more low-income occupants thus expanding the low-income area. Two processes
cause/speed up the devaluation of areas:
1. Filtering, 2. Redlining.
Filtering: Large houses and buildings that once housed rich downtown workers (who
moved to the suburbs) are taken over by landlords who don’t live in that area (they
moved to the suburbs too). Rents are low so the landlord doesn’t take as good care of
the property as they should and the property becomes run down or abandoned. Stores
close, or move, due to lack of sales. 100 years ago these neighborhoods would be used
by immigrants and ethnic businesses would succeed in those areas. Now, with a decline
in immigration, these neighborhoods have shrunk and so have schools, businesses and
other services. Thousands of vacant houses and buildings stand empty in inner cities
across America.

46

Redlining: Some banks refuse to give loans in what they consider
risky neighborhoods. They draw a red line on a map around areas
where they will not give loans. Without loans, these neighborhoods
have a hard time rebuilding/remodeling. Though illegal, this still
happens. Bankers just don’t put these “no-loan” areas on a map.

Urban Renewal: This is the series of projects to improve European
and N. American cities by buying up the blighted neighborhoods,
moving the people to new government built housing projects, and
building new roads, and other projects to make the inner city
attractive for business again. National and State government grants
help pay for these projects.
47

Public housing: Housing for the poor, built with government funding as part of
urban renewal. In the US this is only about 2% of the housing while in some
countries it may be more (Britain is 30%). Public housing built in the 50’s & 60’s
were largely high rise apartments, but those are seen as being unsatisfactory.
Problems arise from cramming large numbers of poor people into one area.
Today most public housing projects are one to three story buildings with many of
them being scattered around different parts of the city rather than clustered into
one area.
Because urban renewal has been criticized for destroying the social cohesion of
older neighborhoods, many governments (like the US) have stopped funding
most projects since the 1970’s. What do we do instead?
Renovated Housing: An alternative often used since the 70’s is to renovate a
building instead of urban renewal. The process where middle-class people
move into inner-city neighborhoods and renovate them is called gentrification.
Gentrified inner-city neighborhoods also attract middle-class people who work
downtown. Living close to work saves the hassle of commuting and rejuvenates
run down inner-city neighborhoods
48

Gentrified building downtown Harlem, NY. Note the supermarket.

49

Inner-City Social Problems: Inner-city residents are often referred to as the
permanent underclass because they are trapped in an unending cycle of
economic and social problems. High unemployment, alcoholism, drug
addiction, literacy, juvenile delinquency, and crime all exist at a higher rate
among those who live in the inner-city. Lack of jobs means lack of tax dollars
to pay for police and fire protection as well as good schools. Lack of job skills
and homelessness are also tremendous problems.
Culture of Poverty: Inner-city residents are trapped in a permanent underclass
culture that reproduces itself. In the US, unwed mothers give birth to 2/3 of the
babies in the inner-city. 90% of these children live with only one parent and it
is real hard for one parent to keep a job and take care of children. Both suffer
and a shortage of care and daily attention by the parent contributes to the kids
not learning the skills necessary to do well in school which leads to poor jobs
for their futures. Poverty leads to more poverty. Many families on welfare have
only one parent because it is financially better if one parent is gone, that way
the single parent gets food stamps and other services from the government
that they would not get if it was a 2 family household.
50

Crime: Trapped in a hopeless environment, some inner-city
residents turn to drugs. Drug use is a problem in inner-city
areas and the suburbs, but rates of drug use in inner-cities
are the highest.
Ethnic and Racial Segregation: As seen in chapter 7, many
neighborhoods in the US are segregated by ethnicity with
African Americans and Hispanics concentrated in one or two
continuous areas and whites living in the suburbs. Even small
cities display a strong distinction among neighborhoods. A
frequent division is between the east and west or north and
south side of town, or the railroad tracks. A family seeking a
new residence will seek the areas where the characteristics
of the people meet their own.

51

The exodus
from the
American city.
This has
happened in
many American
cities since the
1960’s.

52

Changes in Cities in the U.S.
U.S. population has been moving out of the city centers to the suburbs:
suburbanization and counter urbanization

Developed Countries: suburbanization

 wealthy move to suburbs
 automobiles and roads; ‘American
Dream’ of the home in the suburbs.
 better services
 wealthy move to suburbs
Counter urbanization

idyllic settings
cost of land for retirement
slow pace, yet high tech
connections to services and markets
53

U.S. intraregional migration during 1990s.

Inner city economic problems: the concentration of low income
residents in inner cities has caused economic problems. These
people require public services but can pay very little in taxes to
support the services. They need stores and jobs but have little
money to spend in the store and few skills for jobs (so the stores
close). To try to fight these problems many local and state
governments use tax monies to try to renovate these areas, but this
shifts tax money needed for other areas to the inner city (votes on
election day).
Annexation: Many cities could help their tax problem by adding the
new suburbs to be part of their city (annexation). After all, many of
these suburban people use the city for its’ jobs etc., so why not add
them into the city? Today, most people in the suburbs do not want
to be annexed into the city and so they do not vote to be annexed.
54

The Peripheral Model: According to this model, an urban area
consists of an inner city surrounded by large suburban residential
and business areas (MSA) tied together by a beltway or highway
that circles the city. Around the beltway are nodes of consumer
and business services called edge cities (see diagram of multiple
nuclei model). These edge cities sprang up to provide services
and jobs to the people in the suburbs.
Density Gradient: As you travel outward from the center of the
city, the density of people declines. Inner city has big apartments
of 250 of more people per acre. Suburbs have fewer people per
acre (but lots of acres) and finally you leave the cities periphery
you find few people. The number of houses per unit of land
diminishes as distance from the center of the city increases.
55

The Edge cities (bedroom communities) of Houston

The central city is surrounded by a ring road, around which are
suburban areas and edge cities, shopping malls, office parks,
industrial areas, and service complexes.

Known as
bedroom
communities
because
people live
there but
mostly don’t
work there.
They drive
into the city
for work.
56

As you move from the center of the city outward, the density of the population
changes. This is know as the density gradient. Two big changes have occurred in
the density gradient of today’s cities:
1. The number of people living in the center has decreased.
2. The density difference between the inner city and the suburbs is declining
because the inner city density is dropping and the suburban density is growing
due to more large apartments being built in the suburbs.
Cost of Suburban or Urban Sprawl: Urban Sprawl is the progressive spread of
development over the landscape. As long as we Americans want single-family
detached houses, land on the fringe of urban areas will be converted from open
space to residential use. The cost of this growth is more than the loss of land, it is
also the cost of new roads, utilities, building stores and offices and the cost of
automobiles to move these people over even longer distances. Lots of these new
developments are built on what was once farmland. Wonderful productive soil now
under concrete.

Greenbelts: are areas where, by law, the open space can not be used for any
construction. This is mostly found in Europe.

57

Once farmland that is being converted to suburbs and cities.

58

Tyson’s Corner Virginia in 1940

59

Washington, DC. MSA.

Tyson’s Corner Virginia
today.
Washington D.C. is off
In the distance.

60

Suburban Segregation: The “new” segregation.
Suburban segregation takes two forms:
1. Residents are separated from commercial and manufacturing activities
which are confined someplace else. (The whole neighborhood is
nothing but houses because they drive for services.)
2. The price of the house eliminates some from being able to live there. This
creates a homogeneous suburb of the same economic class of people.
This never existed before in history. Where we once had vertical
segregation of the classes we now we have horizontal segregation.
3. But this may be reversing as new statistics show that people are beginning
to move back to the city. Why? Cost of transportation.
Zoning Ordinances: This idea developed in Europe and later America in the
early decades of the 20th century. This means that businesses are allowed only
in certain areas of the settlement. (No all night taco stands inside your single
family neighborhood.)
Motor vehicles: The wide use of the automobile is largely responsible for the
American movement to the suburbs. Not only did people move out but 1/4 of
the land inside all American cities are now roads, streets, and parking lots.

61

Public Transportation: Because few US workers live within walking distance
of their jobs, urban areas are characterized by extensive commuting and the
problems that come with it. As much as 40% of all trips made into or out from
a city during the day takes place within just 4 hours. (2 in the morning and 2 in
the late afternoon). RUSH HOUR!!! In large cities, public transportation, like
subways and busses, are better suited to move people but Americans still
prefer their own cars. Public transportation is cheaper, cleaner, and more
energy efficient than personal cars, yet in the US only 5% of city travel is
done using public transit systems. American’s love their personal car too
much.
Local Government Fragmentation: Because of the large number of local
governments in the US (look at the settlements in Pinellas County) it is
difficult to solve some of the regional problems like garbage disposal, water
management, traffic and public housing.
62

Metropolitan government: This idea tries to put many local governments into a
larger unit that can better handle the urban problems. The 2 ways to do this
are:
1. Federations in which the individual settlements have their own police,
firemen, and tax collection but they all agree to be part of a second
government which handles transportation, water, sewage, parks and
welfare for all the communities.
2. Consolidations: In this method, several cities and the county may form one
government. Jacksonville’s government runs not only the town but the
county too, this makes Jacksonville the largest city, in land size, in the US.
Smart growth: A new movement by many states to curb suburban sprawl by
limiting where new construction can take place. Smart growth laws require that
land near cities be used up before any land further out can be developed. So
far, this is only being done an a few parts of our country.
63

The new
US as
some
people
see it.

64

Quiz Yourself:
1. The process where middle-class people move into inner city neighborhoods and
renovate them is called ____________
2. ____________ happens when banks refuse to give loans in what they consider
risky neighborhoods.
3. Because of the housing shortages, the poor have constructed their own settlements
around the city known as __________ _________

4. Businesses are allowed only in certain areas of the settlement because of
____________ ____________
5. Areas known as _____ _______ are areas of about 5,000 people. The data from
that area is used to help define needed services for that area.
6. When cities are so close that they form one continuous band of development this is
known as a ____________
65

7. Social relationships are often described as “colder” in urban areas because…
8. In this model the city develops in a series of sectors not rings. _______

9. ______ (LDC’s or MDC’s) have a higher percentage of people living in urban
settlements but ________ (LDC’s or MDC’s) have more of the very large urban
settlements.
10. _____________ was the first model developed to explain the distributions
of different social groups within urban areas.
11. New cities which develop around the beltway are nodes of consumer and
business services known as ________ _________.

12. When the Europeans took over lands around the world, they changed the
cities by adding services to help the Europeans control the conquered people.
These European planned cities are known as __________ cities.
66

Answer Key:
1.

Gentrification

2.

Redlining

3.

Squatter Settlements

4.

Zoning ordinances

5.

Census tracks

6.

Megalopolis

7. There is a stronger feeling of belonging together in small rural settlements.
8. Hoyt sector model
9. MDC, LDC
10. Burgess Concentric Zone model
11. Edge cities
12. Colonial cities
67

Test Key topic/chapter 13:
These questions come from a combination of our slides, your text book, and common knowledge you should
have discussed in your AP classroom. They are very typical of what you will see on the National Exam.
1) The multiple nuclei theory best explains why different neighborhoods of a city attract people of different… A) ages.
B) ethnic origin C) income D) marital status.
2) Sprawl is the… A) change in density within an urban area from the center to the periphery B) development of new
housing sites not contiguous to the existing built-up area. C) land maintained as open space surrounding an urban area.
D) period in the morning and evening with the heaviest volumes of traffic.
3) People are attracted to suburbs in part because suburbs are characterized by…A) heavy traffic. B) lower opportunity
for home ownership. C) private land surrounding the house. D) row houses and apartments.
4) Megalopolis refers to… A) adjacent, overlapping Metropolitan Statistical Areas. B) central cities. C) consolidated
Metropolitan Statistical Areas. D) central cities plus urbanized areas.
5) Which statement best describes the relationship between urbanization and the Industrial Revolution? A) Urbanization
promoted the Industrial Revolution. B) The Industrial Revolution promoted urbanization. C) Urbanization preceded the
Industrial Revolution by thousands of years. D) Urbanization and the Industrial Revolution are no longer related.
6) The process of legally adding land area to a city in the United States is… A) annexation. B) accreditation. C) an
application of eminent domain. D) defined by urbanized area.

68

7) The process of change in the use of a house, from single-family owner occupancy to abandonment, is… A) blockbusting.
B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining.
8) A process by which banks designate an area within which they refuse to lend money for improvements is… A) blockbusting.
B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining.
9) A recent change in the density gradient has been… A) the elimination of the gap traditionally found in the center. B) an
increase in the extremes between the inner and outer areas. C) an increase in the number of people living in the center.
D) a reduction in the differences in densities found within an urban area.
10) U.S. central cities face fiscal problems because… A) federal and state funds are available. B) low-income people are
concentrated there. C) middle-class families are attracted there. D) redlining is no longer legal.
11) A legal form of segregation in U.S. cities is achieved through...A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) zoning. D) greenbelts.
12) Factories have moved to suburban locations in part because of… A) access to main highways. B) adequate space to build
vertical structures. C) availability of large tracts of high-priced land. D) good rail connections.
13) According to the sector model, the best housing is located in…A) a corridor from downtown to the edge of the city.
B) an outer ring surrounding the city. C) nodes near universities and parks. D) renovated inner-city neighborhoods.
14) Ramshackle houses on the periphery of cities in less developed countries are known as… A) squatter settlements. B) council
estates. C) public housing. D) zone in transition.
15) Higher income people tend to live near the center of the city in all but which of the following regions? A) Latin America
B) North America C) South Asia D) Western Europe

16) The wide boulevards built in cities in less developed countries were most likely built during what era? A) pre-colonial
B) colonial C) independence D) all of the above equally

69

17) According to the multiple nuclei model, an airport is likely to attract nearby… A) industries. B) residences. C) shops.
D) universities.
18) The largest percentage of the U.S. population lives in…A) central cities. B) suburbs. C) non-metropolitan areas. D) all of the
above
19) In U.S. cities, the underclass is… A) clustered in inner-city neighborhoods. B) dispersed throughout the city. C) clustered in
suburbs. D) distributed uniformly in the city.

20) A process of converting a neighborhood from low-income to middle-class is…A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) gentrification.
D) redlining.
21) Higher social heterogeneity in urban settlements means that… A) the people with whom you relax are probably the same ones you
see at work. B) you play a specialized role in the urban economy. C) you compete for limited space. D) you may feel lonely and
isolated in a crowd.
22) The city plus its contiguous built-up suburbs is the… A) central city. B) urbanized area.
D) consolidated metropolitan statistical area

C) metropolitan statistical area.

23) The process whereby an increasing percentage of people live in an urban area is known as… A) demographic transition.
B) rank-size rule. C) urbanization. D) central place theory.
24) Of the ten largest urban areas in the world, how many are in More Developed Countries today? A) 1 B) 4 C) 7 D) 10 E) 2
25) Public housing is…A) conversion of low-income housing to middle-class housing. B) illegally established low-income housing.
C) housing that has changed from single-family owner occupancy to abandonment. D) low-income government-owned housing.
26) According to the concentric zone model, a city develops in a series of… A) corridors. B) nodes. C) rings. D) all of the above

70

27) Chicago is a good location in which to develop urban models because it is located… A) at the hub of the nation's transportation
system. B) in the center of the country. C) on a flat prairie. D) on the shore of Lake Michigan.
28) According to the sector model, the best housing is located in… A) a corridor from downtown to the edge of the city. B) an outer
ring surrounding the city. C) nodes near universities and parks. D) renovated inner-city neighborhoods.
29) The zone of transition in US cities generally contain…A) warehouses B) wealthy neighborhoods C) transportation hubs
D) universities and hospitals E) suburban homes
30) The attractions of shopping malls include all but which of the following? A) frequent concerts and exhibitions B) generous
parking lots C) place to meet friends D) walking distance from homes
The following questions are written at the high school level. You will find some questions from part one often rewritten
here. This is all designed to help you transition to the college/AP style of written questions. Any question preceded with ***
are questions that have been on the national exam before.
31. Most Latin American cities are focused on a…A) central plaza B) government housing project C) zone of heavy industry
D) skyscraper office building E) squatter settlement
32. The multiple-nuclei model of a city structure tends to be most applicable to…A) small cities B) traditional C) Latin American
cities D) newer, fast growing cities E) cities with homogeneous land use
33. ***Locational advantages important to the development of the earliest cities include…A) availability of good harbors for large
ships B) productive agricultural land and defensible sites C) temperate climate and proximity to coal mines D) good
connections by road and canal E) proximity to manufacturing areas

34. In cities, the CBD’s often show uniqueness while the suburbs usually show…A) a large hinterland. B) placelessness C) more
than one node. D) newer zones of transition.

71

35. Many LDC’s have tried to help a previously under-developed part of their country develop by moving their capital
city to that area. This new capital is known as a…A) forward capital B) new development zone C) enterprise zone
D) neocolonial city
36. Today the greatest number of urban dwellers is found in…A) North America
D) Europe E) Asia

B) South America C) Africa

37. ***All of the following have helped create ghettos in North American cities except…A)blockbusting and racial
steering B) redlining by financial institutions C) concentration of public housing and social services D) fixed school
districts E) Economic Enterprise Zones

38. Which of the following is NOT as reason for rapid suburbanization in the US after WW2? A) Mass production of
the automobile B) Reduction of long distance commuting C) Expansion of home construction D) Expansion of the
interstate highway system E) Availability of low down payment terms and long-term mortgages.
39. New cities which developed in the hinterland of large urban areas because of the automobile, are known as…
A) edge cities B) census tracts C) suburban sprawl D) squatter settlements. E) none of these
40. Gentrification refers to… A) moving the homeless into inner city shelters B) The “White Flight” from the urban city
C) losing tax revenue because of stores closing in downtown areas D) middle-class people moving into and renovating
inner city neighborhoods E) the creation of “beltway cities” around the city.

72

4
7
3

5

1
6

2

41-48 all use the sketch above.
41. The sketch in box A above represents which model of the inner structure of urban areas?
C) multiple nuclei model D) Burgess concentric zone model E) peripheral model
42. The models in boxes B and C represent A) Concentric zone and multiple nuclei
concentric zone D) peripheral and concentric zone E) Von Thunen and peripheral

A) Hoyt sector model B) VonThunen’s model

B) Multiple nuclei and Hoyt sector C) Hoyt sector and

43. In which ring (1, 2, etc.) of sketch A above would high-status households in North American cities likely live? A) 1 B) 2 C) 3 D) 4&5
44. In which ring (1, 2, etc.) of sketch A above would high status households in a European city likely live? A) 1

B) 2

C) 3

D) 4&5

45. In model B, zone # 2 is where it is likely because of: A) greenbelting B) squatter settling C) the culture of poverty D) transportation
E) no one knows
46. The model in sketch B is the; A) Hoyt sector model B) Burgess model C) multiple nuclei model D) peripheral model
47. The model in sketch C is the; A) Hoyt sector model B) Burgess model C) multiple nuclei model D) peripheral model
48. Which of these models best describes what has happened in US cities in the last 40 years? A)

B)

C)

73

49.*** In the U.S. a city plus its contiguous built-up suburbs is known as an…A) urbanized area B) zoned area
C) census tract D) Squatter settlement E) none of these
50. Done mostly in Europe, these are areas where land is kept as parks, farms or other kinds of open space and urban
sprawl is not allowed. A) Smart growth
B) zoning
C) filtering
D) census tracts E) greenbelts
51. Which statement best describes the relationship between urbanization and the Industrial Revolution?
A) Urbanization promoted the Industrial Revolution. B) The Industrial Revolution promoted urbanization.
C) Urbanization preceded the Industrial Revolution by thousands of years. D) Urbanization and the Industrial
Revolution are no longer related.
52. The process whereby an increasing percentage of people live in an urban area is known as…
A) Demographic transition. B) rank-size rule. C) Urbanization. D) Central place theory.
53. The city (if it has 50,000 or more people) plus its contiguous built-up suburbs AND the county it is in as well as any
other counties it influences, is known as the ...A) central city B) urbanized area
C) metropolitan statistical area
D) consolidated metropolitan area E) micropolitan statistical area
54. ***Higher social heterogeneity in urban settlements means that …A) the people with whom you relax are probably
the same ones you see at work. B) you play a specialized role in the urban economy. C) you compete for limited
space. D) you may feel lonely and isolated in a crowd.

55. The process of change in the use of a house, from single-family owner occupancy to smaller dwellings for the poor
and then sometimes to abandonment, is…A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining. E) none of
these

74

Free Response #1:
The Bid Rent theory says that the closer you get to the
CBD the higher the cost for land, yet in most American
cities you find the poorest people living near the
expensive CBD and the richest living further away.
Explain:
A. Why neighborhoods near the CBD are often poor and
run down?
B. Why are there few grocery and other retail stores in
these neighborhoods?
C. Why is this not really true in European and Latin
American countries?

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FR #2:
Think of the map of your school, explain the
layout of your school using the Multiple Nuclei
Model
The main office is the CBD.
Completely explain your answer using specific
buildings and/or land areas in your explanation
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76

Answer Key:
1. B

14. A

27. C

40. D

53. C

2. B

15. B

28. A

41. D

54. D

3. C

16. B

29. A

42. B

55. B

4. A

17. A

30. D

43. D

5. B

18. B

31. A

44. A

6. A

19. A

32. D

45. D

7. B

20. C

33. B

46. A

8. D

21. D

34. B

47. C

9. D

22. B

35. A

48. C

10. B

23. C

36. E

49. A

11. C

24. C

37. E

50. E

12. A

25. D

38. B

51. B

13. A

26. C

39. A

52. C
77

FR. #1: ( 15 pts. for each section…total of 45 pts.)
A. In the US the move of the wealthy and middle class to the suburbs has left the older houses and apartments near the CBD empty.
This has lowered their value to the point where the poor can afford these dwellings and have made these neighborhoods their
homes. The poor can not pay for upkeep of these dwellings, or to pay high taxes. The lack of upkeep and tax money to repair the
roads and schools, adds to the downward spiral of the neighborhood. With little spending money for shopping, the poor do not
spend much in the stores. This causes many stores to close and move to the suburbs where the spending customers and money
went. The closing of the stores adds to the poverty of the area by taking away some of the jobs that were in the neighborhood. This
becomes a vicious cycle of poverty and deterioration. (15 points)

B. There are few retail stores and groceries is the area because the poor do not have money to shop. The lack of spending forces
many stores out of business or forces them to move to better locations. There also can be higher crime in these areas and the
crime often takes place at the stores. This is another reason for the stores to move out of the neighborhood. (15 points)
C. Neighborhoods in European and Latin American cities are different from those of US cities. In Europe and Latin America, the
wealthy and middle class still live near or in the CBD. The higher tax base and more spending ability of the upper and middle
classes, keeps the CBD area flourishing with jobs and in constant repair and upkeep of the cities’ physical condition. (15 points)

FR #2: (10 total points.)
You will need to judge how effectively you displayed you school
in the Multiple Nuclei Model. Refer to the model itself to help you
determine your success and grade.
School’s main office
78

Calculating your grade on test 13.
Add how many you got correct on the multiple choice part (55 possible) to how many
points you scored on the FR portion (55 possible)…110 total.
The following scale will show the approximate score if this test were the real AP exam. Remember that this
is an approximation. While 65-74% is normally the range for a 3 on the test, it is not definite. Over the
years I have seen scores as low as 60% be the low portion of a 3 score.

Out of 110 possible points:
72-83 is most likely a 3
84-94 is most likely a 4

95-110 is most likely a 5

Now lets start our review for the national exam by
reviewing the 33 key models and theories of the
course…the next PowerPoint.


Slide 54

Key topic/chapter 13…Urban Patterns
Key terms:
Annexation
Concentric zone model
Density gradient
Edge cities
Filtering
Galactic city
Gentrification
Greenbelts
Megalopolis
MSA
Multiple nuclei model
Peripheral model

Public housing
Redlining
Renovated housing
Scattered site
Squatter settlement
Sector model
Smart growth
Sprawl
Underclass
Urban renewal
Zone in transition
Zoning
1

Chapter 13…Urban Areas.
How are Cities planned?
Why

are cities where they are?
How are they organized?
Why are some areas of a city
different from
other areas of the same city?
What is the future of cities?
2

Settlement


Settlement - permanent collections of buildings,
where people live, work, and obtain services

3

ORIGINS OF SETTLEMENTS


Religious - graves, churches, temples



Cultural - schools, libraries



Political/Military - leader’s house, walls



Economic - stores, food
4

TYPES OF SETTLEMENTS


Rural Settlements - agriculture as the
predominant occupation.



Urban settlements - principal industries are
secondary and tertiary.

5

RURAL SETTLEMENTS
Clustered rural settlements –grouped
settlements in rural areas to minimize travel

Dispersed rural Settlements - isolated farms
with enclosed continuous fields (Found only in
N. America and Britain).

6

Urban Geographers want to know the global distribution of urban
settlements. MDC’s have a high percentage of people living in urban
areas because of the shift from agriculture-manufacturing-services.
Geographers are also interested in where people and activities are
distributed within urban spaces. What are the differences between the
inner-city and suburban areas and why?
As we saw in the last chapter, many downtowns are unique and can
often be recognized in photos where the suburbs often look very
much alike (Placelessness). Why? Suburbs offer the chance to avoid
some of the city problems (crime, tight living area, expensive
land/rent, noise, age of buildings) while still keeping a connection with
the goods and services of the city: jobs, sports teams, culture, shops,
recreation, etc.
7

Where is this place?

8

Today’s cities are evolving and changing. Although different internal
situations characterize urban areas in the US and elsewhere, the
problems arising from current spatial trends are quite similar in all cities.
Where have urban areas grown: in the early 1800’s only 3% of the earth’s
people lived in cities and only Beijing China had more than 1 million
people. Today over ½ of the world’s people live in cities and we have over
400 cities of at least 1 million people.

Urbanization: is the process by which city population grows.
Cities population growth is measured in 2 dimensions;
1. An increase in the number of people living in the cities.
2. An increase in the percentage of people living in the cities.
This distinction is important because they happen for different reason and
have different global distributions.
9

Increasing Percentage of People in Cities: a large percentage of people living in urban
areas is a measure of a country’s level of development. In MDC’s about ¾ of the people
live in urban areas compared to about 2/5 of people in LDC’s. (Except in Latin America
where the level is closer to MDC’s.)
The higher percentage of people in urban areas comes from the changes that have
occurred in the last 200 years as we went from agriculture (primary jobs) to industrial
(secondary jobs) and now service jobs, all created by the Industrial Revolution of the
1800’s.
People moved to the cities for industrial jobs, but in MDC’s this process has largely
ended because nearly everyone interested in moving to the cities from farms has already
done so.
In LDC’s the percentage of people living in urban areas is growing as people are pushed
off of their farms and replaced by machines and as people move to cities looking/hoping
for industrial jobs.
10

Increasing Number of People in Cities: MDC’s have a higher percentage of
people living in urban settlements but LDC’s have more of the very large urban
settlements (Primate cities). (Rank-size rule, primate cities, chapter 12.)

This is interesting because typically the large cities are created from the
improvements brought by the Industrial Revolution. This is not the case with the
large LDC cities. Migration to the primate city in LDC’s is happening even though
job opportunities may not be available. Increasing the population growth in LDC
cities is the fact that medical services are better in these cities, thus the child
mortality rate is lower.
Defining Urban Settlements: defining where urban areas end and rural areas
begin is not easy. Geographers have formulated definitions that distinguish
between urban and rural areas in two ways: Social differences and Physical
differences.
11

Percent Urban Population

Percent of the population living in urban areas is usually higher in MDCs
than in LDCs.

12

The most populated cities in the world

Of the top
20, only
Moscow,
Tokyo and
New York
are in MDC’s

Shanghai China has 14,608,512 people
13

14

15

Social Differences Between Urban and Rural Settlements: it is fair to say that rural
people and urban people follow different ways of life. A city can be defined as having 3
characteristics:
1. Large size. People in rural settlements know most of the other people in the
settlement. Not true in big cities. Social relationships are often described as “colder” in
urban areas because you only see some people at work instead of growing up with
them in the settlement.
2. High Density. Having lots of people in a tiny area creates social consequences. A
high density of people living in a small area can only be supported if the people
specialize (they can’t all be farmers). People are encouraged to compete for jobs, room,
and survival in a tightly limited space. Social groups compete to occupy the same space
(ethnic/ race problems). Rural settlements have very little of this problem.
3. Social Heterogeneity. The larger the settlement, the greater the variety of people.
Being “unusual” in a large settlement is more likely to be accepted than in a small rural
one. But despite the freedom to be different that large urban settlements give you,
people living there often feel alone because so many people are different from them.
There is a stronger feeling of belonging together in small rural settlements.
16

These 3 differences do not fully answer the question of where urban settlements
begin and rural ones end because in today’s MDC’s most everyone has access to
cars, telephones, televisions, and “urban type” jobs which reduce the differences
between urban and rural lifestyles. “City folk” and “Country folk” are more alike
today than they are different. To help distinguish between urban and rural areas we
need to add the physical definition of rural and urban to the equation.
Physical Definitions of Urban Settlements: In ancient time, cities had defensive
walls for protection which clearly defined the physical boundaries of the city. Today
the walls are gone but we can still define the physical boundaries in 3 ways:
1. Legal boundary. These are the official boundaries of a city as recognized by
the government of the country or state. These “city limits” have been officially given
to the city and are physically marked on official maps. The local government of the
city has authority to make laws and protect the people inside the city boundaries.
17

2. Urbanized area. This is the city plus its suburbs or urbanized area that
surrounds the city. About 70 percent of US residents live in urbanized areas with
40% being in the suburbs and 30% inside the city limits. The suburbs may have
their own city governments but the huge central city dominates what happens in
the entire area.
3. Metropolitan Statistical Area. Cities have an even bigger influence on people
than just those living in their city limits and surrounding urbanized areas. People
from far away come to shop, use the services, support the sports teams, read
the newspapers and watch the television broadcasts of the city. Thus the city
has a “functional area” which is its total zone of influence. The US Bureau of
Census has created a method of measuring the functional area of the city.
Known as the Metropolitan statistical area (MSA) this area includes:
•An urbanized area with a population of at least 50,000
•The county within which the city is located.
•Adjacent counties with a high population density and a large percentage of
residents working in the central city’s county.
18

Metropolitan Area of Philadelphia

City of
Philadelphia

Urbanized
area
(suburbs)
Metropolitan
Statistical
Area

The metropolitan area of Philadelphia is
spread over several counties and four states.
It is also a diversified trade center, given its
position on the Delaware river.

19

20

21

Micropolitan Statistical Areas: Smaller areas with between
10,000 and 50,000 people, the county where it is found, and
adjacent counties tied to the city. This would be a small town and
the area dominated by it.
Overlapping Metropolitan Areas: Some adjacent MSA’s overlap.
A county between two central cities may send a large number of
commuters to jobs in both cities. In some areas the cities are so
close that they form one continuous urban complex. This is
known as a Megalopolis (great city).
In a megalopolis, the downtown CBD often has its own
distinctive look and the urban areas are visually separated by
parks, open spaces, and dairy/truck farms. But at the periphery
of the urban areas, the boundaries overlap.
22

Colorado Springs, population 431,000

Ocala, Florida, population 56,000

Florala, Alabama, population 1,900

23

Megalopolis, from northern Va. To Maine.
This Illustrates the
difference between
strict city proper
definitions and broader
urban agglomerations.
To define urbanized
areas, the U.S. Census
Bureau uses the term
Metropolitan Statistical
Area (MSA) or
Consolidated MSA
(CMSA) if two or more of
them overlap.
24

Where are People Distributed within Urban Areas? People are not
just distributed at random in urban areas. For the most part they
concentrate in particular neighborhoods depending on their social
characteristics. Geographers want to see where people with
particular characteristics are likely to live and why.

Three models which try to explain the growth of a city:

The Burgess Model

The Hoyt Sector Model

The Harris and Ullman
multiple Nuclei Model
25

Burgess Concentric Zone Model

In the concentric zone model, a city grows in a series of rings surrounding the CBD.

Burgess Concentric Zone Model: This is the first used to explain the
distributions of different social groups within urban areas. It says that a
city grows outward from a central place in a series of concentric rings.
The precise size and width of the rings vary from one city to another, but
some basic types of rings appear in all cities in the same order (see chart
above).
26

•Hoyt Sector Model: In this model the city develops in a
series of sectors not rings. Certain areas of the city are
more attractive for various activities, originally because
of an environmental factor (or even pure chance). As the
city grows, activities extend outward in a wedge shape.
For example, once a wealthy neighborhood is built the
next wealthy neighborhood will extend from the first
neighborhood further outward from the center. In this
way, the best housing is found in a corridor extending
outward from the center to the outer edge (see chart on
the next page).
27

The Hoyt Sector Model

In the sector model, a city grows in a series of
wedges or corridors extending out from the
CBD.
28

•Harris and Ullman’s Multiple Nuclei Model: According
to this model, a city is a complex structure that includes
more than one center around which activities revolve.
Examples of these nodes include a port, parks,
stadium, neighborhood business center, university, and
airport (see chart). This theory states that some
activities are attracted to particular nodes, whereas
others try to avoid them. A university node may attract
well educated people and bookstores while the port will
attract hotels and warehouses. Heavy industry and
expensive houses rarely are found together. This
model shows the effect of the automobile more than
any other model.
29

The Harris and Ullman Multiple Nuclei model

The multiple nuclei model views a city as a
collection of individual centers, around which
different people and activities cluster.

30

Applications of the Models: The three models help explain where and in some
cases, why people live where they do. None of the models by themselves fully
explains why and where different types of people live, but combined they give
you as good a look as possible at the “Why” of “Where.” Effective use of the
models depends on getting good data on the areas. Most countries take a
census every 10 years to help determine useful data about the people and
places of the country. In our country we divide the census data into areas
known as census tracts of about 5,000 people. Each census tract has the data
that summarizes the characteristics of the people living within that tract. This
information includes things like the race, income, age, and education of the
people living in that tract.
Social Area Analysis: The data from the census tracts can all be plotted onto
maps to show the characteristics of the people living in that tract. This map is
known as a social area analysis.
31

Using Census tract information…Seattle, Washington
Each lined area is a
census tract of about 5000
people in Seattle
Washington. These maps
show average household
income for 1990 and
2000…note the changes in
income in some areas
between 1990 and 2000.
Using this information, a
business can make
decisions about where
they want to locate a new
store or the future of
existing stores.
You can find census tract
information on many topics
such as; age, education
level, race, ethnicity, crime
rate, and land ownership.
Note the areas with
incomes over
$63,000.

All can be very valuable
information to people
looking to open
businesses.

32

Examine the changes
between 1990 and
2000.

Oakland, California’s Ethnic neighborhoods
The small bordered areas are census tracks of 5000 people.

33

Use of the Models Outside of North America: The 3 models will also work in other
places in the world; however social groups in other countries may not have the
same reasons for selecting particular neighborhoods as Americans do.
European Cities: As in the US, wealthier people in European cities cluster along a
sector extending outward from the CBD, however unlike the US, wealthy and
middle class Europeans still live in the inner rings of the neighborhoods near the
CBD not out in the suburbs. In the past, poorer people lived in the center of the
city. Before electricity, social segregation was vertical: richer people lived on the
first or second floor of a building while the poorer people lived in the basement or
upper floors. In the Industrial Revolution, housing for the poor was constructed
near the factories and away from the rich.
Today poorer Europeans are less likely to live in the inner-city. Poor quality
housing has been renovated for the rich or turned into office buildings. Poorer
Europeans tend to live in the outskirts of the city. Vast suburbs with dozens of high
rise apartments house the poor. They face long commutes to reach their jobs in
the city.
34

European cities generally do not have the “suburban
sprawl” that US cities have. European cities tend to be
more pedestrian friendly with more parks downtown as
Europeans tend to still live downtown.
US cities have taller buildings as European cities tend to
be older and more historic.

American cities have more ethnic neighborhoods than
European cities. Ethnic neighborhoods that do exist in
European cities tend to be in the suburbs. WHY?
Because the established richer neighborhoods tend to be
downtown in European cities.
35

Less Developed Countries: Like Europe, most LDC’s accommodate their poor in the
suburbs with their middle class and rich living near the center of the city. LDC’s have
passed through 3 periods of city building: before the Europeans arrived, during the
period of European colonialism, and since independence from European control.

Pre-colonial Cities: Before the Europeans arrived few cities existed in Africa, Asia, and
Latin America and most people lived in small rural settlements. Those cities that existed
were mostly laid out surrounding a religious center; with the rest of the city laid out in a
hieratical concentric pattern (like the Burgess model) from government buildings,
homes of the wealthy, and businesses related to the religion out to other businesses
and shops.
Colonial cities: When the Europeans took over these lands, they changed the cities by
adding services to help the Europeans control the conquered people. Often a new
European style city would be build next to the existing native one. The new European
cities contained wider streets, a public square, larger houses and a much lower density.
The Spanish used the “Law of the Indies” which was a city plan designed specifically to
build cities in a “Spanish” style. (Gridiron pattern for streets centered on a church and
central plaza, walls around individual houses and neighborhoods centered around
smaller plazas and more churches.)
36

Early Mexico city was laid out in a grid pattern of streets. This followed
the Spanish “Law of the Indies.”

37

Central Plaza in Mexico City 1920 photo. Typical Colonial City plan.

Part of downtown Mexico city today still shows the
building plan of the “Law of the Indies.”

38

Cities since Independence: Following independence, cities have become
the focal point of the development of most LDC’s. Millions of people have
migrated to the cities (Primate cities) looking for jobs and services. Some
capitals have been moved to isolated areas in an attempt to help develop
that area of the country (Brasília) This is know as a forward capital. Latin
American cities have developed their own unique style.
Squatter settlements: The LDC’s are unable to house the rapidly growing
number of poor who are flowing into the cities. Because of the housing
shortages, the poor have constructed their own settlements around the city.
These settlements have few services because neither the city nor the
residents can afford them. Squatters have two basic choices for housing.
1. Illegally move into empty real houses located in the city or,
2. Rent slum housing.
(85% of the population of Addis Ababa in Ethiopia lives in squatter
settlements, slums or other illegal housing.)
39

Squatter shacks in Manila, the Philippines

40

Squatter settlement in Ethiopia

41

Zimbabwe, Africa

42

Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

43

Latin American City Model:
In many Latin
American cities,
the wealthy live in
the inner city and
in a sector
extending along a
commercial spine.
In situ accretion- businesses
and homes constantly under
construction/repair.
Zone of maturity-2nd best
housing in the city.
The poor live in squatter settlements on the
periphery of the city.

Disamenity- unpleasant area
used by the poor to get to the
market.

44

The City Outline of Rio de Janeiro
The rich tourist areas and expensive condo apartments are along the coast
and beach while the poor live in squatter shacks in the hills.

45

City problems:
Inner-City Physical Problems: Most US inner cities were constructed before the 1950’s
(people began to move to the suburbs in the 1950’s so new construction moved out of
the city).
Process of Deterioration (how a city deteriorates): A city doesn’t suddenly become old
and full of slummy areas. It happens over time. When a group of low-income people
inhabit an area of a city, nearby neighborhoods will often look to move out. They sell or
rent to more low-income occupants thus expanding the low-income area. Two processes
cause/speed up the devaluation of areas:
1. Filtering, 2. Redlining.
Filtering: Large houses and buildings that once housed rich downtown workers (who
moved to the suburbs) are taken over by landlords who don’t live in that area (they
moved to the suburbs too). Rents are low so the landlord doesn’t take as good care of
the property as they should and the property becomes run down or abandoned. Stores
close, or move, due to lack of sales. 100 years ago these neighborhoods would be used
by immigrants and ethnic businesses would succeed in those areas. Now, with a decline
in immigration, these neighborhoods have shrunk and so have schools, businesses and
other services. Thousands of vacant houses and buildings stand empty in inner cities
across America.

46

Redlining: Some banks refuse to give loans in what they consider
risky neighborhoods. They draw a red line on a map around areas
where they will not give loans. Without loans, these neighborhoods
have a hard time rebuilding/remodeling. Though illegal, this still
happens. Bankers just don’t put these “no-loan” areas on a map.

Urban Renewal: This is the series of projects to improve European
and N. American cities by buying up the blighted neighborhoods,
moving the people to new government built housing projects, and
building new roads, and other projects to make the inner city
attractive for business again. National and State government grants
help pay for these projects.
47

Public housing: Housing for the poor, built with government funding as part of
urban renewal. In the US this is only about 2% of the housing while in some
countries it may be more (Britain is 30%). Public housing built in the 50’s & 60’s
were largely high rise apartments, but those are seen as being unsatisfactory.
Problems arise from cramming large numbers of poor people into one area.
Today most public housing projects are one to three story buildings with many of
them being scattered around different parts of the city rather than clustered into
one area.
Because urban renewal has been criticized for destroying the social cohesion of
older neighborhoods, many governments (like the US) have stopped funding
most projects since the 1970’s. What do we do instead?
Renovated Housing: An alternative often used since the 70’s is to renovate a
building instead of urban renewal. The process where middle-class people
move into inner-city neighborhoods and renovate them is called gentrification.
Gentrified inner-city neighborhoods also attract middle-class people who work
downtown. Living close to work saves the hassle of commuting and rejuvenates
run down inner-city neighborhoods
48

Gentrified building downtown Harlem, NY. Note the supermarket.

49

Inner-City Social Problems: Inner-city residents are often referred to as the
permanent underclass because they are trapped in an unending cycle of
economic and social problems. High unemployment, alcoholism, drug
addiction, literacy, juvenile delinquency, and crime all exist at a higher rate
among those who live in the inner-city. Lack of jobs means lack of tax dollars
to pay for police and fire protection as well as good schools. Lack of job skills
and homelessness are also tremendous problems.
Culture of Poverty: Inner-city residents are trapped in a permanent underclass
culture that reproduces itself. In the US, unwed mothers give birth to 2/3 of the
babies in the inner-city. 90% of these children live with only one parent and it
is real hard for one parent to keep a job and take care of children. Both suffer
and a shortage of care and daily attention by the parent contributes to the kids
not learning the skills necessary to do well in school which leads to poor jobs
for their futures. Poverty leads to more poverty. Many families on welfare have
only one parent because it is financially better if one parent is gone, that way
the single parent gets food stamps and other services from the government
that they would not get if it was a 2 family household.
50

Crime: Trapped in a hopeless environment, some inner-city
residents turn to drugs. Drug use is a problem in inner-city
areas and the suburbs, but rates of drug use in inner-cities
are the highest.
Ethnic and Racial Segregation: As seen in chapter 7, many
neighborhoods in the US are segregated by ethnicity with
African Americans and Hispanics concentrated in one or two
continuous areas and whites living in the suburbs. Even small
cities display a strong distinction among neighborhoods. A
frequent division is between the east and west or north and
south side of town, or the railroad tracks. A family seeking a
new residence will seek the areas where the characteristics
of the people meet their own.

51

The exodus
from the
American city.
This has
happened in
many American
cities since the
1960’s.

52

Changes in Cities in the U.S.
U.S. population has been moving out of the city centers to the suburbs:
suburbanization and counter urbanization

Developed Countries: suburbanization

 wealthy move to suburbs
 automobiles and roads; ‘American
Dream’ of the home in the suburbs.
 better services
 wealthy move to suburbs
Counter urbanization

idyllic settings
cost of land for retirement
slow pace, yet high tech
connections to services and markets
53

U.S. intraregional migration during 1990s.

Inner city economic problems: the concentration of low income
residents in inner cities has caused economic problems. These
people require public services but can pay very little in taxes to
support the services. They need stores and jobs but have little
money to spend in the store and few skills for jobs (so the stores
close). To try to fight these problems many local and state
governments use tax monies to try to renovate these areas, but this
shifts tax money needed for other areas to the inner city (votes on
election day).
Annexation: Many cities could help their tax problem by adding the
new suburbs to be part of their city (annexation). After all, many of
these suburban people use the city for its’ jobs etc., so why not add
them into the city? Today, most people in the suburbs do not want
to be annexed into the city and so they do not vote to be annexed.
54

The Peripheral Model: According to this model, an urban area
consists of an inner city surrounded by large suburban residential
and business areas (MSA) tied together by a beltway or highway
that circles the city. Around the beltway are nodes of consumer
and business services called edge cities (see diagram of multiple
nuclei model). These edge cities sprang up to provide services
and jobs to the people in the suburbs.
Density Gradient: As you travel outward from the center of the
city, the density of people declines. Inner city has big apartments
of 250 of more people per acre. Suburbs have fewer people per
acre (but lots of acres) and finally you leave the cities periphery
you find few people. The number of houses per unit of land
diminishes as distance from the center of the city increases.
55

The Edge cities (bedroom communities) of Houston

The central city is surrounded by a ring road, around which are
suburban areas and edge cities, shopping malls, office parks,
industrial areas, and service complexes.

Known as
bedroom
communities
because
people live
there but
mostly don’t
work there.
They drive
into the city
for work.
56

As you move from the center of the city outward, the density of the population
changes. This is know as the density gradient. Two big changes have occurred in
the density gradient of today’s cities:
1. The number of people living in the center has decreased.
2. The density difference between the inner city and the suburbs is declining
because the inner city density is dropping and the suburban density is growing
due to more large apartments being built in the suburbs.
Cost of Suburban or Urban Sprawl: Urban Sprawl is the progressive spread of
development over the landscape. As long as we Americans want single-family
detached houses, land on the fringe of urban areas will be converted from open
space to residential use. The cost of this growth is more than the loss of land, it is
also the cost of new roads, utilities, building stores and offices and the cost of
automobiles to move these people over even longer distances. Lots of these new
developments are built on what was once farmland. Wonderful productive soil now
under concrete.

Greenbelts: are areas where, by law, the open space can not be used for any
construction. This is mostly found in Europe.

57

Once farmland that is being converted to suburbs and cities.

58

Tyson’s Corner Virginia in 1940

59

Washington, DC. MSA.

Tyson’s Corner Virginia
today.
Washington D.C. is off
In the distance.

60

Suburban Segregation: The “new” segregation.
Suburban segregation takes two forms:
1. Residents are separated from commercial and manufacturing activities
which are confined someplace else. (The whole neighborhood is
nothing but houses because they drive for services.)
2. The price of the house eliminates some from being able to live there. This
creates a homogeneous suburb of the same economic class of people.
This never existed before in history. Where we once had vertical
segregation of the classes we now we have horizontal segregation.
3. But this may be reversing as new statistics show that people are beginning
to move back to the city. Why? Cost of transportation.
Zoning Ordinances: This idea developed in Europe and later America in the
early decades of the 20th century. This means that businesses are allowed only
in certain areas of the settlement. (No all night taco stands inside your single
family neighborhood.)
Motor vehicles: The wide use of the automobile is largely responsible for the
American movement to the suburbs. Not only did people move out but 1/4 of
the land inside all American cities are now roads, streets, and parking lots.

61

Public Transportation: Because few US workers live within walking distance
of their jobs, urban areas are characterized by extensive commuting and the
problems that come with it. As much as 40% of all trips made into or out from
a city during the day takes place within just 4 hours. (2 in the morning and 2 in
the late afternoon). RUSH HOUR!!! In large cities, public transportation, like
subways and busses, are better suited to move people but Americans still
prefer their own cars. Public transportation is cheaper, cleaner, and more
energy efficient than personal cars, yet in the US only 5% of city travel is
done using public transit systems. American’s love their personal car too
much.
Local Government Fragmentation: Because of the large number of local
governments in the US (look at the settlements in Pinellas County) it is
difficult to solve some of the regional problems like garbage disposal, water
management, traffic and public housing.
62

Metropolitan government: This idea tries to put many local governments into a
larger unit that can better handle the urban problems. The 2 ways to do this
are:
1. Federations in which the individual settlements have their own police,
firemen, and tax collection but they all agree to be part of a second
government which handles transportation, water, sewage, parks and
welfare for all the communities.
2. Consolidations: In this method, several cities and the county may form one
government. Jacksonville’s government runs not only the town but the
county too, this makes Jacksonville the largest city, in land size, in the US.
Smart growth: A new movement by many states to curb suburban sprawl by
limiting where new construction can take place. Smart growth laws require that
land near cities be used up before any land further out can be developed. So
far, this is only being done an a few parts of our country.
63

The new
US as
some
people
see it.

64

Quiz Yourself:
1. The process where middle-class people move into inner city neighborhoods and
renovate them is called ____________
2. ____________ happens when banks refuse to give loans in what they consider
risky neighborhoods.
3. Because of the housing shortages, the poor have constructed their own settlements
around the city known as __________ _________

4. Businesses are allowed only in certain areas of the settlement because of
____________ ____________
5. Areas known as _____ _______ are areas of about 5,000 people. The data from
that area is used to help define needed services for that area.
6. When cities are so close that they form one continuous band of development this is
known as a ____________
65

7. Social relationships are often described as “colder” in urban areas because…
8. In this model the city develops in a series of sectors not rings. _______

9. ______ (LDC’s or MDC’s) have a higher percentage of people living in urban
settlements but ________ (LDC’s or MDC’s) have more of the very large urban
settlements.
10. _____________ was the first model developed to explain the distributions
of different social groups within urban areas.
11. New cities which develop around the beltway are nodes of consumer and
business services known as ________ _________.

12. When the Europeans took over lands around the world, they changed the
cities by adding services to help the Europeans control the conquered people.
These European planned cities are known as __________ cities.
66

Answer Key:
1.

Gentrification

2.

Redlining

3.

Squatter Settlements

4.

Zoning ordinances

5.

Census tracks

6.

Megalopolis

7. There is a stronger feeling of belonging together in small rural settlements.
8. Hoyt sector model
9. MDC, LDC
10. Burgess Concentric Zone model
11. Edge cities
12. Colonial cities
67

Test Key topic/chapter 13:
These questions come from a combination of our slides, your text book, and common knowledge you should
have discussed in your AP classroom. They are very typical of what you will see on the National Exam.
1) The multiple nuclei theory best explains why different neighborhoods of a city attract people of different… A) ages.
B) ethnic origin C) income D) marital status.
2) Sprawl is the… A) change in density within an urban area from the center to the periphery B) development of new
housing sites not contiguous to the existing built-up area. C) land maintained as open space surrounding an urban area.
D) period in the morning and evening with the heaviest volumes of traffic.
3) People are attracted to suburbs in part because suburbs are characterized by…A) heavy traffic. B) lower opportunity
for home ownership. C) private land surrounding the house. D) row houses and apartments.
4) Megalopolis refers to… A) adjacent, overlapping Metropolitan Statistical Areas. B) central cities. C) consolidated
Metropolitan Statistical Areas. D) central cities plus urbanized areas.
5) Which statement best describes the relationship between urbanization and the Industrial Revolution? A) Urbanization
promoted the Industrial Revolution. B) The Industrial Revolution promoted urbanization. C) Urbanization preceded the
Industrial Revolution by thousands of years. D) Urbanization and the Industrial Revolution are no longer related.
6) The process of legally adding land area to a city in the United States is… A) annexation. B) accreditation. C) an
application of eminent domain. D) defined by urbanized area.

68

7) The process of change in the use of a house, from single-family owner occupancy to abandonment, is… A) blockbusting.
B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining.
8) A process by which banks designate an area within which they refuse to lend money for improvements is… A) blockbusting.
B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining.
9) A recent change in the density gradient has been… A) the elimination of the gap traditionally found in the center. B) an
increase in the extremes between the inner and outer areas. C) an increase in the number of people living in the center.
D) a reduction in the differences in densities found within an urban area.
10) U.S. central cities face fiscal problems because… A) federal and state funds are available. B) low-income people are
concentrated there. C) middle-class families are attracted there. D) redlining is no longer legal.
11) A legal form of segregation in U.S. cities is achieved through...A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) zoning. D) greenbelts.
12) Factories have moved to suburban locations in part because of… A) access to main highways. B) adequate space to build
vertical structures. C) availability of large tracts of high-priced land. D) good rail connections.
13) According to the sector model, the best housing is located in…A) a corridor from downtown to the edge of the city.
B) an outer ring surrounding the city. C) nodes near universities and parks. D) renovated inner-city neighborhoods.
14) Ramshackle houses on the periphery of cities in less developed countries are known as… A) squatter settlements. B) council
estates. C) public housing. D) zone in transition.
15) Higher income people tend to live near the center of the city in all but which of the following regions? A) Latin America
B) North America C) South Asia D) Western Europe

16) The wide boulevards built in cities in less developed countries were most likely built during what era? A) pre-colonial
B) colonial C) independence D) all of the above equally

69

17) According to the multiple nuclei model, an airport is likely to attract nearby… A) industries. B) residences. C) shops.
D) universities.
18) The largest percentage of the U.S. population lives in…A) central cities. B) suburbs. C) non-metropolitan areas. D) all of the
above
19) In U.S. cities, the underclass is… A) clustered in inner-city neighborhoods. B) dispersed throughout the city. C) clustered in
suburbs. D) distributed uniformly in the city.

20) A process of converting a neighborhood from low-income to middle-class is…A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) gentrification.
D) redlining.
21) Higher social heterogeneity in urban settlements means that… A) the people with whom you relax are probably the same ones you
see at work. B) you play a specialized role in the urban economy. C) you compete for limited space. D) you may feel lonely and
isolated in a crowd.
22) The city plus its contiguous built-up suburbs is the… A) central city. B) urbanized area.
D) consolidated metropolitan statistical area

C) metropolitan statistical area.

23) The process whereby an increasing percentage of people live in an urban area is known as… A) demographic transition.
B) rank-size rule. C) urbanization. D) central place theory.
24) Of the ten largest urban areas in the world, how many are in More Developed Countries today? A) 1 B) 4 C) 7 D) 10 E) 2
25) Public housing is…A) conversion of low-income housing to middle-class housing. B) illegally established low-income housing.
C) housing that has changed from single-family owner occupancy to abandonment. D) low-income government-owned housing.
26) According to the concentric zone model, a city develops in a series of… A) corridors. B) nodes. C) rings. D) all of the above

70

27) Chicago is a good location in which to develop urban models because it is located… A) at the hub of the nation's transportation
system. B) in the center of the country. C) on a flat prairie. D) on the shore of Lake Michigan.
28) According to the sector model, the best housing is located in… A) a corridor from downtown to the edge of the city. B) an outer
ring surrounding the city. C) nodes near universities and parks. D) renovated inner-city neighborhoods.
29) The zone of transition in US cities generally contain…A) warehouses B) wealthy neighborhoods C) transportation hubs
D) universities and hospitals E) suburban homes
30) The attractions of shopping malls include all but which of the following? A) frequent concerts and exhibitions B) generous
parking lots C) place to meet friends D) walking distance from homes
The following questions are written at the high school level. You will find some questions from part one often rewritten
here. This is all designed to help you transition to the college/AP style of written questions. Any question preceded with ***
are questions that have been on the national exam before.
31. Most Latin American cities are focused on a…A) central plaza B) government housing project C) zone of heavy industry
D) skyscraper office building E) squatter settlement
32. The multiple-nuclei model of a city structure tends to be most applicable to…A) small cities B) traditional C) Latin American
cities D) newer, fast growing cities E) cities with homogeneous land use
33. ***Locational advantages important to the development of the earliest cities include…A) availability of good harbors for large
ships B) productive agricultural land and defensible sites C) temperate climate and proximity to coal mines D) good
connections by road and canal E) proximity to manufacturing areas

34. In cities, the CBD’s often show uniqueness while the suburbs usually show…A) a large hinterland. B) placelessness C) more
than one node. D) newer zones of transition.

71

35. Many LDC’s have tried to help a previously under-developed part of their country develop by moving their capital
city to that area. This new capital is known as a…A) forward capital B) new development zone C) enterprise zone
D) neocolonial city
36. Today the greatest number of urban dwellers is found in…A) North America
D) Europe E) Asia

B) South America C) Africa

37. ***All of the following have helped create ghettos in North American cities except…A)blockbusting and racial
steering B) redlining by financial institutions C) concentration of public housing and social services D) fixed school
districts E) Economic Enterprise Zones

38. Which of the following is NOT as reason for rapid suburbanization in the US after WW2? A) Mass production of
the automobile B) Reduction of long distance commuting C) Expansion of home construction D) Expansion of the
interstate highway system E) Availability of low down payment terms and long-term mortgages.
39. New cities which developed in the hinterland of large urban areas because of the automobile, are known as…
A) edge cities B) census tracts C) suburban sprawl D) squatter settlements. E) none of these
40. Gentrification refers to… A) moving the homeless into inner city shelters B) The “White Flight” from the urban city
C) losing tax revenue because of stores closing in downtown areas D) middle-class people moving into and renovating
inner city neighborhoods E) the creation of “beltway cities” around the city.

72

4
7
3

5

1
6

2

41-48 all use the sketch above.
41. The sketch in box A above represents which model of the inner structure of urban areas?
C) multiple nuclei model D) Burgess concentric zone model E) peripheral model
42. The models in boxes B and C represent A) Concentric zone and multiple nuclei
concentric zone D) peripheral and concentric zone E) Von Thunen and peripheral

A) Hoyt sector model B) VonThunen’s model

B) Multiple nuclei and Hoyt sector C) Hoyt sector and

43. In which ring (1, 2, etc.) of sketch A above would high-status households in North American cities likely live? A) 1 B) 2 C) 3 D) 4&5
44. In which ring (1, 2, etc.) of sketch A above would high status households in a European city likely live? A) 1

B) 2

C) 3

D) 4&5

45. In model B, zone # 2 is where it is likely because of: A) greenbelting B) squatter settling C) the culture of poverty D) transportation
E) no one knows
46. The model in sketch B is the; A) Hoyt sector model B) Burgess model C) multiple nuclei model D) peripheral model
47. The model in sketch C is the; A) Hoyt sector model B) Burgess model C) multiple nuclei model D) peripheral model
48. Which of these models best describes what has happened in US cities in the last 40 years? A)

B)

C)

73

49.*** In the U.S. a city plus its contiguous built-up suburbs is known as an…A) urbanized area B) zoned area
C) census tract D) Squatter settlement E) none of these
50. Done mostly in Europe, these are areas where land is kept as parks, farms or other kinds of open space and urban
sprawl is not allowed. A) Smart growth
B) zoning
C) filtering
D) census tracts E) greenbelts
51. Which statement best describes the relationship between urbanization and the Industrial Revolution?
A) Urbanization promoted the Industrial Revolution. B) The Industrial Revolution promoted urbanization.
C) Urbanization preceded the Industrial Revolution by thousands of years. D) Urbanization and the Industrial
Revolution are no longer related.
52. The process whereby an increasing percentage of people live in an urban area is known as…
A) Demographic transition. B) rank-size rule. C) Urbanization. D) Central place theory.
53. The city (if it has 50,000 or more people) plus its contiguous built-up suburbs AND the county it is in as well as any
other counties it influences, is known as the ...A) central city B) urbanized area
C) metropolitan statistical area
D) consolidated metropolitan area E) micropolitan statistical area
54. ***Higher social heterogeneity in urban settlements means that …A) the people with whom you relax are probably
the same ones you see at work. B) you play a specialized role in the urban economy. C) you compete for limited
space. D) you may feel lonely and isolated in a crowd.

55. The process of change in the use of a house, from single-family owner occupancy to smaller dwellings for the poor
and then sometimes to abandonment, is…A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining. E) none of
these

74

Free Response #1:
The Bid Rent theory says that the closer you get to the
CBD the higher the cost for land, yet in most American
cities you find the poorest people living near the
expensive CBD and the richest living further away.
Explain:
A. Why neighborhoods near the CBD are often poor and
run down?
B. Why are there few grocery and other retail stores in
these neighborhoods?
C. Why is this not really true in European and Latin
American countries?

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75

FR #2:
Think of the map of your school, explain the
layout of your school using the Multiple Nuclei
Model
The main office is the CBD.
Completely explain your answer using specific
buildings and/or land areas in your explanation
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76

Answer Key:
1. B

14. A

27. C

40. D

53. C

2. B

15. B

28. A

41. D

54. D

3. C

16. B

29. A

42. B

55. B

4. A

17. A

30. D

43. D

5. B

18. B

31. A

44. A

6. A

19. A

32. D

45. D

7. B

20. C

33. B

46. A

8. D

21. D

34. B

47. C

9. D

22. B

35. A

48. C

10. B

23. C

36. E

49. A

11. C

24. C

37. E

50. E

12. A

25. D

38. B

51. B

13. A

26. C

39. A

52. C
77

FR. #1: ( 15 pts. for each section…total of 45 pts.)
A. In the US the move of the wealthy and middle class to the suburbs has left the older houses and apartments near the CBD empty.
This has lowered their value to the point where the poor can afford these dwellings and have made these neighborhoods their
homes. The poor can not pay for upkeep of these dwellings, or to pay high taxes. The lack of upkeep and tax money to repair the
roads and schools, adds to the downward spiral of the neighborhood. With little spending money for shopping, the poor do not
spend much in the stores. This causes many stores to close and move to the suburbs where the spending customers and money
went. The closing of the stores adds to the poverty of the area by taking away some of the jobs that were in the neighborhood. This
becomes a vicious cycle of poverty and deterioration. (15 points)

B. There are few retail stores and groceries is the area because the poor do not have money to shop. The lack of spending forces
many stores out of business or forces them to move to better locations. There also can be higher crime in these areas and the
crime often takes place at the stores. This is another reason for the stores to move out of the neighborhood. (15 points)
C. Neighborhoods in European and Latin American cities are different from those of US cities. In Europe and Latin America, the
wealthy and middle class still live near or in the CBD. The higher tax base and more spending ability of the upper and middle
classes, keeps the CBD area flourishing with jobs and in constant repair and upkeep of the cities’ physical condition. (15 points)

FR #2: (10 total points.)
You will need to judge how effectively you displayed you school
in the Multiple Nuclei Model. Refer to the model itself to help you
determine your success and grade.
School’s main office
78

Calculating your grade on test 13.
Add how many you got correct on the multiple choice part (55 possible) to how many
points you scored on the FR portion (55 possible)…110 total.
The following scale will show the approximate score if this test were the real AP exam. Remember that this
is an approximation. While 65-74% is normally the range for a 3 on the test, it is not definite. Over the
years I have seen scores as low as 60% be the low portion of a 3 score.

Out of 110 possible points:
72-83 is most likely a 3
84-94 is most likely a 4

95-110 is most likely a 5

Now lets start our review for the national exam by
reviewing the 33 key models and theories of the
course…the next PowerPoint.


Slide 55

Key topic/chapter 13…Urban Patterns
Key terms:
Annexation
Concentric zone model
Density gradient
Edge cities
Filtering
Galactic city
Gentrification
Greenbelts
Megalopolis
MSA
Multiple nuclei model
Peripheral model

Public housing
Redlining
Renovated housing
Scattered site
Squatter settlement
Sector model
Smart growth
Sprawl
Underclass
Urban renewal
Zone in transition
Zoning
1

Chapter 13…Urban Areas.
How are Cities planned?
Why

are cities where they are?
How are they organized?
Why are some areas of a city
different from
other areas of the same city?
What is the future of cities?
2

Settlement


Settlement - permanent collections of buildings,
where people live, work, and obtain services

3

ORIGINS OF SETTLEMENTS


Religious - graves, churches, temples



Cultural - schools, libraries



Political/Military - leader’s house, walls



Economic - stores, food
4

TYPES OF SETTLEMENTS


Rural Settlements - agriculture as the
predominant occupation.



Urban settlements - principal industries are
secondary and tertiary.

5

RURAL SETTLEMENTS
Clustered rural settlements –grouped
settlements in rural areas to minimize travel

Dispersed rural Settlements - isolated farms
with enclosed continuous fields (Found only in
N. America and Britain).

6

Urban Geographers want to know the global distribution of urban
settlements. MDC’s have a high percentage of people living in urban
areas because of the shift from agriculture-manufacturing-services.
Geographers are also interested in where people and activities are
distributed within urban spaces. What are the differences between the
inner-city and suburban areas and why?
As we saw in the last chapter, many downtowns are unique and can
often be recognized in photos where the suburbs often look very
much alike (Placelessness). Why? Suburbs offer the chance to avoid
some of the city problems (crime, tight living area, expensive
land/rent, noise, age of buildings) while still keeping a connection with
the goods and services of the city: jobs, sports teams, culture, shops,
recreation, etc.
7

Where is this place?

8

Today’s cities are evolving and changing. Although different internal
situations characterize urban areas in the US and elsewhere, the
problems arising from current spatial trends are quite similar in all cities.
Where have urban areas grown: in the early 1800’s only 3% of the earth’s
people lived in cities and only Beijing China had more than 1 million
people. Today over ½ of the world’s people live in cities and we have over
400 cities of at least 1 million people.

Urbanization: is the process by which city population grows.
Cities population growth is measured in 2 dimensions;
1. An increase in the number of people living in the cities.
2. An increase in the percentage of people living in the cities.
This distinction is important because they happen for different reason and
have different global distributions.
9

Increasing Percentage of People in Cities: a large percentage of people living in urban
areas is a measure of a country’s level of development. In MDC’s about ¾ of the people
live in urban areas compared to about 2/5 of people in LDC’s. (Except in Latin America
where the level is closer to MDC’s.)
The higher percentage of people in urban areas comes from the changes that have
occurred in the last 200 years as we went from agriculture (primary jobs) to industrial
(secondary jobs) and now service jobs, all created by the Industrial Revolution of the
1800’s.
People moved to the cities for industrial jobs, but in MDC’s this process has largely
ended because nearly everyone interested in moving to the cities from farms has already
done so.
In LDC’s the percentage of people living in urban areas is growing as people are pushed
off of their farms and replaced by machines and as people move to cities looking/hoping
for industrial jobs.
10

Increasing Number of People in Cities: MDC’s have a higher percentage of
people living in urban settlements but LDC’s have more of the very large urban
settlements (Primate cities). (Rank-size rule, primate cities, chapter 12.)

This is interesting because typically the large cities are created from the
improvements brought by the Industrial Revolution. This is not the case with the
large LDC cities. Migration to the primate city in LDC’s is happening even though
job opportunities may not be available. Increasing the population growth in LDC
cities is the fact that medical services are better in these cities, thus the child
mortality rate is lower.
Defining Urban Settlements: defining where urban areas end and rural areas
begin is not easy. Geographers have formulated definitions that distinguish
between urban and rural areas in two ways: Social differences and Physical
differences.
11

Percent Urban Population

Percent of the population living in urban areas is usually higher in MDCs
than in LDCs.

12

The most populated cities in the world

Of the top
20, only
Moscow,
Tokyo and
New York
are in MDC’s

Shanghai China has 14,608,512 people
13

14

15

Social Differences Between Urban and Rural Settlements: it is fair to say that rural
people and urban people follow different ways of life. A city can be defined as having 3
characteristics:
1. Large size. People in rural settlements know most of the other people in the
settlement. Not true in big cities. Social relationships are often described as “colder” in
urban areas because you only see some people at work instead of growing up with
them in the settlement.
2. High Density. Having lots of people in a tiny area creates social consequences. A
high density of people living in a small area can only be supported if the people
specialize (they can’t all be farmers). People are encouraged to compete for jobs, room,
and survival in a tightly limited space. Social groups compete to occupy the same space
(ethnic/ race problems). Rural settlements have very little of this problem.
3. Social Heterogeneity. The larger the settlement, the greater the variety of people.
Being “unusual” in a large settlement is more likely to be accepted than in a small rural
one. But despite the freedom to be different that large urban settlements give you,
people living there often feel alone because so many people are different from them.
There is a stronger feeling of belonging together in small rural settlements.
16

These 3 differences do not fully answer the question of where urban settlements
begin and rural ones end because in today’s MDC’s most everyone has access to
cars, telephones, televisions, and “urban type” jobs which reduce the differences
between urban and rural lifestyles. “City folk” and “Country folk” are more alike
today than they are different. To help distinguish between urban and rural areas we
need to add the physical definition of rural and urban to the equation.
Physical Definitions of Urban Settlements: In ancient time, cities had defensive
walls for protection which clearly defined the physical boundaries of the city. Today
the walls are gone but we can still define the physical boundaries in 3 ways:
1. Legal boundary. These are the official boundaries of a city as recognized by
the government of the country or state. These “city limits” have been officially given
to the city and are physically marked on official maps. The local government of the
city has authority to make laws and protect the people inside the city boundaries.
17

2. Urbanized area. This is the city plus its suburbs or urbanized area that
surrounds the city. About 70 percent of US residents live in urbanized areas with
40% being in the suburbs and 30% inside the city limits. The suburbs may have
their own city governments but the huge central city dominates what happens in
the entire area.
3. Metropolitan Statistical Area. Cities have an even bigger influence on people
than just those living in their city limits and surrounding urbanized areas. People
from far away come to shop, use the services, support the sports teams, read
the newspapers and watch the television broadcasts of the city. Thus the city
has a “functional area” which is its total zone of influence. The US Bureau of
Census has created a method of measuring the functional area of the city.
Known as the Metropolitan statistical area (MSA) this area includes:
•An urbanized area with a population of at least 50,000
•The county within which the city is located.
•Adjacent counties with a high population density and a large percentage of
residents working in the central city’s county.
18

Metropolitan Area of Philadelphia

City of
Philadelphia

Urbanized
area
(suburbs)
Metropolitan
Statistical
Area

The metropolitan area of Philadelphia is
spread over several counties and four states.
It is also a diversified trade center, given its
position on the Delaware river.

19

20

21

Micropolitan Statistical Areas: Smaller areas with between
10,000 and 50,000 people, the county where it is found, and
adjacent counties tied to the city. This would be a small town and
the area dominated by it.
Overlapping Metropolitan Areas: Some adjacent MSA’s overlap.
A county between two central cities may send a large number of
commuters to jobs in both cities. In some areas the cities are so
close that they form one continuous urban complex. This is
known as a Megalopolis (great city).
In a megalopolis, the downtown CBD often has its own
distinctive look and the urban areas are visually separated by
parks, open spaces, and dairy/truck farms. But at the periphery
of the urban areas, the boundaries overlap.
22

Colorado Springs, population 431,000

Ocala, Florida, population 56,000

Florala, Alabama, population 1,900

23

Megalopolis, from northern Va. To Maine.
This Illustrates the
difference between
strict city proper
definitions and broader
urban agglomerations.
To define urbanized
areas, the U.S. Census
Bureau uses the term
Metropolitan Statistical
Area (MSA) or
Consolidated MSA
(CMSA) if two or more of
them overlap.
24

Where are People Distributed within Urban Areas? People are not
just distributed at random in urban areas. For the most part they
concentrate in particular neighborhoods depending on their social
characteristics. Geographers want to see where people with
particular characteristics are likely to live and why.

Three models which try to explain the growth of a city:

The Burgess Model

The Hoyt Sector Model

The Harris and Ullman
multiple Nuclei Model
25

Burgess Concentric Zone Model

In the concentric zone model, a city grows in a series of rings surrounding the CBD.

Burgess Concentric Zone Model: This is the first used to explain the
distributions of different social groups within urban areas. It says that a
city grows outward from a central place in a series of concentric rings.
The precise size and width of the rings vary from one city to another, but
some basic types of rings appear in all cities in the same order (see chart
above).
26

•Hoyt Sector Model: In this model the city develops in a
series of sectors not rings. Certain areas of the city are
more attractive for various activities, originally because
of an environmental factor (or even pure chance). As the
city grows, activities extend outward in a wedge shape.
For example, once a wealthy neighborhood is built the
next wealthy neighborhood will extend from the first
neighborhood further outward from the center. In this
way, the best housing is found in a corridor extending
outward from the center to the outer edge (see chart on
the next page).
27

The Hoyt Sector Model

In the sector model, a city grows in a series of
wedges or corridors extending out from the
CBD.
28

•Harris and Ullman’s Multiple Nuclei Model: According
to this model, a city is a complex structure that includes
more than one center around which activities revolve.
Examples of these nodes include a port, parks,
stadium, neighborhood business center, university, and
airport (see chart). This theory states that some
activities are attracted to particular nodes, whereas
others try to avoid them. A university node may attract
well educated people and bookstores while the port will
attract hotels and warehouses. Heavy industry and
expensive houses rarely are found together. This
model shows the effect of the automobile more than
any other model.
29

The Harris and Ullman Multiple Nuclei model

The multiple nuclei model views a city as a
collection of individual centers, around which
different people and activities cluster.

30

Applications of the Models: The three models help explain where and in some
cases, why people live where they do. None of the models by themselves fully
explains why and where different types of people live, but combined they give
you as good a look as possible at the “Why” of “Where.” Effective use of the
models depends on getting good data on the areas. Most countries take a
census every 10 years to help determine useful data about the people and
places of the country. In our country we divide the census data into areas
known as census tracts of about 5,000 people. Each census tract has the data
that summarizes the characteristics of the people living within that tract. This
information includes things like the race, income, age, and education of the
people living in that tract.
Social Area Analysis: The data from the census tracts can all be plotted onto
maps to show the characteristics of the people living in that tract. This map is
known as a social area analysis.
31

Using Census tract information…Seattle, Washington
Each lined area is a
census tract of about 5000
people in Seattle
Washington. These maps
show average household
income for 1990 and
2000…note the changes in
income in some areas
between 1990 and 2000.
Using this information, a
business can make
decisions about where
they want to locate a new
store or the future of
existing stores.
You can find census tract
information on many topics
such as; age, education
level, race, ethnicity, crime
rate, and land ownership.
Note the areas with
incomes over
$63,000.

All can be very valuable
information to people
looking to open
businesses.

32

Examine the changes
between 1990 and
2000.

Oakland, California’s Ethnic neighborhoods
The small bordered areas are census tracks of 5000 people.

33

Use of the Models Outside of North America: The 3 models will also work in other
places in the world; however social groups in other countries may not have the
same reasons for selecting particular neighborhoods as Americans do.
European Cities: As in the US, wealthier people in European cities cluster along a
sector extending outward from the CBD, however unlike the US, wealthy and
middle class Europeans still live in the inner rings of the neighborhoods near the
CBD not out in the suburbs. In the past, poorer people lived in the center of the
city. Before electricity, social segregation was vertical: richer people lived on the
first or second floor of a building while the poorer people lived in the basement or
upper floors. In the Industrial Revolution, housing for the poor was constructed
near the factories and away from the rich.
Today poorer Europeans are less likely to live in the inner-city. Poor quality
housing has been renovated for the rich or turned into office buildings. Poorer
Europeans tend to live in the outskirts of the city. Vast suburbs with dozens of high
rise apartments house the poor. They face long commutes to reach their jobs in
the city.
34

European cities generally do not have the “suburban
sprawl” that US cities have. European cities tend to be
more pedestrian friendly with more parks downtown as
Europeans tend to still live downtown.
US cities have taller buildings as European cities tend to
be older and more historic.

American cities have more ethnic neighborhoods than
European cities. Ethnic neighborhoods that do exist in
European cities tend to be in the suburbs. WHY?
Because the established richer neighborhoods tend to be
downtown in European cities.
35

Less Developed Countries: Like Europe, most LDC’s accommodate their poor in the
suburbs with their middle class and rich living near the center of the city. LDC’s have
passed through 3 periods of city building: before the Europeans arrived, during the
period of European colonialism, and since independence from European control.

Pre-colonial Cities: Before the Europeans arrived few cities existed in Africa, Asia, and
Latin America and most people lived in small rural settlements. Those cities that existed
were mostly laid out surrounding a religious center; with the rest of the city laid out in a
hieratical concentric pattern (like the Burgess model) from government buildings,
homes of the wealthy, and businesses related to the religion out to other businesses
and shops.
Colonial cities: When the Europeans took over these lands, they changed the cities by
adding services to help the Europeans control the conquered people. Often a new
European style city would be build next to the existing native one. The new European
cities contained wider streets, a public square, larger houses and a much lower density.
The Spanish used the “Law of the Indies” which was a city plan designed specifically to
build cities in a “Spanish” style. (Gridiron pattern for streets centered on a church and
central plaza, walls around individual houses and neighborhoods centered around
smaller plazas and more churches.)
36

Early Mexico city was laid out in a grid pattern of streets. This followed
the Spanish “Law of the Indies.”

37

Central Plaza in Mexico City 1920 photo. Typical Colonial City plan.

Part of downtown Mexico city today still shows the
building plan of the “Law of the Indies.”

38

Cities since Independence: Following independence, cities have become
the focal point of the development of most LDC’s. Millions of people have
migrated to the cities (Primate cities) looking for jobs and services. Some
capitals have been moved to isolated areas in an attempt to help develop
that area of the country (Brasília) This is know as a forward capital. Latin
American cities have developed their own unique style.
Squatter settlements: The LDC’s are unable to house the rapidly growing
number of poor who are flowing into the cities. Because of the housing
shortages, the poor have constructed their own settlements around the city.
These settlements have few services because neither the city nor the
residents can afford them. Squatters have two basic choices for housing.
1. Illegally move into empty real houses located in the city or,
2. Rent slum housing.
(85% of the population of Addis Ababa in Ethiopia lives in squatter
settlements, slums or other illegal housing.)
39

Squatter shacks in Manila, the Philippines

40

Squatter settlement in Ethiopia

41

Zimbabwe, Africa

42

Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

43

Latin American City Model:
In many Latin
American cities,
the wealthy live in
the inner city and
in a sector
extending along a
commercial spine.
In situ accretion- businesses
and homes constantly under
construction/repair.
Zone of maturity-2nd best
housing in the city.
The poor live in squatter settlements on the
periphery of the city.

Disamenity- unpleasant area
used by the poor to get to the
market.

44

The City Outline of Rio de Janeiro
The rich tourist areas and expensive condo apartments are along the coast
and beach while the poor live in squatter shacks in the hills.

45

City problems:
Inner-City Physical Problems: Most US inner cities were constructed before the 1950’s
(people began to move to the suburbs in the 1950’s so new construction moved out of
the city).
Process of Deterioration (how a city deteriorates): A city doesn’t suddenly become old
and full of slummy areas. It happens over time. When a group of low-income people
inhabit an area of a city, nearby neighborhoods will often look to move out. They sell or
rent to more low-income occupants thus expanding the low-income area. Two processes
cause/speed up the devaluation of areas:
1. Filtering, 2. Redlining.
Filtering: Large houses and buildings that once housed rich downtown workers (who
moved to the suburbs) are taken over by landlords who don’t live in that area (they
moved to the suburbs too). Rents are low so the landlord doesn’t take as good care of
the property as they should and the property becomes run down or abandoned. Stores
close, or move, due to lack of sales. 100 years ago these neighborhoods would be used
by immigrants and ethnic businesses would succeed in those areas. Now, with a decline
in immigration, these neighborhoods have shrunk and so have schools, businesses and
other services. Thousands of vacant houses and buildings stand empty in inner cities
across America.

46

Redlining: Some banks refuse to give loans in what they consider
risky neighborhoods. They draw a red line on a map around areas
where they will not give loans. Without loans, these neighborhoods
have a hard time rebuilding/remodeling. Though illegal, this still
happens. Bankers just don’t put these “no-loan” areas on a map.

Urban Renewal: This is the series of projects to improve European
and N. American cities by buying up the blighted neighborhoods,
moving the people to new government built housing projects, and
building new roads, and other projects to make the inner city
attractive for business again. National and State government grants
help pay for these projects.
47

Public housing: Housing for the poor, built with government funding as part of
urban renewal. In the US this is only about 2% of the housing while in some
countries it may be more (Britain is 30%). Public housing built in the 50’s & 60’s
were largely high rise apartments, but those are seen as being unsatisfactory.
Problems arise from cramming large numbers of poor people into one area.
Today most public housing projects are one to three story buildings with many of
them being scattered around different parts of the city rather than clustered into
one area.
Because urban renewal has been criticized for destroying the social cohesion of
older neighborhoods, many governments (like the US) have stopped funding
most projects since the 1970’s. What do we do instead?
Renovated Housing: An alternative often used since the 70’s is to renovate a
building instead of urban renewal. The process where middle-class people
move into inner-city neighborhoods and renovate them is called gentrification.
Gentrified inner-city neighborhoods also attract middle-class people who work
downtown. Living close to work saves the hassle of commuting and rejuvenates
run down inner-city neighborhoods
48

Gentrified building downtown Harlem, NY. Note the supermarket.

49

Inner-City Social Problems: Inner-city residents are often referred to as the
permanent underclass because they are trapped in an unending cycle of
economic and social problems. High unemployment, alcoholism, drug
addiction, literacy, juvenile delinquency, and crime all exist at a higher rate
among those who live in the inner-city. Lack of jobs means lack of tax dollars
to pay for police and fire protection as well as good schools. Lack of job skills
and homelessness are also tremendous problems.
Culture of Poverty: Inner-city residents are trapped in a permanent underclass
culture that reproduces itself. In the US, unwed mothers give birth to 2/3 of the
babies in the inner-city. 90% of these children live with only one parent and it
is real hard for one parent to keep a job and take care of children. Both suffer
and a shortage of care and daily attention by the parent contributes to the kids
not learning the skills necessary to do well in school which leads to poor jobs
for their futures. Poverty leads to more poverty. Many families on welfare have
only one parent because it is financially better if one parent is gone, that way
the single parent gets food stamps and other services from the government
that they would not get if it was a 2 family household.
50

Crime: Trapped in a hopeless environment, some inner-city
residents turn to drugs. Drug use is a problem in inner-city
areas and the suburbs, but rates of drug use in inner-cities
are the highest.
Ethnic and Racial Segregation: As seen in chapter 7, many
neighborhoods in the US are segregated by ethnicity with
African Americans and Hispanics concentrated in one or two
continuous areas and whites living in the suburbs. Even small
cities display a strong distinction among neighborhoods. A
frequent division is between the east and west or north and
south side of town, or the railroad tracks. A family seeking a
new residence will seek the areas where the characteristics
of the people meet their own.

51

The exodus
from the
American city.
This has
happened in
many American
cities since the
1960’s.

52

Changes in Cities in the U.S.
U.S. population has been moving out of the city centers to the suburbs:
suburbanization and counter urbanization

Developed Countries: suburbanization

 wealthy move to suburbs
 automobiles and roads; ‘American
Dream’ of the home in the suburbs.
 better services
 wealthy move to suburbs
Counter urbanization

idyllic settings
cost of land for retirement
slow pace, yet high tech
connections to services and markets
53

U.S. intraregional migration during 1990s.

Inner city economic problems: the concentration of low income
residents in inner cities has caused economic problems. These
people require public services but can pay very little in taxes to
support the services. They need stores and jobs but have little
money to spend in the store and few skills for jobs (so the stores
close). To try to fight these problems many local and state
governments use tax monies to try to renovate these areas, but this
shifts tax money needed for other areas to the inner city (votes on
election day).
Annexation: Many cities could help their tax problem by adding the
new suburbs to be part of their city (annexation). After all, many of
these suburban people use the city for its’ jobs etc., so why not add
them into the city? Today, most people in the suburbs do not want
to be annexed into the city and so they do not vote to be annexed.
54

The Peripheral Model: According to this model, an urban area
consists of an inner city surrounded by large suburban residential
and business areas (MSA) tied together by a beltway or highway
that circles the city. Around the beltway are nodes of consumer
and business services called edge cities (see diagram of multiple
nuclei model). These edge cities sprang up to provide services
and jobs to the people in the suburbs.
Density Gradient: As you travel outward from the center of the
city, the density of people declines. Inner city has big apartments
of 250 of more people per acre. Suburbs have fewer people per
acre (but lots of acres) and finally you leave the cities periphery
you find few people. The number of houses per unit of land
diminishes as distance from the center of the city increases.
55

The Edge cities (bedroom communities) of Houston

The central city is surrounded by a ring road, around which are
suburban areas and edge cities, shopping malls, office parks,
industrial areas, and service complexes.

Known as
bedroom
communities
because
people live
there but
mostly don’t
work there.
They drive
into the city
for work.
56

As you move from the center of the city outward, the density of the population
changes. This is know as the density gradient. Two big changes have occurred in
the density gradient of today’s cities:
1. The number of people living in the center has decreased.
2. The density difference between the inner city and the suburbs is declining
because the inner city density is dropping and the suburban density is growing
due to more large apartments being built in the suburbs.
Cost of Suburban or Urban Sprawl: Urban Sprawl is the progressive spread of
development over the landscape. As long as we Americans want single-family
detached houses, land on the fringe of urban areas will be converted from open
space to residential use. The cost of this growth is more than the loss of land, it is
also the cost of new roads, utilities, building stores and offices and the cost of
automobiles to move these people over even longer distances. Lots of these new
developments are built on what was once farmland. Wonderful productive soil now
under concrete.

Greenbelts: are areas where, by law, the open space can not be used for any
construction. This is mostly found in Europe.

57

Once farmland that is being converted to suburbs and cities.

58

Tyson’s Corner Virginia in 1940

59

Washington, DC. MSA.

Tyson’s Corner Virginia
today.
Washington D.C. is off
In the distance.

60

Suburban Segregation: The “new” segregation.
Suburban segregation takes two forms:
1. Residents are separated from commercial and manufacturing activities
which are confined someplace else. (The whole neighborhood is
nothing but houses because they drive for services.)
2. The price of the house eliminates some from being able to live there. This
creates a homogeneous suburb of the same economic class of people.
This never existed before in history. Where we once had vertical
segregation of the classes we now we have horizontal segregation.
3. But this may be reversing as new statistics show that people are beginning
to move back to the city. Why? Cost of transportation.
Zoning Ordinances: This idea developed in Europe and later America in the
early decades of the 20th century. This means that businesses are allowed only
in certain areas of the settlement. (No all night taco stands inside your single
family neighborhood.)
Motor vehicles: The wide use of the automobile is largely responsible for the
American movement to the suburbs. Not only did people move out but 1/4 of
the land inside all American cities are now roads, streets, and parking lots.

61

Public Transportation: Because few US workers live within walking distance
of their jobs, urban areas are characterized by extensive commuting and the
problems that come with it. As much as 40% of all trips made into or out from
a city during the day takes place within just 4 hours. (2 in the morning and 2 in
the late afternoon). RUSH HOUR!!! In large cities, public transportation, like
subways and busses, are better suited to move people but Americans still
prefer their own cars. Public transportation is cheaper, cleaner, and more
energy efficient than personal cars, yet in the US only 5% of city travel is
done using public transit systems. American’s love their personal car too
much.
Local Government Fragmentation: Because of the large number of local
governments in the US (look at the settlements in Pinellas County) it is
difficult to solve some of the regional problems like garbage disposal, water
management, traffic and public housing.
62

Metropolitan government: This idea tries to put many local governments into a
larger unit that can better handle the urban problems. The 2 ways to do this
are:
1. Federations in which the individual settlements have their own police,
firemen, and tax collection but they all agree to be part of a second
government which handles transportation, water, sewage, parks and
welfare for all the communities.
2. Consolidations: In this method, several cities and the county may form one
government. Jacksonville’s government runs not only the town but the
county too, this makes Jacksonville the largest city, in land size, in the US.
Smart growth: A new movement by many states to curb suburban sprawl by
limiting where new construction can take place. Smart growth laws require that
land near cities be used up before any land further out can be developed. So
far, this is only being done an a few parts of our country.
63

The new
US as
some
people
see it.

64

Quiz Yourself:
1. The process where middle-class people move into inner city neighborhoods and
renovate them is called ____________
2. ____________ happens when banks refuse to give loans in what they consider
risky neighborhoods.
3. Because of the housing shortages, the poor have constructed their own settlements
around the city known as __________ _________

4. Businesses are allowed only in certain areas of the settlement because of
____________ ____________
5. Areas known as _____ _______ are areas of about 5,000 people. The data from
that area is used to help define needed services for that area.
6. When cities are so close that they form one continuous band of development this is
known as a ____________
65

7. Social relationships are often described as “colder” in urban areas because…
8. In this model the city develops in a series of sectors not rings. _______

9. ______ (LDC’s or MDC’s) have a higher percentage of people living in urban
settlements but ________ (LDC’s or MDC’s) have more of the very large urban
settlements.
10. _____________ was the first model developed to explain the distributions
of different social groups within urban areas.
11. New cities which develop around the beltway are nodes of consumer and
business services known as ________ _________.

12. When the Europeans took over lands around the world, they changed the
cities by adding services to help the Europeans control the conquered people.
These European planned cities are known as __________ cities.
66

Answer Key:
1.

Gentrification

2.

Redlining

3.

Squatter Settlements

4.

Zoning ordinances

5.

Census tracks

6.

Megalopolis

7. There is a stronger feeling of belonging together in small rural settlements.
8. Hoyt sector model
9. MDC, LDC
10. Burgess Concentric Zone model
11. Edge cities
12. Colonial cities
67

Test Key topic/chapter 13:
These questions come from a combination of our slides, your text book, and common knowledge you should
have discussed in your AP classroom. They are very typical of what you will see on the National Exam.
1) The multiple nuclei theory best explains why different neighborhoods of a city attract people of different… A) ages.
B) ethnic origin C) income D) marital status.
2) Sprawl is the… A) change in density within an urban area from the center to the periphery B) development of new
housing sites not contiguous to the existing built-up area. C) land maintained as open space surrounding an urban area.
D) period in the morning and evening with the heaviest volumes of traffic.
3) People are attracted to suburbs in part because suburbs are characterized by…A) heavy traffic. B) lower opportunity
for home ownership. C) private land surrounding the house. D) row houses and apartments.
4) Megalopolis refers to… A) adjacent, overlapping Metropolitan Statistical Areas. B) central cities. C) consolidated
Metropolitan Statistical Areas. D) central cities plus urbanized areas.
5) Which statement best describes the relationship between urbanization and the Industrial Revolution? A) Urbanization
promoted the Industrial Revolution. B) The Industrial Revolution promoted urbanization. C) Urbanization preceded the
Industrial Revolution by thousands of years. D) Urbanization and the Industrial Revolution are no longer related.
6) The process of legally adding land area to a city in the United States is… A) annexation. B) accreditation. C) an
application of eminent domain. D) defined by urbanized area.

68

7) The process of change in the use of a house, from single-family owner occupancy to abandonment, is… A) blockbusting.
B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining.
8) A process by which banks designate an area within which they refuse to lend money for improvements is… A) blockbusting.
B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining.
9) A recent change in the density gradient has been… A) the elimination of the gap traditionally found in the center. B) an
increase in the extremes between the inner and outer areas. C) an increase in the number of people living in the center.
D) a reduction in the differences in densities found within an urban area.
10) U.S. central cities face fiscal problems because… A) federal and state funds are available. B) low-income people are
concentrated there. C) middle-class families are attracted there. D) redlining is no longer legal.
11) A legal form of segregation in U.S. cities is achieved through...A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) zoning. D) greenbelts.
12) Factories have moved to suburban locations in part because of… A) access to main highways. B) adequate space to build
vertical structures. C) availability of large tracts of high-priced land. D) good rail connections.
13) According to the sector model, the best housing is located in…A) a corridor from downtown to the edge of the city.
B) an outer ring surrounding the city. C) nodes near universities and parks. D) renovated inner-city neighborhoods.
14) Ramshackle houses on the periphery of cities in less developed countries are known as… A) squatter settlements. B) council
estates. C) public housing. D) zone in transition.
15) Higher income people tend to live near the center of the city in all but which of the following regions? A) Latin America
B) North America C) South Asia D) Western Europe

16) The wide boulevards built in cities in less developed countries were most likely built during what era? A) pre-colonial
B) colonial C) independence D) all of the above equally

69

17) According to the multiple nuclei model, an airport is likely to attract nearby… A) industries. B) residences. C) shops.
D) universities.
18) The largest percentage of the U.S. population lives in…A) central cities. B) suburbs. C) non-metropolitan areas. D) all of the
above
19) In U.S. cities, the underclass is… A) clustered in inner-city neighborhoods. B) dispersed throughout the city. C) clustered in
suburbs. D) distributed uniformly in the city.

20) A process of converting a neighborhood from low-income to middle-class is…A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) gentrification.
D) redlining.
21) Higher social heterogeneity in urban settlements means that… A) the people with whom you relax are probably the same ones you
see at work. B) you play a specialized role in the urban economy. C) you compete for limited space. D) you may feel lonely and
isolated in a crowd.
22) The city plus its contiguous built-up suburbs is the… A) central city. B) urbanized area.
D) consolidated metropolitan statistical area

C) metropolitan statistical area.

23) The process whereby an increasing percentage of people live in an urban area is known as… A) demographic transition.
B) rank-size rule. C) urbanization. D) central place theory.
24) Of the ten largest urban areas in the world, how many are in More Developed Countries today? A) 1 B) 4 C) 7 D) 10 E) 2
25) Public housing is…A) conversion of low-income housing to middle-class housing. B) illegally established low-income housing.
C) housing that has changed from single-family owner occupancy to abandonment. D) low-income government-owned housing.
26) According to the concentric zone model, a city develops in a series of… A) corridors. B) nodes. C) rings. D) all of the above

70

27) Chicago is a good location in which to develop urban models because it is located… A) at the hub of the nation's transportation
system. B) in the center of the country. C) on a flat prairie. D) on the shore of Lake Michigan.
28) According to the sector model, the best housing is located in… A) a corridor from downtown to the edge of the city. B) an outer
ring surrounding the city. C) nodes near universities and parks. D) renovated inner-city neighborhoods.
29) The zone of transition in US cities generally contain…A) warehouses B) wealthy neighborhoods C) transportation hubs
D) universities and hospitals E) suburban homes
30) The attractions of shopping malls include all but which of the following? A) frequent concerts and exhibitions B) generous
parking lots C) place to meet friends D) walking distance from homes
The following questions are written at the high school level. You will find some questions from part one often rewritten
here. This is all designed to help you transition to the college/AP style of written questions. Any question preceded with ***
are questions that have been on the national exam before.
31. Most Latin American cities are focused on a…A) central plaza B) government housing project C) zone of heavy industry
D) skyscraper office building E) squatter settlement
32. The multiple-nuclei model of a city structure tends to be most applicable to…A) small cities B) traditional C) Latin American
cities D) newer, fast growing cities E) cities with homogeneous land use
33. ***Locational advantages important to the development of the earliest cities include…A) availability of good harbors for large
ships B) productive agricultural land and defensible sites C) temperate climate and proximity to coal mines D) good
connections by road and canal E) proximity to manufacturing areas

34. In cities, the CBD’s often show uniqueness while the suburbs usually show…A) a large hinterland. B) placelessness C) more
than one node. D) newer zones of transition.

71

35. Many LDC’s have tried to help a previously under-developed part of their country develop by moving their capital
city to that area. This new capital is known as a…A) forward capital B) new development zone C) enterprise zone
D) neocolonial city
36. Today the greatest number of urban dwellers is found in…A) North America
D) Europe E) Asia

B) South America C) Africa

37. ***All of the following have helped create ghettos in North American cities except…A)blockbusting and racial
steering B) redlining by financial institutions C) concentration of public housing and social services D) fixed school
districts E) Economic Enterprise Zones

38. Which of the following is NOT as reason for rapid suburbanization in the US after WW2? A) Mass production of
the automobile B) Reduction of long distance commuting C) Expansion of home construction D) Expansion of the
interstate highway system E) Availability of low down payment terms and long-term mortgages.
39. New cities which developed in the hinterland of large urban areas because of the automobile, are known as…
A) edge cities B) census tracts C) suburban sprawl D) squatter settlements. E) none of these
40. Gentrification refers to… A) moving the homeless into inner city shelters B) The “White Flight” from the urban city
C) losing tax revenue because of stores closing in downtown areas D) middle-class people moving into and renovating
inner city neighborhoods E) the creation of “beltway cities” around the city.

72

4
7
3

5

1
6

2

41-48 all use the sketch above.
41. The sketch in box A above represents which model of the inner structure of urban areas?
C) multiple nuclei model D) Burgess concentric zone model E) peripheral model
42. The models in boxes B and C represent A) Concentric zone and multiple nuclei
concentric zone D) peripheral and concentric zone E) Von Thunen and peripheral

A) Hoyt sector model B) VonThunen’s model

B) Multiple nuclei and Hoyt sector C) Hoyt sector and

43. In which ring (1, 2, etc.) of sketch A above would high-status households in North American cities likely live? A) 1 B) 2 C) 3 D) 4&5
44. In which ring (1, 2, etc.) of sketch A above would high status households in a European city likely live? A) 1

B) 2

C) 3

D) 4&5

45. In model B, zone # 2 is where it is likely because of: A) greenbelting B) squatter settling C) the culture of poverty D) transportation
E) no one knows
46. The model in sketch B is the; A) Hoyt sector model B) Burgess model C) multiple nuclei model D) peripheral model
47. The model in sketch C is the; A) Hoyt sector model B) Burgess model C) multiple nuclei model D) peripheral model
48. Which of these models best describes what has happened in US cities in the last 40 years? A)

B)

C)

73

49.*** In the U.S. a city plus its contiguous built-up suburbs is known as an…A) urbanized area B) zoned area
C) census tract D) Squatter settlement E) none of these
50. Done mostly in Europe, these are areas where land is kept as parks, farms or other kinds of open space and urban
sprawl is not allowed. A) Smart growth
B) zoning
C) filtering
D) census tracts E) greenbelts
51. Which statement best describes the relationship between urbanization and the Industrial Revolution?
A) Urbanization promoted the Industrial Revolution. B) The Industrial Revolution promoted urbanization.
C) Urbanization preceded the Industrial Revolution by thousands of years. D) Urbanization and the Industrial
Revolution are no longer related.
52. The process whereby an increasing percentage of people live in an urban area is known as…
A) Demographic transition. B) rank-size rule. C) Urbanization. D) Central place theory.
53. The city (if it has 50,000 or more people) plus its contiguous built-up suburbs AND the county it is in as well as any
other counties it influences, is known as the ...A) central city B) urbanized area
C) metropolitan statistical area
D) consolidated metropolitan area E) micropolitan statistical area
54. ***Higher social heterogeneity in urban settlements means that …A) the people with whom you relax are probably
the same ones you see at work. B) you play a specialized role in the urban economy. C) you compete for limited
space. D) you may feel lonely and isolated in a crowd.

55. The process of change in the use of a house, from single-family owner occupancy to smaller dwellings for the poor
and then sometimes to abandonment, is…A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining. E) none of
these

74

Free Response #1:
The Bid Rent theory says that the closer you get to the
CBD the higher the cost for land, yet in most American
cities you find the poorest people living near the
expensive CBD and the richest living further away.
Explain:
A. Why neighborhoods near the CBD are often poor and
run down?
B. Why are there few grocery and other retail stores in
these neighborhoods?
C. Why is this not really true in European and Latin
American countries?

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75

FR #2:
Think of the map of your school, explain the
layout of your school using the Multiple Nuclei
Model
The main office is the CBD.
Completely explain your answer using specific
buildings and/or land areas in your explanation
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76

Answer Key:
1. B

14. A

27. C

40. D

53. C

2. B

15. B

28. A

41. D

54. D

3. C

16. B

29. A

42. B

55. B

4. A

17. A

30. D

43. D

5. B

18. B

31. A

44. A

6. A

19. A

32. D

45. D

7. B

20. C

33. B

46. A

8. D

21. D

34. B

47. C

9. D

22. B

35. A

48. C

10. B

23. C

36. E

49. A

11. C

24. C

37. E

50. E

12. A

25. D

38. B

51. B

13. A

26. C

39. A

52. C
77

FR. #1: ( 15 pts. for each section…total of 45 pts.)
A. In the US the move of the wealthy and middle class to the suburbs has left the older houses and apartments near the CBD empty.
This has lowered their value to the point where the poor can afford these dwellings and have made these neighborhoods their
homes. The poor can not pay for upkeep of these dwellings, or to pay high taxes. The lack of upkeep and tax money to repair the
roads and schools, adds to the downward spiral of the neighborhood. With little spending money for shopping, the poor do not
spend much in the stores. This causes many stores to close and move to the suburbs where the spending customers and money
went. The closing of the stores adds to the poverty of the area by taking away some of the jobs that were in the neighborhood. This
becomes a vicious cycle of poverty and deterioration. (15 points)

B. There are few retail stores and groceries is the area because the poor do not have money to shop. The lack of spending forces
many stores out of business or forces them to move to better locations. There also can be higher crime in these areas and the
crime often takes place at the stores. This is another reason for the stores to move out of the neighborhood. (15 points)
C. Neighborhoods in European and Latin American cities are different from those of US cities. In Europe and Latin America, the
wealthy and middle class still live near or in the CBD. The higher tax base and more spending ability of the upper and middle
classes, keeps the CBD area flourishing with jobs and in constant repair and upkeep of the cities’ physical condition. (15 points)

FR #2: (10 total points.)
You will need to judge how effectively you displayed you school
in the Multiple Nuclei Model. Refer to the model itself to help you
determine your success and grade.
School’s main office
78

Calculating your grade on test 13.
Add how many you got correct on the multiple choice part (55 possible) to how many
points you scored on the FR portion (55 possible)…110 total.
The following scale will show the approximate score if this test were the real AP exam. Remember that this
is an approximation. While 65-74% is normally the range for a 3 on the test, it is not definite. Over the
years I have seen scores as low as 60% be the low portion of a 3 score.

Out of 110 possible points:
72-83 is most likely a 3
84-94 is most likely a 4

95-110 is most likely a 5

Now lets start our review for the national exam by
reviewing the 33 key models and theories of the
course…the next PowerPoint.


Slide 56

Key topic/chapter 13…Urban Patterns
Key terms:
Annexation
Concentric zone model
Density gradient
Edge cities
Filtering
Galactic city
Gentrification
Greenbelts
Megalopolis
MSA
Multiple nuclei model
Peripheral model

Public housing
Redlining
Renovated housing
Scattered site
Squatter settlement
Sector model
Smart growth
Sprawl
Underclass
Urban renewal
Zone in transition
Zoning
1

Chapter 13…Urban Areas.
How are Cities planned?
Why

are cities where they are?
How are they organized?
Why are some areas of a city
different from
other areas of the same city?
What is the future of cities?
2

Settlement


Settlement - permanent collections of buildings,
where people live, work, and obtain services

3

ORIGINS OF SETTLEMENTS


Religious - graves, churches, temples



Cultural - schools, libraries



Political/Military - leader’s house, walls



Economic - stores, food
4

TYPES OF SETTLEMENTS


Rural Settlements - agriculture as the
predominant occupation.



Urban settlements - principal industries are
secondary and tertiary.

5

RURAL SETTLEMENTS
Clustered rural settlements –grouped
settlements in rural areas to minimize travel

Dispersed rural Settlements - isolated farms
with enclosed continuous fields (Found only in
N. America and Britain).

6

Urban Geographers want to know the global distribution of urban
settlements. MDC’s have a high percentage of people living in urban
areas because of the shift from agriculture-manufacturing-services.
Geographers are also interested in where people and activities are
distributed within urban spaces. What are the differences between the
inner-city and suburban areas and why?
As we saw in the last chapter, many downtowns are unique and can
often be recognized in photos where the suburbs often look very
much alike (Placelessness). Why? Suburbs offer the chance to avoid
some of the city problems (crime, tight living area, expensive
land/rent, noise, age of buildings) while still keeping a connection with
the goods and services of the city: jobs, sports teams, culture, shops,
recreation, etc.
7

Where is this place?

8

Today’s cities are evolving and changing. Although different internal
situations characterize urban areas in the US and elsewhere, the
problems arising from current spatial trends are quite similar in all cities.
Where have urban areas grown: in the early 1800’s only 3% of the earth’s
people lived in cities and only Beijing China had more than 1 million
people. Today over ½ of the world’s people live in cities and we have over
400 cities of at least 1 million people.

Urbanization: is the process by which city population grows.
Cities population growth is measured in 2 dimensions;
1. An increase in the number of people living in the cities.
2. An increase in the percentage of people living in the cities.
This distinction is important because they happen for different reason and
have different global distributions.
9

Increasing Percentage of People in Cities: a large percentage of people living in urban
areas is a measure of a country’s level of development. In MDC’s about ¾ of the people
live in urban areas compared to about 2/5 of people in LDC’s. (Except in Latin America
where the level is closer to MDC’s.)
The higher percentage of people in urban areas comes from the changes that have
occurred in the last 200 years as we went from agriculture (primary jobs) to industrial
(secondary jobs) and now service jobs, all created by the Industrial Revolution of the
1800’s.
People moved to the cities for industrial jobs, but in MDC’s this process has largely
ended because nearly everyone interested in moving to the cities from farms has already
done so.
In LDC’s the percentage of people living in urban areas is growing as people are pushed
off of their farms and replaced by machines and as people move to cities looking/hoping
for industrial jobs.
10

Increasing Number of People in Cities: MDC’s have a higher percentage of
people living in urban settlements but LDC’s have more of the very large urban
settlements (Primate cities). (Rank-size rule, primate cities, chapter 12.)

This is interesting because typically the large cities are created from the
improvements brought by the Industrial Revolution. This is not the case with the
large LDC cities. Migration to the primate city in LDC’s is happening even though
job opportunities may not be available. Increasing the population growth in LDC
cities is the fact that medical services are better in these cities, thus the child
mortality rate is lower.
Defining Urban Settlements: defining where urban areas end and rural areas
begin is not easy. Geographers have formulated definitions that distinguish
between urban and rural areas in two ways: Social differences and Physical
differences.
11

Percent Urban Population

Percent of the population living in urban areas is usually higher in MDCs
than in LDCs.

12

The most populated cities in the world

Of the top
20, only
Moscow,
Tokyo and
New York
are in MDC’s

Shanghai China has 14,608,512 people
13

14

15

Social Differences Between Urban and Rural Settlements: it is fair to say that rural
people and urban people follow different ways of life. A city can be defined as having 3
characteristics:
1. Large size. People in rural settlements know most of the other people in the
settlement. Not true in big cities. Social relationships are often described as “colder” in
urban areas because you only see some people at work instead of growing up with
them in the settlement.
2. High Density. Having lots of people in a tiny area creates social consequences. A
high density of people living in a small area can only be supported if the people
specialize (they can’t all be farmers). People are encouraged to compete for jobs, room,
and survival in a tightly limited space. Social groups compete to occupy the same space
(ethnic/ race problems). Rural settlements have very little of this problem.
3. Social Heterogeneity. The larger the settlement, the greater the variety of people.
Being “unusual” in a large settlement is more likely to be accepted than in a small rural
one. But despite the freedom to be different that large urban settlements give you,
people living there often feel alone because so many people are different from them.
There is a stronger feeling of belonging together in small rural settlements.
16

These 3 differences do not fully answer the question of where urban settlements
begin and rural ones end because in today’s MDC’s most everyone has access to
cars, telephones, televisions, and “urban type” jobs which reduce the differences
between urban and rural lifestyles. “City folk” and “Country folk” are more alike
today than they are different. To help distinguish between urban and rural areas we
need to add the physical definition of rural and urban to the equation.
Physical Definitions of Urban Settlements: In ancient time, cities had defensive
walls for protection which clearly defined the physical boundaries of the city. Today
the walls are gone but we can still define the physical boundaries in 3 ways:
1. Legal boundary. These are the official boundaries of a city as recognized by
the government of the country or state. These “city limits” have been officially given
to the city and are physically marked on official maps. The local government of the
city has authority to make laws and protect the people inside the city boundaries.
17

2. Urbanized area. This is the city plus its suburbs or urbanized area that
surrounds the city. About 70 percent of US residents live in urbanized areas with
40% being in the suburbs and 30% inside the city limits. The suburbs may have
their own city governments but the huge central city dominates what happens in
the entire area.
3. Metropolitan Statistical Area. Cities have an even bigger influence on people
than just those living in their city limits and surrounding urbanized areas. People
from far away come to shop, use the services, support the sports teams, read
the newspapers and watch the television broadcasts of the city. Thus the city
has a “functional area” which is its total zone of influence. The US Bureau of
Census has created a method of measuring the functional area of the city.
Known as the Metropolitan statistical area (MSA) this area includes:
•An urbanized area with a population of at least 50,000
•The county within which the city is located.
•Adjacent counties with a high population density and a large percentage of
residents working in the central city’s county.
18

Metropolitan Area of Philadelphia

City of
Philadelphia

Urbanized
area
(suburbs)
Metropolitan
Statistical
Area

The metropolitan area of Philadelphia is
spread over several counties and four states.
It is also a diversified trade center, given its
position on the Delaware river.

19

20

21

Micropolitan Statistical Areas: Smaller areas with between
10,000 and 50,000 people, the county where it is found, and
adjacent counties tied to the city. This would be a small town and
the area dominated by it.
Overlapping Metropolitan Areas: Some adjacent MSA’s overlap.
A county between two central cities may send a large number of
commuters to jobs in both cities. In some areas the cities are so
close that they form one continuous urban complex. This is
known as a Megalopolis (great city).
In a megalopolis, the downtown CBD often has its own
distinctive look and the urban areas are visually separated by
parks, open spaces, and dairy/truck farms. But at the periphery
of the urban areas, the boundaries overlap.
22

Colorado Springs, population 431,000

Ocala, Florida, population 56,000

Florala, Alabama, population 1,900

23

Megalopolis, from northern Va. To Maine.
This Illustrates the
difference between
strict city proper
definitions and broader
urban agglomerations.
To define urbanized
areas, the U.S. Census
Bureau uses the term
Metropolitan Statistical
Area (MSA) or
Consolidated MSA
(CMSA) if two or more of
them overlap.
24

Where are People Distributed within Urban Areas? People are not
just distributed at random in urban areas. For the most part they
concentrate in particular neighborhoods depending on their social
characteristics. Geographers want to see where people with
particular characteristics are likely to live and why.

Three models which try to explain the growth of a city:

The Burgess Model

The Hoyt Sector Model

The Harris and Ullman
multiple Nuclei Model
25

Burgess Concentric Zone Model

In the concentric zone model, a city grows in a series of rings surrounding the CBD.

Burgess Concentric Zone Model: This is the first used to explain the
distributions of different social groups within urban areas. It says that a
city grows outward from a central place in a series of concentric rings.
The precise size and width of the rings vary from one city to another, but
some basic types of rings appear in all cities in the same order (see chart
above).
26

•Hoyt Sector Model: In this model the city develops in a
series of sectors not rings. Certain areas of the city are
more attractive for various activities, originally because
of an environmental factor (or even pure chance). As the
city grows, activities extend outward in a wedge shape.
For example, once a wealthy neighborhood is built the
next wealthy neighborhood will extend from the first
neighborhood further outward from the center. In this
way, the best housing is found in a corridor extending
outward from the center to the outer edge (see chart on
the next page).
27

The Hoyt Sector Model

In the sector model, a city grows in a series of
wedges or corridors extending out from the
CBD.
28

•Harris and Ullman’s Multiple Nuclei Model: According
to this model, a city is a complex structure that includes
more than one center around which activities revolve.
Examples of these nodes include a port, parks,
stadium, neighborhood business center, university, and
airport (see chart). This theory states that some
activities are attracted to particular nodes, whereas
others try to avoid them. A university node may attract
well educated people and bookstores while the port will
attract hotels and warehouses. Heavy industry and
expensive houses rarely are found together. This
model shows the effect of the automobile more than
any other model.
29

The Harris and Ullman Multiple Nuclei model

The multiple nuclei model views a city as a
collection of individual centers, around which
different people and activities cluster.

30

Applications of the Models: The three models help explain where and in some
cases, why people live where they do. None of the models by themselves fully
explains why and where different types of people live, but combined they give
you as good a look as possible at the “Why” of “Where.” Effective use of the
models depends on getting good data on the areas. Most countries take a
census every 10 years to help determine useful data about the people and
places of the country. In our country we divide the census data into areas
known as census tracts of about 5,000 people. Each census tract has the data
that summarizes the characteristics of the people living within that tract. This
information includes things like the race, income, age, and education of the
people living in that tract.
Social Area Analysis: The data from the census tracts can all be plotted onto
maps to show the characteristics of the people living in that tract. This map is
known as a social area analysis.
31

Using Census tract information…Seattle, Washington
Each lined area is a
census tract of about 5000
people in Seattle
Washington. These maps
show average household
income for 1990 and
2000…note the changes in
income in some areas
between 1990 and 2000.
Using this information, a
business can make
decisions about where
they want to locate a new
store or the future of
existing stores.
You can find census tract
information on many topics
such as; age, education
level, race, ethnicity, crime
rate, and land ownership.
Note the areas with
incomes over
$63,000.

All can be very valuable
information to people
looking to open
businesses.

32

Examine the changes
between 1990 and
2000.

Oakland, California’s Ethnic neighborhoods
The small bordered areas are census tracks of 5000 people.

33

Use of the Models Outside of North America: The 3 models will also work in other
places in the world; however social groups in other countries may not have the
same reasons for selecting particular neighborhoods as Americans do.
European Cities: As in the US, wealthier people in European cities cluster along a
sector extending outward from the CBD, however unlike the US, wealthy and
middle class Europeans still live in the inner rings of the neighborhoods near the
CBD not out in the suburbs. In the past, poorer people lived in the center of the
city. Before electricity, social segregation was vertical: richer people lived on the
first or second floor of a building while the poorer people lived in the basement or
upper floors. In the Industrial Revolution, housing for the poor was constructed
near the factories and away from the rich.
Today poorer Europeans are less likely to live in the inner-city. Poor quality
housing has been renovated for the rich or turned into office buildings. Poorer
Europeans tend to live in the outskirts of the city. Vast suburbs with dozens of high
rise apartments house the poor. They face long commutes to reach their jobs in
the city.
34

European cities generally do not have the “suburban
sprawl” that US cities have. European cities tend to be
more pedestrian friendly with more parks downtown as
Europeans tend to still live downtown.
US cities have taller buildings as European cities tend to
be older and more historic.

American cities have more ethnic neighborhoods than
European cities. Ethnic neighborhoods that do exist in
European cities tend to be in the suburbs. WHY?
Because the established richer neighborhoods tend to be
downtown in European cities.
35

Less Developed Countries: Like Europe, most LDC’s accommodate their poor in the
suburbs with their middle class and rich living near the center of the city. LDC’s have
passed through 3 periods of city building: before the Europeans arrived, during the
period of European colonialism, and since independence from European control.

Pre-colonial Cities: Before the Europeans arrived few cities existed in Africa, Asia, and
Latin America and most people lived in small rural settlements. Those cities that existed
were mostly laid out surrounding a religious center; with the rest of the city laid out in a
hieratical concentric pattern (like the Burgess model) from government buildings,
homes of the wealthy, and businesses related to the religion out to other businesses
and shops.
Colonial cities: When the Europeans took over these lands, they changed the cities by
adding services to help the Europeans control the conquered people. Often a new
European style city would be build next to the existing native one. The new European
cities contained wider streets, a public square, larger houses and a much lower density.
The Spanish used the “Law of the Indies” which was a city plan designed specifically to
build cities in a “Spanish” style. (Gridiron pattern for streets centered on a church and
central plaza, walls around individual houses and neighborhoods centered around
smaller plazas and more churches.)
36

Early Mexico city was laid out in a grid pattern of streets. This followed
the Spanish “Law of the Indies.”

37

Central Plaza in Mexico City 1920 photo. Typical Colonial City plan.

Part of downtown Mexico city today still shows the
building plan of the “Law of the Indies.”

38

Cities since Independence: Following independence, cities have become
the focal point of the development of most LDC’s. Millions of people have
migrated to the cities (Primate cities) looking for jobs and services. Some
capitals have been moved to isolated areas in an attempt to help develop
that area of the country (Brasília) This is know as a forward capital. Latin
American cities have developed their own unique style.
Squatter settlements: The LDC’s are unable to house the rapidly growing
number of poor who are flowing into the cities. Because of the housing
shortages, the poor have constructed their own settlements around the city.
These settlements have few services because neither the city nor the
residents can afford them. Squatters have two basic choices for housing.
1. Illegally move into empty real houses located in the city or,
2. Rent slum housing.
(85% of the population of Addis Ababa in Ethiopia lives in squatter
settlements, slums or other illegal housing.)
39

Squatter shacks in Manila, the Philippines

40

Squatter settlement in Ethiopia

41

Zimbabwe, Africa

42

Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

43

Latin American City Model:
In many Latin
American cities,
the wealthy live in
the inner city and
in a sector
extending along a
commercial spine.
In situ accretion- businesses
and homes constantly under
construction/repair.
Zone of maturity-2nd best
housing in the city.
The poor live in squatter settlements on the
periphery of the city.

Disamenity- unpleasant area
used by the poor to get to the
market.

44

The City Outline of Rio de Janeiro
The rich tourist areas and expensive condo apartments are along the coast
and beach while the poor live in squatter shacks in the hills.

45

City problems:
Inner-City Physical Problems: Most US inner cities were constructed before the 1950’s
(people began to move to the suburbs in the 1950’s so new construction moved out of
the city).
Process of Deterioration (how a city deteriorates): A city doesn’t suddenly become old
and full of slummy areas. It happens over time. When a group of low-income people
inhabit an area of a city, nearby neighborhoods will often look to move out. They sell or
rent to more low-income occupants thus expanding the low-income area. Two processes
cause/speed up the devaluation of areas:
1. Filtering, 2. Redlining.
Filtering: Large houses and buildings that once housed rich downtown workers (who
moved to the suburbs) are taken over by landlords who don’t live in that area (they
moved to the suburbs too). Rents are low so the landlord doesn’t take as good care of
the property as they should and the property becomes run down or abandoned. Stores
close, or move, due to lack of sales. 100 years ago these neighborhoods would be used
by immigrants and ethnic businesses would succeed in those areas. Now, with a decline
in immigration, these neighborhoods have shrunk and so have schools, businesses and
other services. Thousands of vacant houses and buildings stand empty in inner cities
across America.

46

Redlining: Some banks refuse to give loans in what they consider
risky neighborhoods. They draw a red line on a map around areas
where they will not give loans. Without loans, these neighborhoods
have a hard time rebuilding/remodeling. Though illegal, this still
happens. Bankers just don’t put these “no-loan” areas on a map.

Urban Renewal: This is the series of projects to improve European
and N. American cities by buying up the blighted neighborhoods,
moving the people to new government built housing projects, and
building new roads, and other projects to make the inner city
attractive for business again. National and State government grants
help pay for these projects.
47

Public housing: Housing for the poor, built with government funding as part of
urban renewal. In the US this is only about 2% of the housing while in some
countries it may be more (Britain is 30%). Public housing built in the 50’s & 60’s
were largely high rise apartments, but those are seen as being unsatisfactory.
Problems arise from cramming large numbers of poor people into one area.
Today most public housing projects are one to three story buildings with many of
them being scattered around different parts of the city rather than clustered into
one area.
Because urban renewal has been criticized for destroying the social cohesion of
older neighborhoods, many governments (like the US) have stopped funding
most projects since the 1970’s. What do we do instead?
Renovated Housing: An alternative often used since the 70’s is to renovate a
building instead of urban renewal. The process where middle-class people
move into inner-city neighborhoods and renovate them is called gentrification.
Gentrified inner-city neighborhoods also attract middle-class people who work
downtown. Living close to work saves the hassle of commuting and rejuvenates
run down inner-city neighborhoods
48

Gentrified building downtown Harlem, NY. Note the supermarket.

49

Inner-City Social Problems: Inner-city residents are often referred to as the
permanent underclass because they are trapped in an unending cycle of
economic and social problems. High unemployment, alcoholism, drug
addiction, literacy, juvenile delinquency, and crime all exist at a higher rate
among those who live in the inner-city. Lack of jobs means lack of tax dollars
to pay for police and fire protection as well as good schools. Lack of job skills
and homelessness are also tremendous problems.
Culture of Poverty: Inner-city residents are trapped in a permanent underclass
culture that reproduces itself. In the US, unwed mothers give birth to 2/3 of the
babies in the inner-city. 90% of these children live with only one parent and it
is real hard for one parent to keep a job and take care of children. Both suffer
and a shortage of care and daily attention by the parent contributes to the kids
not learning the skills necessary to do well in school which leads to poor jobs
for their futures. Poverty leads to more poverty. Many families on welfare have
only one parent because it is financially better if one parent is gone, that way
the single parent gets food stamps and other services from the government
that they would not get if it was a 2 family household.
50

Crime: Trapped in a hopeless environment, some inner-city
residents turn to drugs. Drug use is a problem in inner-city
areas and the suburbs, but rates of drug use in inner-cities
are the highest.
Ethnic and Racial Segregation: As seen in chapter 7, many
neighborhoods in the US are segregated by ethnicity with
African Americans and Hispanics concentrated in one or two
continuous areas and whites living in the suburbs. Even small
cities display a strong distinction among neighborhoods. A
frequent division is between the east and west or north and
south side of town, or the railroad tracks. A family seeking a
new residence will seek the areas where the characteristics
of the people meet their own.

51

The exodus
from the
American city.
This has
happened in
many American
cities since the
1960’s.

52

Changes in Cities in the U.S.
U.S. population has been moving out of the city centers to the suburbs:
suburbanization and counter urbanization

Developed Countries: suburbanization

 wealthy move to suburbs
 automobiles and roads; ‘American
Dream’ of the home in the suburbs.
 better services
 wealthy move to suburbs
Counter urbanization

idyllic settings
cost of land for retirement
slow pace, yet high tech
connections to services and markets
53

U.S. intraregional migration during 1990s.

Inner city economic problems: the concentration of low income
residents in inner cities has caused economic problems. These
people require public services but can pay very little in taxes to
support the services. They need stores and jobs but have little
money to spend in the store and few skills for jobs (so the stores
close). To try to fight these problems many local and state
governments use tax monies to try to renovate these areas, but this
shifts tax money needed for other areas to the inner city (votes on
election day).
Annexation: Many cities could help their tax problem by adding the
new suburbs to be part of their city (annexation). After all, many of
these suburban people use the city for its’ jobs etc., so why not add
them into the city? Today, most people in the suburbs do not want
to be annexed into the city and so they do not vote to be annexed.
54

The Peripheral Model: According to this model, an urban area
consists of an inner city surrounded by large suburban residential
and business areas (MSA) tied together by a beltway or highway
that circles the city. Around the beltway are nodes of consumer
and business services called edge cities (see diagram of multiple
nuclei model). These edge cities sprang up to provide services
and jobs to the people in the suburbs.
Density Gradient: As you travel outward from the center of the
city, the density of people declines. Inner city has big apartments
of 250 of more people per acre. Suburbs have fewer people per
acre (but lots of acres) and finally you leave the cities periphery
you find few people. The number of houses per unit of land
diminishes as distance from the center of the city increases.
55

The Edge cities (bedroom communities) of Houston

The central city is surrounded by a ring road, around which are
suburban areas and edge cities, shopping malls, office parks,
industrial areas, and service complexes.

Known as
bedroom
communities
because
people live
there but
mostly don’t
work there.
They drive
into the city
for work.
56

As you move from the center of the city outward, the density of the population
changes. This is know as the density gradient. Two big changes have occurred in
the density gradient of today’s cities:
1. The number of people living in the center has decreased.
2. The density difference between the inner city and the suburbs is declining
because the inner city density is dropping and the suburban density is growing
due to more large apartments being built in the suburbs.
Cost of Suburban or Urban Sprawl: Urban Sprawl is the progressive spread of
development over the landscape. As long as we Americans want single-family
detached houses, land on the fringe of urban areas will be converted from open
space to residential use. The cost of this growth is more than the loss of land, it is
also the cost of new roads, utilities, building stores and offices and the cost of
automobiles to move these people over even longer distances. Lots of these new
developments are built on what was once farmland. Wonderful productive soil now
under concrete.

Greenbelts: are areas where, by law, the open space can not be used for any
construction. This is mostly found in Europe.

57

Once farmland that is being converted to suburbs and cities.

58

Tyson’s Corner Virginia in 1940

59

Washington, DC. MSA.

Tyson’s Corner Virginia
today.
Washington D.C. is off
In the distance.

60

Suburban Segregation: The “new” segregation.
Suburban segregation takes two forms:
1. Residents are separated from commercial and manufacturing activities
which are confined someplace else. (The whole neighborhood is
nothing but houses because they drive for services.)
2. The price of the house eliminates some from being able to live there. This
creates a homogeneous suburb of the same economic class of people.
This never existed before in history. Where we once had vertical
segregation of the classes we now we have horizontal segregation.
3. But this may be reversing as new statistics show that people are beginning
to move back to the city. Why? Cost of transportation.
Zoning Ordinances: This idea developed in Europe and later America in the
early decades of the 20th century. This means that businesses are allowed only
in certain areas of the settlement. (No all night taco stands inside your single
family neighborhood.)
Motor vehicles: The wide use of the automobile is largely responsible for the
American movement to the suburbs. Not only did people move out but 1/4 of
the land inside all American cities are now roads, streets, and parking lots.

61

Public Transportation: Because few US workers live within walking distance
of their jobs, urban areas are characterized by extensive commuting and the
problems that come with it. As much as 40% of all trips made into or out from
a city during the day takes place within just 4 hours. (2 in the morning and 2 in
the late afternoon). RUSH HOUR!!! In large cities, public transportation, like
subways and busses, are better suited to move people but Americans still
prefer their own cars. Public transportation is cheaper, cleaner, and more
energy efficient than personal cars, yet in the US only 5% of city travel is
done using public transit systems. American’s love their personal car too
much.
Local Government Fragmentation: Because of the large number of local
governments in the US (look at the settlements in Pinellas County) it is
difficult to solve some of the regional problems like garbage disposal, water
management, traffic and public housing.
62

Metropolitan government: This idea tries to put many local governments into a
larger unit that can better handle the urban problems. The 2 ways to do this
are:
1. Federations in which the individual settlements have their own police,
firemen, and tax collection but they all agree to be part of a second
government which handles transportation, water, sewage, parks and
welfare for all the communities.
2. Consolidations: In this method, several cities and the county may form one
government. Jacksonville’s government runs not only the town but the
county too, this makes Jacksonville the largest city, in land size, in the US.
Smart growth: A new movement by many states to curb suburban sprawl by
limiting where new construction can take place. Smart growth laws require that
land near cities be used up before any land further out can be developed. So
far, this is only being done an a few parts of our country.
63

The new
US as
some
people
see it.

64

Quiz Yourself:
1. The process where middle-class people move into inner city neighborhoods and
renovate them is called ____________
2. ____________ happens when banks refuse to give loans in what they consider
risky neighborhoods.
3. Because of the housing shortages, the poor have constructed their own settlements
around the city known as __________ _________

4. Businesses are allowed only in certain areas of the settlement because of
____________ ____________
5. Areas known as _____ _______ are areas of about 5,000 people. The data from
that area is used to help define needed services for that area.
6. When cities are so close that they form one continuous band of development this is
known as a ____________
65

7. Social relationships are often described as “colder” in urban areas because…
8. In this model the city develops in a series of sectors not rings. _______

9. ______ (LDC’s or MDC’s) have a higher percentage of people living in urban
settlements but ________ (LDC’s or MDC’s) have more of the very large urban
settlements.
10. _____________ was the first model developed to explain the distributions
of different social groups within urban areas.
11. New cities which develop around the beltway are nodes of consumer and
business services known as ________ _________.

12. When the Europeans took over lands around the world, they changed the
cities by adding services to help the Europeans control the conquered people.
These European planned cities are known as __________ cities.
66

Answer Key:
1.

Gentrification

2.

Redlining

3.

Squatter Settlements

4.

Zoning ordinances

5.

Census tracks

6.

Megalopolis

7. There is a stronger feeling of belonging together in small rural settlements.
8. Hoyt sector model
9. MDC, LDC
10. Burgess Concentric Zone model
11. Edge cities
12. Colonial cities
67

Test Key topic/chapter 13:
These questions come from a combination of our slides, your text book, and common knowledge you should
have discussed in your AP classroom. They are very typical of what you will see on the National Exam.
1) The multiple nuclei theory best explains why different neighborhoods of a city attract people of different… A) ages.
B) ethnic origin C) income D) marital status.
2) Sprawl is the… A) change in density within an urban area from the center to the periphery B) development of new
housing sites not contiguous to the existing built-up area. C) land maintained as open space surrounding an urban area.
D) period in the morning and evening with the heaviest volumes of traffic.
3) People are attracted to suburbs in part because suburbs are characterized by…A) heavy traffic. B) lower opportunity
for home ownership. C) private land surrounding the house. D) row houses and apartments.
4) Megalopolis refers to… A) adjacent, overlapping Metropolitan Statistical Areas. B) central cities. C) consolidated
Metropolitan Statistical Areas. D) central cities plus urbanized areas.
5) Which statement best describes the relationship between urbanization and the Industrial Revolution? A) Urbanization
promoted the Industrial Revolution. B) The Industrial Revolution promoted urbanization. C) Urbanization preceded the
Industrial Revolution by thousands of years. D) Urbanization and the Industrial Revolution are no longer related.
6) The process of legally adding land area to a city in the United States is… A) annexation. B) accreditation. C) an
application of eminent domain. D) defined by urbanized area.

68

7) The process of change in the use of a house, from single-family owner occupancy to abandonment, is… A) blockbusting.
B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining.
8) A process by which banks designate an area within which they refuse to lend money for improvements is… A) blockbusting.
B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining.
9) A recent change in the density gradient has been… A) the elimination of the gap traditionally found in the center. B) an
increase in the extremes between the inner and outer areas. C) an increase in the number of people living in the center.
D) a reduction in the differences in densities found within an urban area.
10) U.S. central cities face fiscal problems because… A) federal and state funds are available. B) low-income people are
concentrated there. C) middle-class families are attracted there. D) redlining is no longer legal.
11) A legal form of segregation in U.S. cities is achieved through...A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) zoning. D) greenbelts.
12) Factories have moved to suburban locations in part because of… A) access to main highways. B) adequate space to build
vertical structures. C) availability of large tracts of high-priced land. D) good rail connections.
13) According to the sector model, the best housing is located in…A) a corridor from downtown to the edge of the city.
B) an outer ring surrounding the city. C) nodes near universities and parks. D) renovated inner-city neighborhoods.
14) Ramshackle houses on the periphery of cities in less developed countries are known as… A) squatter settlements. B) council
estates. C) public housing. D) zone in transition.
15) Higher income people tend to live near the center of the city in all but which of the following regions? A) Latin America
B) North America C) South Asia D) Western Europe

16) The wide boulevards built in cities in less developed countries were most likely built during what era? A) pre-colonial
B) colonial C) independence D) all of the above equally

69

17) According to the multiple nuclei model, an airport is likely to attract nearby… A) industries. B) residences. C) shops.
D) universities.
18) The largest percentage of the U.S. population lives in…A) central cities. B) suburbs. C) non-metropolitan areas. D) all of the
above
19) In U.S. cities, the underclass is… A) clustered in inner-city neighborhoods. B) dispersed throughout the city. C) clustered in
suburbs. D) distributed uniformly in the city.

20) A process of converting a neighborhood from low-income to middle-class is…A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) gentrification.
D) redlining.
21) Higher social heterogeneity in urban settlements means that… A) the people with whom you relax are probably the same ones you
see at work. B) you play a specialized role in the urban economy. C) you compete for limited space. D) you may feel lonely and
isolated in a crowd.
22) The city plus its contiguous built-up suburbs is the… A) central city. B) urbanized area.
D) consolidated metropolitan statistical area

C) metropolitan statistical area.

23) The process whereby an increasing percentage of people live in an urban area is known as… A) demographic transition.
B) rank-size rule. C) urbanization. D) central place theory.
24) Of the ten largest urban areas in the world, how many are in More Developed Countries today? A) 1 B) 4 C) 7 D) 10 E) 2
25) Public housing is…A) conversion of low-income housing to middle-class housing. B) illegally established low-income housing.
C) housing that has changed from single-family owner occupancy to abandonment. D) low-income government-owned housing.
26) According to the concentric zone model, a city develops in a series of… A) corridors. B) nodes. C) rings. D) all of the above

70

27) Chicago is a good location in which to develop urban models because it is located… A) at the hub of the nation's transportation
system. B) in the center of the country. C) on a flat prairie. D) on the shore of Lake Michigan.
28) According to the sector model, the best housing is located in… A) a corridor from downtown to the edge of the city. B) an outer
ring surrounding the city. C) nodes near universities and parks. D) renovated inner-city neighborhoods.
29) The zone of transition in US cities generally contain…A) warehouses B) wealthy neighborhoods C) transportation hubs
D) universities and hospitals E) suburban homes
30) The attractions of shopping malls include all but which of the following? A) frequent concerts and exhibitions B) generous
parking lots C) place to meet friends D) walking distance from homes
The following questions are written at the high school level. You will find some questions from part one often rewritten
here. This is all designed to help you transition to the college/AP style of written questions. Any question preceded with ***
are questions that have been on the national exam before.
31. Most Latin American cities are focused on a…A) central plaza B) government housing project C) zone of heavy industry
D) skyscraper office building E) squatter settlement
32. The multiple-nuclei model of a city structure tends to be most applicable to…A) small cities B) traditional C) Latin American
cities D) newer, fast growing cities E) cities with homogeneous land use
33. ***Locational advantages important to the development of the earliest cities include…A) availability of good harbors for large
ships B) productive agricultural land and defensible sites C) temperate climate and proximity to coal mines D) good
connections by road and canal E) proximity to manufacturing areas

34. In cities, the CBD’s often show uniqueness while the suburbs usually show…A) a large hinterland. B) placelessness C) more
than one node. D) newer zones of transition.

71

35. Many LDC’s have tried to help a previously under-developed part of their country develop by moving their capital
city to that area. This new capital is known as a…A) forward capital B) new development zone C) enterprise zone
D) neocolonial city
36. Today the greatest number of urban dwellers is found in…A) North America
D) Europe E) Asia

B) South America C) Africa

37. ***All of the following have helped create ghettos in North American cities except…A)blockbusting and racial
steering B) redlining by financial institutions C) concentration of public housing and social services D) fixed school
districts E) Economic Enterprise Zones

38. Which of the following is NOT as reason for rapid suburbanization in the US after WW2? A) Mass production of
the automobile B) Reduction of long distance commuting C) Expansion of home construction D) Expansion of the
interstate highway system E) Availability of low down payment terms and long-term mortgages.
39. New cities which developed in the hinterland of large urban areas because of the automobile, are known as…
A) edge cities B) census tracts C) suburban sprawl D) squatter settlements. E) none of these
40. Gentrification refers to… A) moving the homeless into inner city shelters B) The “White Flight” from the urban city
C) losing tax revenue because of stores closing in downtown areas D) middle-class people moving into and renovating
inner city neighborhoods E) the creation of “beltway cities” around the city.

72

4
7
3

5

1
6

2

41-48 all use the sketch above.
41. The sketch in box A above represents which model of the inner structure of urban areas?
C) multiple nuclei model D) Burgess concentric zone model E) peripheral model
42. The models in boxes B and C represent A) Concentric zone and multiple nuclei
concentric zone D) peripheral and concentric zone E) Von Thunen and peripheral

A) Hoyt sector model B) VonThunen’s model

B) Multiple nuclei and Hoyt sector C) Hoyt sector and

43. In which ring (1, 2, etc.) of sketch A above would high-status households in North American cities likely live? A) 1 B) 2 C) 3 D) 4&5
44. In which ring (1, 2, etc.) of sketch A above would high status households in a European city likely live? A) 1

B) 2

C) 3

D) 4&5

45. In model B, zone # 2 is where it is likely because of: A) greenbelting B) squatter settling C) the culture of poverty D) transportation
E) no one knows
46. The model in sketch B is the; A) Hoyt sector model B) Burgess model C) multiple nuclei model D) peripheral model
47. The model in sketch C is the; A) Hoyt sector model B) Burgess model C) multiple nuclei model D) peripheral model
48. Which of these models best describes what has happened in US cities in the last 40 years? A)

B)

C)

73

49.*** In the U.S. a city plus its contiguous built-up suburbs is known as an…A) urbanized area B) zoned area
C) census tract D) Squatter settlement E) none of these
50. Done mostly in Europe, these are areas where land is kept as parks, farms or other kinds of open space and urban
sprawl is not allowed. A) Smart growth
B) zoning
C) filtering
D) census tracts E) greenbelts
51. Which statement best describes the relationship between urbanization and the Industrial Revolution?
A) Urbanization promoted the Industrial Revolution. B) The Industrial Revolution promoted urbanization.
C) Urbanization preceded the Industrial Revolution by thousands of years. D) Urbanization and the Industrial
Revolution are no longer related.
52. The process whereby an increasing percentage of people live in an urban area is known as…
A) Demographic transition. B) rank-size rule. C) Urbanization. D) Central place theory.
53. The city (if it has 50,000 or more people) plus its contiguous built-up suburbs AND the county it is in as well as any
other counties it influences, is known as the ...A) central city B) urbanized area
C) metropolitan statistical area
D) consolidated metropolitan area E) micropolitan statistical area
54. ***Higher social heterogeneity in urban settlements means that …A) the people with whom you relax are probably
the same ones you see at work. B) you play a specialized role in the urban economy. C) you compete for limited
space. D) you may feel lonely and isolated in a crowd.

55. The process of change in the use of a house, from single-family owner occupancy to smaller dwellings for the poor
and then sometimes to abandonment, is…A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining. E) none of
these

74

Free Response #1:
The Bid Rent theory says that the closer you get to the
CBD the higher the cost for land, yet in most American
cities you find the poorest people living near the
expensive CBD and the richest living further away.
Explain:
A. Why neighborhoods near the CBD are often poor and
run down?
B. Why are there few grocery and other retail stores in
these neighborhoods?
C. Why is this not really true in European and Latin
American countries?

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75

FR #2:
Think of the map of your school, explain the
layout of your school using the Multiple Nuclei
Model
The main office is the CBD.
Completely explain your answer using specific
buildings and/or land areas in your explanation
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76

Answer Key:
1. B

14. A

27. C

40. D

53. C

2. B

15. B

28. A

41. D

54. D

3. C

16. B

29. A

42. B

55. B

4. A

17. A

30. D

43. D

5. B

18. B

31. A

44. A

6. A

19. A

32. D

45. D

7. B

20. C

33. B

46. A

8. D

21. D

34. B

47. C

9. D

22. B

35. A

48. C

10. B

23. C

36. E

49. A

11. C

24. C

37. E

50. E

12. A

25. D

38. B

51. B

13. A

26. C

39. A

52. C
77

FR. #1: ( 15 pts. for each section…total of 45 pts.)
A. In the US the move of the wealthy and middle class to the suburbs has left the older houses and apartments near the CBD empty.
This has lowered their value to the point where the poor can afford these dwellings and have made these neighborhoods their
homes. The poor can not pay for upkeep of these dwellings, or to pay high taxes. The lack of upkeep and tax money to repair the
roads and schools, adds to the downward spiral of the neighborhood. With little spending money for shopping, the poor do not
spend much in the stores. This causes many stores to close and move to the suburbs where the spending customers and money
went. The closing of the stores adds to the poverty of the area by taking away some of the jobs that were in the neighborhood. This
becomes a vicious cycle of poverty and deterioration. (15 points)

B. There are few retail stores and groceries is the area because the poor do not have money to shop. The lack of spending forces
many stores out of business or forces them to move to better locations. There also can be higher crime in these areas and the
crime often takes place at the stores. This is another reason for the stores to move out of the neighborhood. (15 points)
C. Neighborhoods in European and Latin American cities are different from those of US cities. In Europe and Latin America, the
wealthy and middle class still live near or in the CBD. The higher tax base and more spending ability of the upper and middle
classes, keeps the CBD area flourishing with jobs and in constant repair and upkeep of the cities’ physical condition. (15 points)

FR #2: (10 total points.)
You will need to judge how effectively you displayed you school
in the Multiple Nuclei Model. Refer to the model itself to help you
determine your success and grade.
School’s main office
78

Calculating your grade on test 13.
Add how many you got correct on the multiple choice part (55 possible) to how many
points you scored on the FR portion (55 possible)…110 total.
The following scale will show the approximate score if this test were the real AP exam. Remember that this
is an approximation. While 65-74% is normally the range for a 3 on the test, it is not definite. Over the
years I have seen scores as low as 60% be the low portion of a 3 score.

Out of 110 possible points:
72-83 is most likely a 3
84-94 is most likely a 4

95-110 is most likely a 5

Now lets start our review for the national exam by
reviewing the 33 key models and theories of the
course…the next PowerPoint.


Slide 57

Key topic/chapter 13…Urban Patterns
Key terms:
Annexation
Concentric zone model
Density gradient
Edge cities
Filtering
Galactic city
Gentrification
Greenbelts
Megalopolis
MSA
Multiple nuclei model
Peripheral model

Public housing
Redlining
Renovated housing
Scattered site
Squatter settlement
Sector model
Smart growth
Sprawl
Underclass
Urban renewal
Zone in transition
Zoning
1

Chapter 13…Urban Areas.
How are Cities planned?
Why

are cities where they are?
How are they organized?
Why are some areas of a city
different from
other areas of the same city?
What is the future of cities?
2

Settlement


Settlement - permanent collections of buildings,
where people live, work, and obtain services

3

ORIGINS OF SETTLEMENTS


Religious - graves, churches, temples



Cultural - schools, libraries



Political/Military - leader’s house, walls



Economic - stores, food
4

TYPES OF SETTLEMENTS


Rural Settlements - agriculture as the
predominant occupation.



Urban settlements - principal industries are
secondary and tertiary.

5

RURAL SETTLEMENTS
Clustered rural settlements –grouped
settlements in rural areas to minimize travel

Dispersed rural Settlements - isolated farms
with enclosed continuous fields (Found only in
N. America and Britain).

6

Urban Geographers want to know the global distribution of urban
settlements. MDC’s have a high percentage of people living in urban
areas because of the shift from agriculture-manufacturing-services.
Geographers are also interested in where people and activities are
distributed within urban spaces. What are the differences between the
inner-city and suburban areas and why?
As we saw in the last chapter, many downtowns are unique and can
often be recognized in photos where the suburbs often look very
much alike (Placelessness). Why? Suburbs offer the chance to avoid
some of the city problems (crime, tight living area, expensive
land/rent, noise, age of buildings) while still keeping a connection with
the goods and services of the city: jobs, sports teams, culture, shops,
recreation, etc.
7

Where is this place?

8

Today’s cities are evolving and changing. Although different internal
situations characterize urban areas in the US and elsewhere, the
problems arising from current spatial trends are quite similar in all cities.
Where have urban areas grown: in the early 1800’s only 3% of the earth’s
people lived in cities and only Beijing China had more than 1 million
people. Today over ½ of the world’s people live in cities and we have over
400 cities of at least 1 million people.

Urbanization: is the process by which city population grows.
Cities population growth is measured in 2 dimensions;
1. An increase in the number of people living in the cities.
2. An increase in the percentage of people living in the cities.
This distinction is important because they happen for different reason and
have different global distributions.
9

Increasing Percentage of People in Cities: a large percentage of people living in urban
areas is a measure of a country’s level of development. In MDC’s about ¾ of the people
live in urban areas compared to about 2/5 of people in LDC’s. (Except in Latin America
where the level is closer to MDC’s.)
The higher percentage of people in urban areas comes from the changes that have
occurred in the last 200 years as we went from agriculture (primary jobs) to industrial
(secondary jobs) and now service jobs, all created by the Industrial Revolution of the
1800’s.
People moved to the cities for industrial jobs, but in MDC’s this process has largely
ended because nearly everyone interested in moving to the cities from farms has already
done so.
In LDC’s the percentage of people living in urban areas is growing as people are pushed
off of their farms and replaced by machines and as people move to cities looking/hoping
for industrial jobs.
10

Increasing Number of People in Cities: MDC’s have a higher percentage of
people living in urban settlements but LDC’s have more of the very large urban
settlements (Primate cities). (Rank-size rule, primate cities, chapter 12.)

This is interesting because typically the large cities are created from the
improvements brought by the Industrial Revolution. This is not the case with the
large LDC cities. Migration to the primate city in LDC’s is happening even though
job opportunities may not be available. Increasing the population growth in LDC
cities is the fact that medical services are better in these cities, thus the child
mortality rate is lower.
Defining Urban Settlements: defining where urban areas end and rural areas
begin is not easy. Geographers have formulated definitions that distinguish
between urban and rural areas in two ways: Social differences and Physical
differences.
11

Percent Urban Population

Percent of the population living in urban areas is usually higher in MDCs
than in LDCs.

12

The most populated cities in the world

Of the top
20, only
Moscow,
Tokyo and
New York
are in MDC’s

Shanghai China has 14,608,512 people
13

14

15

Social Differences Between Urban and Rural Settlements: it is fair to say that rural
people and urban people follow different ways of life. A city can be defined as having 3
characteristics:
1. Large size. People in rural settlements know most of the other people in the
settlement. Not true in big cities. Social relationships are often described as “colder” in
urban areas because you only see some people at work instead of growing up with
them in the settlement.
2. High Density. Having lots of people in a tiny area creates social consequences. A
high density of people living in a small area can only be supported if the people
specialize (they can’t all be farmers). People are encouraged to compete for jobs, room,
and survival in a tightly limited space. Social groups compete to occupy the same space
(ethnic/ race problems). Rural settlements have very little of this problem.
3. Social Heterogeneity. The larger the settlement, the greater the variety of people.
Being “unusual” in a large settlement is more likely to be accepted than in a small rural
one. But despite the freedom to be different that large urban settlements give you,
people living there often feel alone because so many people are different from them.
There is a stronger feeling of belonging together in small rural settlements.
16

These 3 differences do not fully answer the question of where urban settlements
begin and rural ones end because in today’s MDC’s most everyone has access to
cars, telephones, televisions, and “urban type” jobs which reduce the differences
between urban and rural lifestyles. “City folk” and “Country folk” are more alike
today than they are different. To help distinguish between urban and rural areas we
need to add the physical definition of rural and urban to the equation.
Physical Definitions of Urban Settlements: In ancient time, cities had defensive
walls for protection which clearly defined the physical boundaries of the city. Today
the walls are gone but we can still define the physical boundaries in 3 ways:
1. Legal boundary. These are the official boundaries of a city as recognized by
the government of the country or state. These “city limits” have been officially given
to the city and are physically marked on official maps. The local government of the
city has authority to make laws and protect the people inside the city boundaries.
17

2. Urbanized area. This is the city plus its suburbs or urbanized area that
surrounds the city. About 70 percent of US residents live in urbanized areas with
40% being in the suburbs and 30% inside the city limits. The suburbs may have
their own city governments but the huge central city dominates what happens in
the entire area.
3. Metropolitan Statistical Area. Cities have an even bigger influence on people
than just those living in their city limits and surrounding urbanized areas. People
from far away come to shop, use the services, support the sports teams, read
the newspapers and watch the television broadcasts of the city. Thus the city
has a “functional area” which is its total zone of influence. The US Bureau of
Census has created a method of measuring the functional area of the city.
Known as the Metropolitan statistical area (MSA) this area includes:
•An urbanized area with a population of at least 50,000
•The county within which the city is located.
•Adjacent counties with a high population density and a large percentage of
residents working in the central city’s county.
18

Metropolitan Area of Philadelphia

City of
Philadelphia

Urbanized
area
(suburbs)
Metropolitan
Statistical
Area

The metropolitan area of Philadelphia is
spread over several counties and four states.
It is also a diversified trade center, given its
position on the Delaware river.

19

20

21

Micropolitan Statistical Areas: Smaller areas with between
10,000 and 50,000 people, the county where it is found, and
adjacent counties tied to the city. This would be a small town and
the area dominated by it.
Overlapping Metropolitan Areas: Some adjacent MSA’s overlap.
A county between two central cities may send a large number of
commuters to jobs in both cities. In some areas the cities are so
close that they form one continuous urban complex. This is
known as a Megalopolis (great city).
In a megalopolis, the downtown CBD often has its own
distinctive look and the urban areas are visually separated by
parks, open spaces, and dairy/truck farms. But at the periphery
of the urban areas, the boundaries overlap.
22

Colorado Springs, population 431,000

Ocala, Florida, population 56,000

Florala, Alabama, population 1,900

23

Megalopolis, from northern Va. To Maine.
This Illustrates the
difference between
strict city proper
definitions and broader
urban agglomerations.
To define urbanized
areas, the U.S. Census
Bureau uses the term
Metropolitan Statistical
Area (MSA) or
Consolidated MSA
(CMSA) if two or more of
them overlap.
24

Where are People Distributed within Urban Areas? People are not
just distributed at random in urban areas. For the most part they
concentrate in particular neighborhoods depending on their social
characteristics. Geographers want to see where people with
particular characteristics are likely to live and why.

Three models which try to explain the growth of a city:

The Burgess Model

The Hoyt Sector Model

The Harris and Ullman
multiple Nuclei Model
25

Burgess Concentric Zone Model

In the concentric zone model, a city grows in a series of rings surrounding the CBD.

Burgess Concentric Zone Model: This is the first used to explain the
distributions of different social groups within urban areas. It says that a
city grows outward from a central place in a series of concentric rings.
The precise size and width of the rings vary from one city to another, but
some basic types of rings appear in all cities in the same order (see chart
above).
26

•Hoyt Sector Model: In this model the city develops in a
series of sectors not rings. Certain areas of the city are
more attractive for various activities, originally because
of an environmental factor (or even pure chance). As the
city grows, activities extend outward in a wedge shape.
For example, once a wealthy neighborhood is built the
next wealthy neighborhood will extend from the first
neighborhood further outward from the center. In this
way, the best housing is found in a corridor extending
outward from the center to the outer edge (see chart on
the next page).
27

The Hoyt Sector Model

In the sector model, a city grows in a series of
wedges or corridors extending out from the
CBD.
28

•Harris and Ullman’s Multiple Nuclei Model: According
to this model, a city is a complex structure that includes
more than one center around which activities revolve.
Examples of these nodes include a port, parks,
stadium, neighborhood business center, university, and
airport (see chart). This theory states that some
activities are attracted to particular nodes, whereas
others try to avoid them. A university node may attract
well educated people and bookstores while the port will
attract hotels and warehouses. Heavy industry and
expensive houses rarely are found together. This
model shows the effect of the automobile more than
any other model.
29

The Harris and Ullman Multiple Nuclei model

The multiple nuclei model views a city as a
collection of individual centers, around which
different people and activities cluster.

30

Applications of the Models: The three models help explain where and in some
cases, why people live where they do. None of the models by themselves fully
explains why and where different types of people live, but combined they give
you as good a look as possible at the “Why” of “Where.” Effective use of the
models depends on getting good data on the areas. Most countries take a
census every 10 years to help determine useful data about the people and
places of the country. In our country we divide the census data into areas
known as census tracts of about 5,000 people. Each census tract has the data
that summarizes the characteristics of the people living within that tract. This
information includes things like the race, income, age, and education of the
people living in that tract.
Social Area Analysis: The data from the census tracts can all be plotted onto
maps to show the characteristics of the people living in that tract. This map is
known as a social area analysis.
31

Using Census tract information…Seattle, Washington
Each lined area is a
census tract of about 5000
people in Seattle
Washington. These maps
show average household
income for 1990 and
2000…note the changes in
income in some areas
between 1990 and 2000.
Using this information, a
business can make
decisions about where
they want to locate a new
store or the future of
existing stores.
You can find census tract
information on many topics
such as; age, education
level, race, ethnicity, crime
rate, and land ownership.
Note the areas with
incomes over
$63,000.

All can be very valuable
information to people
looking to open
businesses.

32

Examine the changes
between 1990 and
2000.

Oakland, California’s Ethnic neighborhoods
The small bordered areas are census tracks of 5000 people.

33

Use of the Models Outside of North America: The 3 models will also work in other
places in the world; however social groups in other countries may not have the
same reasons for selecting particular neighborhoods as Americans do.
European Cities: As in the US, wealthier people in European cities cluster along a
sector extending outward from the CBD, however unlike the US, wealthy and
middle class Europeans still live in the inner rings of the neighborhoods near the
CBD not out in the suburbs. In the past, poorer people lived in the center of the
city. Before electricity, social segregation was vertical: richer people lived on the
first or second floor of a building while the poorer people lived in the basement or
upper floors. In the Industrial Revolution, housing for the poor was constructed
near the factories and away from the rich.
Today poorer Europeans are less likely to live in the inner-city. Poor quality
housing has been renovated for the rich or turned into office buildings. Poorer
Europeans tend to live in the outskirts of the city. Vast suburbs with dozens of high
rise apartments house the poor. They face long commutes to reach their jobs in
the city.
34

European cities generally do not have the “suburban
sprawl” that US cities have. European cities tend to be
more pedestrian friendly with more parks downtown as
Europeans tend to still live downtown.
US cities have taller buildings as European cities tend to
be older and more historic.

American cities have more ethnic neighborhoods than
European cities. Ethnic neighborhoods that do exist in
European cities tend to be in the suburbs. WHY?
Because the established richer neighborhoods tend to be
downtown in European cities.
35

Less Developed Countries: Like Europe, most LDC’s accommodate their poor in the
suburbs with their middle class and rich living near the center of the city. LDC’s have
passed through 3 periods of city building: before the Europeans arrived, during the
period of European colonialism, and since independence from European control.

Pre-colonial Cities: Before the Europeans arrived few cities existed in Africa, Asia, and
Latin America and most people lived in small rural settlements. Those cities that existed
were mostly laid out surrounding a religious center; with the rest of the city laid out in a
hieratical concentric pattern (like the Burgess model) from government buildings,
homes of the wealthy, and businesses related to the religion out to other businesses
and shops.
Colonial cities: When the Europeans took over these lands, they changed the cities by
adding services to help the Europeans control the conquered people. Often a new
European style city would be build next to the existing native one. The new European
cities contained wider streets, a public square, larger houses and a much lower density.
The Spanish used the “Law of the Indies” which was a city plan designed specifically to
build cities in a “Spanish” style. (Gridiron pattern for streets centered on a church and
central plaza, walls around individual houses and neighborhoods centered around
smaller plazas and more churches.)
36

Early Mexico city was laid out in a grid pattern of streets. This followed
the Spanish “Law of the Indies.”

37

Central Plaza in Mexico City 1920 photo. Typical Colonial City plan.

Part of downtown Mexico city today still shows the
building plan of the “Law of the Indies.”

38

Cities since Independence: Following independence, cities have become
the focal point of the development of most LDC’s. Millions of people have
migrated to the cities (Primate cities) looking for jobs and services. Some
capitals have been moved to isolated areas in an attempt to help develop
that area of the country (Brasília) This is know as a forward capital. Latin
American cities have developed their own unique style.
Squatter settlements: The LDC’s are unable to house the rapidly growing
number of poor who are flowing into the cities. Because of the housing
shortages, the poor have constructed their own settlements around the city.
These settlements have few services because neither the city nor the
residents can afford them. Squatters have two basic choices for housing.
1. Illegally move into empty real houses located in the city or,
2. Rent slum housing.
(85% of the population of Addis Ababa in Ethiopia lives in squatter
settlements, slums or other illegal housing.)
39

Squatter shacks in Manila, the Philippines

40

Squatter settlement in Ethiopia

41

Zimbabwe, Africa

42

Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

43

Latin American City Model:
In many Latin
American cities,
the wealthy live in
the inner city and
in a sector
extending along a
commercial spine.
In situ accretion- businesses
and homes constantly under
construction/repair.
Zone of maturity-2nd best
housing in the city.
The poor live in squatter settlements on the
periphery of the city.

Disamenity- unpleasant area
used by the poor to get to the
market.

44

The City Outline of Rio de Janeiro
The rich tourist areas and expensive condo apartments are along the coast
and beach while the poor live in squatter shacks in the hills.

45

City problems:
Inner-City Physical Problems: Most US inner cities were constructed before the 1950’s
(people began to move to the suburbs in the 1950’s so new construction moved out of
the city).
Process of Deterioration (how a city deteriorates): A city doesn’t suddenly become old
and full of slummy areas. It happens over time. When a group of low-income people
inhabit an area of a city, nearby neighborhoods will often look to move out. They sell or
rent to more low-income occupants thus expanding the low-income area. Two processes
cause/speed up the devaluation of areas:
1. Filtering, 2. Redlining.
Filtering: Large houses and buildings that once housed rich downtown workers (who
moved to the suburbs) are taken over by landlords who don’t live in that area (they
moved to the suburbs too). Rents are low so the landlord doesn’t take as good care of
the property as they should and the property becomes run down or abandoned. Stores
close, or move, due to lack of sales. 100 years ago these neighborhoods would be used
by immigrants and ethnic businesses would succeed in those areas. Now, with a decline
in immigration, these neighborhoods have shrunk and so have schools, businesses and
other services. Thousands of vacant houses and buildings stand empty in inner cities
across America.

46

Redlining: Some banks refuse to give loans in what they consider
risky neighborhoods. They draw a red line on a map around areas
where they will not give loans. Without loans, these neighborhoods
have a hard time rebuilding/remodeling. Though illegal, this still
happens. Bankers just don’t put these “no-loan” areas on a map.

Urban Renewal: This is the series of projects to improve European
and N. American cities by buying up the blighted neighborhoods,
moving the people to new government built housing projects, and
building new roads, and other projects to make the inner city
attractive for business again. National and State government grants
help pay for these projects.
47

Public housing: Housing for the poor, built with government funding as part of
urban renewal. In the US this is only about 2% of the housing while in some
countries it may be more (Britain is 30%). Public housing built in the 50’s & 60’s
were largely high rise apartments, but those are seen as being unsatisfactory.
Problems arise from cramming large numbers of poor people into one area.
Today most public housing projects are one to three story buildings with many of
them being scattered around different parts of the city rather than clustered into
one area.
Because urban renewal has been criticized for destroying the social cohesion of
older neighborhoods, many governments (like the US) have stopped funding
most projects since the 1970’s. What do we do instead?
Renovated Housing: An alternative often used since the 70’s is to renovate a
building instead of urban renewal. The process where middle-class people
move into inner-city neighborhoods and renovate them is called gentrification.
Gentrified inner-city neighborhoods also attract middle-class people who work
downtown. Living close to work saves the hassle of commuting and rejuvenates
run down inner-city neighborhoods
48

Gentrified building downtown Harlem, NY. Note the supermarket.

49

Inner-City Social Problems: Inner-city residents are often referred to as the
permanent underclass because they are trapped in an unending cycle of
economic and social problems. High unemployment, alcoholism, drug
addiction, literacy, juvenile delinquency, and crime all exist at a higher rate
among those who live in the inner-city. Lack of jobs means lack of tax dollars
to pay for police and fire protection as well as good schools. Lack of job skills
and homelessness are also tremendous problems.
Culture of Poverty: Inner-city residents are trapped in a permanent underclass
culture that reproduces itself. In the US, unwed mothers give birth to 2/3 of the
babies in the inner-city. 90% of these children live with only one parent and it
is real hard for one parent to keep a job and take care of children. Both suffer
and a shortage of care and daily attention by the parent contributes to the kids
not learning the skills necessary to do well in school which leads to poor jobs
for their futures. Poverty leads to more poverty. Many families on welfare have
only one parent because it is financially better if one parent is gone, that way
the single parent gets food stamps and other services from the government
that they would not get if it was a 2 family household.
50

Crime: Trapped in a hopeless environment, some inner-city
residents turn to drugs. Drug use is a problem in inner-city
areas and the suburbs, but rates of drug use in inner-cities
are the highest.
Ethnic and Racial Segregation: As seen in chapter 7, many
neighborhoods in the US are segregated by ethnicity with
African Americans and Hispanics concentrated in one or two
continuous areas and whites living in the suburbs. Even small
cities display a strong distinction among neighborhoods. A
frequent division is between the east and west or north and
south side of town, or the railroad tracks. A family seeking a
new residence will seek the areas where the characteristics
of the people meet their own.

51

The exodus
from the
American city.
This has
happened in
many American
cities since the
1960’s.

52

Changes in Cities in the U.S.
U.S. population has been moving out of the city centers to the suburbs:
suburbanization and counter urbanization

Developed Countries: suburbanization

 wealthy move to suburbs
 automobiles and roads; ‘American
Dream’ of the home in the suburbs.
 better services
 wealthy move to suburbs
Counter urbanization

idyllic settings
cost of land for retirement
slow pace, yet high tech
connections to services and markets
53

U.S. intraregional migration during 1990s.

Inner city economic problems: the concentration of low income
residents in inner cities has caused economic problems. These
people require public services but can pay very little in taxes to
support the services. They need stores and jobs but have little
money to spend in the store and few skills for jobs (so the stores
close). To try to fight these problems many local and state
governments use tax monies to try to renovate these areas, but this
shifts tax money needed for other areas to the inner city (votes on
election day).
Annexation: Many cities could help their tax problem by adding the
new suburbs to be part of their city (annexation). After all, many of
these suburban people use the city for its’ jobs etc., so why not add
them into the city? Today, most people in the suburbs do not want
to be annexed into the city and so they do not vote to be annexed.
54

The Peripheral Model: According to this model, an urban area
consists of an inner city surrounded by large suburban residential
and business areas (MSA) tied together by a beltway or highway
that circles the city. Around the beltway are nodes of consumer
and business services called edge cities (see diagram of multiple
nuclei model). These edge cities sprang up to provide services
and jobs to the people in the suburbs.
Density Gradient: As you travel outward from the center of the
city, the density of people declines. Inner city has big apartments
of 250 of more people per acre. Suburbs have fewer people per
acre (but lots of acres) and finally you leave the cities periphery
you find few people. The number of houses per unit of land
diminishes as distance from the center of the city increases.
55

The Edge cities (bedroom communities) of Houston

The central city is surrounded by a ring road, around which are
suburban areas and edge cities, shopping malls, office parks,
industrial areas, and service complexes.

Known as
bedroom
communities
because
people live
there but
mostly don’t
work there.
They drive
into the city
for work.
56

As you move from the center of the city outward, the density of the population
changes. This is know as the density gradient. Two big changes have occurred in
the density gradient of today’s cities:
1. The number of people living in the center has decreased.
2. The density difference between the inner city and the suburbs is declining
because the inner city density is dropping and the suburban density is growing
due to more large apartments being built in the suburbs.
Cost of Suburban or Urban Sprawl: Urban Sprawl is the progressive spread of
development over the landscape. As long as we Americans want single-family
detached houses, land on the fringe of urban areas will be converted from open
space to residential use. The cost of this growth is more than the loss of land, it is
also the cost of new roads, utilities, building stores and offices and the cost of
automobiles to move these people over even longer distances. Lots of these new
developments are built on what was once farmland. Wonderful productive soil now
under concrete.

Greenbelts: are areas where, by law, the open space can not be used for any
construction. This is mostly found in Europe.

57

Once farmland that is being converted to suburbs and cities.

58

Tyson’s Corner Virginia in 1940

59

Washington, DC. MSA.

Tyson’s Corner Virginia
today.
Washington D.C. is off
In the distance.

60

Suburban Segregation: The “new” segregation.
Suburban segregation takes two forms:
1. Residents are separated from commercial and manufacturing activities
which are confined someplace else. (The whole neighborhood is
nothing but houses because they drive for services.)
2. The price of the house eliminates some from being able to live there. This
creates a homogeneous suburb of the same economic class of people.
This never existed before in history. Where we once had vertical
segregation of the classes we now we have horizontal segregation.
3. But this may be reversing as new statistics show that people are beginning
to move back to the city. Why? Cost of transportation.
Zoning Ordinances: This idea developed in Europe and later America in the
early decades of the 20th century. This means that businesses are allowed only
in certain areas of the settlement. (No all night taco stands inside your single
family neighborhood.)
Motor vehicles: The wide use of the automobile is largely responsible for the
American movement to the suburbs. Not only did people move out but 1/4 of
the land inside all American cities are now roads, streets, and parking lots.

61

Public Transportation: Because few US workers live within walking distance
of their jobs, urban areas are characterized by extensive commuting and the
problems that come with it. As much as 40% of all trips made into or out from
a city during the day takes place within just 4 hours. (2 in the morning and 2 in
the late afternoon). RUSH HOUR!!! In large cities, public transportation, like
subways and busses, are better suited to move people but Americans still
prefer their own cars. Public transportation is cheaper, cleaner, and more
energy efficient than personal cars, yet in the US only 5% of city travel is
done using public transit systems. American’s love their personal car too
much.
Local Government Fragmentation: Because of the large number of local
governments in the US (look at the settlements in Pinellas County) it is
difficult to solve some of the regional problems like garbage disposal, water
management, traffic and public housing.
62

Metropolitan government: This idea tries to put many local governments into a
larger unit that can better handle the urban problems. The 2 ways to do this
are:
1. Federations in which the individual settlements have their own police,
firemen, and tax collection but they all agree to be part of a second
government which handles transportation, water, sewage, parks and
welfare for all the communities.
2. Consolidations: In this method, several cities and the county may form one
government. Jacksonville’s government runs not only the town but the
county too, this makes Jacksonville the largest city, in land size, in the US.
Smart growth: A new movement by many states to curb suburban sprawl by
limiting where new construction can take place. Smart growth laws require that
land near cities be used up before any land further out can be developed. So
far, this is only being done an a few parts of our country.
63

The new
US as
some
people
see it.

64

Quiz Yourself:
1. The process where middle-class people move into inner city neighborhoods and
renovate them is called ____________
2. ____________ happens when banks refuse to give loans in what they consider
risky neighborhoods.
3. Because of the housing shortages, the poor have constructed their own settlements
around the city known as __________ _________

4. Businesses are allowed only in certain areas of the settlement because of
____________ ____________
5. Areas known as _____ _______ are areas of about 5,000 people. The data from
that area is used to help define needed services for that area.
6. When cities are so close that they form one continuous band of development this is
known as a ____________
65

7. Social relationships are often described as “colder” in urban areas because…
8. In this model the city develops in a series of sectors not rings. _______

9. ______ (LDC’s or MDC’s) have a higher percentage of people living in urban
settlements but ________ (LDC’s or MDC’s) have more of the very large urban
settlements.
10. _____________ was the first model developed to explain the distributions
of different social groups within urban areas.
11. New cities which develop around the beltway are nodes of consumer and
business services known as ________ _________.

12. When the Europeans took over lands around the world, they changed the
cities by adding services to help the Europeans control the conquered people.
These European planned cities are known as __________ cities.
66

Answer Key:
1.

Gentrification

2.

Redlining

3.

Squatter Settlements

4.

Zoning ordinances

5.

Census tracks

6.

Megalopolis

7. There is a stronger feeling of belonging together in small rural settlements.
8. Hoyt sector model
9. MDC, LDC
10. Burgess Concentric Zone model
11. Edge cities
12. Colonial cities
67

Test Key topic/chapter 13:
These questions come from a combination of our slides, your text book, and common knowledge you should
have discussed in your AP classroom. They are very typical of what you will see on the National Exam.
1) The multiple nuclei theory best explains why different neighborhoods of a city attract people of different… A) ages.
B) ethnic origin C) income D) marital status.
2) Sprawl is the… A) change in density within an urban area from the center to the periphery B) development of new
housing sites not contiguous to the existing built-up area. C) land maintained as open space surrounding an urban area.
D) period in the morning and evening with the heaviest volumes of traffic.
3) People are attracted to suburbs in part because suburbs are characterized by…A) heavy traffic. B) lower opportunity
for home ownership. C) private land surrounding the house. D) row houses and apartments.
4) Megalopolis refers to… A) adjacent, overlapping Metropolitan Statistical Areas. B) central cities. C) consolidated
Metropolitan Statistical Areas. D) central cities plus urbanized areas.
5) Which statement best describes the relationship between urbanization and the Industrial Revolution? A) Urbanization
promoted the Industrial Revolution. B) The Industrial Revolution promoted urbanization. C) Urbanization preceded the
Industrial Revolution by thousands of years. D) Urbanization and the Industrial Revolution are no longer related.
6) The process of legally adding land area to a city in the United States is… A) annexation. B) accreditation. C) an
application of eminent domain. D) defined by urbanized area.

68

7) The process of change in the use of a house, from single-family owner occupancy to abandonment, is… A) blockbusting.
B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining.
8) A process by which banks designate an area within which they refuse to lend money for improvements is… A) blockbusting.
B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining.
9) A recent change in the density gradient has been… A) the elimination of the gap traditionally found in the center. B) an
increase in the extremes between the inner and outer areas. C) an increase in the number of people living in the center.
D) a reduction in the differences in densities found within an urban area.
10) U.S. central cities face fiscal problems because… A) federal and state funds are available. B) low-income people are
concentrated there. C) middle-class families are attracted there. D) redlining is no longer legal.
11) A legal form of segregation in U.S. cities is achieved through...A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) zoning. D) greenbelts.
12) Factories have moved to suburban locations in part because of… A) access to main highways. B) adequate space to build
vertical structures. C) availability of large tracts of high-priced land. D) good rail connections.
13) According to the sector model, the best housing is located in…A) a corridor from downtown to the edge of the city.
B) an outer ring surrounding the city. C) nodes near universities and parks. D) renovated inner-city neighborhoods.
14) Ramshackle houses on the periphery of cities in less developed countries are known as… A) squatter settlements. B) council
estates. C) public housing. D) zone in transition.
15) Higher income people tend to live near the center of the city in all but which of the following regions? A) Latin America
B) North America C) South Asia D) Western Europe

16) The wide boulevards built in cities in less developed countries were most likely built during what era? A) pre-colonial
B) colonial C) independence D) all of the above equally

69

17) According to the multiple nuclei model, an airport is likely to attract nearby… A) industries. B) residences. C) shops.
D) universities.
18) The largest percentage of the U.S. population lives in…A) central cities. B) suburbs. C) non-metropolitan areas. D) all of the
above
19) In U.S. cities, the underclass is… A) clustered in inner-city neighborhoods. B) dispersed throughout the city. C) clustered in
suburbs. D) distributed uniformly in the city.

20) A process of converting a neighborhood from low-income to middle-class is…A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) gentrification.
D) redlining.
21) Higher social heterogeneity in urban settlements means that… A) the people with whom you relax are probably the same ones you
see at work. B) you play a specialized role in the urban economy. C) you compete for limited space. D) you may feel lonely and
isolated in a crowd.
22) The city plus its contiguous built-up suburbs is the… A) central city. B) urbanized area.
D) consolidated metropolitan statistical area

C) metropolitan statistical area.

23) The process whereby an increasing percentage of people live in an urban area is known as… A) demographic transition.
B) rank-size rule. C) urbanization. D) central place theory.
24) Of the ten largest urban areas in the world, how many are in More Developed Countries today? A) 1 B) 4 C) 7 D) 10 E) 2
25) Public housing is…A) conversion of low-income housing to middle-class housing. B) illegally established low-income housing.
C) housing that has changed from single-family owner occupancy to abandonment. D) low-income government-owned housing.
26) According to the concentric zone model, a city develops in a series of… A) corridors. B) nodes. C) rings. D) all of the above

70

27) Chicago is a good location in which to develop urban models because it is located… A) at the hub of the nation's transportation
system. B) in the center of the country. C) on a flat prairie. D) on the shore of Lake Michigan.
28) According to the sector model, the best housing is located in… A) a corridor from downtown to the edge of the city. B) an outer
ring surrounding the city. C) nodes near universities and parks. D) renovated inner-city neighborhoods.
29) The zone of transition in US cities generally contain…A) warehouses B) wealthy neighborhoods C) transportation hubs
D) universities and hospitals E) suburban homes
30) The attractions of shopping malls include all but which of the following? A) frequent concerts and exhibitions B) generous
parking lots C) place to meet friends D) walking distance from homes
The following questions are written at the high school level. You will find some questions from part one often rewritten
here. This is all designed to help you transition to the college/AP style of written questions. Any question preceded with ***
are questions that have been on the national exam before.
31. Most Latin American cities are focused on a…A) central plaza B) government housing project C) zone of heavy industry
D) skyscraper office building E) squatter settlement
32. The multiple-nuclei model of a city structure tends to be most applicable to…A) small cities B) traditional C) Latin American
cities D) newer, fast growing cities E) cities with homogeneous land use
33. ***Locational advantages important to the development of the earliest cities include…A) availability of good harbors for large
ships B) productive agricultural land and defensible sites C) temperate climate and proximity to coal mines D) good
connections by road and canal E) proximity to manufacturing areas

34. In cities, the CBD’s often show uniqueness while the suburbs usually show…A) a large hinterland. B) placelessness C) more
than one node. D) newer zones of transition.

71

35. Many LDC’s have tried to help a previously under-developed part of their country develop by moving their capital
city to that area. This new capital is known as a…A) forward capital B) new development zone C) enterprise zone
D) neocolonial city
36. Today the greatest number of urban dwellers is found in…A) North America
D) Europe E) Asia

B) South America C) Africa

37. ***All of the following have helped create ghettos in North American cities except…A)blockbusting and racial
steering B) redlining by financial institutions C) concentration of public housing and social services D) fixed school
districts E) Economic Enterprise Zones

38. Which of the following is NOT as reason for rapid suburbanization in the US after WW2? A) Mass production of
the automobile B) Reduction of long distance commuting C) Expansion of home construction D) Expansion of the
interstate highway system E) Availability of low down payment terms and long-term mortgages.
39. New cities which developed in the hinterland of large urban areas because of the automobile, are known as…
A) edge cities B) census tracts C) suburban sprawl D) squatter settlements. E) none of these
40. Gentrification refers to… A) moving the homeless into inner city shelters B) The “White Flight” from the urban city
C) losing tax revenue because of stores closing in downtown areas D) middle-class people moving into and renovating
inner city neighborhoods E) the creation of “beltway cities” around the city.

72

4
7
3

5

1
6

2

41-48 all use the sketch above.
41. The sketch in box A above represents which model of the inner structure of urban areas?
C) multiple nuclei model D) Burgess concentric zone model E) peripheral model
42. The models in boxes B and C represent A) Concentric zone and multiple nuclei
concentric zone D) peripheral and concentric zone E) Von Thunen and peripheral

A) Hoyt sector model B) VonThunen’s model

B) Multiple nuclei and Hoyt sector C) Hoyt sector and

43. In which ring (1, 2, etc.) of sketch A above would high-status households in North American cities likely live? A) 1 B) 2 C) 3 D) 4&5
44. In which ring (1, 2, etc.) of sketch A above would high status households in a European city likely live? A) 1

B) 2

C) 3

D) 4&5

45. In model B, zone # 2 is where it is likely because of: A) greenbelting B) squatter settling C) the culture of poverty D) transportation
E) no one knows
46. The model in sketch B is the; A) Hoyt sector model B) Burgess model C) multiple nuclei model D) peripheral model
47. The model in sketch C is the; A) Hoyt sector model B) Burgess model C) multiple nuclei model D) peripheral model
48. Which of these models best describes what has happened in US cities in the last 40 years? A)

B)

C)

73

49.*** In the U.S. a city plus its contiguous built-up suburbs is known as an…A) urbanized area B) zoned area
C) census tract D) Squatter settlement E) none of these
50. Done mostly in Europe, these are areas where land is kept as parks, farms or other kinds of open space and urban
sprawl is not allowed. A) Smart growth
B) zoning
C) filtering
D) census tracts E) greenbelts
51. Which statement best describes the relationship between urbanization and the Industrial Revolution?
A) Urbanization promoted the Industrial Revolution. B) The Industrial Revolution promoted urbanization.
C) Urbanization preceded the Industrial Revolution by thousands of years. D) Urbanization and the Industrial
Revolution are no longer related.
52. The process whereby an increasing percentage of people live in an urban area is known as…
A) Demographic transition. B) rank-size rule. C) Urbanization. D) Central place theory.
53. The city (if it has 50,000 or more people) plus its contiguous built-up suburbs AND the county it is in as well as any
other counties it influences, is known as the ...A) central city B) urbanized area
C) metropolitan statistical area
D) consolidated metropolitan area E) micropolitan statistical area
54. ***Higher social heterogeneity in urban settlements means that …A) the people with whom you relax are probably
the same ones you see at work. B) you play a specialized role in the urban economy. C) you compete for limited
space. D) you may feel lonely and isolated in a crowd.

55. The process of change in the use of a house, from single-family owner occupancy to smaller dwellings for the poor
and then sometimes to abandonment, is…A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining. E) none of
these

74

Free Response #1:
The Bid Rent theory says that the closer you get to the
CBD the higher the cost for land, yet in most American
cities you find the poorest people living near the
expensive CBD and the richest living further away.
Explain:
A. Why neighborhoods near the CBD are often poor and
run down?
B. Why are there few grocery and other retail stores in
these neighborhoods?
C. Why is this not really true in European and Latin
American countries?

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75

FR #2:
Think of the map of your school, explain the
layout of your school using the Multiple Nuclei
Model
The main office is the CBD.
Completely explain your answer using specific
buildings and/or land areas in your explanation
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76

Answer Key:
1. B

14. A

27. C

40. D

53. C

2. B

15. B

28. A

41. D

54. D

3. C

16. B

29. A

42. B

55. B

4. A

17. A

30. D

43. D

5. B

18. B

31. A

44. A

6. A

19. A

32. D

45. D

7. B

20. C

33. B

46. A

8. D

21. D

34. B

47. C

9. D

22. B

35. A

48. C

10. B

23. C

36. E

49. A

11. C

24. C

37. E

50. E

12. A

25. D

38. B

51. B

13. A

26. C

39. A

52. C
77

FR. #1: ( 15 pts. for each section…total of 45 pts.)
A. In the US the move of the wealthy and middle class to the suburbs has left the older houses and apartments near the CBD empty.
This has lowered their value to the point where the poor can afford these dwellings and have made these neighborhoods their
homes. The poor can not pay for upkeep of these dwellings, or to pay high taxes. The lack of upkeep and tax money to repair the
roads and schools, adds to the downward spiral of the neighborhood. With little spending money for shopping, the poor do not
spend much in the stores. This causes many stores to close and move to the suburbs where the spending customers and money
went. The closing of the stores adds to the poverty of the area by taking away some of the jobs that were in the neighborhood. This
becomes a vicious cycle of poverty and deterioration. (15 points)

B. There are few retail stores and groceries is the area because the poor do not have money to shop. The lack of spending forces
many stores out of business or forces them to move to better locations. There also can be higher crime in these areas and the
crime often takes place at the stores. This is another reason for the stores to move out of the neighborhood. (15 points)
C. Neighborhoods in European and Latin American cities are different from those of US cities. In Europe and Latin America, the
wealthy and middle class still live near or in the CBD. The higher tax base and more spending ability of the upper and middle
classes, keeps the CBD area flourishing with jobs and in constant repair and upkeep of the cities’ physical condition. (15 points)

FR #2: (10 total points.)
You will need to judge how effectively you displayed you school
in the Multiple Nuclei Model. Refer to the model itself to help you
determine your success and grade.
School’s main office
78

Calculating your grade on test 13.
Add how many you got correct on the multiple choice part (55 possible) to how many
points you scored on the FR portion (55 possible)…110 total.
The following scale will show the approximate score if this test were the real AP exam. Remember that this
is an approximation. While 65-74% is normally the range for a 3 on the test, it is not definite. Over the
years I have seen scores as low as 60% be the low portion of a 3 score.

Out of 110 possible points:
72-83 is most likely a 3
84-94 is most likely a 4

95-110 is most likely a 5

Now lets start our review for the national exam by
reviewing the 33 key models and theories of the
course…the next PowerPoint.


Slide 58

Key topic/chapter 13…Urban Patterns
Key terms:
Annexation
Concentric zone model
Density gradient
Edge cities
Filtering
Galactic city
Gentrification
Greenbelts
Megalopolis
MSA
Multiple nuclei model
Peripheral model

Public housing
Redlining
Renovated housing
Scattered site
Squatter settlement
Sector model
Smart growth
Sprawl
Underclass
Urban renewal
Zone in transition
Zoning
1

Chapter 13…Urban Areas.
How are Cities planned?
Why

are cities where they are?
How are they organized?
Why are some areas of a city
different from
other areas of the same city?
What is the future of cities?
2

Settlement


Settlement - permanent collections of buildings,
where people live, work, and obtain services

3

ORIGINS OF SETTLEMENTS


Religious - graves, churches, temples



Cultural - schools, libraries



Political/Military - leader’s house, walls



Economic - stores, food
4

TYPES OF SETTLEMENTS


Rural Settlements - agriculture as the
predominant occupation.



Urban settlements - principal industries are
secondary and tertiary.

5

RURAL SETTLEMENTS
Clustered rural settlements –grouped
settlements in rural areas to minimize travel

Dispersed rural Settlements - isolated farms
with enclosed continuous fields (Found only in
N. America and Britain).

6

Urban Geographers want to know the global distribution of urban
settlements. MDC’s have a high percentage of people living in urban
areas because of the shift from agriculture-manufacturing-services.
Geographers are also interested in where people and activities are
distributed within urban spaces. What are the differences between the
inner-city and suburban areas and why?
As we saw in the last chapter, many downtowns are unique and can
often be recognized in photos where the suburbs often look very
much alike (Placelessness). Why? Suburbs offer the chance to avoid
some of the city problems (crime, tight living area, expensive
land/rent, noise, age of buildings) while still keeping a connection with
the goods and services of the city: jobs, sports teams, culture, shops,
recreation, etc.
7

Where is this place?

8

Today’s cities are evolving and changing. Although different internal
situations characterize urban areas in the US and elsewhere, the
problems arising from current spatial trends are quite similar in all cities.
Where have urban areas grown: in the early 1800’s only 3% of the earth’s
people lived in cities and only Beijing China had more than 1 million
people. Today over ½ of the world’s people live in cities and we have over
400 cities of at least 1 million people.

Urbanization: is the process by which city population grows.
Cities population growth is measured in 2 dimensions;
1. An increase in the number of people living in the cities.
2. An increase in the percentage of people living in the cities.
This distinction is important because they happen for different reason and
have different global distributions.
9

Increasing Percentage of People in Cities: a large percentage of people living in urban
areas is a measure of a country’s level of development. In MDC’s about ¾ of the people
live in urban areas compared to about 2/5 of people in LDC’s. (Except in Latin America
where the level is closer to MDC’s.)
The higher percentage of people in urban areas comes from the changes that have
occurred in the last 200 years as we went from agriculture (primary jobs) to industrial
(secondary jobs) and now service jobs, all created by the Industrial Revolution of the
1800’s.
People moved to the cities for industrial jobs, but in MDC’s this process has largely
ended because nearly everyone interested in moving to the cities from farms has already
done so.
In LDC’s the percentage of people living in urban areas is growing as people are pushed
off of their farms and replaced by machines and as people move to cities looking/hoping
for industrial jobs.
10

Increasing Number of People in Cities: MDC’s have a higher percentage of
people living in urban settlements but LDC’s have more of the very large urban
settlements (Primate cities). (Rank-size rule, primate cities, chapter 12.)

This is interesting because typically the large cities are created from the
improvements brought by the Industrial Revolution. This is not the case with the
large LDC cities. Migration to the primate city in LDC’s is happening even though
job opportunities may not be available. Increasing the population growth in LDC
cities is the fact that medical services are better in these cities, thus the child
mortality rate is lower.
Defining Urban Settlements: defining where urban areas end and rural areas
begin is not easy. Geographers have formulated definitions that distinguish
between urban and rural areas in two ways: Social differences and Physical
differences.
11

Percent Urban Population

Percent of the population living in urban areas is usually higher in MDCs
than in LDCs.

12

The most populated cities in the world

Of the top
20, only
Moscow,
Tokyo and
New York
are in MDC’s

Shanghai China has 14,608,512 people
13

14

15

Social Differences Between Urban and Rural Settlements: it is fair to say that rural
people and urban people follow different ways of life. A city can be defined as having 3
characteristics:
1. Large size. People in rural settlements know most of the other people in the
settlement. Not true in big cities. Social relationships are often described as “colder” in
urban areas because you only see some people at work instead of growing up with
them in the settlement.
2. High Density. Having lots of people in a tiny area creates social consequences. A
high density of people living in a small area can only be supported if the people
specialize (they can’t all be farmers). People are encouraged to compete for jobs, room,
and survival in a tightly limited space. Social groups compete to occupy the same space
(ethnic/ race problems). Rural settlements have very little of this problem.
3. Social Heterogeneity. The larger the settlement, the greater the variety of people.
Being “unusual” in a large settlement is more likely to be accepted than in a small rural
one. But despite the freedom to be different that large urban settlements give you,
people living there often feel alone because so many people are different from them.
There is a stronger feeling of belonging together in small rural settlements.
16

These 3 differences do not fully answer the question of where urban settlements
begin and rural ones end because in today’s MDC’s most everyone has access to
cars, telephones, televisions, and “urban type” jobs which reduce the differences
between urban and rural lifestyles. “City folk” and “Country folk” are more alike
today than they are different. To help distinguish between urban and rural areas we
need to add the physical definition of rural and urban to the equation.
Physical Definitions of Urban Settlements: In ancient time, cities had defensive
walls for protection which clearly defined the physical boundaries of the city. Today
the walls are gone but we can still define the physical boundaries in 3 ways:
1. Legal boundary. These are the official boundaries of a city as recognized by
the government of the country or state. These “city limits” have been officially given
to the city and are physically marked on official maps. The local government of the
city has authority to make laws and protect the people inside the city boundaries.
17

2. Urbanized area. This is the city plus its suburbs or urbanized area that
surrounds the city. About 70 percent of US residents live in urbanized areas with
40% being in the suburbs and 30% inside the city limits. The suburbs may have
their own city governments but the huge central city dominates what happens in
the entire area.
3. Metropolitan Statistical Area. Cities have an even bigger influence on people
than just those living in their city limits and surrounding urbanized areas. People
from far away come to shop, use the services, support the sports teams, read
the newspapers and watch the television broadcasts of the city. Thus the city
has a “functional area” which is its total zone of influence. The US Bureau of
Census has created a method of measuring the functional area of the city.
Known as the Metropolitan statistical area (MSA) this area includes:
•An urbanized area with a population of at least 50,000
•The county within which the city is located.
•Adjacent counties with a high population density and a large percentage of
residents working in the central city’s county.
18

Metropolitan Area of Philadelphia

City of
Philadelphia

Urbanized
area
(suburbs)
Metropolitan
Statistical
Area

The metropolitan area of Philadelphia is
spread over several counties and four states.
It is also a diversified trade center, given its
position on the Delaware river.

19

20

21

Micropolitan Statistical Areas: Smaller areas with between
10,000 and 50,000 people, the county where it is found, and
adjacent counties tied to the city. This would be a small town and
the area dominated by it.
Overlapping Metropolitan Areas: Some adjacent MSA’s overlap.
A county between two central cities may send a large number of
commuters to jobs in both cities. In some areas the cities are so
close that they form one continuous urban complex. This is
known as a Megalopolis (great city).
In a megalopolis, the downtown CBD often has its own
distinctive look and the urban areas are visually separated by
parks, open spaces, and dairy/truck farms. But at the periphery
of the urban areas, the boundaries overlap.
22

Colorado Springs, population 431,000

Ocala, Florida, population 56,000

Florala, Alabama, population 1,900

23

Megalopolis, from northern Va. To Maine.
This Illustrates the
difference between
strict city proper
definitions and broader
urban agglomerations.
To define urbanized
areas, the U.S. Census
Bureau uses the term
Metropolitan Statistical
Area (MSA) or
Consolidated MSA
(CMSA) if two or more of
them overlap.
24

Where are People Distributed within Urban Areas? People are not
just distributed at random in urban areas. For the most part they
concentrate in particular neighborhoods depending on their social
characteristics. Geographers want to see where people with
particular characteristics are likely to live and why.

Three models which try to explain the growth of a city:

The Burgess Model

The Hoyt Sector Model

The Harris and Ullman
multiple Nuclei Model
25

Burgess Concentric Zone Model

In the concentric zone model, a city grows in a series of rings surrounding the CBD.

Burgess Concentric Zone Model: This is the first used to explain the
distributions of different social groups within urban areas. It says that a
city grows outward from a central place in a series of concentric rings.
The precise size and width of the rings vary from one city to another, but
some basic types of rings appear in all cities in the same order (see chart
above).
26

•Hoyt Sector Model: In this model the city develops in a
series of sectors not rings. Certain areas of the city are
more attractive for various activities, originally because
of an environmental factor (or even pure chance). As the
city grows, activities extend outward in a wedge shape.
For example, once a wealthy neighborhood is built the
next wealthy neighborhood will extend from the first
neighborhood further outward from the center. In this
way, the best housing is found in a corridor extending
outward from the center to the outer edge (see chart on
the next page).
27

The Hoyt Sector Model

In the sector model, a city grows in a series of
wedges or corridors extending out from the
CBD.
28

•Harris and Ullman’s Multiple Nuclei Model: According
to this model, a city is a complex structure that includes
more than one center around which activities revolve.
Examples of these nodes include a port, parks,
stadium, neighborhood business center, university, and
airport (see chart). This theory states that some
activities are attracted to particular nodes, whereas
others try to avoid them. A university node may attract
well educated people and bookstores while the port will
attract hotels and warehouses. Heavy industry and
expensive houses rarely are found together. This
model shows the effect of the automobile more than
any other model.
29

The Harris and Ullman Multiple Nuclei model

The multiple nuclei model views a city as a
collection of individual centers, around which
different people and activities cluster.

30

Applications of the Models: The three models help explain where and in some
cases, why people live where they do. None of the models by themselves fully
explains why and where different types of people live, but combined they give
you as good a look as possible at the “Why” of “Where.” Effective use of the
models depends on getting good data on the areas. Most countries take a
census every 10 years to help determine useful data about the people and
places of the country. In our country we divide the census data into areas
known as census tracts of about 5,000 people. Each census tract has the data
that summarizes the characteristics of the people living within that tract. This
information includes things like the race, income, age, and education of the
people living in that tract.
Social Area Analysis: The data from the census tracts can all be plotted onto
maps to show the characteristics of the people living in that tract. This map is
known as a social area analysis.
31

Using Census tract information…Seattle, Washington
Each lined area is a
census tract of about 5000
people in Seattle
Washington. These maps
show average household
income for 1990 and
2000…note the changes in
income in some areas
between 1990 and 2000.
Using this information, a
business can make
decisions about where
they want to locate a new
store or the future of
existing stores.
You can find census tract
information on many topics
such as; age, education
level, race, ethnicity, crime
rate, and land ownership.
Note the areas with
incomes over
$63,000.

All can be very valuable
information to people
looking to open
businesses.

32

Examine the changes
between 1990 and
2000.

Oakland, California’s Ethnic neighborhoods
The small bordered areas are census tracks of 5000 people.

33

Use of the Models Outside of North America: The 3 models will also work in other
places in the world; however social groups in other countries may not have the
same reasons for selecting particular neighborhoods as Americans do.
European Cities: As in the US, wealthier people in European cities cluster along a
sector extending outward from the CBD, however unlike the US, wealthy and
middle class Europeans still live in the inner rings of the neighborhoods near the
CBD not out in the suburbs. In the past, poorer people lived in the center of the
city. Before electricity, social segregation was vertical: richer people lived on the
first or second floor of a building while the poorer people lived in the basement or
upper floors. In the Industrial Revolution, housing for the poor was constructed
near the factories and away from the rich.
Today poorer Europeans are less likely to live in the inner-city. Poor quality
housing has been renovated for the rich or turned into office buildings. Poorer
Europeans tend to live in the outskirts of the city. Vast suburbs with dozens of high
rise apartments house the poor. They face long commutes to reach their jobs in
the city.
34

European cities generally do not have the “suburban
sprawl” that US cities have. European cities tend to be
more pedestrian friendly with more parks downtown as
Europeans tend to still live downtown.
US cities have taller buildings as European cities tend to
be older and more historic.

American cities have more ethnic neighborhoods than
European cities. Ethnic neighborhoods that do exist in
European cities tend to be in the suburbs. WHY?
Because the established richer neighborhoods tend to be
downtown in European cities.
35

Less Developed Countries: Like Europe, most LDC’s accommodate their poor in the
suburbs with their middle class and rich living near the center of the city. LDC’s have
passed through 3 periods of city building: before the Europeans arrived, during the
period of European colonialism, and since independence from European control.

Pre-colonial Cities: Before the Europeans arrived few cities existed in Africa, Asia, and
Latin America and most people lived in small rural settlements. Those cities that existed
were mostly laid out surrounding a religious center; with the rest of the city laid out in a
hieratical concentric pattern (like the Burgess model) from government buildings,
homes of the wealthy, and businesses related to the religion out to other businesses
and shops.
Colonial cities: When the Europeans took over these lands, they changed the cities by
adding services to help the Europeans control the conquered people. Often a new
European style city would be build next to the existing native one. The new European
cities contained wider streets, a public square, larger houses and a much lower density.
The Spanish used the “Law of the Indies” which was a city plan designed specifically to
build cities in a “Spanish” style. (Gridiron pattern for streets centered on a church and
central plaza, walls around individual houses and neighborhoods centered around
smaller plazas and more churches.)
36

Early Mexico city was laid out in a grid pattern of streets. This followed
the Spanish “Law of the Indies.”

37

Central Plaza in Mexico City 1920 photo. Typical Colonial City plan.

Part of downtown Mexico city today still shows the
building plan of the “Law of the Indies.”

38

Cities since Independence: Following independence, cities have become
the focal point of the development of most LDC’s. Millions of people have
migrated to the cities (Primate cities) looking for jobs and services. Some
capitals have been moved to isolated areas in an attempt to help develop
that area of the country (Brasília) This is know as a forward capital. Latin
American cities have developed their own unique style.
Squatter settlements: The LDC’s are unable to house the rapidly growing
number of poor who are flowing into the cities. Because of the housing
shortages, the poor have constructed their own settlements around the city.
These settlements have few services because neither the city nor the
residents can afford them. Squatters have two basic choices for housing.
1. Illegally move into empty real houses located in the city or,
2. Rent slum housing.
(85% of the population of Addis Ababa in Ethiopia lives in squatter
settlements, slums or other illegal housing.)
39

Squatter shacks in Manila, the Philippines

40

Squatter settlement in Ethiopia

41

Zimbabwe, Africa

42

Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

43

Latin American City Model:
In many Latin
American cities,
the wealthy live in
the inner city and
in a sector
extending along a
commercial spine.
In situ accretion- businesses
and homes constantly under
construction/repair.
Zone of maturity-2nd best
housing in the city.
The poor live in squatter settlements on the
periphery of the city.

Disamenity- unpleasant area
used by the poor to get to the
market.

44

The City Outline of Rio de Janeiro
The rich tourist areas and expensive condo apartments are along the coast
and beach while the poor live in squatter shacks in the hills.

45

City problems:
Inner-City Physical Problems: Most US inner cities were constructed before the 1950’s
(people began to move to the suburbs in the 1950’s so new construction moved out of
the city).
Process of Deterioration (how a city deteriorates): A city doesn’t suddenly become old
and full of slummy areas. It happens over time. When a group of low-income people
inhabit an area of a city, nearby neighborhoods will often look to move out. They sell or
rent to more low-income occupants thus expanding the low-income area. Two processes
cause/speed up the devaluation of areas:
1. Filtering, 2. Redlining.
Filtering: Large houses and buildings that once housed rich downtown workers (who
moved to the suburbs) are taken over by landlords who don’t live in that area (they
moved to the suburbs too). Rents are low so the landlord doesn’t take as good care of
the property as they should and the property becomes run down or abandoned. Stores
close, or move, due to lack of sales. 100 years ago these neighborhoods would be used
by immigrants and ethnic businesses would succeed in those areas. Now, with a decline
in immigration, these neighborhoods have shrunk and so have schools, businesses and
other services. Thousands of vacant houses and buildings stand empty in inner cities
across America.

46

Redlining: Some banks refuse to give loans in what they consider
risky neighborhoods. They draw a red line on a map around areas
where they will not give loans. Without loans, these neighborhoods
have a hard time rebuilding/remodeling. Though illegal, this still
happens. Bankers just don’t put these “no-loan” areas on a map.

Urban Renewal: This is the series of projects to improve European
and N. American cities by buying up the blighted neighborhoods,
moving the people to new government built housing projects, and
building new roads, and other projects to make the inner city
attractive for business again. National and State government grants
help pay for these projects.
47

Public housing: Housing for the poor, built with government funding as part of
urban renewal. In the US this is only about 2% of the housing while in some
countries it may be more (Britain is 30%). Public housing built in the 50’s & 60’s
were largely high rise apartments, but those are seen as being unsatisfactory.
Problems arise from cramming large numbers of poor people into one area.
Today most public housing projects are one to three story buildings with many of
them being scattered around different parts of the city rather than clustered into
one area.
Because urban renewal has been criticized for destroying the social cohesion of
older neighborhoods, many governments (like the US) have stopped funding
most projects since the 1970’s. What do we do instead?
Renovated Housing: An alternative often used since the 70’s is to renovate a
building instead of urban renewal. The process where middle-class people
move into inner-city neighborhoods and renovate them is called gentrification.
Gentrified inner-city neighborhoods also attract middle-class people who work
downtown. Living close to work saves the hassle of commuting and rejuvenates
run down inner-city neighborhoods
48

Gentrified building downtown Harlem, NY. Note the supermarket.

49

Inner-City Social Problems: Inner-city residents are often referred to as the
permanent underclass because they are trapped in an unending cycle of
economic and social problems. High unemployment, alcoholism, drug
addiction, literacy, juvenile delinquency, and crime all exist at a higher rate
among those who live in the inner-city. Lack of jobs means lack of tax dollars
to pay for police and fire protection as well as good schools. Lack of job skills
and homelessness are also tremendous problems.
Culture of Poverty: Inner-city residents are trapped in a permanent underclass
culture that reproduces itself. In the US, unwed mothers give birth to 2/3 of the
babies in the inner-city. 90% of these children live with only one parent and it
is real hard for one parent to keep a job and take care of children. Both suffer
and a shortage of care and daily attention by the parent contributes to the kids
not learning the skills necessary to do well in school which leads to poor jobs
for their futures. Poverty leads to more poverty. Many families on welfare have
only one parent because it is financially better if one parent is gone, that way
the single parent gets food stamps and other services from the government
that they would not get if it was a 2 family household.
50

Crime: Trapped in a hopeless environment, some inner-city
residents turn to drugs. Drug use is a problem in inner-city
areas and the suburbs, but rates of drug use in inner-cities
are the highest.
Ethnic and Racial Segregation: As seen in chapter 7, many
neighborhoods in the US are segregated by ethnicity with
African Americans and Hispanics concentrated in one or two
continuous areas and whites living in the suburbs. Even small
cities display a strong distinction among neighborhoods. A
frequent division is between the east and west or north and
south side of town, or the railroad tracks. A family seeking a
new residence will seek the areas where the characteristics
of the people meet their own.

51

The exodus
from the
American city.
This has
happened in
many American
cities since the
1960’s.

52

Changes in Cities in the U.S.
U.S. population has been moving out of the city centers to the suburbs:
suburbanization and counter urbanization

Developed Countries: suburbanization

 wealthy move to suburbs
 automobiles and roads; ‘American
Dream’ of the home in the suburbs.
 better services
 wealthy move to suburbs
Counter urbanization

idyllic settings
cost of land for retirement
slow pace, yet high tech
connections to services and markets
53

U.S. intraregional migration during 1990s.

Inner city economic problems: the concentration of low income
residents in inner cities has caused economic problems. These
people require public services but can pay very little in taxes to
support the services. They need stores and jobs but have little
money to spend in the store and few skills for jobs (so the stores
close). To try to fight these problems many local and state
governments use tax monies to try to renovate these areas, but this
shifts tax money needed for other areas to the inner city (votes on
election day).
Annexation: Many cities could help their tax problem by adding the
new suburbs to be part of their city (annexation). After all, many of
these suburban people use the city for its’ jobs etc., so why not add
them into the city? Today, most people in the suburbs do not want
to be annexed into the city and so they do not vote to be annexed.
54

The Peripheral Model: According to this model, an urban area
consists of an inner city surrounded by large suburban residential
and business areas (MSA) tied together by a beltway or highway
that circles the city. Around the beltway are nodes of consumer
and business services called edge cities (see diagram of multiple
nuclei model). These edge cities sprang up to provide services
and jobs to the people in the suburbs.
Density Gradient: As you travel outward from the center of the
city, the density of people declines. Inner city has big apartments
of 250 of more people per acre. Suburbs have fewer people per
acre (but lots of acres) and finally you leave the cities periphery
you find few people. The number of houses per unit of land
diminishes as distance from the center of the city increases.
55

The Edge cities (bedroom communities) of Houston

The central city is surrounded by a ring road, around which are
suburban areas and edge cities, shopping malls, office parks,
industrial areas, and service complexes.

Known as
bedroom
communities
because
people live
there but
mostly don’t
work there.
They drive
into the city
for work.
56

As you move from the center of the city outward, the density of the population
changes. This is know as the density gradient. Two big changes have occurred in
the density gradient of today’s cities:
1. The number of people living in the center has decreased.
2. The density difference between the inner city and the suburbs is declining
because the inner city density is dropping and the suburban density is growing
due to more large apartments being built in the suburbs.
Cost of Suburban or Urban Sprawl: Urban Sprawl is the progressive spread of
development over the landscape. As long as we Americans want single-family
detached houses, land on the fringe of urban areas will be converted from open
space to residential use. The cost of this growth is more than the loss of land, it is
also the cost of new roads, utilities, building stores and offices and the cost of
automobiles to move these people over even longer distances. Lots of these new
developments are built on what was once farmland. Wonderful productive soil now
under concrete.

Greenbelts: are areas where, by law, the open space can not be used for any
construction. This is mostly found in Europe.

57

Once farmland that is being converted to suburbs and cities.

58

Tyson’s Corner Virginia in 1940

59

Washington, DC. MSA.

Tyson’s Corner Virginia
today.
Washington D.C. is off
In the distance.

60

Suburban Segregation: The “new” segregation.
Suburban segregation takes two forms:
1. Residents are separated from commercial and manufacturing activities
which are confined someplace else. (The whole neighborhood is
nothing but houses because they drive for services.)
2. The price of the house eliminates some from being able to live there. This
creates a homogeneous suburb of the same economic class of people.
This never existed before in history. Where we once had vertical
segregation of the classes we now we have horizontal segregation.
3. But this may be reversing as new statistics show that people are beginning
to move back to the city. Why? Cost of transportation.
Zoning Ordinances: This idea developed in Europe and later America in the
early decades of the 20th century. This means that businesses are allowed only
in certain areas of the settlement. (No all night taco stands inside your single
family neighborhood.)
Motor vehicles: The wide use of the automobile is largely responsible for the
American movement to the suburbs. Not only did people move out but 1/4 of
the land inside all American cities are now roads, streets, and parking lots.

61

Public Transportation: Because few US workers live within walking distance
of their jobs, urban areas are characterized by extensive commuting and the
problems that come with it. As much as 40% of all trips made into or out from
a city during the day takes place within just 4 hours. (2 in the morning and 2 in
the late afternoon). RUSH HOUR!!! In large cities, public transportation, like
subways and busses, are better suited to move people but Americans still
prefer their own cars. Public transportation is cheaper, cleaner, and more
energy efficient than personal cars, yet in the US only 5% of city travel is
done using public transit systems. American’s love their personal car too
much.
Local Government Fragmentation: Because of the large number of local
governments in the US (look at the settlements in Pinellas County) it is
difficult to solve some of the regional problems like garbage disposal, water
management, traffic and public housing.
62

Metropolitan government: This idea tries to put many local governments into a
larger unit that can better handle the urban problems. The 2 ways to do this
are:
1. Federations in which the individual settlements have their own police,
firemen, and tax collection but they all agree to be part of a second
government which handles transportation, water, sewage, parks and
welfare for all the communities.
2. Consolidations: In this method, several cities and the county may form one
government. Jacksonville’s government runs not only the town but the
county too, this makes Jacksonville the largest city, in land size, in the US.
Smart growth: A new movement by many states to curb suburban sprawl by
limiting where new construction can take place. Smart growth laws require that
land near cities be used up before any land further out can be developed. So
far, this is only being done an a few parts of our country.
63

The new
US as
some
people
see it.

64

Quiz Yourself:
1. The process where middle-class people move into inner city neighborhoods and
renovate them is called ____________
2. ____________ happens when banks refuse to give loans in what they consider
risky neighborhoods.
3. Because of the housing shortages, the poor have constructed their own settlements
around the city known as __________ _________

4. Businesses are allowed only in certain areas of the settlement because of
____________ ____________
5. Areas known as _____ _______ are areas of about 5,000 people. The data from
that area is used to help define needed services for that area.
6. When cities are so close that they form one continuous band of development this is
known as a ____________
65

7. Social relationships are often described as “colder” in urban areas because…
8. In this model the city develops in a series of sectors not rings. _______

9. ______ (LDC’s or MDC’s) have a higher percentage of people living in urban
settlements but ________ (LDC’s or MDC’s) have more of the very large urban
settlements.
10. _____________ was the first model developed to explain the distributions
of different social groups within urban areas.
11. New cities which develop around the beltway are nodes of consumer and
business services known as ________ _________.

12. When the Europeans took over lands around the world, they changed the
cities by adding services to help the Europeans control the conquered people.
These European planned cities are known as __________ cities.
66

Answer Key:
1.

Gentrification

2.

Redlining

3.

Squatter Settlements

4.

Zoning ordinances

5.

Census tracks

6.

Megalopolis

7. There is a stronger feeling of belonging together in small rural settlements.
8. Hoyt sector model
9. MDC, LDC
10. Burgess Concentric Zone model
11. Edge cities
12. Colonial cities
67

Test Key topic/chapter 13:
These questions come from a combination of our slides, your text book, and common knowledge you should
have discussed in your AP classroom. They are very typical of what you will see on the National Exam.
1) The multiple nuclei theory best explains why different neighborhoods of a city attract people of different… A) ages.
B) ethnic origin C) income D) marital status.
2) Sprawl is the… A) change in density within an urban area from the center to the periphery B) development of new
housing sites not contiguous to the existing built-up area. C) land maintained as open space surrounding an urban area.
D) period in the morning and evening with the heaviest volumes of traffic.
3) People are attracted to suburbs in part because suburbs are characterized by…A) heavy traffic. B) lower opportunity
for home ownership. C) private land surrounding the house. D) row houses and apartments.
4) Megalopolis refers to… A) adjacent, overlapping Metropolitan Statistical Areas. B) central cities. C) consolidated
Metropolitan Statistical Areas. D) central cities plus urbanized areas.
5) Which statement best describes the relationship between urbanization and the Industrial Revolution? A) Urbanization
promoted the Industrial Revolution. B) The Industrial Revolution promoted urbanization. C) Urbanization preceded the
Industrial Revolution by thousands of years. D) Urbanization and the Industrial Revolution are no longer related.
6) The process of legally adding land area to a city in the United States is… A) annexation. B) accreditation. C) an
application of eminent domain. D) defined by urbanized area.

68

7) The process of change in the use of a house, from single-family owner occupancy to abandonment, is… A) blockbusting.
B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining.
8) A process by which banks designate an area within which they refuse to lend money for improvements is… A) blockbusting.
B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining.
9) A recent change in the density gradient has been… A) the elimination of the gap traditionally found in the center. B) an
increase in the extremes between the inner and outer areas. C) an increase in the number of people living in the center.
D) a reduction in the differences in densities found within an urban area.
10) U.S. central cities face fiscal problems because… A) federal and state funds are available. B) low-income people are
concentrated there. C) middle-class families are attracted there. D) redlining is no longer legal.
11) A legal form of segregation in U.S. cities is achieved through...A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) zoning. D) greenbelts.
12) Factories have moved to suburban locations in part because of… A) access to main highways. B) adequate space to build
vertical structures. C) availability of large tracts of high-priced land. D) good rail connections.
13) According to the sector model, the best housing is located in…A) a corridor from downtown to the edge of the city.
B) an outer ring surrounding the city. C) nodes near universities and parks. D) renovated inner-city neighborhoods.
14) Ramshackle houses on the periphery of cities in less developed countries are known as… A) squatter settlements. B) council
estates. C) public housing. D) zone in transition.
15) Higher income people tend to live near the center of the city in all but which of the following regions? A) Latin America
B) North America C) South Asia D) Western Europe

16) The wide boulevards built in cities in less developed countries were most likely built during what era? A) pre-colonial
B) colonial C) independence D) all of the above equally

69

17) According to the multiple nuclei model, an airport is likely to attract nearby… A) industries. B) residences. C) shops.
D) universities.
18) The largest percentage of the U.S. population lives in…A) central cities. B) suburbs. C) non-metropolitan areas. D) all of the
above
19) In U.S. cities, the underclass is… A) clustered in inner-city neighborhoods. B) dispersed throughout the city. C) clustered in
suburbs. D) distributed uniformly in the city.

20) A process of converting a neighborhood from low-income to middle-class is…A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) gentrification.
D) redlining.
21) Higher social heterogeneity in urban settlements means that… A) the people with whom you relax are probably the same ones you
see at work. B) you play a specialized role in the urban economy. C) you compete for limited space. D) you may feel lonely and
isolated in a crowd.
22) The city plus its contiguous built-up suburbs is the… A) central city. B) urbanized area.
D) consolidated metropolitan statistical area

C) metropolitan statistical area.

23) The process whereby an increasing percentage of people live in an urban area is known as… A) demographic transition.
B) rank-size rule. C) urbanization. D) central place theory.
24) Of the ten largest urban areas in the world, how many are in More Developed Countries today? A) 1 B) 4 C) 7 D) 10 E) 2
25) Public housing is…A) conversion of low-income housing to middle-class housing. B) illegally established low-income housing.
C) housing that has changed from single-family owner occupancy to abandonment. D) low-income government-owned housing.
26) According to the concentric zone model, a city develops in a series of… A) corridors. B) nodes. C) rings. D) all of the above

70

27) Chicago is a good location in which to develop urban models because it is located… A) at the hub of the nation's transportation
system. B) in the center of the country. C) on a flat prairie. D) on the shore of Lake Michigan.
28) According to the sector model, the best housing is located in… A) a corridor from downtown to the edge of the city. B) an outer
ring surrounding the city. C) nodes near universities and parks. D) renovated inner-city neighborhoods.
29) The zone of transition in US cities generally contain…A) warehouses B) wealthy neighborhoods C) transportation hubs
D) universities and hospitals E) suburban homes
30) The attractions of shopping malls include all but which of the following? A) frequent concerts and exhibitions B) generous
parking lots C) place to meet friends D) walking distance from homes
The following questions are written at the high school level. You will find some questions from part one often rewritten
here. This is all designed to help you transition to the college/AP style of written questions. Any question preceded with ***
are questions that have been on the national exam before.
31. Most Latin American cities are focused on a…A) central plaza B) government housing project C) zone of heavy industry
D) skyscraper office building E) squatter settlement
32. The multiple-nuclei model of a city structure tends to be most applicable to…A) small cities B) traditional C) Latin American
cities D) newer, fast growing cities E) cities with homogeneous land use
33. ***Locational advantages important to the development of the earliest cities include…A) availability of good harbors for large
ships B) productive agricultural land and defensible sites C) temperate climate and proximity to coal mines D) good
connections by road and canal E) proximity to manufacturing areas

34. In cities, the CBD’s often show uniqueness while the suburbs usually show…A) a large hinterland. B) placelessness C) more
than one node. D) newer zones of transition.

71

35. Many LDC’s have tried to help a previously under-developed part of their country develop by moving their capital
city to that area. This new capital is known as a…A) forward capital B) new development zone C) enterprise zone
D) neocolonial city
36. Today the greatest number of urban dwellers is found in…A) North America
D) Europe E) Asia

B) South America C) Africa

37. ***All of the following have helped create ghettos in North American cities except…A)blockbusting and racial
steering B) redlining by financial institutions C) concentration of public housing and social services D) fixed school
districts E) Economic Enterprise Zones

38. Which of the following is NOT as reason for rapid suburbanization in the US after WW2? A) Mass production of
the automobile B) Reduction of long distance commuting C) Expansion of home construction D) Expansion of the
interstate highway system E) Availability of low down payment terms and long-term mortgages.
39. New cities which developed in the hinterland of large urban areas because of the automobile, are known as…
A) edge cities B) census tracts C) suburban sprawl D) squatter settlements. E) none of these
40. Gentrification refers to… A) moving the homeless into inner city shelters B) The “White Flight” from the urban city
C) losing tax revenue because of stores closing in downtown areas D) middle-class people moving into and renovating
inner city neighborhoods E) the creation of “beltway cities” around the city.

72

4
7
3

5

1
6

2

41-48 all use the sketch above.
41. The sketch in box A above represents which model of the inner structure of urban areas?
C) multiple nuclei model D) Burgess concentric zone model E) peripheral model
42. The models in boxes B and C represent A) Concentric zone and multiple nuclei
concentric zone D) peripheral and concentric zone E) Von Thunen and peripheral

A) Hoyt sector model B) VonThunen’s model

B) Multiple nuclei and Hoyt sector C) Hoyt sector and

43. In which ring (1, 2, etc.) of sketch A above would high-status households in North American cities likely live? A) 1 B) 2 C) 3 D) 4&5
44. In which ring (1, 2, etc.) of sketch A above would high status households in a European city likely live? A) 1

B) 2

C) 3

D) 4&5

45. In model B, zone # 2 is where it is likely because of: A) greenbelting B) squatter settling C) the culture of poverty D) transportation
E) no one knows
46. The model in sketch B is the; A) Hoyt sector model B) Burgess model C) multiple nuclei model D) peripheral model
47. The model in sketch C is the; A) Hoyt sector model B) Burgess model C) multiple nuclei model D) peripheral model
48. Which of these models best describes what has happened in US cities in the last 40 years? A)

B)

C)

73

49.*** In the U.S. a city plus its contiguous built-up suburbs is known as an…A) urbanized area B) zoned area
C) census tract D) Squatter settlement E) none of these
50. Done mostly in Europe, these are areas where land is kept as parks, farms or other kinds of open space and urban
sprawl is not allowed. A) Smart growth
B) zoning
C) filtering
D) census tracts E) greenbelts
51. Which statement best describes the relationship between urbanization and the Industrial Revolution?
A) Urbanization promoted the Industrial Revolution. B) The Industrial Revolution promoted urbanization.
C) Urbanization preceded the Industrial Revolution by thousands of years. D) Urbanization and the Industrial
Revolution are no longer related.
52. The process whereby an increasing percentage of people live in an urban area is known as…
A) Demographic transition. B) rank-size rule. C) Urbanization. D) Central place theory.
53. The city (if it has 50,000 or more people) plus its contiguous built-up suburbs AND the county it is in as well as any
other counties it influences, is known as the ...A) central city B) urbanized area
C) metropolitan statistical area
D) consolidated metropolitan area E) micropolitan statistical area
54. ***Higher social heterogeneity in urban settlements means that …A) the people with whom you relax are probably
the same ones you see at work. B) you play a specialized role in the urban economy. C) you compete for limited
space. D) you may feel lonely and isolated in a crowd.

55. The process of change in the use of a house, from single-family owner occupancy to smaller dwellings for the poor
and then sometimes to abandonment, is…A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining. E) none of
these

74

Free Response #1:
The Bid Rent theory says that the closer you get to the
CBD the higher the cost for land, yet in most American
cities you find the poorest people living near the
expensive CBD and the richest living further away.
Explain:
A. Why neighborhoods near the CBD are often poor and
run down?
B. Why are there few grocery and other retail stores in
these neighborhoods?
C. Why is this not really true in European and Latin
American countries?

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75

FR #2:
Think of the map of your school, explain the
layout of your school using the Multiple Nuclei
Model
The main office is the CBD.
Completely explain your answer using specific
buildings and/or land areas in your explanation
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76

Answer Key:
1. B

14. A

27. C

40. D

53. C

2. B

15. B

28. A

41. D

54. D

3. C

16. B

29. A

42. B

55. B

4. A

17. A

30. D

43. D

5. B

18. B

31. A

44. A

6. A

19. A

32. D

45. D

7. B

20. C

33. B

46. A

8. D

21. D

34. B

47. C

9. D

22. B

35. A

48. C

10. B

23. C

36. E

49. A

11. C

24. C

37. E

50. E

12. A

25. D

38. B

51. B

13. A

26. C

39. A

52. C
77

FR. #1: ( 15 pts. for each section…total of 45 pts.)
A. In the US the move of the wealthy and middle class to the suburbs has left the older houses and apartments near the CBD empty.
This has lowered their value to the point where the poor can afford these dwellings and have made these neighborhoods their
homes. The poor can not pay for upkeep of these dwellings, or to pay high taxes. The lack of upkeep and tax money to repair the
roads and schools, adds to the downward spiral of the neighborhood. With little spending money for shopping, the poor do not
spend much in the stores. This causes many stores to close and move to the suburbs where the spending customers and money
went. The closing of the stores adds to the poverty of the area by taking away some of the jobs that were in the neighborhood. This
becomes a vicious cycle of poverty and deterioration. (15 points)

B. There are few retail stores and groceries is the area because the poor do not have money to shop. The lack of spending forces
many stores out of business or forces them to move to better locations. There also can be higher crime in these areas and the
crime often takes place at the stores. This is another reason for the stores to move out of the neighborhood. (15 points)
C. Neighborhoods in European and Latin American cities are different from those of US cities. In Europe and Latin America, the
wealthy and middle class still live near or in the CBD. The higher tax base and more spending ability of the upper and middle
classes, keeps the CBD area flourishing with jobs and in constant repair and upkeep of the cities’ physical condition. (15 points)

FR #2: (10 total points.)
You will need to judge how effectively you displayed you school
in the Multiple Nuclei Model. Refer to the model itself to help you
determine your success and grade.
School’s main office
78

Calculating your grade on test 13.
Add how many you got correct on the multiple choice part (55 possible) to how many
points you scored on the FR portion (55 possible)…110 total.
The following scale will show the approximate score if this test were the real AP exam. Remember that this
is an approximation. While 65-74% is normally the range for a 3 on the test, it is not definite. Over the
years I have seen scores as low as 60% be the low portion of a 3 score.

Out of 110 possible points:
72-83 is most likely a 3
84-94 is most likely a 4

95-110 is most likely a 5

Now lets start our review for the national exam by
reviewing the 33 key models and theories of the
course…the next PowerPoint.


Slide 59

Key topic/chapter 13…Urban Patterns
Key terms:
Annexation
Concentric zone model
Density gradient
Edge cities
Filtering
Galactic city
Gentrification
Greenbelts
Megalopolis
MSA
Multiple nuclei model
Peripheral model

Public housing
Redlining
Renovated housing
Scattered site
Squatter settlement
Sector model
Smart growth
Sprawl
Underclass
Urban renewal
Zone in transition
Zoning
1

Chapter 13…Urban Areas.
How are Cities planned?
Why

are cities where they are?
How are they organized?
Why are some areas of a city
different from
other areas of the same city?
What is the future of cities?
2

Settlement


Settlement - permanent collections of buildings,
where people live, work, and obtain services

3

ORIGINS OF SETTLEMENTS


Religious - graves, churches, temples



Cultural - schools, libraries



Political/Military - leader’s house, walls



Economic - stores, food
4

TYPES OF SETTLEMENTS


Rural Settlements - agriculture as the
predominant occupation.



Urban settlements - principal industries are
secondary and tertiary.

5

RURAL SETTLEMENTS
Clustered rural settlements –grouped
settlements in rural areas to minimize travel

Dispersed rural Settlements - isolated farms
with enclosed continuous fields (Found only in
N. America and Britain).

6

Urban Geographers want to know the global distribution of urban
settlements. MDC’s have a high percentage of people living in urban
areas because of the shift from agriculture-manufacturing-services.
Geographers are also interested in where people and activities are
distributed within urban spaces. What are the differences between the
inner-city and suburban areas and why?
As we saw in the last chapter, many downtowns are unique and can
often be recognized in photos where the suburbs often look very
much alike (Placelessness). Why? Suburbs offer the chance to avoid
some of the city problems (crime, tight living area, expensive
land/rent, noise, age of buildings) while still keeping a connection with
the goods and services of the city: jobs, sports teams, culture, shops,
recreation, etc.
7

Where is this place?

8

Today’s cities are evolving and changing. Although different internal
situations characterize urban areas in the US and elsewhere, the
problems arising from current spatial trends are quite similar in all cities.
Where have urban areas grown: in the early 1800’s only 3% of the earth’s
people lived in cities and only Beijing China had more than 1 million
people. Today over ½ of the world’s people live in cities and we have over
400 cities of at least 1 million people.

Urbanization: is the process by which city population grows.
Cities population growth is measured in 2 dimensions;
1. An increase in the number of people living in the cities.
2. An increase in the percentage of people living in the cities.
This distinction is important because they happen for different reason and
have different global distributions.
9

Increasing Percentage of People in Cities: a large percentage of people living in urban
areas is a measure of a country’s level of development. In MDC’s about ¾ of the people
live in urban areas compared to about 2/5 of people in LDC’s. (Except in Latin America
where the level is closer to MDC’s.)
The higher percentage of people in urban areas comes from the changes that have
occurred in the last 200 years as we went from agriculture (primary jobs) to industrial
(secondary jobs) and now service jobs, all created by the Industrial Revolution of the
1800’s.
People moved to the cities for industrial jobs, but in MDC’s this process has largely
ended because nearly everyone interested in moving to the cities from farms has already
done so.
In LDC’s the percentage of people living in urban areas is growing as people are pushed
off of their farms and replaced by machines and as people move to cities looking/hoping
for industrial jobs.
10

Increasing Number of People in Cities: MDC’s have a higher percentage of
people living in urban settlements but LDC’s have more of the very large urban
settlements (Primate cities). (Rank-size rule, primate cities, chapter 12.)

This is interesting because typically the large cities are created from the
improvements brought by the Industrial Revolution. This is not the case with the
large LDC cities. Migration to the primate city in LDC’s is happening even though
job opportunities may not be available. Increasing the population growth in LDC
cities is the fact that medical services are better in these cities, thus the child
mortality rate is lower.
Defining Urban Settlements: defining where urban areas end and rural areas
begin is not easy. Geographers have formulated definitions that distinguish
between urban and rural areas in two ways: Social differences and Physical
differences.
11

Percent Urban Population

Percent of the population living in urban areas is usually higher in MDCs
than in LDCs.

12

The most populated cities in the world

Of the top
20, only
Moscow,
Tokyo and
New York
are in MDC’s

Shanghai China has 14,608,512 people
13

14

15

Social Differences Between Urban and Rural Settlements: it is fair to say that rural
people and urban people follow different ways of life. A city can be defined as having 3
characteristics:
1. Large size. People in rural settlements know most of the other people in the
settlement. Not true in big cities. Social relationships are often described as “colder” in
urban areas because you only see some people at work instead of growing up with
them in the settlement.
2. High Density. Having lots of people in a tiny area creates social consequences. A
high density of people living in a small area can only be supported if the people
specialize (they can’t all be farmers). People are encouraged to compete for jobs, room,
and survival in a tightly limited space. Social groups compete to occupy the same space
(ethnic/ race problems). Rural settlements have very little of this problem.
3. Social Heterogeneity. The larger the settlement, the greater the variety of people.
Being “unusual” in a large settlement is more likely to be accepted than in a small rural
one. But despite the freedom to be different that large urban settlements give you,
people living there often feel alone because so many people are different from them.
There is a stronger feeling of belonging together in small rural settlements.
16

These 3 differences do not fully answer the question of where urban settlements
begin and rural ones end because in today’s MDC’s most everyone has access to
cars, telephones, televisions, and “urban type” jobs which reduce the differences
between urban and rural lifestyles. “City folk” and “Country folk” are more alike
today than they are different. To help distinguish between urban and rural areas we
need to add the physical definition of rural and urban to the equation.
Physical Definitions of Urban Settlements: In ancient time, cities had defensive
walls for protection which clearly defined the physical boundaries of the city. Today
the walls are gone but we can still define the physical boundaries in 3 ways:
1. Legal boundary. These are the official boundaries of a city as recognized by
the government of the country or state. These “city limits” have been officially given
to the city and are physically marked on official maps. The local government of the
city has authority to make laws and protect the people inside the city boundaries.
17

2. Urbanized area. This is the city plus its suburbs or urbanized area that
surrounds the city. About 70 percent of US residents live in urbanized areas with
40% being in the suburbs and 30% inside the city limits. The suburbs may have
their own city governments but the huge central city dominates what happens in
the entire area.
3. Metropolitan Statistical Area. Cities have an even bigger influence on people
than just those living in their city limits and surrounding urbanized areas. People
from far away come to shop, use the services, support the sports teams, read
the newspapers and watch the television broadcasts of the city. Thus the city
has a “functional area” which is its total zone of influence. The US Bureau of
Census has created a method of measuring the functional area of the city.
Known as the Metropolitan statistical area (MSA) this area includes:
•An urbanized area with a population of at least 50,000
•The county within which the city is located.
•Adjacent counties with a high population density and a large percentage of
residents working in the central city’s county.
18

Metropolitan Area of Philadelphia

City of
Philadelphia

Urbanized
area
(suburbs)
Metropolitan
Statistical
Area

The metropolitan area of Philadelphia is
spread over several counties and four states.
It is also a diversified trade center, given its
position on the Delaware river.

19

20

21

Micropolitan Statistical Areas: Smaller areas with between
10,000 and 50,000 people, the county where it is found, and
adjacent counties tied to the city. This would be a small town and
the area dominated by it.
Overlapping Metropolitan Areas: Some adjacent MSA’s overlap.
A county between two central cities may send a large number of
commuters to jobs in both cities. In some areas the cities are so
close that they form one continuous urban complex. This is
known as a Megalopolis (great city).
In a megalopolis, the downtown CBD often has its own
distinctive look and the urban areas are visually separated by
parks, open spaces, and dairy/truck farms. But at the periphery
of the urban areas, the boundaries overlap.
22

Colorado Springs, population 431,000

Ocala, Florida, population 56,000

Florala, Alabama, population 1,900

23

Megalopolis, from northern Va. To Maine.
This Illustrates the
difference between
strict city proper
definitions and broader
urban agglomerations.
To define urbanized
areas, the U.S. Census
Bureau uses the term
Metropolitan Statistical
Area (MSA) or
Consolidated MSA
(CMSA) if two or more of
them overlap.
24

Where are People Distributed within Urban Areas? People are not
just distributed at random in urban areas. For the most part they
concentrate in particular neighborhoods depending on their social
characteristics. Geographers want to see where people with
particular characteristics are likely to live and why.

Three models which try to explain the growth of a city:

The Burgess Model

The Hoyt Sector Model

The Harris and Ullman
multiple Nuclei Model
25

Burgess Concentric Zone Model

In the concentric zone model, a city grows in a series of rings surrounding the CBD.

Burgess Concentric Zone Model: This is the first used to explain the
distributions of different social groups within urban areas. It says that a
city grows outward from a central place in a series of concentric rings.
The precise size and width of the rings vary from one city to another, but
some basic types of rings appear in all cities in the same order (see chart
above).
26

•Hoyt Sector Model: In this model the city develops in a
series of sectors not rings. Certain areas of the city are
more attractive for various activities, originally because
of an environmental factor (or even pure chance). As the
city grows, activities extend outward in a wedge shape.
For example, once a wealthy neighborhood is built the
next wealthy neighborhood will extend from the first
neighborhood further outward from the center. In this
way, the best housing is found in a corridor extending
outward from the center to the outer edge (see chart on
the next page).
27

The Hoyt Sector Model

In the sector model, a city grows in a series of
wedges or corridors extending out from the
CBD.
28

•Harris and Ullman’s Multiple Nuclei Model: According
to this model, a city is a complex structure that includes
more than one center around which activities revolve.
Examples of these nodes include a port, parks,
stadium, neighborhood business center, university, and
airport (see chart). This theory states that some
activities are attracted to particular nodes, whereas
others try to avoid them. A university node may attract
well educated people and bookstores while the port will
attract hotels and warehouses. Heavy industry and
expensive houses rarely are found together. This
model shows the effect of the automobile more than
any other model.
29

The Harris and Ullman Multiple Nuclei model

The multiple nuclei model views a city as a
collection of individual centers, around which
different people and activities cluster.

30

Applications of the Models: The three models help explain where and in some
cases, why people live where they do. None of the models by themselves fully
explains why and where different types of people live, but combined they give
you as good a look as possible at the “Why” of “Where.” Effective use of the
models depends on getting good data on the areas. Most countries take a
census every 10 years to help determine useful data about the people and
places of the country. In our country we divide the census data into areas
known as census tracts of about 5,000 people. Each census tract has the data
that summarizes the characteristics of the people living within that tract. This
information includes things like the race, income, age, and education of the
people living in that tract.
Social Area Analysis: The data from the census tracts can all be plotted onto
maps to show the characteristics of the people living in that tract. This map is
known as a social area analysis.
31

Using Census tract information…Seattle, Washington
Each lined area is a
census tract of about 5000
people in Seattle
Washington. These maps
show average household
income for 1990 and
2000…note the changes in
income in some areas
between 1990 and 2000.
Using this information, a
business can make
decisions about where
they want to locate a new
store or the future of
existing stores.
You can find census tract
information on many topics
such as; age, education
level, race, ethnicity, crime
rate, and land ownership.
Note the areas with
incomes over
$63,000.

All can be very valuable
information to people
looking to open
businesses.

32

Examine the changes
between 1990 and
2000.

Oakland, California’s Ethnic neighborhoods
The small bordered areas are census tracks of 5000 people.

33

Use of the Models Outside of North America: The 3 models will also work in other
places in the world; however social groups in other countries may not have the
same reasons for selecting particular neighborhoods as Americans do.
European Cities: As in the US, wealthier people in European cities cluster along a
sector extending outward from the CBD, however unlike the US, wealthy and
middle class Europeans still live in the inner rings of the neighborhoods near the
CBD not out in the suburbs. In the past, poorer people lived in the center of the
city. Before electricity, social segregation was vertical: richer people lived on the
first or second floor of a building while the poorer people lived in the basement or
upper floors. In the Industrial Revolution, housing for the poor was constructed
near the factories and away from the rich.
Today poorer Europeans are less likely to live in the inner-city. Poor quality
housing has been renovated for the rich or turned into office buildings. Poorer
Europeans tend to live in the outskirts of the city. Vast suburbs with dozens of high
rise apartments house the poor. They face long commutes to reach their jobs in
the city.
34

European cities generally do not have the “suburban
sprawl” that US cities have. European cities tend to be
more pedestrian friendly with more parks downtown as
Europeans tend to still live downtown.
US cities have taller buildings as European cities tend to
be older and more historic.

American cities have more ethnic neighborhoods than
European cities. Ethnic neighborhoods that do exist in
European cities tend to be in the suburbs. WHY?
Because the established richer neighborhoods tend to be
downtown in European cities.
35

Less Developed Countries: Like Europe, most LDC’s accommodate their poor in the
suburbs with their middle class and rich living near the center of the city. LDC’s have
passed through 3 periods of city building: before the Europeans arrived, during the
period of European colonialism, and since independence from European control.

Pre-colonial Cities: Before the Europeans arrived few cities existed in Africa, Asia, and
Latin America and most people lived in small rural settlements. Those cities that existed
were mostly laid out surrounding a religious center; with the rest of the city laid out in a
hieratical concentric pattern (like the Burgess model) from government buildings,
homes of the wealthy, and businesses related to the religion out to other businesses
and shops.
Colonial cities: When the Europeans took over these lands, they changed the cities by
adding services to help the Europeans control the conquered people. Often a new
European style city would be build next to the existing native one. The new European
cities contained wider streets, a public square, larger houses and a much lower density.
The Spanish used the “Law of the Indies” which was a city plan designed specifically to
build cities in a “Spanish” style. (Gridiron pattern for streets centered on a church and
central plaza, walls around individual houses and neighborhoods centered around
smaller plazas and more churches.)
36

Early Mexico city was laid out in a grid pattern of streets. This followed
the Spanish “Law of the Indies.”

37

Central Plaza in Mexico City 1920 photo. Typical Colonial City plan.

Part of downtown Mexico city today still shows the
building plan of the “Law of the Indies.”

38

Cities since Independence: Following independence, cities have become
the focal point of the development of most LDC’s. Millions of people have
migrated to the cities (Primate cities) looking for jobs and services. Some
capitals have been moved to isolated areas in an attempt to help develop
that area of the country (Brasília) This is know as a forward capital. Latin
American cities have developed their own unique style.
Squatter settlements: The LDC’s are unable to house the rapidly growing
number of poor who are flowing into the cities. Because of the housing
shortages, the poor have constructed their own settlements around the city.
These settlements have few services because neither the city nor the
residents can afford them. Squatters have two basic choices for housing.
1. Illegally move into empty real houses located in the city or,
2. Rent slum housing.
(85% of the population of Addis Ababa in Ethiopia lives in squatter
settlements, slums or other illegal housing.)
39

Squatter shacks in Manila, the Philippines

40

Squatter settlement in Ethiopia

41

Zimbabwe, Africa

42

Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

43

Latin American City Model:
In many Latin
American cities,
the wealthy live in
the inner city and
in a sector
extending along a
commercial spine.
In situ accretion- businesses
and homes constantly under
construction/repair.
Zone of maturity-2nd best
housing in the city.
The poor live in squatter settlements on the
periphery of the city.

Disamenity- unpleasant area
used by the poor to get to the
market.

44

The City Outline of Rio de Janeiro
The rich tourist areas and expensive condo apartments are along the coast
and beach while the poor live in squatter shacks in the hills.

45

City problems:
Inner-City Physical Problems: Most US inner cities were constructed before the 1950’s
(people began to move to the suburbs in the 1950’s so new construction moved out of
the city).
Process of Deterioration (how a city deteriorates): A city doesn’t suddenly become old
and full of slummy areas. It happens over time. When a group of low-income people
inhabit an area of a city, nearby neighborhoods will often look to move out. They sell or
rent to more low-income occupants thus expanding the low-income area. Two processes
cause/speed up the devaluation of areas:
1. Filtering, 2. Redlining.
Filtering: Large houses and buildings that once housed rich downtown workers (who
moved to the suburbs) are taken over by landlords who don’t live in that area (they
moved to the suburbs too). Rents are low so the landlord doesn’t take as good care of
the property as they should and the property becomes run down or abandoned. Stores
close, or move, due to lack of sales. 100 years ago these neighborhoods would be used
by immigrants and ethnic businesses would succeed in those areas. Now, with a decline
in immigration, these neighborhoods have shrunk and so have schools, businesses and
other services. Thousands of vacant houses and buildings stand empty in inner cities
across America.

46

Redlining: Some banks refuse to give loans in what they consider
risky neighborhoods. They draw a red line on a map around areas
where they will not give loans. Without loans, these neighborhoods
have a hard time rebuilding/remodeling. Though illegal, this still
happens. Bankers just don’t put these “no-loan” areas on a map.

Urban Renewal: This is the series of projects to improve European
and N. American cities by buying up the blighted neighborhoods,
moving the people to new government built housing projects, and
building new roads, and other projects to make the inner city
attractive for business again. National and State government grants
help pay for these projects.
47

Public housing: Housing for the poor, built with government funding as part of
urban renewal. In the US this is only about 2% of the housing while in some
countries it may be more (Britain is 30%). Public housing built in the 50’s & 60’s
were largely high rise apartments, but those are seen as being unsatisfactory.
Problems arise from cramming large numbers of poor people into one area.
Today most public housing projects are one to three story buildings with many of
them being scattered around different parts of the city rather than clustered into
one area.
Because urban renewal has been criticized for destroying the social cohesion of
older neighborhoods, many governments (like the US) have stopped funding
most projects since the 1970’s. What do we do instead?
Renovated Housing: An alternative often used since the 70’s is to renovate a
building instead of urban renewal. The process where middle-class people
move into inner-city neighborhoods and renovate them is called gentrification.
Gentrified inner-city neighborhoods also attract middle-class people who work
downtown. Living close to work saves the hassle of commuting and rejuvenates
run down inner-city neighborhoods
48

Gentrified building downtown Harlem, NY. Note the supermarket.

49

Inner-City Social Problems: Inner-city residents are often referred to as the
permanent underclass because they are trapped in an unending cycle of
economic and social problems. High unemployment, alcoholism, drug
addiction, literacy, juvenile delinquency, and crime all exist at a higher rate
among those who live in the inner-city. Lack of jobs means lack of tax dollars
to pay for police and fire protection as well as good schools. Lack of job skills
and homelessness are also tremendous problems.
Culture of Poverty: Inner-city residents are trapped in a permanent underclass
culture that reproduces itself. In the US, unwed mothers give birth to 2/3 of the
babies in the inner-city. 90% of these children live with only one parent and it
is real hard for one parent to keep a job and take care of children. Both suffer
and a shortage of care and daily attention by the parent contributes to the kids
not learning the skills necessary to do well in school which leads to poor jobs
for their futures. Poverty leads to more poverty. Many families on welfare have
only one parent because it is financially better if one parent is gone, that way
the single parent gets food stamps and other services from the government
that they would not get if it was a 2 family household.
50

Crime: Trapped in a hopeless environment, some inner-city
residents turn to drugs. Drug use is a problem in inner-city
areas and the suburbs, but rates of drug use in inner-cities
are the highest.
Ethnic and Racial Segregation: As seen in chapter 7, many
neighborhoods in the US are segregated by ethnicity with
African Americans and Hispanics concentrated in one or two
continuous areas and whites living in the suburbs. Even small
cities display a strong distinction among neighborhoods. A
frequent division is between the east and west or north and
south side of town, or the railroad tracks. A family seeking a
new residence will seek the areas where the characteristics
of the people meet their own.

51

The exodus
from the
American city.
This has
happened in
many American
cities since the
1960’s.

52

Changes in Cities in the U.S.
U.S. population has been moving out of the city centers to the suburbs:
suburbanization and counter urbanization

Developed Countries: suburbanization

 wealthy move to suburbs
 automobiles and roads; ‘American
Dream’ of the home in the suburbs.
 better services
 wealthy move to suburbs
Counter urbanization

idyllic settings
cost of land for retirement
slow pace, yet high tech
connections to services and markets
53

U.S. intraregional migration during 1990s.

Inner city economic problems: the concentration of low income
residents in inner cities has caused economic problems. These
people require public services but can pay very little in taxes to
support the services. They need stores and jobs but have little
money to spend in the store and few skills for jobs (so the stores
close). To try to fight these problems many local and state
governments use tax monies to try to renovate these areas, but this
shifts tax money needed for other areas to the inner city (votes on
election day).
Annexation: Many cities could help their tax problem by adding the
new suburbs to be part of their city (annexation). After all, many of
these suburban people use the city for its’ jobs etc., so why not add
them into the city? Today, most people in the suburbs do not want
to be annexed into the city and so they do not vote to be annexed.
54

The Peripheral Model: According to this model, an urban area
consists of an inner city surrounded by large suburban residential
and business areas (MSA) tied together by a beltway or highway
that circles the city. Around the beltway are nodes of consumer
and business services called edge cities (see diagram of multiple
nuclei model). These edge cities sprang up to provide services
and jobs to the people in the suburbs.
Density Gradient: As you travel outward from the center of the
city, the density of people declines. Inner city has big apartments
of 250 of more people per acre. Suburbs have fewer people per
acre (but lots of acres) and finally you leave the cities periphery
you find few people. The number of houses per unit of land
diminishes as distance from the center of the city increases.
55

The Edge cities (bedroom communities) of Houston

The central city is surrounded by a ring road, around which are
suburban areas and edge cities, shopping malls, office parks,
industrial areas, and service complexes.

Known as
bedroom
communities
because
people live
there but
mostly don’t
work there.
They drive
into the city
for work.
56

As you move from the center of the city outward, the density of the population
changes. This is know as the density gradient. Two big changes have occurred in
the density gradient of today’s cities:
1. The number of people living in the center has decreased.
2. The density difference between the inner city and the suburbs is declining
because the inner city density is dropping and the suburban density is growing
due to more large apartments being built in the suburbs.
Cost of Suburban or Urban Sprawl: Urban Sprawl is the progressive spread of
development over the landscape. As long as we Americans want single-family
detached houses, land on the fringe of urban areas will be converted from open
space to residential use. The cost of this growth is more than the loss of land, it is
also the cost of new roads, utilities, building stores and offices and the cost of
automobiles to move these people over even longer distances. Lots of these new
developments are built on what was once farmland. Wonderful productive soil now
under concrete.

Greenbelts: are areas where, by law, the open space can not be used for any
construction. This is mostly found in Europe.

57

Once farmland that is being converted to suburbs and cities.

58

Tyson’s Corner Virginia in 1940

59

Washington, DC. MSA.

Tyson’s Corner Virginia
today.
Washington D.C. is off
In the distance.

60

Suburban Segregation: The “new” segregation.
Suburban segregation takes two forms:
1. Residents are separated from commercial and manufacturing activities
which are confined someplace else. (The whole neighborhood is
nothing but houses because they drive for services.)
2. The price of the house eliminates some from being able to live there. This
creates a homogeneous suburb of the same economic class of people.
This never existed before in history. Where we once had vertical
segregation of the classes we now we have horizontal segregation.
3. But this may be reversing as new statistics show that people are beginning
to move back to the city. Why? Cost of transportation.
Zoning Ordinances: This idea developed in Europe and later America in the
early decades of the 20th century. This means that businesses are allowed only
in certain areas of the settlement. (No all night taco stands inside your single
family neighborhood.)
Motor vehicles: The wide use of the automobile is largely responsible for the
American movement to the suburbs. Not only did people move out but 1/4 of
the land inside all American cities are now roads, streets, and parking lots.

61

Public Transportation: Because few US workers live within walking distance
of their jobs, urban areas are characterized by extensive commuting and the
problems that come with it. As much as 40% of all trips made into or out from
a city during the day takes place within just 4 hours. (2 in the morning and 2 in
the late afternoon). RUSH HOUR!!! In large cities, public transportation, like
subways and busses, are better suited to move people but Americans still
prefer their own cars. Public transportation is cheaper, cleaner, and more
energy efficient than personal cars, yet in the US only 5% of city travel is
done using public transit systems. American’s love their personal car too
much.
Local Government Fragmentation: Because of the large number of local
governments in the US (look at the settlements in Pinellas County) it is
difficult to solve some of the regional problems like garbage disposal, water
management, traffic and public housing.
62

Metropolitan government: This idea tries to put many local governments into a
larger unit that can better handle the urban problems. The 2 ways to do this
are:
1. Federations in which the individual settlements have their own police,
firemen, and tax collection but they all agree to be part of a second
government which handles transportation, water, sewage, parks and
welfare for all the communities.
2. Consolidations: In this method, several cities and the county may form one
government. Jacksonville’s government runs not only the town but the
county too, this makes Jacksonville the largest city, in land size, in the US.
Smart growth: A new movement by many states to curb suburban sprawl by
limiting where new construction can take place. Smart growth laws require that
land near cities be used up before any land further out can be developed. So
far, this is only being done an a few parts of our country.
63

The new
US as
some
people
see it.

64

Quiz Yourself:
1. The process where middle-class people move into inner city neighborhoods and
renovate them is called ____________
2. ____________ happens when banks refuse to give loans in what they consider
risky neighborhoods.
3. Because of the housing shortages, the poor have constructed their own settlements
around the city known as __________ _________

4. Businesses are allowed only in certain areas of the settlement because of
____________ ____________
5. Areas known as _____ _______ are areas of about 5,000 people. The data from
that area is used to help define needed services for that area.
6. When cities are so close that they form one continuous band of development this is
known as a ____________
65

7. Social relationships are often described as “colder” in urban areas because…
8. In this model the city develops in a series of sectors not rings. _______

9. ______ (LDC’s or MDC’s) have a higher percentage of people living in urban
settlements but ________ (LDC’s or MDC’s) have more of the very large urban
settlements.
10. _____________ was the first model developed to explain the distributions
of different social groups within urban areas.
11. New cities which develop around the beltway are nodes of consumer and
business services known as ________ _________.

12. When the Europeans took over lands around the world, they changed the
cities by adding services to help the Europeans control the conquered people.
These European planned cities are known as __________ cities.
66

Answer Key:
1.

Gentrification

2.

Redlining

3.

Squatter Settlements

4.

Zoning ordinances

5.

Census tracks

6.

Megalopolis

7. There is a stronger feeling of belonging together in small rural settlements.
8. Hoyt sector model
9. MDC, LDC
10. Burgess Concentric Zone model
11. Edge cities
12. Colonial cities
67

Test Key topic/chapter 13:
These questions come from a combination of our slides, your text book, and common knowledge you should
have discussed in your AP classroom. They are very typical of what you will see on the National Exam.
1) The multiple nuclei theory best explains why different neighborhoods of a city attract people of different… A) ages.
B) ethnic origin C) income D) marital status.
2) Sprawl is the… A) change in density within an urban area from the center to the periphery B) development of new
housing sites not contiguous to the existing built-up area. C) land maintained as open space surrounding an urban area.
D) period in the morning and evening with the heaviest volumes of traffic.
3) People are attracted to suburbs in part because suburbs are characterized by…A) heavy traffic. B) lower opportunity
for home ownership. C) private land surrounding the house. D) row houses and apartments.
4) Megalopolis refers to… A) adjacent, overlapping Metropolitan Statistical Areas. B) central cities. C) consolidated
Metropolitan Statistical Areas. D) central cities plus urbanized areas.
5) Which statement best describes the relationship between urbanization and the Industrial Revolution? A) Urbanization
promoted the Industrial Revolution. B) The Industrial Revolution promoted urbanization. C) Urbanization preceded the
Industrial Revolution by thousands of years. D) Urbanization and the Industrial Revolution are no longer related.
6) The process of legally adding land area to a city in the United States is… A) annexation. B) accreditation. C) an
application of eminent domain. D) defined by urbanized area.

68

7) The process of change in the use of a house, from single-family owner occupancy to abandonment, is… A) blockbusting.
B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining.
8) A process by which banks designate an area within which they refuse to lend money for improvements is… A) blockbusting.
B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining.
9) A recent change in the density gradient has been… A) the elimination of the gap traditionally found in the center. B) an
increase in the extremes between the inner and outer areas. C) an increase in the number of people living in the center.
D) a reduction in the differences in densities found within an urban area.
10) U.S. central cities face fiscal problems because… A) federal and state funds are available. B) low-income people are
concentrated there. C) middle-class families are attracted there. D) redlining is no longer legal.
11) A legal form of segregation in U.S. cities is achieved through...A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) zoning. D) greenbelts.
12) Factories have moved to suburban locations in part because of… A) access to main highways. B) adequate space to build
vertical structures. C) availability of large tracts of high-priced land. D) good rail connections.
13) According to the sector model, the best housing is located in…A) a corridor from downtown to the edge of the city.
B) an outer ring surrounding the city. C) nodes near universities and parks. D) renovated inner-city neighborhoods.
14) Ramshackle houses on the periphery of cities in less developed countries are known as… A) squatter settlements. B) council
estates. C) public housing. D) zone in transition.
15) Higher income people tend to live near the center of the city in all but which of the following regions? A) Latin America
B) North America C) South Asia D) Western Europe

16) The wide boulevards built in cities in less developed countries were most likely built during what era? A) pre-colonial
B) colonial C) independence D) all of the above equally

69

17) According to the multiple nuclei model, an airport is likely to attract nearby… A) industries. B) residences. C) shops.
D) universities.
18) The largest percentage of the U.S. population lives in…A) central cities. B) suburbs. C) non-metropolitan areas. D) all of the
above
19) In U.S. cities, the underclass is… A) clustered in inner-city neighborhoods. B) dispersed throughout the city. C) clustered in
suburbs. D) distributed uniformly in the city.

20) A process of converting a neighborhood from low-income to middle-class is…A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) gentrification.
D) redlining.
21) Higher social heterogeneity in urban settlements means that… A) the people with whom you relax are probably the same ones you
see at work. B) you play a specialized role in the urban economy. C) you compete for limited space. D) you may feel lonely and
isolated in a crowd.
22) The city plus its contiguous built-up suburbs is the… A) central city. B) urbanized area.
D) consolidated metropolitan statistical area

C) metropolitan statistical area.

23) The process whereby an increasing percentage of people live in an urban area is known as… A) demographic transition.
B) rank-size rule. C) urbanization. D) central place theory.
24) Of the ten largest urban areas in the world, how many are in More Developed Countries today? A) 1 B) 4 C) 7 D) 10 E) 2
25) Public housing is…A) conversion of low-income housing to middle-class housing. B) illegally established low-income housing.
C) housing that has changed from single-family owner occupancy to abandonment. D) low-income government-owned housing.
26) According to the concentric zone model, a city develops in a series of… A) corridors. B) nodes. C) rings. D) all of the above

70

27) Chicago is a good location in which to develop urban models because it is located… A) at the hub of the nation's transportation
system. B) in the center of the country. C) on a flat prairie. D) on the shore of Lake Michigan.
28) According to the sector model, the best housing is located in… A) a corridor from downtown to the edge of the city. B) an outer
ring surrounding the city. C) nodes near universities and parks. D) renovated inner-city neighborhoods.
29) The zone of transition in US cities generally contain…A) warehouses B) wealthy neighborhoods C) transportation hubs
D) universities and hospitals E) suburban homes
30) The attractions of shopping malls include all but which of the following? A) frequent concerts and exhibitions B) generous
parking lots C) place to meet friends D) walking distance from homes
The following questions are written at the high school level. You will find some questions from part one often rewritten
here. This is all designed to help you transition to the college/AP style of written questions. Any question preceded with ***
are questions that have been on the national exam before.
31. Most Latin American cities are focused on a…A) central plaza B) government housing project C) zone of heavy industry
D) skyscraper office building E) squatter settlement
32. The multiple-nuclei model of a city structure tends to be most applicable to…A) small cities B) traditional C) Latin American
cities D) newer, fast growing cities E) cities with homogeneous land use
33. ***Locational advantages important to the development of the earliest cities include…A) availability of good harbors for large
ships B) productive agricultural land and defensible sites C) temperate climate and proximity to coal mines D) good
connections by road and canal E) proximity to manufacturing areas

34. In cities, the CBD’s often show uniqueness while the suburbs usually show…A) a large hinterland. B) placelessness C) more
than one node. D) newer zones of transition.

71

35. Many LDC’s have tried to help a previously under-developed part of their country develop by moving their capital
city to that area. This new capital is known as a…A) forward capital B) new development zone C) enterprise zone
D) neocolonial city
36. Today the greatest number of urban dwellers is found in…A) North America
D) Europe E) Asia

B) South America C) Africa

37. ***All of the following have helped create ghettos in North American cities except…A)blockbusting and racial
steering B) redlining by financial institutions C) concentration of public housing and social services D) fixed school
districts E) Economic Enterprise Zones

38. Which of the following is NOT as reason for rapid suburbanization in the US after WW2? A) Mass production of
the automobile B) Reduction of long distance commuting C) Expansion of home construction D) Expansion of the
interstate highway system E) Availability of low down payment terms and long-term mortgages.
39. New cities which developed in the hinterland of large urban areas because of the automobile, are known as…
A) edge cities B) census tracts C) suburban sprawl D) squatter settlements. E) none of these
40. Gentrification refers to… A) moving the homeless into inner city shelters B) The “White Flight” from the urban city
C) losing tax revenue because of stores closing in downtown areas D) middle-class people moving into and renovating
inner city neighborhoods E) the creation of “beltway cities” around the city.

72

4
7
3

5

1
6

2

41-48 all use the sketch above.
41. The sketch in box A above represents which model of the inner structure of urban areas?
C) multiple nuclei model D) Burgess concentric zone model E) peripheral model
42. The models in boxes B and C represent A) Concentric zone and multiple nuclei
concentric zone D) peripheral and concentric zone E) Von Thunen and peripheral

A) Hoyt sector model B) VonThunen’s model

B) Multiple nuclei and Hoyt sector C) Hoyt sector and

43. In which ring (1, 2, etc.) of sketch A above would high-status households in North American cities likely live? A) 1 B) 2 C) 3 D) 4&5
44. In which ring (1, 2, etc.) of sketch A above would high status households in a European city likely live? A) 1

B) 2

C) 3

D) 4&5

45. In model B, zone # 2 is where it is likely because of: A) greenbelting B) squatter settling C) the culture of poverty D) transportation
E) no one knows
46. The model in sketch B is the; A) Hoyt sector model B) Burgess model C) multiple nuclei model D) peripheral model
47. The model in sketch C is the; A) Hoyt sector model B) Burgess model C) multiple nuclei model D) peripheral model
48. Which of these models best describes what has happened in US cities in the last 40 years? A)

B)

C)

73

49.*** In the U.S. a city plus its contiguous built-up suburbs is known as an…A) urbanized area B) zoned area
C) census tract D) Squatter settlement E) none of these
50. Done mostly in Europe, these are areas where land is kept as parks, farms or other kinds of open space and urban
sprawl is not allowed. A) Smart growth
B) zoning
C) filtering
D) census tracts E) greenbelts
51. Which statement best describes the relationship between urbanization and the Industrial Revolution?
A) Urbanization promoted the Industrial Revolution. B) The Industrial Revolution promoted urbanization.
C) Urbanization preceded the Industrial Revolution by thousands of years. D) Urbanization and the Industrial
Revolution are no longer related.
52. The process whereby an increasing percentage of people live in an urban area is known as…
A) Demographic transition. B) rank-size rule. C) Urbanization. D) Central place theory.
53. The city (if it has 50,000 or more people) plus its contiguous built-up suburbs AND the county it is in as well as any
other counties it influences, is known as the ...A) central city B) urbanized area
C) metropolitan statistical area
D) consolidated metropolitan area E) micropolitan statistical area
54. ***Higher social heterogeneity in urban settlements means that …A) the people with whom you relax are probably
the same ones you see at work. B) you play a specialized role in the urban economy. C) you compete for limited
space. D) you may feel lonely and isolated in a crowd.

55. The process of change in the use of a house, from single-family owner occupancy to smaller dwellings for the poor
and then sometimes to abandonment, is…A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining. E) none of
these

74

Free Response #1:
The Bid Rent theory says that the closer you get to the
CBD the higher the cost for land, yet in most American
cities you find the poorest people living near the
expensive CBD and the richest living further away.
Explain:
A. Why neighborhoods near the CBD are often poor and
run down?
B. Why are there few grocery and other retail stores in
these neighborhoods?
C. Why is this not really true in European and Latin
American countries?

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75

FR #2:
Think of the map of your school, explain the
layout of your school using the Multiple Nuclei
Model
The main office is the CBD.
Completely explain your answer using specific
buildings and/or land areas in your explanation
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76

Answer Key:
1. B

14. A

27. C

40. D

53. C

2. B

15. B

28. A

41. D

54. D

3. C

16. B

29. A

42. B

55. B

4. A

17. A

30. D

43. D

5. B

18. B

31. A

44. A

6. A

19. A

32. D

45. D

7. B

20. C

33. B

46. A

8. D

21. D

34. B

47. C

9. D

22. B

35. A

48. C

10. B

23. C

36. E

49. A

11. C

24. C

37. E

50. E

12. A

25. D

38. B

51. B

13. A

26. C

39. A

52. C
77

FR. #1: ( 15 pts. for each section…total of 45 pts.)
A. In the US the move of the wealthy and middle class to the suburbs has left the older houses and apartments near the CBD empty.
This has lowered their value to the point where the poor can afford these dwellings and have made these neighborhoods their
homes. The poor can not pay for upkeep of these dwellings, or to pay high taxes. The lack of upkeep and tax money to repair the
roads and schools, adds to the downward spiral of the neighborhood. With little spending money for shopping, the poor do not
spend much in the stores. This causes many stores to close and move to the suburbs where the spending customers and money
went. The closing of the stores adds to the poverty of the area by taking away some of the jobs that were in the neighborhood. This
becomes a vicious cycle of poverty and deterioration. (15 points)

B. There are few retail stores and groceries is the area because the poor do not have money to shop. The lack of spending forces
many stores out of business or forces them to move to better locations. There also can be higher crime in these areas and the
crime often takes place at the stores. This is another reason for the stores to move out of the neighborhood. (15 points)
C. Neighborhoods in European and Latin American cities are different from those of US cities. In Europe and Latin America, the
wealthy and middle class still live near or in the CBD. The higher tax base and more spending ability of the upper and middle
classes, keeps the CBD area flourishing with jobs and in constant repair and upkeep of the cities’ physical condition. (15 points)

FR #2: (10 total points.)
You will need to judge how effectively you displayed you school
in the Multiple Nuclei Model. Refer to the model itself to help you
determine your success and grade.
School’s main office
78

Calculating your grade on test 13.
Add how many you got correct on the multiple choice part (55 possible) to how many
points you scored on the FR portion (55 possible)…110 total.
The following scale will show the approximate score if this test were the real AP exam. Remember that this
is an approximation. While 65-74% is normally the range for a 3 on the test, it is not definite. Over the
years I have seen scores as low as 60% be the low portion of a 3 score.

Out of 110 possible points:
72-83 is most likely a 3
84-94 is most likely a 4

95-110 is most likely a 5

Now lets start our review for the national exam by
reviewing the 33 key models and theories of the
course…the next PowerPoint.


Slide 60

Key topic/chapter 13…Urban Patterns
Key terms:
Annexation
Concentric zone model
Density gradient
Edge cities
Filtering
Galactic city
Gentrification
Greenbelts
Megalopolis
MSA
Multiple nuclei model
Peripheral model

Public housing
Redlining
Renovated housing
Scattered site
Squatter settlement
Sector model
Smart growth
Sprawl
Underclass
Urban renewal
Zone in transition
Zoning
1

Chapter 13…Urban Areas.
How are Cities planned?
Why

are cities where they are?
How are they organized?
Why are some areas of a city
different from
other areas of the same city?
What is the future of cities?
2

Settlement


Settlement - permanent collections of buildings,
where people live, work, and obtain services

3

ORIGINS OF SETTLEMENTS


Religious - graves, churches, temples



Cultural - schools, libraries



Political/Military - leader’s house, walls



Economic - stores, food
4

TYPES OF SETTLEMENTS


Rural Settlements - agriculture as the
predominant occupation.



Urban settlements - principal industries are
secondary and tertiary.

5

RURAL SETTLEMENTS
Clustered rural settlements –grouped
settlements in rural areas to minimize travel

Dispersed rural Settlements - isolated farms
with enclosed continuous fields (Found only in
N. America and Britain).

6

Urban Geographers want to know the global distribution of urban
settlements. MDC’s have a high percentage of people living in urban
areas because of the shift from agriculture-manufacturing-services.
Geographers are also interested in where people and activities are
distributed within urban spaces. What are the differences between the
inner-city and suburban areas and why?
As we saw in the last chapter, many downtowns are unique and can
often be recognized in photos where the suburbs often look very
much alike (Placelessness). Why? Suburbs offer the chance to avoid
some of the city problems (crime, tight living area, expensive
land/rent, noise, age of buildings) while still keeping a connection with
the goods and services of the city: jobs, sports teams, culture, shops,
recreation, etc.
7

Where is this place?

8

Today’s cities are evolving and changing. Although different internal
situations characterize urban areas in the US and elsewhere, the
problems arising from current spatial trends are quite similar in all cities.
Where have urban areas grown: in the early 1800’s only 3% of the earth’s
people lived in cities and only Beijing China had more than 1 million
people. Today over ½ of the world’s people live in cities and we have over
400 cities of at least 1 million people.

Urbanization: is the process by which city population grows.
Cities population growth is measured in 2 dimensions;
1. An increase in the number of people living in the cities.
2. An increase in the percentage of people living in the cities.
This distinction is important because they happen for different reason and
have different global distributions.
9

Increasing Percentage of People in Cities: a large percentage of people living in urban
areas is a measure of a country’s level of development. In MDC’s about ¾ of the people
live in urban areas compared to about 2/5 of people in LDC’s. (Except in Latin America
where the level is closer to MDC’s.)
The higher percentage of people in urban areas comes from the changes that have
occurred in the last 200 years as we went from agriculture (primary jobs) to industrial
(secondary jobs) and now service jobs, all created by the Industrial Revolution of the
1800’s.
People moved to the cities for industrial jobs, but in MDC’s this process has largely
ended because nearly everyone interested in moving to the cities from farms has already
done so.
In LDC’s the percentage of people living in urban areas is growing as people are pushed
off of their farms and replaced by machines and as people move to cities looking/hoping
for industrial jobs.
10

Increasing Number of People in Cities: MDC’s have a higher percentage of
people living in urban settlements but LDC’s have more of the very large urban
settlements (Primate cities). (Rank-size rule, primate cities, chapter 12.)

This is interesting because typically the large cities are created from the
improvements brought by the Industrial Revolution. This is not the case with the
large LDC cities. Migration to the primate city in LDC’s is happening even though
job opportunities may not be available. Increasing the population growth in LDC
cities is the fact that medical services are better in these cities, thus the child
mortality rate is lower.
Defining Urban Settlements: defining where urban areas end and rural areas
begin is not easy. Geographers have formulated definitions that distinguish
between urban and rural areas in two ways: Social differences and Physical
differences.
11

Percent Urban Population

Percent of the population living in urban areas is usually higher in MDCs
than in LDCs.

12

The most populated cities in the world

Of the top
20, only
Moscow,
Tokyo and
New York
are in MDC’s

Shanghai China has 14,608,512 people
13

14

15

Social Differences Between Urban and Rural Settlements: it is fair to say that rural
people and urban people follow different ways of life. A city can be defined as having 3
characteristics:
1. Large size. People in rural settlements know most of the other people in the
settlement. Not true in big cities. Social relationships are often described as “colder” in
urban areas because you only see some people at work instead of growing up with
them in the settlement.
2. High Density. Having lots of people in a tiny area creates social consequences. A
high density of people living in a small area can only be supported if the people
specialize (they can’t all be farmers). People are encouraged to compete for jobs, room,
and survival in a tightly limited space. Social groups compete to occupy the same space
(ethnic/ race problems). Rural settlements have very little of this problem.
3. Social Heterogeneity. The larger the settlement, the greater the variety of people.
Being “unusual” in a large settlement is more likely to be accepted than in a small rural
one. But despite the freedom to be different that large urban settlements give you,
people living there often feel alone because so many people are different from them.
There is a stronger feeling of belonging together in small rural settlements.
16

These 3 differences do not fully answer the question of where urban settlements
begin and rural ones end because in today’s MDC’s most everyone has access to
cars, telephones, televisions, and “urban type” jobs which reduce the differences
between urban and rural lifestyles. “City folk” and “Country folk” are more alike
today than they are different. To help distinguish between urban and rural areas we
need to add the physical definition of rural and urban to the equation.
Physical Definitions of Urban Settlements: In ancient time, cities had defensive
walls for protection which clearly defined the physical boundaries of the city. Today
the walls are gone but we can still define the physical boundaries in 3 ways:
1. Legal boundary. These are the official boundaries of a city as recognized by
the government of the country or state. These “city limits” have been officially given
to the city and are physically marked on official maps. The local government of the
city has authority to make laws and protect the people inside the city boundaries.
17

2. Urbanized area. This is the city plus its suburbs or urbanized area that
surrounds the city. About 70 percent of US residents live in urbanized areas with
40% being in the suburbs and 30% inside the city limits. The suburbs may have
their own city governments but the huge central city dominates what happens in
the entire area.
3. Metropolitan Statistical Area. Cities have an even bigger influence on people
than just those living in their city limits and surrounding urbanized areas. People
from far away come to shop, use the services, support the sports teams, read
the newspapers and watch the television broadcasts of the city. Thus the city
has a “functional area” which is its total zone of influence. The US Bureau of
Census has created a method of measuring the functional area of the city.
Known as the Metropolitan statistical area (MSA) this area includes:
•An urbanized area with a population of at least 50,000
•The county within which the city is located.
•Adjacent counties with a high population density and a large percentage of
residents working in the central city’s county.
18

Metropolitan Area of Philadelphia

City of
Philadelphia

Urbanized
area
(suburbs)
Metropolitan
Statistical
Area

The metropolitan area of Philadelphia is
spread over several counties and four states.
It is also a diversified trade center, given its
position on the Delaware river.

19

20

21

Micropolitan Statistical Areas: Smaller areas with between
10,000 and 50,000 people, the county where it is found, and
adjacent counties tied to the city. This would be a small town and
the area dominated by it.
Overlapping Metropolitan Areas: Some adjacent MSA’s overlap.
A county between two central cities may send a large number of
commuters to jobs in both cities. In some areas the cities are so
close that they form one continuous urban complex. This is
known as a Megalopolis (great city).
In a megalopolis, the downtown CBD often has its own
distinctive look and the urban areas are visually separated by
parks, open spaces, and dairy/truck farms. But at the periphery
of the urban areas, the boundaries overlap.
22

Colorado Springs, population 431,000

Ocala, Florida, population 56,000

Florala, Alabama, population 1,900

23

Megalopolis, from northern Va. To Maine.
This Illustrates the
difference between
strict city proper
definitions and broader
urban agglomerations.
To define urbanized
areas, the U.S. Census
Bureau uses the term
Metropolitan Statistical
Area (MSA) or
Consolidated MSA
(CMSA) if two or more of
them overlap.
24

Where are People Distributed within Urban Areas? People are not
just distributed at random in urban areas. For the most part they
concentrate in particular neighborhoods depending on their social
characteristics. Geographers want to see where people with
particular characteristics are likely to live and why.

Three models which try to explain the growth of a city:

The Burgess Model

The Hoyt Sector Model

The Harris and Ullman
multiple Nuclei Model
25

Burgess Concentric Zone Model

In the concentric zone model, a city grows in a series of rings surrounding the CBD.

Burgess Concentric Zone Model: This is the first used to explain the
distributions of different social groups within urban areas. It says that a
city grows outward from a central place in a series of concentric rings.
The precise size and width of the rings vary from one city to another, but
some basic types of rings appear in all cities in the same order (see chart
above).
26

•Hoyt Sector Model: In this model the city develops in a
series of sectors not rings. Certain areas of the city are
more attractive for various activities, originally because
of an environmental factor (or even pure chance). As the
city grows, activities extend outward in a wedge shape.
For example, once a wealthy neighborhood is built the
next wealthy neighborhood will extend from the first
neighborhood further outward from the center. In this
way, the best housing is found in a corridor extending
outward from the center to the outer edge (see chart on
the next page).
27

The Hoyt Sector Model

In the sector model, a city grows in a series of
wedges or corridors extending out from the
CBD.
28

•Harris and Ullman’s Multiple Nuclei Model: According
to this model, a city is a complex structure that includes
more than one center around which activities revolve.
Examples of these nodes include a port, parks,
stadium, neighborhood business center, university, and
airport (see chart). This theory states that some
activities are attracted to particular nodes, whereas
others try to avoid them. A university node may attract
well educated people and bookstores while the port will
attract hotels and warehouses. Heavy industry and
expensive houses rarely are found together. This
model shows the effect of the automobile more than
any other model.
29

The Harris and Ullman Multiple Nuclei model

The multiple nuclei model views a city as a
collection of individual centers, around which
different people and activities cluster.

30

Applications of the Models: The three models help explain where and in some
cases, why people live where they do. None of the models by themselves fully
explains why and where different types of people live, but combined they give
you as good a look as possible at the “Why” of “Where.” Effective use of the
models depends on getting good data on the areas. Most countries take a
census every 10 years to help determine useful data about the people and
places of the country. In our country we divide the census data into areas
known as census tracts of about 5,000 people. Each census tract has the data
that summarizes the characteristics of the people living within that tract. This
information includes things like the race, income, age, and education of the
people living in that tract.
Social Area Analysis: The data from the census tracts can all be plotted onto
maps to show the characteristics of the people living in that tract. This map is
known as a social area analysis.
31

Using Census tract information…Seattle, Washington
Each lined area is a
census tract of about 5000
people in Seattle
Washington. These maps
show average household
income for 1990 and
2000…note the changes in
income in some areas
between 1990 and 2000.
Using this information, a
business can make
decisions about where
they want to locate a new
store or the future of
existing stores.
You can find census tract
information on many topics
such as; age, education
level, race, ethnicity, crime
rate, and land ownership.
Note the areas with
incomes over
$63,000.

All can be very valuable
information to people
looking to open
businesses.

32

Examine the changes
between 1990 and
2000.

Oakland, California’s Ethnic neighborhoods
The small bordered areas are census tracks of 5000 people.

33

Use of the Models Outside of North America: The 3 models will also work in other
places in the world; however social groups in other countries may not have the
same reasons for selecting particular neighborhoods as Americans do.
European Cities: As in the US, wealthier people in European cities cluster along a
sector extending outward from the CBD, however unlike the US, wealthy and
middle class Europeans still live in the inner rings of the neighborhoods near the
CBD not out in the suburbs. In the past, poorer people lived in the center of the
city. Before electricity, social segregation was vertical: richer people lived on the
first or second floor of a building while the poorer people lived in the basement or
upper floors. In the Industrial Revolution, housing for the poor was constructed
near the factories and away from the rich.
Today poorer Europeans are less likely to live in the inner-city. Poor quality
housing has been renovated for the rich or turned into office buildings. Poorer
Europeans tend to live in the outskirts of the city. Vast suburbs with dozens of high
rise apartments house the poor. They face long commutes to reach their jobs in
the city.
34

European cities generally do not have the “suburban
sprawl” that US cities have. European cities tend to be
more pedestrian friendly with more parks downtown as
Europeans tend to still live downtown.
US cities have taller buildings as European cities tend to
be older and more historic.

American cities have more ethnic neighborhoods than
European cities. Ethnic neighborhoods that do exist in
European cities tend to be in the suburbs. WHY?
Because the established richer neighborhoods tend to be
downtown in European cities.
35

Less Developed Countries: Like Europe, most LDC’s accommodate their poor in the
suburbs with their middle class and rich living near the center of the city. LDC’s have
passed through 3 periods of city building: before the Europeans arrived, during the
period of European colonialism, and since independence from European control.

Pre-colonial Cities: Before the Europeans arrived few cities existed in Africa, Asia, and
Latin America and most people lived in small rural settlements. Those cities that existed
were mostly laid out surrounding a religious center; with the rest of the city laid out in a
hieratical concentric pattern (like the Burgess model) from government buildings,
homes of the wealthy, and businesses related to the religion out to other businesses
and shops.
Colonial cities: When the Europeans took over these lands, they changed the cities by
adding services to help the Europeans control the conquered people. Often a new
European style city would be build next to the existing native one. The new European
cities contained wider streets, a public square, larger houses and a much lower density.
The Spanish used the “Law of the Indies” which was a city plan designed specifically to
build cities in a “Spanish” style. (Gridiron pattern for streets centered on a church and
central plaza, walls around individual houses and neighborhoods centered around
smaller plazas and more churches.)
36

Early Mexico city was laid out in a grid pattern of streets. This followed
the Spanish “Law of the Indies.”

37

Central Plaza in Mexico City 1920 photo. Typical Colonial City plan.

Part of downtown Mexico city today still shows the
building plan of the “Law of the Indies.”

38

Cities since Independence: Following independence, cities have become
the focal point of the development of most LDC’s. Millions of people have
migrated to the cities (Primate cities) looking for jobs and services. Some
capitals have been moved to isolated areas in an attempt to help develop
that area of the country (Brasília) This is know as a forward capital. Latin
American cities have developed their own unique style.
Squatter settlements: The LDC’s are unable to house the rapidly growing
number of poor who are flowing into the cities. Because of the housing
shortages, the poor have constructed their own settlements around the city.
These settlements have few services because neither the city nor the
residents can afford them. Squatters have two basic choices for housing.
1. Illegally move into empty real houses located in the city or,
2. Rent slum housing.
(85% of the population of Addis Ababa in Ethiopia lives in squatter
settlements, slums or other illegal housing.)
39

Squatter shacks in Manila, the Philippines

40

Squatter settlement in Ethiopia

41

Zimbabwe, Africa

42

Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

43

Latin American City Model:
In many Latin
American cities,
the wealthy live in
the inner city and
in a sector
extending along a
commercial spine.
In situ accretion- businesses
and homes constantly under
construction/repair.
Zone of maturity-2nd best
housing in the city.
The poor live in squatter settlements on the
periphery of the city.

Disamenity- unpleasant area
used by the poor to get to the
market.

44

The City Outline of Rio de Janeiro
The rich tourist areas and expensive condo apartments are along the coast
and beach while the poor live in squatter shacks in the hills.

45

City problems:
Inner-City Physical Problems: Most US inner cities were constructed before the 1950’s
(people began to move to the suburbs in the 1950’s so new construction moved out of
the city).
Process of Deterioration (how a city deteriorates): A city doesn’t suddenly become old
and full of slummy areas. It happens over time. When a group of low-income people
inhabit an area of a city, nearby neighborhoods will often look to move out. They sell or
rent to more low-income occupants thus expanding the low-income area. Two processes
cause/speed up the devaluation of areas:
1. Filtering, 2. Redlining.
Filtering: Large houses and buildings that once housed rich downtown workers (who
moved to the suburbs) are taken over by landlords who don’t live in that area (they
moved to the suburbs too). Rents are low so the landlord doesn’t take as good care of
the property as they should and the property becomes run down or abandoned. Stores
close, or move, due to lack of sales. 100 years ago these neighborhoods would be used
by immigrants and ethnic businesses would succeed in those areas. Now, with a decline
in immigration, these neighborhoods have shrunk and so have schools, businesses and
other services. Thousands of vacant houses and buildings stand empty in inner cities
across America.

46

Redlining: Some banks refuse to give loans in what they consider
risky neighborhoods. They draw a red line on a map around areas
where they will not give loans. Without loans, these neighborhoods
have a hard time rebuilding/remodeling. Though illegal, this still
happens. Bankers just don’t put these “no-loan” areas on a map.

Urban Renewal: This is the series of projects to improve European
and N. American cities by buying up the blighted neighborhoods,
moving the people to new government built housing projects, and
building new roads, and other projects to make the inner city
attractive for business again. National and State government grants
help pay for these projects.
47

Public housing: Housing for the poor, built with government funding as part of
urban renewal. In the US this is only about 2% of the housing while in some
countries it may be more (Britain is 30%). Public housing built in the 50’s & 60’s
were largely high rise apartments, but those are seen as being unsatisfactory.
Problems arise from cramming large numbers of poor people into one area.
Today most public housing projects are one to three story buildings with many of
them being scattered around different parts of the city rather than clustered into
one area.
Because urban renewal has been criticized for destroying the social cohesion of
older neighborhoods, many governments (like the US) have stopped funding
most projects since the 1970’s. What do we do instead?
Renovated Housing: An alternative often used since the 70’s is to renovate a
building instead of urban renewal. The process where middle-class people
move into inner-city neighborhoods and renovate them is called gentrification.
Gentrified inner-city neighborhoods also attract middle-class people who work
downtown. Living close to work saves the hassle of commuting and rejuvenates
run down inner-city neighborhoods
48

Gentrified building downtown Harlem, NY. Note the supermarket.

49

Inner-City Social Problems: Inner-city residents are often referred to as the
permanent underclass because they are trapped in an unending cycle of
economic and social problems. High unemployment, alcoholism, drug
addiction, literacy, juvenile delinquency, and crime all exist at a higher rate
among those who live in the inner-city. Lack of jobs means lack of tax dollars
to pay for police and fire protection as well as good schools. Lack of job skills
and homelessness are also tremendous problems.
Culture of Poverty: Inner-city residents are trapped in a permanent underclass
culture that reproduces itself. In the US, unwed mothers give birth to 2/3 of the
babies in the inner-city. 90% of these children live with only one parent and it
is real hard for one parent to keep a job and take care of children. Both suffer
and a shortage of care and daily attention by the parent contributes to the kids
not learning the skills necessary to do well in school which leads to poor jobs
for their futures. Poverty leads to more poverty. Many families on welfare have
only one parent because it is financially better if one parent is gone, that way
the single parent gets food stamps and other services from the government
that they would not get if it was a 2 family household.
50

Crime: Trapped in a hopeless environment, some inner-city
residents turn to drugs. Drug use is a problem in inner-city
areas and the suburbs, but rates of drug use in inner-cities
are the highest.
Ethnic and Racial Segregation: As seen in chapter 7, many
neighborhoods in the US are segregated by ethnicity with
African Americans and Hispanics concentrated in one or two
continuous areas and whites living in the suburbs. Even small
cities display a strong distinction among neighborhoods. A
frequent division is between the east and west or north and
south side of town, or the railroad tracks. A family seeking a
new residence will seek the areas where the characteristics
of the people meet their own.

51

The exodus
from the
American city.
This has
happened in
many American
cities since the
1960’s.

52

Changes in Cities in the U.S.
U.S. population has been moving out of the city centers to the suburbs:
suburbanization and counter urbanization

Developed Countries: suburbanization

 wealthy move to suburbs
 automobiles and roads; ‘American
Dream’ of the home in the suburbs.
 better services
 wealthy move to suburbs
Counter urbanization

idyllic settings
cost of land for retirement
slow pace, yet high tech
connections to services and markets
53

U.S. intraregional migration during 1990s.

Inner city economic problems: the concentration of low income
residents in inner cities has caused economic problems. These
people require public services but can pay very little in taxes to
support the services. They need stores and jobs but have little
money to spend in the store and few skills for jobs (so the stores
close). To try to fight these problems many local and state
governments use tax monies to try to renovate these areas, but this
shifts tax money needed for other areas to the inner city (votes on
election day).
Annexation: Many cities could help their tax problem by adding the
new suburbs to be part of their city (annexation). After all, many of
these suburban people use the city for its’ jobs etc., so why not add
them into the city? Today, most people in the suburbs do not want
to be annexed into the city and so they do not vote to be annexed.
54

The Peripheral Model: According to this model, an urban area
consists of an inner city surrounded by large suburban residential
and business areas (MSA) tied together by a beltway or highway
that circles the city. Around the beltway are nodes of consumer
and business services called edge cities (see diagram of multiple
nuclei model). These edge cities sprang up to provide services
and jobs to the people in the suburbs.
Density Gradient: As you travel outward from the center of the
city, the density of people declines. Inner city has big apartments
of 250 of more people per acre. Suburbs have fewer people per
acre (but lots of acres) and finally you leave the cities periphery
you find few people. The number of houses per unit of land
diminishes as distance from the center of the city increases.
55

The Edge cities (bedroom communities) of Houston

The central city is surrounded by a ring road, around which are
suburban areas and edge cities, shopping malls, office parks,
industrial areas, and service complexes.

Known as
bedroom
communities
because
people live
there but
mostly don’t
work there.
They drive
into the city
for work.
56

As you move from the center of the city outward, the density of the population
changes. This is know as the density gradient. Two big changes have occurred in
the density gradient of today’s cities:
1. The number of people living in the center has decreased.
2. The density difference between the inner city and the suburbs is declining
because the inner city density is dropping and the suburban density is growing
due to more large apartments being built in the suburbs.
Cost of Suburban or Urban Sprawl: Urban Sprawl is the progressive spread of
development over the landscape. As long as we Americans want single-family
detached houses, land on the fringe of urban areas will be converted from open
space to residential use. The cost of this growth is more than the loss of land, it is
also the cost of new roads, utilities, building stores and offices and the cost of
automobiles to move these people over even longer distances. Lots of these new
developments are built on what was once farmland. Wonderful productive soil now
under concrete.

Greenbelts: are areas where, by law, the open space can not be used for any
construction. This is mostly found in Europe.

57

Once farmland that is being converted to suburbs and cities.

58

Tyson’s Corner Virginia in 1940

59

Washington, DC. MSA.

Tyson’s Corner Virginia
today.
Washington D.C. is off
In the distance.

60

Suburban Segregation: The “new” segregation.
Suburban segregation takes two forms:
1. Residents are separated from commercial and manufacturing activities
which are confined someplace else. (The whole neighborhood is
nothing but houses because they drive for services.)
2. The price of the house eliminates some from being able to live there. This
creates a homogeneous suburb of the same economic class of people.
This never existed before in history. Where we once had vertical
segregation of the classes we now we have horizontal segregation.
3. But this may be reversing as new statistics show that people are beginning
to move back to the city. Why? Cost of transportation.
Zoning Ordinances: This idea developed in Europe and later America in the
early decades of the 20th century. This means that businesses are allowed only
in certain areas of the settlement. (No all night taco stands inside your single
family neighborhood.)
Motor vehicles: The wide use of the automobile is largely responsible for the
American movement to the suburbs. Not only did people move out but 1/4 of
the land inside all American cities are now roads, streets, and parking lots.

61

Public Transportation: Because few US workers live within walking distance
of their jobs, urban areas are characterized by extensive commuting and the
problems that come with it. As much as 40% of all trips made into or out from
a city during the day takes place within just 4 hours. (2 in the morning and 2 in
the late afternoon). RUSH HOUR!!! In large cities, public transportation, like
subways and busses, are better suited to move people but Americans still
prefer their own cars. Public transportation is cheaper, cleaner, and more
energy efficient than personal cars, yet in the US only 5% of city travel is
done using public transit systems. American’s love their personal car too
much.
Local Government Fragmentation: Because of the large number of local
governments in the US (look at the settlements in Pinellas County) it is
difficult to solve some of the regional problems like garbage disposal, water
management, traffic and public housing.
62

Metropolitan government: This idea tries to put many local governments into a
larger unit that can better handle the urban problems. The 2 ways to do this
are:
1. Federations in which the individual settlements have their own police,
firemen, and tax collection but they all agree to be part of a second
government which handles transportation, water, sewage, parks and
welfare for all the communities.
2. Consolidations: In this method, several cities and the county may form one
government. Jacksonville’s government runs not only the town but the
county too, this makes Jacksonville the largest city, in land size, in the US.
Smart growth: A new movement by many states to curb suburban sprawl by
limiting where new construction can take place. Smart growth laws require that
land near cities be used up before any land further out can be developed. So
far, this is only being done an a few parts of our country.
63

The new
US as
some
people
see it.

64

Quiz Yourself:
1. The process where middle-class people move into inner city neighborhoods and
renovate them is called ____________
2. ____________ happens when banks refuse to give loans in what they consider
risky neighborhoods.
3. Because of the housing shortages, the poor have constructed their own settlements
around the city known as __________ _________

4. Businesses are allowed only in certain areas of the settlement because of
____________ ____________
5. Areas known as _____ _______ are areas of about 5,000 people. The data from
that area is used to help define needed services for that area.
6. When cities are so close that they form one continuous band of development this is
known as a ____________
65

7. Social relationships are often described as “colder” in urban areas because…
8. In this model the city develops in a series of sectors not rings. _______

9. ______ (LDC’s or MDC’s) have a higher percentage of people living in urban
settlements but ________ (LDC’s or MDC’s) have more of the very large urban
settlements.
10. _____________ was the first model developed to explain the distributions
of different social groups within urban areas.
11. New cities which develop around the beltway are nodes of consumer and
business services known as ________ _________.

12. When the Europeans took over lands around the world, they changed the
cities by adding services to help the Europeans control the conquered people.
These European planned cities are known as __________ cities.
66

Answer Key:
1.

Gentrification

2.

Redlining

3.

Squatter Settlements

4.

Zoning ordinances

5.

Census tracks

6.

Megalopolis

7. There is a stronger feeling of belonging together in small rural settlements.
8. Hoyt sector model
9. MDC, LDC
10. Burgess Concentric Zone model
11. Edge cities
12. Colonial cities
67

Test Key topic/chapter 13:
These questions come from a combination of our slides, your text book, and common knowledge you should
have discussed in your AP classroom. They are very typical of what you will see on the National Exam.
1) The multiple nuclei theory best explains why different neighborhoods of a city attract people of different… A) ages.
B) ethnic origin C) income D) marital status.
2) Sprawl is the… A) change in density within an urban area from the center to the periphery B) development of new
housing sites not contiguous to the existing built-up area. C) land maintained as open space surrounding an urban area.
D) period in the morning and evening with the heaviest volumes of traffic.
3) People are attracted to suburbs in part because suburbs are characterized by…A) heavy traffic. B) lower opportunity
for home ownership. C) private land surrounding the house. D) row houses and apartments.
4) Megalopolis refers to… A) adjacent, overlapping Metropolitan Statistical Areas. B) central cities. C) consolidated
Metropolitan Statistical Areas. D) central cities plus urbanized areas.
5) Which statement best describes the relationship between urbanization and the Industrial Revolution? A) Urbanization
promoted the Industrial Revolution. B) The Industrial Revolution promoted urbanization. C) Urbanization preceded the
Industrial Revolution by thousands of years. D) Urbanization and the Industrial Revolution are no longer related.
6) The process of legally adding land area to a city in the United States is… A) annexation. B) accreditation. C) an
application of eminent domain. D) defined by urbanized area.

68

7) The process of change in the use of a house, from single-family owner occupancy to abandonment, is… A) blockbusting.
B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining.
8) A process by which banks designate an area within which they refuse to lend money for improvements is… A) blockbusting.
B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining.
9) A recent change in the density gradient has been… A) the elimination of the gap traditionally found in the center. B) an
increase in the extremes between the inner and outer areas. C) an increase in the number of people living in the center.
D) a reduction in the differences in densities found within an urban area.
10) U.S. central cities face fiscal problems because… A) federal and state funds are available. B) low-income people are
concentrated there. C) middle-class families are attracted there. D) redlining is no longer legal.
11) A legal form of segregation in U.S. cities is achieved through...A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) zoning. D) greenbelts.
12) Factories have moved to suburban locations in part because of… A) access to main highways. B) adequate space to build
vertical structures. C) availability of large tracts of high-priced land. D) good rail connections.
13) According to the sector model, the best housing is located in…A) a corridor from downtown to the edge of the city.
B) an outer ring surrounding the city. C) nodes near universities and parks. D) renovated inner-city neighborhoods.
14) Ramshackle houses on the periphery of cities in less developed countries are known as… A) squatter settlements. B) council
estates. C) public housing. D) zone in transition.
15) Higher income people tend to live near the center of the city in all but which of the following regions? A) Latin America
B) North America C) South Asia D) Western Europe

16) The wide boulevards built in cities in less developed countries were most likely built during what era? A) pre-colonial
B) colonial C) independence D) all of the above equally

69

17) According to the multiple nuclei model, an airport is likely to attract nearby… A) industries. B) residences. C) shops.
D) universities.
18) The largest percentage of the U.S. population lives in…A) central cities. B) suburbs. C) non-metropolitan areas. D) all of the
above
19) In U.S. cities, the underclass is… A) clustered in inner-city neighborhoods. B) dispersed throughout the city. C) clustered in
suburbs. D) distributed uniformly in the city.

20) A process of converting a neighborhood from low-income to middle-class is…A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) gentrification.
D) redlining.
21) Higher social heterogeneity in urban settlements means that… A) the people with whom you relax are probably the same ones you
see at work. B) you play a specialized role in the urban economy. C) you compete for limited space. D) you may feel lonely and
isolated in a crowd.
22) The city plus its contiguous built-up suburbs is the… A) central city. B) urbanized area.
D) consolidated metropolitan statistical area

C) metropolitan statistical area.

23) The process whereby an increasing percentage of people live in an urban area is known as… A) demographic transition.
B) rank-size rule. C) urbanization. D) central place theory.
24) Of the ten largest urban areas in the world, how many are in More Developed Countries today? A) 1 B) 4 C) 7 D) 10 E) 2
25) Public housing is…A) conversion of low-income housing to middle-class housing. B) illegally established low-income housing.
C) housing that has changed from single-family owner occupancy to abandonment. D) low-income government-owned housing.
26) According to the concentric zone model, a city develops in a series of… A) corridors. B) nodes. C) rings. D) all of the above

70

27) Chicago is a good location in which to develop urban models because it is located… A) at the hub of the nation's transportation
system. B) in the center of the country. C) on a flat prairie. D) on the shore of Lake Michigan.
28) According to the sector model, the best housing is located in… A) a corridor from downtown to the edge of the city. B) an outer
ring surrounding the city. C) nodes near universities and parks. D) renovated inner-city neighborhoods.
29) The zone of transition in US cities generally contain…A) warehouses B) wealthy neighborhoods C) transportation hubs
D) universities and hospitals E) suburban homes
30) The attractions of shopping malls include all but which of the following? A) frequent concerts and exhibitions B) generous
parking lots C) place to meet friends D) walking distance from homes
The following questions are written at the high school level. You will find some questions from part one often rewritten
here. This is all designed to help you transition to the college/AP style of written questions. Any question preceded with ***
are questions that have been on the national exam before.
31. Most Latin American cities are focused on a…A) central plaza B) government housing project C) zone of heavy industry
D) skyscraper office building E) squatter settlement
32. The multiple-nuclei model of a city structure tends to be most applicable to…A) small cities B) traditional C) Latin American
cities D) newer, fast growing cities E) cities with homogeneous land use
33. ***Locational advantages important to the development of the earliest cities include…A) availability of good harbors for large
ships B) productive agricultural land and defensible sites C) temperate climate and proximity to coal mines D) good
connections by road and canal E) proximity to manufacturing areas

34. In cities, the CBD’s often show uniqueness while the suburbs usually show…A) a large hinterland. B) placelessness C) more
than one node. D) newer zones of transition.

71

35. Many LDC’s have tried to help a previously under-developed part of their country develop by moving their capital
city to that area. This new capital is known as a…A) forward capital B) new development zone C) enterprise zone
D) neocolonial city
36. Today the greatest number of urban dwellers is found in…A) North America
D) Europe E) Asia

B) South America C) Africa

37. ***All of the following have helped create ghettos in North American cities except…A)blockbusting and racial
steering B) redlining by financial institutions C) concentration of public housing and social services D) fixed school
districts E) Economic Enterprise Zones

38. Which of the following is NOT as reason for rapid suburbanization in the US after WW2? A) Mass production of
the automobile B) Reduction of long distance commuting C) Expansion of home construction D) Expansion of the
interstate highway system E) Availability of low down payment terms and long-term mortgages.
39. New cities which developed in the hinterland of large urban areas because of the automobile, are known as…
A) edge cities B) census tracts C) suburban sprawl D) squatter settlements. E) none of these
40. Gentrification refers to… A) moving the homeless into inner city shelters B) The “White Flight” from the urban city
C) losing tax revenue because of stores closing in downtown areas D) middle-class people moving into and renovating
inner city neighborhoods E) the creation of “beltway cities” around the city.

72

4
7
3

5

1
6

2

41-48 all use the sketch above.
41. The sketch in box A above represents which model of the inner structure of urban areas?
C) multiple nuclei model D) Burgess concentric zone model E) peripheral model
42. The models in boxes B and C represent A) Concentric zone and multiple nuclei
concentric zone D) peripheral and concentric zone E) Von Thunen and peripheral

A) Hoyt sector model B) VonThunen’s model

B) Multiple nuclei and Hoyt sector C) Hoyt sector and

43. In which ring (1, 2, etc.) of sketch A above would high-status households in North American cities likely live? A) 1 B) 2 C) 3 D) 4&5
44. In which ring (1, 2, etc.) of sketch A above would high status households in a European city likely live? A) 1

B) 2

C) 3

D) 4&5

45. In model B, zone # 2 is where it is likely because of: A) greenbelting B) squatter settling C) the culture of poverty D) transportation
E) no one knows
46. The model in sketch B is the; A) Hoyt sector model B) Burgess model C) multiple nuclei model D) peripheral model
47. The model in sketch C is the; A) Hoyt sector model B) Burgess model C) multiple nuclei model D) peripheral model
48. Which of these models best describes what has happened in US cities in the last 40 years? A)

B)

C)

73

49.*** In the U.S. a city plus its contiguous built-up suburbs is known as an…A) urbanized area B) zoned area
C) census tract D) Squatter settlement E) none of these
50. Done mostly in Europe, these are areas where land is kept as parks, farms or other kinds of open space and urban
sprawl is not allowed. A) Smart growth
B) zoning
C) filtering
D) census tracts E) greenbelts
51. Which statement best describes the relationship between urbanization and the Industrial Revolution?
A) Urbanization promoted the Industrial Revolution. B) The Industrial Revolution promoted urbanization.
C) Urbanization preceded the Industrial Revolution by thousands of years. D) Urbanization and the Industrial
Revolution are no longer related.
52. The process whereby an increasing percentage of people live in an urban area is known as…
A) Demographic transition. B) rank-size rule. C) Urbanization. D) Central place theory.
53. The city (if it has 50,000 or more people) plus its contiguous built-up suburbs AND the county it is in as well as any
other counties it influences, is known as the ...A) central city B) urbanized area
C) metropolitan statistical area
D) consolidated metropolitan area E) micropolitan statistical area
54. ***Higher social heterogeneity in urban settlements means that …A) the people with whom you relax are probably
the same ones you see at work. B) you play a specialized role in the urban economy. C) you compete for limited
space. D) you may feel lonely and isolated in a crowd.

55. The process of change in the use of a house, from single-family owner occupancy to smaller dwellings for the poor
and then sometimes to abandonment, is…A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining. E) none of
these

74

Free Response #1:
The Bid Rent theory says that the closer you get to the
CBD the higher the cost for land, yet in most American
cities you find the poorest people living near the
expensive CBD and the richest living further away.
Explain:
A. Why neighborhoods near the CBD are often poor and
run down?
B. Why are there few grocery and other retail stores in
these neighborhoods?
C. Why is this not really true in European and Latin
American countries?

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75

FR #2:
Think of the map of your school, explain the
layout of your school using the Multiple Nuclei
Model
The main office is the CBD.
Completely explain your answer using specific
buildings and/or land areas in your explanation
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76

Answer Key:
1. B

14. A

27. C

40. D

53. C

2. B

15. B

28. A

41. D

54. D

3. C

16. B

29. A

42. B

55. B

4. A

17. A

30. D

43. D

5. B

18. B

31. A

44. A

6. A

19. A

32. D

45. D

7. B

20. C

33. B

46. A

8. D

21. D

34. B

47. C

9. D

22. B

35. A

48. C

10. B

23. C

36. E

49. A

11. C

24. C

37. E

50. E

12. A

25. D

38. B

51. B

13. A

26. C

39. A

52. C
77

FR. #1: ( 15 pts. for each section…total of 45 pts.)
A. In the US the move of the wealthy and middle class to the suburbs has left the older houses and apartments near the CBD empty.
This has lowered their value to the point where the poor can afford these dwellings and have made these neighborhoods their
homes. The poor can not pay for upkeep of these dwellings, or to pay high taxes. The lack of upkeep and tax money to repair the
roads and schools, adds to the downward spiral of the neighborhood. With little spending money for shopping, the poor do not
spend much in the stores. This causes many stores to close and move to the suburbs where the spending customers and money
went. The closing of the stores adds to the poverty of the area by taking away some of the jobs that were in the neighborhood. This
becomes a vicious cycle of poverty and deterioration. (15 points)

B. There are few retail stores and groceries is the area because the poor do not have money to shop. The lack of spending forces
many stores out of business or forces them to move to better locations. There also can be higher crime in these areas and the
crime often takes place at the stores. This is another reason for the stores to move out of the neighborhood. (15 points)
C. Neighborhoods in European and Latin American cities are different from those of US cities. In Europe and Latin America, the
wealthy and middle class still live near or in the CBD. The higher tax base and more spending ability of the upper and middle
classes, keeps the CBD area flourishing with jobs and in constant repair and upkeep of the cities’ physical condition. (15 points)

FR #2: (10 total points.)
You will need to judge how effectively you displayed you school
in the Multiple Nuclei Model. Refer to the model itself to help you
determine your success and grade.
School’s main office
78

Calculating your grade on test 13.
Add how many you got correct on the multiple choice part (55 possible) to how many
points you scored on the FR portion (55 possible)…110 total.
The following scale will show the approximate score if this test were the real AP exam. Remember that this
is an approximation. While 65-74% is normally the range for a 3 on the test, it is not definite. Over the
years I have seen scores as low as 60% be the low portion of a 3 score.

Out of 110 possible points:
72-83 is most likely a 3
84-94 is most likely a 4

95-110 is most likely a 5

Now lets start our review for the national exam by
reviewing the 33 key models and theories of the
course…the next PowerPoint.


Slide 61

Key topic/chapter 13…Urban Patterns
Key terms:
Annexation
Concentric zone model
Density gradient
Edge cities
Filtering
Galactic city
Gentrification
Greenbelts
Megalopolis
MSA
Multiple nuclei model
Peripheral model

Public housing
Redlining
Renovated housing
Scattered site
Squatter settlement
Sector model
Smart growth
Sprawl
Underclass
Urban renewal
Zone in transition
Zoning
1

Chapter 13…Urban Areas.
How are Cities planned?
Why

are cities where they are?
How are they organized?
Why are some areas of a city
different from
other areas of the same city?
What is the future of cities?
2

Settlement


Settlement - permanent collections of buildings,
where people live, work, and obtain services

3

ORIGINS OF SETTLEMENTS


Religious - graves, churches, temples



Cultural - schools, libraries



Political/Military - leader’s house, walls



Economic - stores, food
4

TYPES OF SETTLEMENTS


Rural Settlements - agriculture as the
predominant occupation.



Urban settlements - principal industries are
secondary and tertiary.

5

RURAL SETTLEMENTS
Clustered rural settlements –grouped
settlements in rural areas to minimize travel

Dispersed rural Settlements - isolated farms
with enclosed continuous fields (Found only in
N. America and Britain).

6

Urban Geographers want to know the global distribution of urban
settlements. MDC’s have a high percentage of people living in urban
areas because of the shift from agriculture-manufacturing-services.
Geographers are also interested in where people and activities are
distributed within urban spaces. What are the differences between the
inner-city and suburban areas and why?
As we saw in the last chapter, many downtowns are unique and can
often be recognized in photos where the suburbs often look very
much alike (Placelessness). Why? Suburbs offer the chance to avoid
some of the city problems (crime, tight living area, expensive
land/rent, noise, age of buildings) while still keeping a connection with
the goods and services of the city: jobs, sports teams, culture, shops,
recreation, etc.
7

Where is this place?

8

Today’s cities are evolving and changing. Although different internal
situations characterize urban areas in the US and elsewhere, the
problems arising from current spatial trends are quite similar in all cities.
Where have urban areas grown: in the early 1800’s only 3% of the earth’s
people lived in cities and only Beijing China had more than 1 million
people. Today over ½ of the world’s people live in cities and we have over
400 cities of at least 1 million people.

Urbanization: is the process by which city population grows.
Cities population growth is measured in 2 dimensions;
1. An increase in the number of people living in the cities.
2. An increase in the percentage of people living in the cities.
This distinction is important because they happen for different reason and
have different global distributions.
9

Increasing Percentage of People in Cities: a large percentage of people living in urban
areas is a measure of a country’s level of development. In MDC’s about ¾ of the people
live in urban areas compared to about 2/5 of people in LDC’s. (Except in Latin America
where the level is closer to MDC’s.)
The higher percentage of people in urban areas comes from the changes that have
occurred in the last 200 years as we went from agriculture (primary jobs) to industrial
(secondary jobs) and now service jobs, all created by the Industrial Revolution of the
1800’s.
People moved to the cities for industrial jobs, but in MDC’s this process has largely
ended because nearly everyone interested in moving to the cities from farms has already
done so.
In LDC’s the percentage of people living in urban areas is growing as people are pushed
off of their farms and replaced by machines and as people move to cities looking/hoping
for industrial jobs.
10

Increasing Number of People in Cities: MDC’s have a higher percentage of
people living in urban settlements but LDC’s have more of the very large urban
settlements (Primate cities). (Rank-size rule, primate cities, chapter 12.)

This is interesting because typically the large cities are created from the
improvements brought by the Industrial Revolution. This is not the case with the
large LDC cities. Migration to the primate city in LDC’s is happening even though
job opportunities may not be available. Increasing the population growth in LDC
cities is the fact that medical services are better in these cities, thus the child
mortality rate is lower.
Defining Urban Settlements: defining where urban areas end and rural areas
begin is not easy. Geographers have formulated definitions that distinguish
between urban and rural areas in two ways: Social differences and Physical
differences.
11

Percent Urban Population

Percent of the population living in urban areas is usually higher in MDCs
than in LDCs.

12

The most populated cities in the world

Of the top
20, only
Moscow,
Tokyo and
New York
are in MDC’s

Shanghai China has 14,608,512 people
13

14

15

Social Differences Between Urban and Rural Settlements: it is fair to say that rural
people and urban people follow different ways of life. A city can be defined as having 3
characteristics:
1. Large size. People in rural settlements know most of the other people in the
settlement. Not true in big cities. Social relationships are often described as “colder” in
urban areas because you only see some people at work instead of growing up with
them in the settlement.
2. High Density. Having lots of people in a tiny area creates social consequences. A
high density of people living in a small area can only be supported if the people
specialize (they can’t all be farmers). People are encouraged to compete for jobs, room,
and survival in a tightly limited space. Social groups compete to occupy the same space
(ethnic/ race problems). Rural settlements have very little of this problem.
3. Social Heterogeneity. The larger the settlement, the greater the variety of people.
Being “unusual” in a large settlement is more likely to be accepted than in a small rural
one. But despite the freedom to be different that large urban settlements give you,
people living there often feel alone because so many people are different from them.
There is a stronger feeling of belonging together in small rural settlements.
16

These 3 differences do not fully answer the question of where urban settlements
begin and rural ones end because in today’s MDC’s most everyone has access to
cars, telephones, televisions, and “urban type” jobs which reduce the differences
between urban and rural lifestyles. “City folk” and “Country folk” are more alike
today than they are different. To help distinguish between urban and rural areas we
need to add the physical definition of rural and urban to the equation.
Physical Definitions of Urban Settlements: In ancient time, cities had defensive
walls for protection which clearly defined the physical boundaries of the city. Today
the walls are gone but we can still define the physical boundaries in 3 ways:
1. Legal boundary. These are the official boundaries of a city as recognized by
the government of the country or state. These “city limits” have been officially given
to the city and are physically marked on official maps. The local government of the
city has authority to make laws and protect the people inside the city boundaries.
17

2. Urbanized area. This is the city plus its suburbs or urbanized area that
surrounds the city. About 70 percent of US residents live in urbanized areas with
40% being in the suburbs and 30% inside the city limits. The suburbs may have
their own city governments but the huge central city dominates what happens in
the entire area.
3. Metropolitan Statistical Area. Cities have an even bigger influence on people
than just those living in their city limits and surrounding urbanized areas. People
from far away come to shop, use the services, support the sports teams, read
the newspapers and watch the television broadcasts of the city. Thus the city
has a “functional area” which is its total zone of influence. The US Bureau of
Census has created a method of measuring the functional area of the city.
Known as the Metropolitan statistical area (MSA) this area includes:
•An urbanized area with a population of at least 50,000
•The county within which the city is located.
•Adjacent counties with a high population density and a large percentage of
residents working in the central city’s county.
18

Metropolitan Area of Philadelphia

City of
Philadelphia

Urbanized
area
(suburbs)
Metropolitan
Statistical
Area

The metropolitan area of Philadelphia is
spread over several counties and four states.
It is also a diversified trade center, given its
position on the Delaware river.

19

20

21

Micropolitan Statistical Areas: Smaller areas with between
10,000 and 50,000 people, the county where it is found, and
adjacent counties tied to the city. This would be a small town and
the area dominated by it.
Overlapping Metropolitan Areas: Some adjacent MSA’s overlap.
A county between two central cities may send a large number of
commuters to jobs in both cities. In some areas the cities are so
close that they form one continuous urban complex. This is
known as a Megalopolis (great city).
In a megalopolis, the downtown CBD often has its own
distinctive look and the urban areas are visually separated by
parks, open spaces, and dairy/truck farms. But at the periphery
of the urban areas, the boundaries overlap.
22

Colorado Springs, population 431,000

Ocala, Florida, population 56,000

Florala, Alabama, population 1,900

23

Megalopolis, from northern Va. To Maine.
This Illustrates the
difference between
strict city proper
definitions and broader
urban agglomerations.
To define urbanized
areas, the U.S. Census
Bureau uses the term
Metropolitan Statistical
Area (MSA) or
Consolidated MSA
(CMSA) if two or more of
them overlap.
24

Where are People Distributed within Urban Areas? People are not
just distributed at random in urban areas. For the most part they
concentrate in particular neighborhoods depending on their social
characteristics. Geographers want to see where people with
particular characteristics are likely to live and why.

Three models which try to explain the growth of a city:

The Burgess Model

The Hoyt Sector Model

The Harris and Ullman
multiple Nuclei Model
25

Burgess Concentric Zone Model

In the concentric zone model, a city grows in a series of rings surrounding the CBD.

Burgess Concentric Zone Model: This is the first used to explain the
distributions of different social groups within urban areas. It says that a
city grows outward from a central place in a series of concentric rings.
The precise size and width of the rings vary from one city to another, but
some basic types of rings appear in all cities in the same order (see chart
above).
26

•Hoyt Sector Model: In this model the city develops in a
series of sectors not rings. Certain areas of the city are
more attractive for various activities, originally because
of an environmental factor (or even pure chance). As the
city grows, activities extend outward in a wedge shape.
For example, once a wealthy neighborhood is built the
next wealthy neighborhood will extend from the first
neighborhood further outward from the center. In this
way, the best housing is found in a corridor extending
outward from the center to the outer edge (see chart on
the next page).
27

The Hoyt Sector Model

In the sector model, a city grows in a series of
wedges or corridors extending out from the
CBD.
28

•Harris and Ullman’s Multiple Nuclei Model: According
to this model, a city is a complex structure that includes
more than one center around which activities revolve.
Examples of these nodes include a port, parks,
stadium, neighborhood business center, university, and
airport (see chart). This theory states that some
activities are attracted to particular nodes, whereas
others try to avoid them. A university node may attract
well educated people and bookstores while the port will
attract hotels and warehouses. Heavy industry and
expensive houses rarely are found together. This
model shows the effect of the automobile more than
any other model.
29

The Harris and Ullman Multiple Nuclei model

The multiple nuclei model views a city as a
collection of individual centers, around which
different people and activities cluster.

30

Applications of the Models: The three models help explain where and in some
cases, why people live where they do. None of the models by themselves fully
explains why and where different types of people live, but combined they give
you as good a look as possible at the “Why” of “Where.” Effective use of the
models depends on getting good data on the areas. Most countries take a
census every 10 years to help determine useful data about the people and
places of the country. In our country we divide the census data into areas
known as census tracts of about 5,000 people. Each census tract has the data
that summarizes the characteristics of the people living within that tract. This
information includes things like the race, income, age, and education of the
people living in that tract.
Social Area Analysis: The data from the census tracts can all be plotted onto
maps to show the characteristics of the people living in that tract. This map is
known as a social area analysis.
31

Using Census tract information…Seattle, Washington
Each lined area is a
census tract of about 5000
people in Seattle
Washington. These maps
show average household
income for 1990 and
2000…note the changes in
income in some areas
between 1990 and 2000.
Using this information, a
business can make
decisions about where
they want to locate a new
store or the future of
existing stores.
You can find census tract
information on many topics
such as; age, education
level, race, ethnicity, crime
rate, and land ownership.
Note the areas with
incomes over
$63,000.

All can be very valuable
information to people
looking to open
businesses.

32

Examine the changes
between 1990 and
2000.

Oakland, California’s Ethnic neighborhoods
The small bordered areas are census tracks of 5000 people.

33

Use of the Models Outside of North America: The 3 models will also work in other
places in the world; however social groups in other countries may not have the
same reasons for selecting particular neighborhoods as Americans do.
European Cities: As in the US, wealthier people in European cities cluster along a
sector extending outward from the CBD, however unlike the US, wealthy and
middle class Europeans still live in the inner rings of the neighborhoods near the
CBD not out in the suburbs. In the past, poorer people lived in the center of the
city. Before electricity, social segregation was vertical: richer people lived on the
first or second floor of a building while the poorer people lived in the basement or
upper floors. In the Industrial Revolution, housing for the poor was constructed
near the factories and away from the rich.
Today poorer Europeans are less likely to live in the inner-city. Poor quality
housing has been renovated for the rich or turned into office buildings. Poorer
Europeans tend to live in the outskirts of the city. Vast suburbs with dozens of high
rise apartments house the poor. They face long commutes to reach their jobs in
the city.
34

European cities generally do not have the “suburban
sprawl” that US cities have. European cities tend to be
more pedestrian friendly with more parks downtown as
Europeans tend to still live downtown.
US cities have taller buildings as European cities tend to
be older and more historic.

American cities have more ethnic neighborhoods than
European cities. Ethnic neighborhoods that do exist in
European cities tend to be in the suburbs. WHY?
Because the established richer neighborhoods tend to be
downtown in European cities.
35

Less Developed Countries: Like Europe, most LDC’s accommodate their poor in the
suburbs with their middle class and rich living near the center of the city. LDC’s have
passed through 3 periods of city building: before the Europeans arrived, during the
period of European colonialism, and since independence from European control.

Pre-colonial Cities: Before the Europeans arrived few cities existed in Africa, Asia, and
Latin America and most people lived in small rural settlements. Those cities that existed
were mostly laid out surrounding a religious center; with the rest of the city laid out in a
hieratical concentric pattern (like the Burgess model) from government buildings,
homes of the wealthy, and businesses related to the religion out to other businesses
and shops.
Colonial cities: When the Europeans took over these lands, they changed the cities by
adding services to help the Europeans control the conquered people. Often a new
European style city would be build next to the existing native one. The new European
cities contained wider streets, a public square, larger houses and a much lower density.
The Spanish used the “Law of the Indies” which was a city plan designed specifically to
build cities in a “Spanish” style. (Gridiron pattern for streets centered on a church and
central plaza, walls around individual houses and neighborhoods centered around
smaller plazas and more churches.)
36

Early Mexico city was laid out in a grid pattern of streets. This followed
the Spanish “Law of the Indies.”

37

Central Plaza in Mexico City 1920 photo. Typical Colonial City plan.

Part of downtown Mexico city today still shows the
building plan of the “Law of the Indies.”

38

Cities since Independence: Following independence, cities have become
the focal point of the development of most LDC’s. Millions of people have
migrated to the cities (Primate cities) looking for jobs and services. Some
capitals have been moved to isolated areas in an attempt to help develop
that area of the country (Brasília) This is know as a forward capital. Latin
American cities have developed their own unique style.
Squatter settlements: The LDC’s are unable to house the rapidly growing
number of poor who are flowing into the cities. Because of the housing
shortages, the poor have constructed their own settlements around the city.
These settlements have few services because neither the city nor the
residents can afford them. Squatters have two basic choices for housing.
1. Illegally move into empty real houses located in the city or,
2. Rent slum housing.
(85% of the population of Addis Ababa in Ethiopia lives in squatter
settlements, slums or other illegal housing.)
39

Squatter shacks in Manila, the Philippines

40

Squatter settlement in Ethiopia

41

Zimbabwe, Africa

42

Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

43

Latin American City Model:
In many Latin
American cities,
the wealthy live in
the inner city and
in a sector
extending along a
commercial spine.
In situ accretion- businesses
and homes constantly under
construction/repair.
Zone of maturity-2nd best
housing in the city.
The poor live in squatter settlements on the
periphery of the city.

Disamenity- unpleasant area
used by the poor to get to the
market.

44

The City Outline of Rio de Janeiro
The rich tourist areas and expensive condo apartments are along the coast
and beach while the poor live in squatter shacks in the hills.

45

City problems:
Inner-City Physical Problems: Most US inner cities were constructed before the 1950’s
(people began to move to the suburbs in the 1950’s so new construction moved out of
the city).
Process of Deterioration (how a city deteriorates): A city doesn’t suddenly become old
and full of slummy areas. It happens over time. When a group of low-income people
inhabit an area of a city, nearby neighborhoods will often look to move out. They sell or
rent to more low-income occupants thus expanding the low-income area. Two processes
cause/speed up the devaluation of areas:
1. Filtering, 2. Redlining.
Filtering: Large houses and buildings that once housed rich downtown workers (who
moved to the suburbs) are taken over by landlords who don’t live in that area (they
moved to the suburbs too). Rents are low so the landlord doesn’t take as good care of
the property as they should and the property becomes run down or abandoned. Stores
close, or move, due to lack of sales. 100 years ago these neighborhoods would be used
by immigrants and ethnic businesses would succeed in those areas. Now, with a decline
in immigration, these neighborhoods have shrunk and so have schools, businesses and
other services. Thousands of vacant houses and buildings stand empty in inner cities
across America.

46

Redlining: Some banks refuse to give loans in what they consider
risky neighborhoods. They draw a red line on a map around areas
where they will not give loans. Without loans, these neighborhoods
have a hard time rebuilding/remodeling. Though illegal, this still
happens. Bankers just don’t put these “no-loan” areas on a map.

Urban Renewal: This is the series of projects to improve European
and N. American cities by buying up the blighted neighborhoods,
moving the people to new government built housing projects, and
building new roads, and other projects to make the inner city
attractive for business again. National and State government grants
help pay for these projects.
47

Public housing: Housing for the poor, built with government funding as part of
urban renewal. In the US this is only about 2% of the housing while in some
countries it may be more (Britain is 30%). Public housing built in the 50’s & 60’s
were largely high rise apartments, but those are seen as being unsatisfactory.
Problems arise from cramming large numbers of poor people into one area.
Today most public housing projects are one to three story buildings with many of
them being scattered around different parts of the city rather than clustered into
one area.
Because urban renewal has been criticized for destroying the social cohesion of
older neighborhoods, many governments (like the US) have stopped funding
most projects since the 1970’s. What do we do instead?
Renovated Housing: An alternative often used since the 70’s is to renovate a
building instead of urban renewal. The process where middle-class people
move into inner-city neighborhoods and renovate them is called gentrification.
Gentrified inner-city neighborhoods also attract middle-class people who work
downtown. Living close to work saves the hassle of commuting and rejuvenates
run down inner-city neighborhoods
48

Gentrified building downtown Harlem, NY. Note the supermarket.

49

Inner-City Social Problems: Inner-city residents are often referred to as the
permanent underclass because they are trapped in an unending cycle of
economic and social problems. High unemployment, alcoholism, drug
addiction, literacy, juvenile delinquency, and crime all exist at a higher rate
among those who live in the inner-city. Lack of jobs means lack of tax dollars
to pay for police and fire protection as well as good schools. Lack of job skills
and homelessness are also tremendous problems.
Culture of Poverty: Inner-city residents are trapped in a permanent underclass
culture that reproduces itself. In the US, unwed mothers give birth to 2/3 of the
babies in the inner-city. 90% of these children live with only one parent and it
is real hard for one parent to keep a job and take care of children. Both suffer
and a shortage of care and daily attention by the parent contributes to the kids
not learning the skills necessary to do well in school which leads to poor jobs
for their futures. Poverty leads to more poverty. Many families on welfare have
only one parent because it is financially better if one parent is gone, that way
the single parent gets food stamps and other services from the government
that they would not get if it was a 2 family household.
50

Crime: Trapped in a hopeless environment, some inner-city
residents turn to drugs. Drug use is a problem in inner-city
areas and the suburbs, but rates of drug use in inner-cities
are the highest.
Ethnic and Racial Segregation: As seen in chapter 7, many
neighborhoods in the US are segregated by ethnicity with
African Americans and Hispanics concentrated in one or two
continuous areas and whites living in the suburbs. Even small
cities display a strong distinction among neighborhoods. A
frequent division is between the east and west or north and
south side of town, or the railroad tracks. A family seeking a
new residence will seek the areas where the characteristics
of the people meet their own.

51

The exodus
from the
American city.
This has
happened in
many American
cities since the
1960’s.

52

Changes in Cities in the U.S.
U.S. population has been moving out of the city centers to the suburbs:
suburbanization and counter urbanization

Developed Countries: suburbanization

 wealthy move to suburbs
 automobiles and roads; ‘American
Dream’ of the home in the suburbs.
 better services
 wealthy move to suburbs
Counter urbanization

idyllic settings
cost of land for retirement
slow pace, yet high tech
connections to services and markets
53

U.S. intraregional migration during 1990s.

Inner city economic problems: the concentration of low income
residents in inner cities has caused economic problems. These
people require public services but can pay very little in taxes to
support the services. They need stores and jobs but have little
money to spend in the store and few skills for jobs (so the stores
close). To try to fight these problems many local and state
governments use tax monies to try to renovate these areas, but this
shifts tax money needed for other areas to the inner city (votes on
election day).
Annexation: Many cities could help their tax problem by adding the
new suburbs to be part of their city (annexation). After all, many of
these suburban people use the city for its’ jobs etc., so why not add
them into the city? Today, most people in the suburbs do not want
to be annexed into the city and so they do not vote to be annexed.
54

The Peripheral Model: According to this model, an urban area
consists of an inner city surrounded by large suburban residential
and business areas (MSA) tied together by a beltway or highway
that circles the city. Around the beltway are nodes of consumer
and business services called edge cities (see diagram of multiple
nuclei model). These edge cities sprang up to provide services
and jobs to the people in the suburbs.
Density Gradient: As you travel outward from the center of the
city, the density of people declines. Inner city has big apartments
of 250 of more people per acre. Suburbs have fewer people per
acre (but lots of acres) and finally you leave the cities periphery
you find few people. The number of houses per unit of land
diminishes as distance from the center of the city increases.
55

The Edge cities (bedroom communities) of Houston

The central city is surrounded by a ring road, around which are
suburban areas and edge cities, shopping malls, office parks,
industrial areas, and service complexes.

Known as
bedroom
communities
because
people live
there but
mostly don’t
work there.
They drive
into the city
for work.
56

As you move from the center of the city outward, the density of the population
changes. This is know as the density gradient. Two big changes have occurred in
the density gradient of today’s cities:
1. The number of people living in the center has decreased.
2. The density difference between the inner city and the suburbs is declining
because the inner city density is dropping and the suburban density is growing
due to more large apartments being built in the suburbs.
Cost of Suburban or Urban Sprawl: Urban Sprawl is the progressive spread of
development over the landscape. As long as we Americans want single-family
detached houses, land on the fringe of urban areas will be converted from open
space to residential use. The cost of this growth is more than the loss of land, it is
also the cost of new roads, utilities, building stores and offices and the cost of
automobiles to move these people over even longer distances. Lots of these new
developments are built on what was once farmland. Wonderful productive soil now
under concrete.

Greenbelts: are areas where, by law, the open space can not be used for any
construction. This is mostly found in Europe.

57

Once farmland that is being converted to suburbs and cities.

58

Tyson’s Corner Virginia in 1940

59

Washington, DC. MSA.

Tyson’s Corner Virginia
today.
Washington D.C. is off
In the distance.

60

Suburban Segregation: The “new” segregation.
Suburban segregation takes two forms:
1. Residents are separated from commercial and manufacturing activities
which are confined someplace else. (The whole neighborhood is
nothing but houses because they drive for services.)
2. The price of the house eliminates some from being able to live there. This
creates a homogeneous suburb of the same economic class of people.
This never existed before in history. Where we once had vertical
segregation of the classes we now we have horizontal segregation.
3. But this may be reversing as new statistics show that people are beginning
to move back to the city. Why? Cost of transportation.
Zoning Ordinances: This idea developed in Europe and later America in the
early decades of the 20th century. This means that businesses are allowed only
in certain areas of the settlement. (No all night taco stands inside your single
family neighborhood.)
Motor vehicles: The wide use of the automobile is largely responsible for the
American movement to the suburbs. Not only did people move out but 1/4 of
the land inside all American cities are now roads, streets, and parking lots.

61

Public Transportation: Because few US workers live within walking distance
of their jobs, urban areas are characterized by extensive commuting and the
problems that come with it. As much as 40% of all trips made into or out from
a city during the day takes place within just 4 hours. (2 in the morning and 2 in
the late afternoon). RUSH HOUR!!! In large cities, public transportation, like
subways and busses, are better suited to move people but Americans still
prefer their own cars. Public transportation is cheaper, cleaner, and more
energy efficient than personal cars, yet in the US only 5% of city travel is
done using public transit systems. American’s love their personal car too
much.
Local Government Fragmentation: Because of the large number of local
governments in the US (look at the settlements in Pinellas County) it is
difficult to solve some of the regional problems like garbage disposal, water
management, traffic and public housing.
62

Metropolitan government: This idea tries to put many local governments into a
larger unit that can better handle the urban problems. The 2 ways to do this
are:
1. Federations in which the individual settlements have their own police,
firemen, and tax collection but they all agree to be part of a second
government which handles transportation, water, sewage, parks and
welfare for all the communities.
2. Consolidations: In this method, several cities and the county may form one
government. Jacksonville’s government runs not only the town but the
county too, this makes Jacksonville the largest city, in land size, in the US.
Smart growth: A new movement by many states to curb suburban sprawl by
limiting where new construction can take place. Smart growth laws require that
land near cities be used up before any land further out can be developed. So
far, this is only being done an a few parts of our country.
63

The new
US as
some
people
see it.

64

Quiz Yourself:
1. The process where middle-class people move into inner city neighborhoods and
renovate them is called ____________
2. ____________ happens when banks refuse to give loans in what they consider
risky neighborhoods.
3. Because of the housing shortages, the poor have constructed their own settlements
around the city known as __________ _________

4. Businesses are allowed only in certain areas of the settlement because of
____________ ____________
5. Areas known as _____ _______ are areas of about 5,000 people. The data from
that area is used to help define needed services for that area.
6. When cities are so close that they form one continuous band of development this is
known as a ____________
65

7. Social relationships are often described as “colder” in urban areas because…
8. In this model the city develops in a series of sectors not rings. _______

9. ______ (LDC’s or MDC’s) have a higher percentage of people living in urban
settlements but ________ (LDC’s or MDC’s) have more of the very large urban
settlements.
10. _____________ was the first model developed to explain the distributions
of different social groups within urban areas.
11. New cities which develop around the beltway are nodes of consumer and
business services known as ________ _________.

12. When the Europeans took over lands around the world, they changed the
cities by adding services to help the Europeans control the conquered people.
These European planned cities are known as __________ cities.
66

Answer Key:
1.

Gentrification

2.

Redlining

3.

Squatter Settlements

4.

Zoning ordinances

5.

Census tracks

6.

Megalopolis

7. There is a stronger feeling of belonging together in small rural settlements.
8. Hoyt sector model
9. MDC, LDC
10. Burgess Concentric Zone model
11. Edge cities
12. Colonial cities
67

Test Key topic/chapter 13:
These questions come from a combination of our slides, your text book, and common knowledge you should
have discussed in your AP classroom. They are very typical of what you will see on the National Exam.
1) The multiple nuclei theory best explains why different neighborhoods of a city attract people of different… A) ages.
B) ethnic origin C) income D) marital status.
2) Sprawl is the… A) change in density within an urban area from the center to the periphery B) development of new
housing sites not contiguous to the existing built-up area. C) land maintained as open space surrounding an urban area.
D) period in the morning and evening with the heaviest volumes of traffic.
3) People are attracted to suburbs in part because suburbs are characterized by…A) heavy traffic. B) lower opportunity
for home ownership. C) private land surrounding the house. D) row houses and apartments.
4) Megalopolis refers to… A) adjacent, overlapping Metropolitan Statistical Areas. B) central cities. C) consolidated
Metropolitan Statistical Areas. D) central cities plus urbanized areas.
5) Which statement best describes the relationship between urbanization and the Industrial Revolution? A) Urbanization
promoted the Industrial Revolution. B) The Industrial Revolution promoted urbanization. C) Urbanization preceded the
Industrial Revolution by thousands of years. D) Urbanization and the Industrial Revolution are no longer related.
6) The process of legally adding land area to a city in the United States is… A) annexation. B) accreditation. C) an
application of eminent domain. D) defined by urbanized area.

68

7) The process of change in the use of a house, from single-family owner occupancy to abandonment, is… A) blockbusting.
B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining.
8) A process by which banks designate an area within which they refuse to lend money for improvements is… A) blockbusting.
B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining.
9) A recent change in the density gradient has been… A) the elimination of the gap traditionally found in the center. B) an
increase in the extremes between the inner and outer areas. C) an increase in the number of people living in the center.
D) a reduction in the differences in densities found within an urban area.
10) U.S. central cities face fiscal problems because… A) federal and state funds are available. B) low-income people are
concentrated there. C) middle-class families are attracted there. D) redlining is no longer legal.
11) A legal form of segregation in U.S. cities is achieved through...A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) zoning. D) greenbelts.
12) Factories have moved to suburban locations in part because of… A) access to main highways. B) adequate space to build
vertical structures. C) availability of large tracts of high-priced land. D) good rail connections.
13) According to the sector model, the best housing is located in…A) a corridor from downtown to the edge of the city.
B) an outer ring surrounding the city. C) nodes near universities and parks. D) renovated inner-city neighborhoods.
14) Ramshackle houses on the periphery of cities in less developed countries are known as… A) squatter settlements. B) council
estates. C) public housing. D) zone in transition.
15) Higher income people tend to live near the center of the city in all but which of the following regions? A) Latin America
B) North America C) South Asia D) Western Europe

16) The wide boulevards built in cities in less developed countries were most likely built during what era? A) pre-colonial
B) colonial C) independence D) all of the above equally

69

17) According to the multiple nuclei model, an airport is likely to attract nearby… A) industries. B) residences. C) shops.
D) universities.
18) The largest percentage of the U.S. population lives in…A) central cities. B) suburbs. C) non-metropolitan areas. D) all of the
above
19) In U.S. cities, the underclass is… A) clustered in inner-city neighborhoods. B) dispersed throughout the city. C) clustered in
suburbs. D) distributed uniformly in the city.

20) A process of converting a neighborhood from low-income to middle-class is…A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) gentrification.
D) redlining.
21) Higher social heterogeneity in urban settlements means that… A) the people with whom you relax are probably the same ones you
see at work. B) you play a specialized role in the urban economy. C) you compete for limited space. D) you may feel lonely and
isolated in a crowd.
22) The city plus its contiguous built-up suburbs is the… A) central city. B) urbanized area.
D) consolidated metropolitan statistical area

C) metropolitan statistical area.

23) The process whereby an increasing percentage of people live in an urban area is known as… A) demographic transition.
B) rank-size rule. C) urbanization. D) central place theory.
24) Of the ten largest urban areas in the world, how many are in More Developed Countries today? A) 1 B) 4 C) 7 D) 10 E) 2
25) Public housing is…A) conversion of low-income housing to middle-class housing. B) illegally established low-income housing.
C) housing that has changed from single-family owner occupancy to abandonment. D) low-income government-owned housing.
26) According to the concentric zone model, a city develops in a series of… A) corridors. B) nodes. C) rings. D) all of the above

70

27) Chicago is a good location in which to develop urban models because it is located… A) at the hub of the nation's transportation
system. B) in the center of the country. C) on a flat prairie. D) on the shore of Lake Michigan.
28) According to the sector model, the best housing is located in… A) a corridor from downtown to the edge of the city. B) an outer
ring surrounding the city. C) nodes near universities and parks. D) renovated inner-city neighborhoods.
29) The zone of transition in US cities generally contain…A) warehouses B) wealthy neighborhoods C) transportation hubs
D) universities and hospitals E) suburban homes
30) The attractions of shopping malls include all but which of the following? A) frequent concerts and exhibitions B) generous
parking lots C) place to meet friends D) walking distance from homes
The following questions are written at the high school level. You will find some questions from part one often rewritten
here. This is all designed to help you transition to the college/AP style of written questions. Any question preceded with ***
are questions that have been on the national exam before.
31. Most Latin American cities are focused on a…A) central plaza B) government housing project C) zone of heavy industry
D) skyscraper office building E) squatter settlement
32. The multiple-nuclei model of a city structure tends to be most applicable to…A) small cities B) traditional C) Latin American
cities D) newer, fast growing cities E) cities with homogeneous land use
33. ***Locational advantages important to the development of the earliest cities include…A) availability of good harbors for large
ships B) productive agricultural land and defensible sites C) temperate climate and proximity to coal mines D) good
connections by road and canal E) proximity to manufacturing areas

34. In cities, the CBD’s often show uniqueness while the suburbs usually show…A) a large hinterland. B) placelessness C) more
than one node. D) newer zones of transition.

71

35. Many LDC’s have tried to help a previously under-developed part of their country develop by moving their capital
city to that area. This new capital is known as a…A) forward capital B) new development zone C) enterprise zone
D) neocolonial city
36. Today the greatest number of urban dwellers is found in…A) North America
D) Europe E) Asia

B) South America C) Africa

37. ***All of the following have helped create ghettos in North American cities except…A)blockbusting and racial
steering B) redlining by financial institutions C) concentration of public housing and social services D) fixed school
districts E) Economic Enterprise Zones

38. Which of the following is NOT as reason for rapid suburbanization in the US after WW2? A) Mass production of
the automobile B) Reduction of long distance commuting C) Expansion of home construction D) Expansion of the
interstate highway system E) Availability of low down payment terms and long-term mortgages.
39. New cities which developed in the hinterland of large urban areas because of the automobile, are known as…
A) edge cities B) census tracts C) suburban sprawl D) squatter settlements. E) none of these
40. Gentrification refers to… A) moving the homeless into inner city shelters B) The “White Flight” from the urban city
C) losing tax revenue because of stores closing in downtown areas D) middle-class people moving into and renovating
inner city neighborhoods E) the creation of “beltway cities” around the city.

72

4
7
3

5

1
6

2

41-48 all use the sketch above.
41. The sketch in box A above represents which model of the inner structure of urban areas?
C) multiple nuclei model D) Burgess concentric zone model E) peripheral model
42. The models in boxes B and C represent A) Concentric zone and multiple nuclei
concentric zone D) peripheral and concentric zone E) Von Thunen and peripheral

A) Hoyt sector model B) VonThunen’s model

B) Multiple nuclei and Hoyt sector C) Hoyt sector and

43. In which ring (1, 2, etc.) of sketch A above would high-status households in North American cities likely live? A) 1 B) 2 C) 3 D) 4&5
44. In which ring (1, 2, etc.) of sketch A above would high status households in a European city likely live? A) 1

B) 2

C) 3

D) 4&5

45. In model B, zone # 2 is where it is likely because of: A) greenbelting B) squatter settling C) the culture of poverty D) transportation
E) no one knows
46. The model in sketch B is the; A) Hoyt sector model B) Burgess model C) multiple nuclei model D) peripheral model
47. The model in sketch C is the; A) Hoyt sector model B) Burgess model C) multiple nuclei model D) peripheral model
48. Which of these models best describes what has happened in US cities in the last 40 years? A)

B)

C)

73

49.*** In the U.S. a city plus its contiguous built-up suburbs is known as an…A) urbanized area B) zoned area
C) census tract D) Squatter settlement E) none of these
50. Done mostly in Europe, these are areas where land is kept as parks, farms or other kinds of open space and urban
sprawl is not allowed. A) Smart growth
B) zoning
C) filtering
D) census tracts E) greenbelts
51. Which statement best describes the relationship between urbanization and the Industrial Revolution?
A) Urbanization promoted the Industrial Revolution. B) The Industrial Revolution promoted urbanization.
C) Urbanization preceded the Industrial Revolution by thousands of years. D) Urbanization and the Industrial
Revolution are no longer related.
52. The process whereby an increasing percentage of people live in an urban area is known as…
A) Demographic transition. B) rank-size rule. C) Urbanization. D) Central place theory.
53. The city (if it has 50,000 or more people) plus its contiguous built-up suburbs AND the county it is in as well as any
other counties it influences, is known as the ...A) central city B) urbanized area
C) metropolitan statistical area
D) consolidated metropolitan area E) micropolitan statistical area
54. ***Higher social heterogeneity in urban settlements means that …A) the people with whom you relax are probably
the same ones you see at work. B) you play a specialized role in the urban economy. C) you compete for limited
space. D) you may feel lonely and isolated in a crowd.

55. The process of change in the use of a house, from single-family owner occupancy to smaller dwellings for the poor
and then sometimes to abandonment, is…A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining. E) none of
these

74

Free Response #1:
The Bid Rent theory says that the closer you get to the
CBD the higher the cost for land, yet in most American
cities you find the poorest people living near the
expensive CBD and the richest living further away.
Explain:
A. Why neighborhoods near the CBD are often poor and
run down?
B. Why are there few grocery and other retail stores in
these neighborhoods?
C. Why is this not really true in European and Latin
American countries?

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75

FR #2:
Think of the map of your school, explain the
layout of your school using the Multiple Nuclei
Model
The main office is the CBD.
Completely explain your answer using specific
buildings and/or land areas in your explanation
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76

Answer Key:
1. B

14. A

27. C

40. D

53. C

2. B

15. B

28. A

41. D

54. D

3. C

16. B

29. A

42. B

55. B

4. A

17. A

30. D

43. D

5. B

18. B

31. A

44. A

6. A

19. A

32. D

45. D

7. B

20. C

33. B

46. A

8. D

21. D

34. B

47. C

9. D

22. B

35. A

48. C

10. B

23. C

36. E

49. A

11. C

24. C

37. E

50. E

12. A

25. D

38. B

51. B

13. A

26. C

39. A

52. C
77

FR. #1: ( 15 pts. for each section…total of 45 pts.)
A. In the US the move of the wealthy and middle class to the suburbs has left the older houses and apartments near the CBD empty.
This has lowered their value to the point where the poor can afford these dwellings and have made these neighborhoods their
homes. The poor can not pay for upkeep of these dwellings, or to pay high taxes. The lack of upkeep and tax money to repair the
roads and schools, adds to the downward spiral of the neighborhood. With little spending money for shopping, the poor do not
spend much in the stores. This causes many stores to close and move to the suburbs where the spending customers and money
went. The closing of the stores adds to the poverty of the area by taking away some of the jobs that were in the neighborhood. This
becomes a vicious cycle of poverty and deterioration. (15 points)

B. There are few retail stores and groceries is the area because the poor do not have money to shop. The lack of spending forces
many stores out of business or forces them to move to better locations. There also can be higher crime in these areas and the
crime often takes place at the stores. This is another reason for the stores to move out of the neighborhood. (15 points)
C. Neighborhoods in European and Latin American cities are different from those of US cities. In Europe and Latin America, the
wealthy and middle class still live near or in the CBD. The higher tax base and more spending ability of the upper and middle
classes, keeps the CBD area flourishing with jobs and in constant repair and upkeep of the cities’ physical condition. (15 points)

FR #2: (10 total points.)
You will need to judge how effectively you displayed you school
in the Multiple Nuclei Model. Refer to the model itself to help you
determine your success and grade.
School’s main office
78

Calculating your grade on test 13.
Add how many you got correct on the multiple choice part (55 possible) to how many
points you scored on the FR portion (55 possible)…110 total.
The following scale will show the approximate score if this test were the real AP exam. Remember that this
is an approximation. While 65-74% is normally the range for a 3 on the test, it is not definite. Over the
years I have seen scores as low as 60% be the low portion of a 3 score.

Out of 110 possible points:
72-83 is most likely a 3
84-94 is most likely a 4

95-110 is most likely a 5

Now lets start our review for the national exam by
reviewing the 33 key models and theories of the
course…the next PowerPoint.


Slide 62

Key topic/chapter 13…Urban Patterns
Key terms:
Annexation
Concentric zone model
Density gradient
Edge cities
Filtering
Galactic city
Gentrification
Greenbelts
Megalopolis
MSA
Multiple nuclei model
Peripheral model

Public housing
Redlining
Renovated housing
Scattered site
Squatter settlement
Sector model
Smart growth
Sprawl
Underclass
Urban renewal
Zone in transition
Zoning
1

Chapter 13…Urban Areas.
How are Cities planned?
Why

are cities where they are?
How are they organized?
Why are some areas of a city
different from
other areas of the same city?
What is the future of cities?
2

Settlement


Settlement - permanent collections of buildings,
where people live, work, and obtain services

3

ORIGINS OF SETTLEMENTS


Religious - graves, churches, temples



Cultural - schools, libraries



Political/Military - leader’s house, walls



Economic - stores, food
4

TYPES OF SETTLEMENTS


Rural Settlements - agriculture as the
predominant occupation.



Urban settlements - principal industries are
secondary and tertiary.

5

RURAL SETTLEMENTS
Clustered rural settlements –grouped
settlements in rural areas to minimize travel

Dispersed rural Settlements - isolated farms
with enclosed continuous fields (Found only in
N. America and Britain).

6

Urban Geographers want to know the global distribution of urban
settlements. MDC’s have a high percentage of people living in urban
areas because of the shift from agriculture-manufacturing-services.
Geographers are also interested in where people and activities are
distributed within urban spaces. What are the differences between the
inner-city and suburban areas and why?
As we saw in the last chapter, many downtowns are unique and can
often be recognized in photos where the suburbs often look very
much alike (Placelessness). Why? Suburbs offer the chance to avoid
some of the city problems (crime, tight living area, expensive
land/rent, noise, age of buildings) while still keeping a connection with
the goods and services of the city: jobs, sports teams, culture, shops,
recreation, etc.
7

Where is this place?

8

Today’s cities are evolving and changing. Although different internal
situations characterize urban areas in the US and elsewhere, the
problems arising from current spatial trends are quite similar in all cities.
Where have urban areas grown: in the early 1800’s only 3% of the earth’s
people lived in cities and only Beijing China had more than 1 million
people. Today over ½ of the world’s people live in cities and we have over
400 cities of at least 1 million people.

Urbanization: is the process by which city population grows.
Cities population growth is measured in 2 dimensions;
1. An increase in the number of people living in the cities.
2. An increase in the percentage of people living in the cities.
This distinction is important because they happen for different reason and
have different global distributions.
9

Increasing Percentage of People in Cities: a large percentage of people living in urban
areas is a measure of a country’s level of development. In MDC’s about ¾ of the people
live in urban areas compared to about 2/5 of people in LDC’s. (Except in Latin America
where the level is closer to MDC’s.)
The higher percentage of people in urban areas comes from the changes that have
occurred in the last 200 years as we went from agriculture (primary jobs) to industrial
(secondary jobs) and now service jobs, all created by the Industrial Revolution of the
1800’s.
People moved to the cities for industrial jobs, but in MDC’s this process has largely
ended because nearly everyone interested in moving to the cities from farms has already
done so.
In LDC’s the percentage of people living in urban areas is growing as people are pushed
off of their farms and replaced by machines and as people move to cities looking/hoping
for industrial jobs.
10

Increasing Number of People in Cities: MDC’s have a higher percentage of
people living in urban settlements but LDC’s have more of the very large urban
settlements (Primate cities). (Rank-size rule, primate cities, chapter 12.)

This is interesting because typically the large cities are created from the
improvements brought by the Industrial Revolution. This is not the case with the
large LDC cities. Migration to the primate city in LDC’s is happening even though
job opportunities may not be available. Increasing the population growth in LDC
cities is the fact that medical services are better in these cities, thus the child
mortality rate is lower.
Defining Urban Settlements: defining where urban areas end and rural areas
begin is not easy. Geographers have formulated definitions that distinguish
between urban and rural areas in two ways: Social differences and Physical
differences.
11

Percent Urban Population

Percent of the population living in urban areas is usually higher in MDCs
than in LDCs.

12

The most populated cities in the world

Of the top
20, only
Moscow,
Tokyo and
New York
are in MDC’s

Shanghai China has 14,608,512 people
13

14

15

Social Differences Between Urban and Rural Settlements: it is fair to say that rural
people and urban people follow different ways of life. A city can be defined as having 3
characteristics:
1. Large size. People in rural settlements know most of the other people in the
settlement. Not true in big cities. Social relationships are often described as “colder” in
urban areas because you only see some people at work instead of growing up with
them in the settlement.
2. High Density. Having lots of people in a tiny area creates social consequences. A
high density of people living in a small area can only be supported if the people
specialize (they can’t all be farmers). People are encouraged to compete for jobs, room,
and survival in a tightly limited space. Social groups compete to occupy the same space
(ethnic/ race problems). Rural settlements have very little of this problem.
3. Social Heterogeneity. The larger the settlement, the greater the variety of people.
Being “unusual” in a large settlement is more likely to be accepted than in a small rural
one. But despite the freedom to be different that large urban settlements give you,
people living there often feel alone because so many people are different from them.
There is a stronger feeling of belonging together in small rural settlements.
16

These 3 differences do not fully answer the question of where urban settlements
begin and rural ones end because in today’s MDC’s most everyone has access to
cars, telephones, televisions, and “urban type” jobs which reduce the differences
between urban and rural lifestyles. “City folk” and “Country folk” are more alike
today than they are different. To help distinguish between urban and rural areas we
need to add the physical definition of rural and urban to the equation.
Physical Definitions of Urban Settlements: In ancient time, cities had defensive
walls for protection which clearly defined the physical boundaries of the city. Today
the walls are gone but we can still define the physical boundaries in 3 ways:
1. Legal boundary. These are the official boundaries of a city as recognized by
the government of the country or state. These “city limits” have been officially given
to the city and are physically marked on official maps. The local government of the
city has authority to make laws and protect the people inside the city boundaries.
17

2. Urbanized area. This is the city plus its suburbs or urbanized area that
surrounds the city. About 70 percent of US residents live in urbanized areas with
40% being in the suburbs and 30% inside the city limits. The suburbs may have
their own city governments but the huge central city dominates what happens in
the entire area.
3. Metropolitan Statistical Area. Cities have an even bigger influence on people
than just those living in their city limits and surrounding urbanized areas. People
from far away come to shop, use the services, support the sports teams, read
the newspapers and watch the television broadcasts of the city. Thus the city
has a “functional area” which is its total zone of influence. The US Bureau of
Census has created a method of measuring the functional area of the city.
Known as the Metropolitan statistical area (MSA) this area includes:
•An urbanized area with a population of at least 50,000
•The county within which the city is located.
•Adjacent counties with a high population density and a large percentage of
residents working in the central city’s county.
18

Metropolitan Area of Philadelphia

City of
Philadelphia

Urbanized
area
(suburbs)
Metropolitan
Statistical
Area

The metropolitan area of Philadelphia is
spread over several counties and four states.
It is also a diversified trade center, given its
position on the Delaware river.

19

20

21

Micropolitan Statistical Areas: Smaller areas with between
10,000 and 50,000 people, the county where it is found, and
adjacent counties tied to the city. This would be a small town and
the area dominated by it.
Overlapping Metropolitan Areas: Some adjacent MSA’s overlap.
A county between two central cities may send a large number of
commuters to jobs in both cities. In some areas the cities are so
close that they form one continuous urban complex. This is
known as a Megalopolis (great city).
In a megalopolis, the downtown CBD often has its own
distinctive look and the urban areas are visually separated by
parks, open spaces, and dairy/truck farms. But at the periphery
of the urban areas, the boundaries overlap.
22

Colorado Springs, population 431,000

Ocala, Florida, population 56,000

Florala, Alabama, population 1,900

23

Megalopolis, from northern Va. To Maine.
This Illustrates the
difference between
strict city proper
definitions and broader
urban agglomerations.
To define urbanized
areas, the U.S. Census
Bureau uses the term
Metropolitan Statistical
Area (MSA) or
Consolidated MSA
(CMSA) if two or more of
them overlap.
24

Where are People Distributed within Urban Areas? People are not
just distributed at random in urban areas. For the most part they
concentrate in particular neighborhoods depending on their social
characteristics. Geographers want to see where people with
particular characteristics are likely to live and why.

Three models which try to explain the growth of a city:

The Burgess Model

The Hoyt Sector Model

The Harris and Ullman
multiple Nuclei Model
25

Burgess Concentric Zone Model

In the concentric zone model, a city grows in a series of rings surrounding the CBD.

Burgess Concentric Zone Model: This is the first used to explain the
distributions of different social groups within urban areas. It says that a
city grows outward from a central place in a series of concentric rings.
The precise size and width of the rings vary from one city to another, but
some basic types of rings appear in all cities in the same order (see chart
above).
26

•Hoyt Sector Model: In this model the city develops in a
series of sectors not rings. Certain areas of the city are
more attractive for various activities, originally because
of an environmental factor (or even pure chance). As the
city grows, activities extend outward in a wedge shape.
For example, once a wealthy neighborhood is built the
next wealthy neighborhood will extend from the first
neighborhood further outward from the center. In this
way, the best housing is found in a corridor extending
outward from the center to the outer edge (see chart on
the next page).
27

The Hoyt Sector Model

In the sector model, a city grows in a series of
wedges or corridors extending out from the
CBD.
28

•Harris and Ullman’s Multiple Nuclei Model: According
to this model, a city is a complex structure that includes
more than one center around which activities revolve.
Examples of these nodes include a port, parks,
stadium, neighborhood business center, university, and
airport (see chart). This theory states that some
activities are attracted to particular nodes, whereas
others try to avoid them. A university node may attract
well educated people and bookstores while the port will
attract hotels and warehouses. Heavy industry and
expensive houses rarely are found together. This
model shows the effect of the automobile more than
any other model.
29

The Harris and Ullman Multiple Nuclei model

The multiple nuclei model views a city as a
collection of individual centers, around which
different people and activities cluster.

30

Applications of the Models: The three models help explain where and in some
cases, why people live where they do. None of the models by themselves fully
explains why and where different types of people live, but combined they give
you as good a look as possible at the “Why” of “Where.” Effective use of the
models depends on getting good data on the areas. Most countries take a
census every 10 years to help determine useful data about the people and
places of the country. In our country we divide the census data into areas
known as census tracts of about 5,000 people. Each census tract has the data
that summarizes the characteristics of the people living within that tract. This
information includes things like the race, income, age, and education of the
people living in that tract.
Social Area Analysis: The data from the census tracts can all be plotted onto
maps to show the characteristics of the people living in that tract. This map is
known as a social area analysis.
31

Using Census tract information…Seattle, Washington
Each lined area is a
census tract of about 5000
people in Seattle
Washington. These maps
show average household
income for 1990 and
2000…note the changes in
income in some areas
between 1990 and 2000.
Using this information, a
business can make
decisions about where
they want to locate a new
store or the future of
existing stores.
You can find census tract
information on many topics
such as; age, education
level, race, ethnicity, crime
rate, and land ownership.
Note the areas with
incomes over
$63,000.

All can be very valuable
information to people
looking to open
businesses.

32

Examine the changes
between 1990 and
2000.

Oakland, California’s Ethnic neighborhoods
The small bordered areas are census tracks of 5000 people.

33

Use of the Models Outside of North America: The 3 models will also work in other
places in the world; however social groups in other countries may not have the
same reasons for selecting particular neighborhoods as Americans do.
European Cities: As in the US, wealthier people in European cities cluster along a
sector extending outward from the CBD, however unlike the US, wealthy and
middle class Europeans still live in the inner rings of the neighborhoods near the
CBD not out in the suburbs. In the past, poorer people lived in the center of the
city. Before electricity, social segregation was vertical: richer people lived on the
first or second floor of a building while the poorer people lived in the basement or
upper floors. In the Industrial Revolution, housing for the poor was constructed
near the factories and away from the rich.
Today poorer Europeans are less likely to live in the inner-city. Poor quality
housing has been renovated for the rich or turned into office buildings. Poorer
Europeans tend to live in the outskirts of the city. Vast suburbs with dozens of high
rise apartments house the poor. They face long commutes to reach their jobs in
the city.
34

European cities generally do not have the “suburban
sprawl” that US cities have. European cities tend to be
more pedestrian friendly with more parks downtown as
Europeans tend to still live downtown.
US cities have taller buildings as European cities tend to
be older and more historic.

American cities have more ethnic neighborhoods than
European cities. Ethnic neighborhoods that do exist in
European cities tend to be in the suburbs. WHY?
Because the established richer neighborhoods tend to be
downtown in European cities.
35

Less Developed Countries: Like Europe, most LDC’s accommodate their poor in the
suburbs with their middle class and rich living near the center of the city. LDC’s have
passed through 3 periods of city building: before the Europeans arrived, during the
period of European colonialism, and since independence from European control.

Pre-colonial Cities: Before the Europeans arrived few cities existed in Africa, Asia, and
Latin America and most people lived in small rural settlements. Those cities that existed
were mostly laid out surrounding a religious center; with the rest of the city laid out in a
hieratical concentric pattern (like the Burgess model) from government buildings,
homes of the wealthy, and businesses related to the religion out to other businesses
and shops.
Colonial cities: When the Europeans took over these lands, they changed the cities by
adding services to help the Europeans control the conquered people. Often a new
European style city would be build next to the existing native one. The new European
cities contained wider streets, a public square, larger houses and a much lower density.
The Spanish used the “Law of the Indies” which was a city plan designed specifically to
build cities in a “Spanish” style. (Gridiron pattern for streets centered on a church and
central plaza, walls around individual houses and neighborhoods centered around
smaller plazas and more churches.)
36

Early Mexico city was laid out in a grid pattern of streets. This followed
the Spanish “Law of the Indies.”

37

Central Plaza in Mexico City 1920 photo. Typical Colonial City plan.

Part of downtown Mexico city today still shows the
building plan of the “Law of the Indies.”

38

Cities since Independence: Following independence, cities have become
the focal point of the development of most LDC’s. Millions of people have
migrated to the cities (Primate cities) looking for jobs and services. Some
capitals have been moved to isolated areas in an attempt to help develop
that area of the country (Brasília) This is know as a forward capital. Latin
American cities have developed their own unique style.
Squatter settlements: The LDC’s are unable to house the rapidly growing
number of poor who are flowing into the cities. Because of the housing
shortages, the poor have constructed their own settlements around the city.
These settlements have few services because neither the city nor the
residents can afford them. Squatters have two basic choices for housing.
1. Illegally move into empty real houses located in the city or,
2. Rent slum housing.
(85% of the population of Addis Ababa in Ethiopia lives in squatter
settlements, slums or other illegal housing.)
39

Squatter shacks in Manila, the Philippines

40

Squatter settlement in Ethiopia

41

Zimbabwe, Africa

42

Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

43

Latin American City Model:
In many Latin
American cities,
the wealthy live in
the inner city and
in a sector
extending along a
commercial spine.
In situ accretion- businesses
and homes constantly under
construction/repair.
Zone of maturity-2nd best
housing in the city.
The poor live in squatter settlements on the
periphery of the city.

Disamenity- unpleasant area
used by the poor to get to the
market.

44

The City Outline of Rio de Janeiro
The rich tourist areas and expensive condo apartments are along the coast
and beach while the poor live in squatter shacks in the hills.

45

City problems:
Inner-City Physical Problems: Most US inner cities were constructed before the 1950’s
(people began to move to the suburbs in the 1950’s so new construction moved out of
the city).
Process of Deterioration (how a city deteriorates): A city doesn’t suddenly become old
and full of slummy areas. It happens over time. When a group of low-income people
inhabit an area of a city, nearby neighborhoods will often look to move out. They sell or
rent to more low-income occupants thus expanding the low-income area. Two processes
cause/speed up the devaluation of areas:
1. Filtering, 2. Redlining.
Filtering: Large houses and buildings that once housed rich downtown workers (who
moved to the suburbs) are taken over by landlords who don’t live in that area (they
moved to the suburbs too). Rents are low so the landlord doesn’t take as good care of
the property as they should and the property becomes run down or abandoned. Stores
close, or move, due to lack of sales. 100 years ago these neighborhoods would be used
by immigrants and ethnic businesses would succeed in those areas. Now, with a decline
in immigration, these neighborhoods have shrunk and so have schools, businesses and
other services. Thousands of vacant houses and buildings stand empty in inner cities
across America.

46

Redlining: Some banks refuse to give loans in what they consider
risky neighborhoods. They draw a red line on a map around areas
where they will not give loans. Without loans, these neighborhoods
have a hard time rebuilding/remodeling. Though illegal, this still
happens. Bankers just don’t put these “no-loan” areas on a map.

Urban Renewal: This is the series of projects to improve European
and N. American cities by buying up the blighted neighborhoods,
moving the people to new government built housing projects, and
building new roads, and other projects to make the inner city
attractive for business again. National and State government grants
help pay for these projects.
47

Public housing: Housing for the poor, built with government funding as part of
urban renewal. In the US this is only about 2% of the housing while in some
countries it may be more (Britain is 30%). Public housing built in the 50’s & 60’s
were largely high rise apartments, but those are seen as being unsatisfactory.
Problems arise from cramming large numbers of poor people into one area.
Today most public housing projects are one to three story buildings with many of
them being scattered around different parts of the city rather than clustered into
one area.
Because urban renewal has been criticized for destroying the social cohesion of
older neighborhoods, many governments (like the US) have stopped funding
most projects since the 1970’s. What do we do instead?
Renovated Housing: An alternative often used since the 70’s is to renovate a
building instead of urban renewal. The process where middle-class people
move into inner-city neighborhoods and renovate them is called gentrification.
Gentrified inner-city neighborhoods also attract middle-class people who work
downtown. Living close to work saves the hassle of commuting and rejuvenates
run down inner-city neighborhoods
48

Gentrified building downtown Harlem, NY. Note the supermarket.

49

Inner-City Social Problems: Inner-city residents are often referred to as the
permanent underclass because they are trapped in an unending cycle of
economic and social problems. High unemployment, alcoholism, drug
addiction, literacy, juvenile delinquency, and crime all exist at a higher rate
among those who live in the inner-city. Lack of jobs means lack of tax dollars
to pay for police and fire protection as well as good schools. Lack of job skills
and homelessness are also tremendous problems.
Culture of Poverty: Inner-city residents are trapped in a permanent underclass
culture that reproduces itself. In the US, unwed mothers give birth to 2/3 of the
babies in the inner-city. 90% of these children live with only one parent and it
is real hard for one parent to keep a job and take care of children. Both suffer
and a shortage of care and daily attention by the parent contributes to the kids
not learning the skills necessary to do well in school which leads to poor jobs
for their futures. Poverty leads to more poverty. Many families on welfare have
only one parent because it is financially better if one parent is gone, that way
the single parent gets food stamps and other services from the government
that they would not get if it was a 2 family household.
50

Crime: Trapped in a hopeless environment, some inner-city
residents turn to drugs. Drug use is a problem in inner-city
areas and the suburbs, but rates of drug use in inner-cities
are the highest.
Ethnic and Racial Segregation: As seen in chapter 7, many
neighborhoods in the US are segregated by ethnicity with
African Americans and Hispanics concentrated in one or two
continuous areas and whites living in the suburbs. Even small
cities display a strong distinction among neighborhoods. A
frequent division is between the east and west or north and
south side of town, or the railroad tracks. A family seeking a
new residence will seek the areas where the characteristics
of the people meet their own.

51

The exodus
from the
American city.
This has
happened in
many American
cities since the
1960’s.

52

Changes in Cities in the U.S.
U.S. population has been moving out of the city centers to the suburbs:
suburbanization and counter urbanization

Developed Countries: suburbanization

 wealthy move to suburbs
 automobiles and roads; ‘American
Dream’ of the home in the suburbs.
 better services
 wealthy move to suburbs
Counter urbanization

idyllic settings
cost of land for retirement
slow pace, yet high tech
connections to services and markets
53

U.S. intraregional migration during 1990s.

Inner city economic problems: the concentration of low income
residents in inner cities has caused economic problems. These
people require public services but can pay very little in taxes to
support the services. They need stores and jobs but have little
money to spend in the store and few skills for jobs (so the stores
close). To try to fight these problems many local and state
governments use tax monies to try to renovate these areas, but this
shifts tax money needed for other areas to the inner city (votes on
election day).
Annexation: Many cities could help their tax problem by adding the
new suburbs to be part of their city (annexation). After all, many of
these suburban people use the city for its’ jobs etc., so why not add
them into the city? Today, most people in the suburbs do not want
to be annexed into the city and so they do not vote to be annexed.
54

The Peripheral Model: According to this model, an urban area
consists of an inner city surrounded by large suburban residential
and business areas (MSA) tied together by a beltway or highway
that circles the city. Around the beltway are nodes of consumer
and business services called edge cities (see diagram of multiple
nuclei model). These edge cities sprang up to provide services
and jobs to the people in the suburbs.
Density Gradient: As you travel outward from the center of the
city, the density of people declines. Inner city has big apartments
of 250 of more people per acre. Suburbs have fewer people per
acre (but lots of acres) and finally you leave the cities periphery
you find few people. The number of houses per unit of land
diminishes as distance from the center of the city increases.
55

The Edge cities (bedroom communities) of Houston

The central city is surrounded by a ring road, around which are
suburban areas and edge cities, shopping malls, office parks,
industrial areas, and service complexes.

Known as
bedroom
communities
because
people live
there but
mostly don’t
work there.
They drive
into the city
for work.
56

As you move from the center of the city outward, the density of the population
changes. This is know as the density gradient. Two big changes have occurred in
the density gradient of today’s cities:
1. The number of people living in the center has decreased.
2. The density difference between the inner city and the suburbs is declining
because the inner city density is dropping and the suburban density is growing
due to more large apartments being built in the suburbs.
Cost of Suburban or Urban Sprawl: Urban Sprawl is the progressive spread of
development over the landscape. As long as we Americans want single-family
detached houses, land on the fringe of urban areas will be converted from open
space to residential use. The cost of this growth is more than the loss of land, it is
also the cost of new roads, utilities, building stores and offices and the cost of
automobiles to move these people over even longer distances. Lots of these new
developments are built on what was once farmland. Wonderful productive soil now
under concrete.

Greenbelts: are areas where, by law, the open space can not be used for any
construction. This is mostly found in Europe.

57

Once farmland that is being converted to suburbs and cities.

58

Tyson’s Corner Virginia in 1940

59

Washington, DC. MSA.

Tyson’s Corner Virginia
today.
Washington D.C. is off
In the distance.

60

Suburban Segregation: The “new” segregation.
Suburban segregation takes two forms:
1. Residents are separated from commercial and manufacturing activities
which are confined someplace else. (The whole neighborhood is
nothing but houses because they drive for services.)
2. The price of the house eliminates some from being able to live there. This
creates a homogeneous suburb of the same economic class of people.
This never existed before in history. Where we once had vertical
segregation of the classes we now we have horizontal segregation.
3. But this may be reversing as new statistics show that people are beginning
to move back to the city. Why? Cost of transportation.
Zoning Ordinances: This idea developed in Europe and later America in the
early decades of the 20th century. This means that businesses are allowed only
in certain areas of the settlement. (No all night taco stands inside your single
family neighborhood.)
Motor vehicles: The wide use of the automobile is largely responsible for the
American movement to the suburbs. Not only did people move out but 1/4 of
the land inside all American cities are now roads, streets, and parking lots.

61

Public Transportation: Because few US workers live within walking distance
of their jobs, urban areas are characterized by extensive commuting and the
problems that come with it. As much as 40% of all trips made into or out from
a city during the day takes place within just 4 hours. (2 in the morning and 2 in
the late afternoon). RUSH HOUR!!! In large cities, public transportation, like
subways and busses, are better suited to move people but Americans still
prefer their own cars. Public transportation is cheaper, cleaner, and more
energy efficient than personal cars, yet in the US only 5% of city travel is
done using public transit systems. American’s love their personal car too
much.
Local Government Fragmentation: Because of the large number of local
governments in the US (look at the settlements in Pinellas County) it is
difficult to solve some of the regional problems like garbage disposal, water
management, traffic and public housing.
62

Metropolitan government: This idea tries to put many local governments into a
larger unit that can better handle the urban problems. The 2 ways to do this
are:
1. Federations in which the individual settlements have their own police,
firemen, and tax collection but they all agree to be part of a second
government which handles transportation, water, sewage, parks and
welfare for all the communities.
2. Consolidations: In this method, several cities and the county may form one
government. Jacksonville’s government runs not only the town but the
county too, this makes Jacksonville the largest city, in land size, in the US.
Smart growth: A new movement by many states to curb suburban sprawl by
limiting where new construction can take place. Smart growth laws require that
land near cities be used up before any land further out can be developed. So
far, this is only being done an a few parts of our country.
63

The new
US as
some
people
see it.

64

Quiz Yourself:
1. The process where middle-class people move into inner city neighborhoods and
renovate them is called ____________
2. ____________ happens when banks refuse to give loans in what they consider
risky neighborhoods.
3. Because of the housing shortages, the poor have constructed their own settlements
around the city known as __________ _________

4. Businesses are allowed only in certain areas of the settlement because of
____________ ____________
5. Areas known as _____ _______ are areas of about 5,000 people. The data from
that area is used to help define needed services for that area.
6. When cities are so close that they form one continuous band of development this is
known as a ____________
65

7. Social relationships are often described as “colder” in urban areas because…
8. In this model the city develops in a series of sectors not rings. _______

9. ______ (LDC’s or MDC’s) have a higher percentage of people living in urban
settlements but ________ (LDC’s or MDC’s) have more of the very large urban
settlements.
10. _____________ was the first model developed to explain the distributions
of different social groups within urban areas.
11. New cities which develop around the beltway are nodes of consumer and
business services known as ________ _________.

12. When the Europeans took over lands around the world, they changed the
cities by adding services to help the Europeans control the conquered people.
These European planned cities are known as __________ cities.
66

Answer Key:
1.

Gentrification

2.

Redlining

3.

Squatter Settlements

4.

Zoning ordinances

5.

Census tracks

6.

Megalopolis

7. There is a stronger feeling of belonging together in small rural settlements.
8. Hoyt sector model
9. MDC, LDC
10. Burgess Concentric Zone model
11. Edge cities
12. Colonial cities
67

Test Key topic/chapter 13:
These questions come from a combination of our slides, your text book, and common knowledge you should
have discussed in your AP classroom. They are very typical of what you will see on the National Exam.
1) The multiple nuclei theory best explains why different neighborhoods of a city attract people of different… A) ages.
B) ethnic origin C) income D) marital status.
2) Sprawl is the… A) change in density within an urban area from the center to the periphery B) development of new
housing sites not contiguous to the existing built-up area. C) land maintained as open space surrounding an urban area.
D) period in the morning and evening with the heaviest volumes of traffic.
3) People are attracted to suburbs in part because suburbs are characterized by…A) heavy traffic. B) lower opportunity
for home ownership. C) private land surrounding the house. D) row houses and apartments.
4) Megalopolis refers to… A) adjacent, overlapping Metropolitan Statistical Areas. B) central cities. C) consolidated
Metropolitan Statistical Areas. D) central cities plus urbanized areas.
5) Which statement best describes the relationship between urbanization and the Industrial Revolution? A) Urbanization
promoted the Industrial Revolution. B) The Industrial Revolution promoted urbanization. C) Urbanization preceded the
Industrial Revolution by thousands of years. D) Urbanization and the Industrial Revolution are no longer related.
6) The process of legally adding land area to a city in the United States is… A) annexation. B) accreditation. C) an
application of eminent domain. D) defined by urbanized area.

68

7) The process of change in the use of a house, from single-family owner occupancy to abandonment, is… A) blockbusting.
B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining.
8) A process by which banks designate an area within which they refuse to lend money for improvements is… A) blockbusting.
B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining.
9) A recent change in the density gradient has been… A) the elimination of the gap traditionally found in the center. B) an
increase in the extremes between the inner and outer areas. C) an increase in the number of people living in the center.
D) a reduction in the differences in densities found within an urban area.
10) U.S. central cities face fiscal problems because… A) federal and state funds are available. B) low-income people are
concentrated there. C) middle-class families are attracted there. D) redlining is no longer legal.
11) A legal form of segregation in U.S. cities is achieved through...A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) zoning. D) greenbelts.
12) Factories have moved to suburban locations in part because of… A) access to main highways. B) adequate space to build
vertical structures. C) availability of large tracts of high-priced land. D) good rail connections.
13) According to the sector model, the best housing is located in…A) a corridor from downtown to the edge of the city.
B) an outer ring surrounding the city. C) nodes near universities and parks. D) renovated inner-city neighborhoods.
14) Ramshackle houses on the periphery of cities in less developed countries are known as… A) squatter settlements. B) council
estates. C) public housing. D) zone in transition.
15) Higher income people tend to live near the center of the city in all but which of the following regions? A) Latin America
B) North America C) South Asia D) Western Europe

16) The wide boulevards built in cities in less developed countries were most likely built during what era? A) pre-colonial
B) colonial C) independence D) all of the above equally

69

17) According to the multiple nuclei model, an airport is likely to attract nearby… A) industries. B) residences. C) shops.
D) universities.
18) The largest percentage of the U.S. population lives in…A) central cities. B) suburbs. C) non-metropolitan areas. D) all of the
above
19) In U.S. cities, the underclass is… A) clustered in inner-city neighborhoods. B) dispersed throughout the city. C) clustered in
suburbs. D) distributed uniformly in the city.

20) A process of converting a neighborhood from low-income to middle-class is…A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) gentrification.
D) redlining.
21) Higher social heterogeneity in urban settlements means that… A) the people with whom you relax are probably the same ones you
see at work. B) you play a specialized role in the urban economy. C) you compete for limited space. D) you may feel lonely and
isolated in a crowd.
22) The city plus its contiguous built-up suburbs is the… A) central city. B) urbanized area.
D) consolidated metropolitan statistical area

C) metropolitan statistical area.

23) The process whereby an increasing percentage of people live in an urban area is known as… A) demographic transition.
B) rank-size rule. C) urbanization. D) central place theory.
24) Of the ten largest urban areas in the world, how many are in More Developed Countries today? A) 1 B) 4 C) 7 D) 10 E) 2
25) Public housing is…A) conversion of low-income housing to middle-class housing. B) illegally established low-income housing.
C) housing that has changed from single-family owner occupancy to abandonment. D) low-income government-owned housing.
26) According to the concentric zone model, a city develops in a series of… A) corridors. B) nodes. C) rings. D) all of the above

70

27) Chicago is a good location in which to develop urban models because it is located… A) at the hub of the nation's transportation
system. B) in the center of the country. C) on a flat prairie. D) on the shore of Lake Michigan.
28) According to the sector model, the best housing is located in… A) a corridor from downtown to the edge of the city. B) an outer
ring surrounding the city. C) nodes near universities and parks. D) renovated inner-city neighborhoods.
29) The zone of transition in US cities generally contain…A) warehouses B) wealthy neighborhoods C) transportation hubs
D) universities and hospitals E) suburban homes
30) The attractions of shopping malls include all but which of the following? A) frequent concerts and exhibitions B) generous
parking lots C) place to meet friends D) walking distance from homes
The following questions are written at the high school level. You will find some questions from part one often rewritten
here. This is all designed to help you transition to the college/AP style of written questions. Any question preceded with ***
are questions that have been on the national exam before.
31. Most Latin American cities are focused on a…A) central plaza B) government housing project C) zone of heavy industry
D) skyscraper office building E) squatter settlement
32. The multiple-nuclei model of a city structure tends to be most applicable to…A) small cities B) traditional C) Latin American
cities D) newer, fast growing cities E) cities with homogeneous land use
33. ***Locational advantages important to the development of the earliest cities include…A) availability of good harbors for large
ships B) productive agricultural land and defensible sites C) temperate climate and proximity to coal mines D) good
connections by road and canal E) proximity to manufacturing areas

34. In cities, the CBD’s often show uniqueness while the suburbs usually show…A) a large hinterland. B) placelessness C) more
than one node. D) newer zones of transition.

71

35. Many LDC’s have tried to help a previously under-developed part of their country develop by moving their capital
city to that area. This new capital is known as a…A) forward capital B) new development zone C) enterprise zone
D) neocolonial city
36. Today the greatest number of urban dwellers is found in…A) North America
D) Europe E) Asia

B) South America C) Africa

37. ***All of the following have helped create ghettos in North American cities except…A)blockbusting and racial
steering B) redlining by financial institutions C) concentration of public housing and social services D) fixed school
districts E) Economic Enterprise Zones

38. Which of the following is NOT as reason for rapid suburbanization in the US after WW2? A) Mass production of
the automobile B) Reduction of long distance commuting C) Expansion of home construction D) Expansion of the
interstate highway system E) Availability of low down payment terms and long-term mortgages.
39. New cities which developed in the hinterland of large urban areas because of the automobile, are known as…
A) edge cities B) census tracts C) suburban sprawl D) squatter settlements. E) none of these
40. Gentrification refers to… A) moving the homeless into inner city shelters B) The “White Flight” from the urban city
C) losing tax revenue because of stores closing in downtown areas D) middle-class people moving into and renovating
inner city neighborhoods E) the creation of “beltway cities” around the city.

72

4
7
3

5

1
6

2

41-48 all use the sketch above.
41. The sketch in box A above represents which model of the inner structure of urban areas?
C) multiple nuclei model D) Burgess concentric zone model E) peripheral model
42. The models in boxes B and C represent A) Concentric zone and multiple nuclei
concentric zone D) peripheral and concentric zone E) Von Thunen and peripheral

A) Hoyt sector model B) VonThunen’s model

B) Multiple nuclei and Hoyt sector C) Hoyt sector and

43. In which ring (1, 2, etc.) of sketch A above would high-status households in North American cities likely live? A) 1 B) 2 C) 3 D) 4&5
44. In which ring (1, 2, etc.) of sketch A above would high status households in a European city likely live? A) 1

B) 2

C) 3

D) 4&5

45. In model B, zone # 2 is where it is likely because of: A) greenbelting B) squatter settling C) the culture of poverty D) transportation
E) no one knows
46. The model in sketch B is the; A) Hoyt sector model B) Burgess model C) multiple nuclei model D) peripheral model
47. The model in sketch C is the; A) Hoyt sector model B) Burgess model C) multiple nuclei model D) peripheral model
48. Which of these models best describes what has happened in US cities in the last 40 years? A)

B)

C)

73

49.*** In the U.S. a city plus its contiguous built-up suburbs is known as an…A) urbanized area B) zoned area
C) census tract D) Squatter settlement E) none of these
50. Done mostly in Europe, these are areas where land is kept as parks, farms or other kinds of open space and urban
sprawl is not allowed. A) Smart growth
B) zoning
C) filtering
D) census tracts E) greenbelts
51. Which statement best describes the relationship between urbanization and the Industrial Revolution?
A) Urbanization promoted the Industrial Revolution. B) The Industrial Revolution promoted urbanization.
C) Urbanization preceded the Industrial Revolution by thousands of years. D) Urbanization and the Industrial
Revolution are no longer related.
52. The process whereby an increasing percentage of people live in an urban area is known as…
A) Demographic transition. B) rank-size rule. C) Urbanization. D) Central place theory.
53. The city (if it has 50,000 or more people) plus its contiguous built-up suburbs AND the county it is in as well as any
other counties it influences, is known as the ...A) central city B) urbanized area
C) metropolitan statistical area
D) consolidated metropolitan area E) micropolitan statistical area
54. ***Higher social heterogeneity in urban settlements means that …A) the people with whom you relax are probably
the same ones you see at work. B) you play a specialized role in the urban economy. C) you compete for limited
space. D) you may feel lonely and isolated in a crowd.

55. The process of change in the use of a house, from single-family owner occupancy to smaller dwellings for the poor
and then sometimes to abandonment, is…A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining. E) none of
these

74

Free Response #1:
The Bid Rent theory says that the closer you get to the
CBD the higher the cost for land, yet in most American
cities you find the poorest people living near the
expensive CBD and the richest living further away.
Explain:
A. Why neighborhoods near the CBD are often poor and
run down?
B. Why are there few grocery and other retail stores in
these neighborhoods?
C. Why is this not really true in European and Latin
American countries?

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75

FR #2:
Think of the map of your school, explain the
layout of your school using the Multiple Nuclei
Model
The main office is the CBD.
Completely explain your answer using specific
buildings and/or land areas in your explanation
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76

Answer Key:
1. B

14. A

27. C

40. D

53. C

2. B

15. B

28. A

41. D

54. D

3. C

16. B

29. A

42. B

55. B

4. A

17. A

30. D

43. D

5. B

18. B

31. A

44. A

6. A

19. A

32. D

45. D

7. B

20. C

33. B

46. A

8. D

21. D

34. B

47. C

9. D

22. B

35. A

48. C

10. B

23. C

36. E

49. A

11. C

24. C

37. E

50. E

12. A

25. D

38. B

51. B

13. A

26. C

39. A

52. C
77

FR. #1: ( 15 pts. for each section…total of 45 pts.)
A. In the US the move of the wealthy and middle class to the suburbs has left the older houses and apartments near the CBD empty.
This has lowered their value to the point where the poor can afford these dwellings and have made these neighborhoods their
homes. The poor can not pay for upkeep of these dwellings, or to pay high taxes. The lack of upkeep and tax money to repair the
roads and schools, adds to the downward spiral of the neighborhood. With little spending money for shopping, the poor do not
spend much in the stores. This causes many stores to close and move to the suburbs where the spending customers and money
went. The closing of the stores adds to the poverty of the area by taking away some of the jobs that were in the neighborhood. This
becomes a vicious cycle of poverty and deterioration. (15 points)

B. There are few retail stores and groceries is the area because the poor do not have money to shop. The lack of spending forces
many stores out of business or forces them to move to better locations. There also can be higher crime in these areas and the
crime often takes place at the stores. This is another reason for the stores to move out of the neighborhood. (15 points)
C. Neighborhoods in European and Latin American cities are different from those of US cities. In Europe and Latin America, the
wealthy and middle class still live near or in the CBD. The higher tax base and more spending ability of the upper and middle
classes, keeps the CBD area flourishing with jobs and in constant repair and upkeep of the cities’ physical condition. (15 points)

FR #2: (10 total points.)
You will need to judge how effectively you displayed you school
in the Multiple Nuclei Model. Refer to the model itself to help you
determine your success and grade.
School’s main office
78

Calculating your grade on test 13.
Add how many you got correct on the multiple choice part (55 possible) to how many
points you scored on the FR portion (55 possible)…110 total.
The following scale will show the approximate score if this test were the real AP exam. Remember that this
is an approximation. While 65-74% is normally the range for a 3 on the test, it is not definite. Over the
years I have seen scores as low as 60% be the low portion of a 3 score.

Out of 110 possible points:
72-83 is most likely a 3
84-94 is most likely a 4

95-110 is most likely a 5

Now lets start our review for the national exam by
reviewing the 33 key models and theories of the
course…the next PowerPoint.


Slide 63

Key topic/chapter 13…Urban Patterns
Key terms:
Annexation
Concentric zone model
Density gradient
Edge cities
Filtering
Galactic city
Gentrification
Greenbelts
Megalopolis
MSA
Multiple nuclei model
Peripheral model

Public housing
Redlining
Renovated housing
Scattered site
Squatter settlement
Sector model
Smart growth
Sprawl
Underclass
Urban renewal
Zone in transition
Zoning
1

Chapter 13…Urban Areas.
How are Cities planned?
Why

are cities where they are?
How are they organized?
Why are some areas of a city
different from
other areas of the same city?
What is the future of cities?
2

Settlement


Settlement - permanent collections of buildings,
where people live, work, and obtain services

3

ORIGINS OF SETTLEMENTS


Religious - graves, churches, temples



Cultural - schools, libraries



Political/Military - leader’s house, walls



Economic - stores, food
4

TYPES OF SETTLEMENTS


Rural Settlements - agriculture as the
predominant occupation.



Urban settlements - principal industries are
secondary and tertiary.

5

RURAL SETTLEMENTS
Clustered rural settlements –grouped
settlements in rural areas to minimize travel

Dispersed rural Settlements - isolated farms
with enclosed continuous fields (Found only in
N. America and Britain).

6

Urban Geographers want to know the global distribution of urban
settlements. MDC’s have a high percentage of people living in urban
areas because of the shift from agriculture-manufacturing-services.
Geographers are also interested in where people and activities are
distributed within urban spaces. What are the differences between the
inner-city and suburban areas and why?
As we saw in the last chapter, many downtowns are unique and can
often be recognized in photos where the suburbs often look very
much alike (Placelessness). Why? Suburbs offer the chance to avoid
some of the city problems (crime, tight living area, expensive
land/rent, noise, age of buildings) while still keeping a connection with
the goods and services of the city: jobs, sports teams, culture, shops,
recreation, etc.
7

Where is this place?

8

Today’s cities are evolving and changing. Although different internal
situations characterize urban areas in the US and elsewhere, the
problems arising from current spatial trends are quite similar in all cities.
Where have urban areas grown: in the early 1800’s only 3% of the earth’s
people lived in cities and only Beijing China had more than 1 million
people. Today over ½ of the world’s people live in cities and we have over
400 cities of at least 1 million people.

Urbanization: is the process by which city population grows.
Cities population growth is measured in 2 dimensions;
1. An increase in the number of people living in the cities.
2. An increase in the percentage of people living in the cities.
This distinction is important because they happen for different reason and
have different global distributions.
9

Increasing Percentage of People in Cities: a large percentage of people living in urban
areas is a measure of a country’s level of development. In MDC’s about ¾ of the people
live in urban areas compared to about 2/5 of people in LDC’s. (Except in Latin America
where the level is closer to MDC’s.)
The higher percentage of people in urban areas comes from the changes that have
occurred in the last 200 years as we went from agriculture (primary jobs) to industrial
(secondary jobs) and now service jobs, all created by the Industrial Revolution of the
1800’s.
People moved to the cities for industrial jobs, but in MDC’s this process has largely
ended because nearly everyone interested in moving to the cities from farms has already
done so.
In LDC’s the percentage of people living in urban areas is growing as people are pushed
off of their farms and replaced by machines and as people move to cities looking/hoping
for industrial jobs.
10

Increasing Number of People in Cities: MDC’s have a higher percentage of
people living in urban settlements but LDC’s have more of the very large urban
settlements (Primate cities). (Rank-size rule, primate cities, chapter 12.)

This is interesting because typically the large cities are created from the
improvements brought by the Industrial Revolution. This is not the case with the
large LDC cities. Migration to the primate city in LDC’s is happening even though
job opportunities may not be available. Increasing the population growth in LDC
cities is the fact that medical services are better in these cities, thus the child
mortality rate is lower.
Defining Urban Settlements: defining where urban areas end and rural areas
begin is not easy. Geographers have formulated definitions that distinguish
between urban and rural areas in two ways: Social differences and Physical
differences.
11

Percent Urban Population

Percent of the population living in urban areas is usually higher in MDCs
than in LDCs.

12

The most populated cities in the world

Of the top
20, only
Moscow,
Tokyo and
New York
are in MDC’s

Shanghai China has 14,608,512 people
13

14

15

Social Differences Between Urban and Rural Settlements: it is fair to say that rural
people and urban people follow different ways of life. A city can be defined as having 3
characteristics:
1. Large size. People in rural settlements know most of the other people in the
settlement. Not true in big cities. Social relationships are often described as “colder” in
urban areas because you only see some people at work instead of growing up with
them in the settlement.
2. High Density. Having lots of people in a tiny area creates social consequences. A
high density of people living in a small area can only be supported if the people
specialize (they can’t all be farmers). People are encouraged to compete for jobs, room,
and survival in a tightly limited space. Social groups compete to occupy the same space
(ethnic/ race problems). Rural settlements have very little of this problem.
3. Social Heterogeneity. The larger the settlement, the greater the variety of people.
Being “unusual” in a large settlement is more likely to be accepted than in a small rural
one. But despite the freedom to be different that large urban settlements give you,
people living there often feel alone because so many people are different from them.
There is a stronger feeling of belonging together in small rural settlements.
16

These 3 differences do not fully answer the question of where urban settlements
begin and rural ones end because in today’s MDC’s most everyone has access to
cars, telephones, televisions, and “urban type” jobs which reduce the differences
between urban and rural lifestyles. “City folk” and “Country folk” are more alike
today than they are different. To help distinguish between urban and rural areas we
need to add the physical definition of rural and urban to the equation.
Physical Definitions of Urban Settlements: In ancient time, cities had defensive
walls for protection which clearly defined the physical boundaries of the city. Today
the walls are gone but we can still define the physical boundaries in 3 ways:
1. Legal boundary. These are the official boundaries of a city as recognized by
the government of the country or state. These “city limits” have been officially given
to the city and are physically marked on official maps. The local government of the
city has authority to make laws and protect the people inside the city boundaries.
17

2. Urbanized area. This is the city plus its suburbs or urbanized area that
surrounds the city. About 70 percent of US residents live in urbanized areas with
40% being in the suburbs and 30% inside the city limits. The suburbs may have
their own city governments but the huge central city dominates what happens in
the entire area.
3. Metropolitan Statistical Area. Cities have an even bigger influence on people
than just those living in their city limits and surrounding urbanized areas. People
from far away come to shop, use the services, support the sports teams, read
the newspapers and watch the television broadcasts of the city. Thus the city
has a “functional area” which is its total zone of influence. The US Bureau of
Census has created a method of measuring the functional area of the city.
Known as the Metropolitan statistical area (MSA) this area includes:
•An urbanized area with a population of at least 50,000
•The county within which the city is located.
•Adjacent counties with a high population density and a large percentage of
residents working in the central city’s county.
18

Metropolitan Area of Philadelphia

City of
Philadelphia

Urbanized
area
(suburbs)
Metropolitan
Statistical
Area

The metropolitan area of Philadelphia is
spread over several counties and four states.
It is also a diversified trade center, given its
position on the Delaware river.

19

20

21

Micropolitan Statistical Areas: Smaller areas with between
10,000 and 50,000 people, the county where it is found, and
adjacent counties tied to the city. This would be a small town and
the area dominated by it.
Overlapping Metropolitan Areas: Some adjacent MSA’s overlap.
A county between two central cities may send a large number of
commuters to jobs in both cities. In some areas the cities are so
close that they form one continuous urban complex. This is
known as a Megalopolis (great city).
In a megalopolis, the downtown CBD often has its own
distinctive look and the urban areas are visually separated by
parks, open spaces, and dairy/truck farms. But at the periphery
of the urban areas, the boundaries overlap.
22

Colorado Springs, population 431,000

Ocala, Florida, population 56,000

Florala, Alabama, population 1,900

23

Megalopolis, from northern Va. To Maine.
This Illustrates the
difference between
strict city proper
definitions and broader
urban agglomerations.
To define urbanized
areas, the U.S. Census
Bureau uses the term
Metropolitan Statistical
Area (MSA) or
Consolidated MSA
(CMSA) if two or more of
them overlap.
24

Where are People Distributed within Urban Areas? People are not
just distributed at random in urban areas. For the most part they
concentrate in particular neighborhoods depending on their social
characteristics. Geographers want to see where people with
particular characteristics are likely to live and why.

Three models which try to explain the growth of a city:

The Burgess Model

The Hoyt Sector Model

The Harris and Ullman
multiple Nuclei Model
25

Burgess Concentric Zone Model

In the concentric zone model, a city grows in a series of rings surrounding the CBD.

Burgess Concentric Zone Model: This is the first used to explain the
distributions of different social groups within urban areas. It says that a
city grows outward from a central place in a series of concentric rings.
The precise size and width of the rings vary from one city to another, but
some basic types of rings appear in all cities in the same order (see chart
above).
26

•Hoyt Sector Model: In this model the city develops in a
series of sectors not rings. Certain areas of the city are
more attractive for various activities, originally because
of an environmental factor (or even pure chance). As the
city grows, activities extend outward in a wedge shape.
For example, once a wealthy neighborhood is built the
next wealthy neighborhood will extend from the first
neighborhood further outward from the center. In this
way, the best housing is found in a corridor extending
outward from the center to the outer edge (see chart on
the next page).
27

The Hoyt Sector Model

In the sector model, a city grows in a series of
wedges or corridors extending out from the
CBD.
28

•Harris and Ullman’s Multiple Nuclei Model: According
to this model, a city is a complex structure that includes
more than one center around which activities revolve.
Examples of these nodes include a port, parks,
stadium, neighborhood business center, university, and
airport (see chart). This theory states that some
activities are attracted to particular nodes, whereas
others try to avoid them. A university node may attract
well educated people and bookstores while the port will
attract hotels and warehouses. Heavy industry and
expensive houses rarely are found together. This
model shows the effect of the automobile more than
any other model.
29

The Harris and Ullman Multiple Nuclei model

The multiple nuclei model views a city as a
collection of individual centers, around which
different people and activities cluster.

30

Applications of the Models: The three models help explain where and in some
cases, why people live where they do. None of the models by themselves fully
explains why and where different types of people live, but combined they give
you as good a look as possible at the “Why” of “Where.” Effective use of the
models depends on getting good data on the areas. Most countries take a
census every 10 years to help determine useful data about the people and
places of the country. In our country we divide the census data into areas
known as census tracts of about 5,000 people. Each census tract has the data
that summarizes the characteristics of the people living within that tract. This
information includes things like the race, income, age, and education of the
people living in that tract.
Social Area Analysis: The data from the census tracts can all be plotted onto
maps to show the characteristics of the people living in that tract. This map is
known as a social area analysis.
31

Using Census tract information…Seattle, Washington
Each lined area is a
census tract of about 5000
people in Seattle
Washington. These maps
show average household
income for 1990 and
2000…note the changes in
income in some areas
between 1990 and 2000.
Using this information, a
business can make
decisions about where
they want to locate a new
store or the future of
existing stores.
You can find census tract
information on many topics
such as; age, education
level, race, ethnicity, crime
rate, and land ownership.
Note the areas with
incomes over
$63,000.

All can be very valuable
information to people
looking to open
businesses.

32

Examine the changes
between 1990 and
2000.

Oakland, California’s Ethnic neighborhoods
The small bordered areas are census tracks of 5000 people.

33

Use of the Models Outside of North America: The 3 models will also work in other
places in the world; however social groups in other countries may not have the
same reasons for selecting particular neighborhoods as Americans do.
European Cities: As in the US, wealthier people in European cities cluster along a
sector extending outward from the CBD, however unlike the US, wealthy and
middle class Europeans still live in the inner rings of the neighborhoods near the
CBD not out in the suburbs. In the past, poorer people lived in the center of the
city. Before electricity, social segregation was vertical: richer people lived on the
first or second floor of a building while the poorer people lived in the basement or
upper floors. In the Industrial Revolution, housing for the poor was constructed
near the factories and away from the rich.
Today poorer Europeans are less likely to live in the inner-city. Poor quality
housing has been renovated for the rich or turned into office buildings. Poorer
Europeans tend to live in the outskirts of the city. Vast suburbs with dozens of high
rise apartments house the poor. They face long commutes to reach their jobs in
the city.
34

European cities generally do not have the “suburban
sprawl” that US cities have. European cities tend to be
more pedestrian friendly with more parks downtown as
Europeans tend to still live downtown.
US cities have taller buildings as European cities tend to
be older and more historic.

American cities have more ethnic neighborhoods than
European cities. Ethnic neighborhoods that do exist in
European cities tend to be in the suburbs. WHY?
Because the established richer neighborhoods tend to be
downtown in European cities.
35

Less Developed Countries: Like Europe, most LDC’s accommodate their poor in the
suburbs with their middle class and rich living near the center of the city. LDC’s have
passed through 3 periods of city building: before the Europeans arrived, during the
period of European colonialism, and since independence from European control.

Pre-colonial Cities: Before the Europeans arrived few cities existed in Africa, Asia, and
Latin America and most people lived in small rural settlements. Those cities that existed
were mostly laid out surrounding a religious center; with the rest of the city laid out in a
hieratical concentric pattern (like the Burgess model) from government buildings,
homes of the wealthy, and businesses related to the religion out to other businesses
and shops.
Colonial cities: When the Europeans took over these lands, they changed the cities by
adding services to help the Europeans control the conquered people. Often a new
European style city would be build next to the existing native one. The new European
cities contained wider streets, a public square, larger houses and a much lower density.
The Spanish used the “Law of the Indies” which was a city plan designed specifically to
build cities in a “Spanish” style. (Gridiron pattern for streets centered on a church and
central plaza, walls around individual houses and neighborhoods centered around
smaller plazas and more churches.)
36

Early Mexico city was laid out in a grid pattern of streets. This followed
the Spanish “Law of the Indies.”

37

Central Plaza in Mexico City 1920 photo. Typical Colonial City plan.

Part of downtown Mexico city today still shows the
building plan of the “Law of the Indies.”

38

Cities since Independence: Following independence, cities have become
the focal point of the development of most LDC’s. Millions of people have
migrated to the cities (Primate cities) looking for jobs and services. Some
capitals have been moved to isolated areas in an attempt to help develop
that area of the country (Brasília) This is know as a forward capital. Latin
American cities have developed their own unique style.
Squatter settlements: The LDC’s are unable to house the rapidly growing
number of poor who are flowing into the cities. Because of the housing
shortages, the poor have constructed their own settlements around the city.
These settlements have few services because neither the city nor the
residents can afford them. Squatters have two basic choices for housing.
1. Illegally move into empty real houses located in the city or,
2. Rent slum housing.
(85% of the population of Addis Ababa in Ethiopia lives in squatter
settlements, slums or other illegal housing.)
39

Squatter shacks in Manila, the Philippines

40

Squatter settlement in Ethiopia

41

Zimbabwe, Africa

42

Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

43

Latin American City Model:
In many Latin
American cities,
the wealthy live in
the inner city and
in a sector
extending along a
commercial spine.
In situ accretion- businesses
and homes constantly under
construction/repair.
Zone of maturity-2nd best
housing in the city.
The poor live in squatter settlements on the
periphery of the city.

Disamenity- unpleasant area
used by the poor to get to the
market.

44

The City Outline of Rio de Janeiro
The rich tourist areas and expensive condo apartments are along the coast
and beach while the poor live in squatter shacks in the hills.

45

City problems:
Inner-City Physical Problems: Most US inner cities were constructed before the 1950’s
(people began to move to the suburbs in the 1950’s so new construction moved out of
the city).
Process of Deterioration (how a city deteriorates): A city doesn’t suddenly become old
and full of slummy areas. It happens over time. When a group of low-income people
inhabit an area of a city, nearby neighborhoods will often look to move out. They sell or
rent to more low-income occupants thus expanding the low-income area. Two processes
cause/speed up the devaluation of areas:
1. Filtering, 2. Redlining.
Filtering: Large houses and buildings that once housed rich downtown workers (who
moved to the suburbs) are taken over by landlords who don’t live in that area (they
moved to the suburbs too). Rents are low so the landlord doesn’t take as good care of
the property as they should and the property becomes run down or abandoned. Stores
close, or move, due to lack of sales. 100 years ago these neighborhoods would be used
by immigrants and ethnic businesses would succeed in those areas. Now, with a decline
in immigration, these neighborhoods have shrunk and so have schools, businesses and
other services. Thousands of vacant houses and buildings stand empty in inner cities
across America.

46

Redlining: Some banks refuse to give loans in what they consider
risky neighborhoods. They draw a red line on a map around areas
where they will not give loans. Without loans, these neighborhoods
have a hard time rebuilding/remodeling. Though illegal, this still
happens. Bankers just don’t put these “no-loan” areas on a map.

Urban Renewal: This is the series of projects to improve European
and N. American cities by buying up the blighted neighborhoods,
moving the people to new government built housing projects, and
building new roads, and other projects to make the inner city
attractive for business again. National and State government grants
help pay for these projects.
47

Public housing: Housing for the poor, built with government funding as part of
urban renewal. In the US this is only about 2% of the housing while in some
countries it may be more (Britain is 30%). Public housing built in the 50’s & 60’s
were largely high rise apartments, but those are seen as being unsatisfactory.
Problems arise from cramming large numbers of poor people into one area.
Today most public housing projects are one to three story buildings with many of
them being scattered around different parts of the city rather than clustered into
one area.
Because urban renewal has been criticized for destroying the social cohesion of
older neighborhoods, many governments (like the US) have stopped funding
most projects since the 1970’s. What do we do instead?
Renovated Housing: An alternative often used since the 70’s is to renovate a
building instead of urban renewal. The process where middle-class people
move into inner-city neighborhoods and renovate them is called gentrification.
Gentrified inner-city neighborhoods also attract middle-class people who work
downtown. Living close to work saves the hassle of commuting and rejuvenates
run down inner-city neighborhoods
48

Gentrified building downtown Harlem, NY. Note the supermarket.

49

Inner-City Social Problems: Inner-city residents are often referred to as the
permanent underclass because they are trapped in an unending cycle of
economic and social problems. High unemployment, alcoholism, drug
addiction, literacy, juvenile delinquency, and crime all exist at a higher rate
among those who live in the inner-city. Lack of jobs means lack of tax dollars
to pay for police and fire protection as well as good schools. Lack of job skills
and homelessness are also tremendous problems.
Culture of Poverty: Inner-city residents are trapped in a permanent underclass
culture that reproduces itself. In the US, unwed mothers give birth to 2/3 of the
babies in the inner-city. 90% of these children live with only one parent and it
is real hard for one parent to keep a job and take care of children. Both suffer
and a shortage of care and daily attention by the parent contributes to the kids
not learning the skills necessary to do well in school which leads to poor jobs
for their futures. Poverty leads to more poverty. Many families on welfare have
only one parent because it is financially better if one parent is gone, that way
the single parent gets food stamps and other services from the government
that they would not get if it was a 2 family household.
50

Crime: Trapped in a hopeless environment, some inner-city
residents turn to drugs. Drug use is a problem in inner-city
areas and the suburbs, but rates of drug use in inner-cities
are the highest.
Ethnic and Racial Segregation: As seen in chapter 7, many
neighborhoods in the US are segregated by ethnicity with
African Americans and Hispanics concentrated in one or two
continuous areas and whites living in the suburbs. Even small
cities display a strong distinction among neighborhoods. A
frequent division is between the east and west or north and
south side of town, or the railroad tracks. A family seeking a
new residence will seek the areas where the characteristics
of the people meet their own.

51

The exodus
from the
American city.
This has
happened in
many American
cities since the
1960’s.

52

Changes in Cities in the U.S.
U.S. population has been moving out of the city centers to the suburbs:
suburbanization and counter urbanization

Developed Countries: suburbanization

 wealthy move to suburbs
 automobiles and roads; ‘American
Dream’ of the home in the suburbs.
 better services
 wealthy move to suburbs
Counter urbanization

idyllic settings
cost of land for retirement
slow pace, yet high tech
connections to services and markets
53

U.S. intraregional migration during 1990s.

Inner city economic problems: the concentration of low income
residents in inner cities has caused economic problems. These
people require public services but can pay very little in taxes to
support the services. They need stores and jobs but have little
money to spend in the store and few skills for jobs (so the stores
close). To try to fight these problems many local and state
governments use tax monies to try to renovate these areas, but this
shifts tax money needed for other areas to the inner city (votes on
election day).
Annexation: Many cities could help their tax problem by adding the
new suburbs to be part of their city (annexation). After all, many of
these suburban people use the city for its’ jobs etc., so why not add
them into the city? Today, most people in the suburbs do not want
to be annexed into the city and so they do not vote to be annexed.
54

The Peripheral Model: According to this model, an urban area
consists of an inner city surrounded by large suburban residential
and business areas (MSA) tied together by a beltway or highway
that circles the city. Around the beltway are nodes of consumer
and business services called edge cities (see diagram of multiple
nuclei model). These edge cities sprang up to provide services
and jobs to the people in the suburbs.
Density Gradient: As you travel outward from the center of the
city, the density of people declines. Inner city has big apartments
of 250 of more people per acre. Suburbs have fewer people per
acre (but lots of acres) and finally you leave the cities periphery
you find few people. The number of houses per unit of land
diminishes as distance from the center of the city increases.
55

The Edge cities (bedroom communities) of Houston

The central city is surrounded by a ring road, around which are
suburban areas and edge cities, shopping malls, office parks,
industrial areas, and service complexes.

Known as
bedroom
communities
because
people live
there but
mostly don’t
work there.
They drive
into the city
for work.
56

As you move from the center of the city outward, the density of the population
changes. This is know as the density gradient. Two big changes have occurred in
the density gradient of today’s cities:
1. The number of people living in the center has decreased.
2. The density difference between the inner city and the suburbs is declining
because the inner city density is dropping and the suburban density is growing
due to more large apartments being built in the suburbs.
Cost of Suburban or Urban Sprawl: Urban Sprawl is the progressive spread of
development over the landscape. As long as we Americans want single-family
detached houses, land on the fringe of urban areas will be converted from open
space to residential use. The cost of this growth is more than the loss of land, it is
also the cost of new roads, utilities, building stores and offices and the cost of
automobiles to move these people over even longer distances. Lots of these new
developments are built on what was once farmland. Wonderful productive soil now
under concrete.

Greenbelts: are areas where, by law, the open space can not be used for any
construction. This is mostly found in Europe.

57

Once farmland that is being converted to suburbs and cities.

58

Tyson’s Corner Virginia in 1940

59

Washington, DC. MSA.

Tyson’s Corner Virginia
today.
Washington D.C. is off
In the distance.

60

Suburban Segregation: The “new” segregation.
Suburban segregation takes two forms:
1. Residents are separated from commercial and manufacturing activities
which are confined someplace else. (The whole neighborhood is
nothing but houses because they drive for services.)
2. The price of the house eliminates some from being able to live there. This
creates a homogeneous suburb of the same economic class of people.
This never existed before in history. Where we once had vertical
segregation of the classes we now we have horizontal segregation.
3. But this may be reversing as new statistics show that people are beginning
to move back to the city. Why? Cost of transportation.
Zoning Ordinances: This idea developed in Europe and later America in the
early decades of the 20th century. This means that businesses are allowed only
in certain areas of the settlement. (No all night taco stands inside your single
family neighborhood.)
Motor vehicles: The wide use of the automobile is largely responsible for the
American movement to the suburbs. Not only did people move out but 1/4 of
the land inside all American cities are now roads, streets, and parking lots.

61

Public Transportation: Because few US workers live within walking distance
of their jobs, urban areas are characterized by extensive commuting and the
problems that come with it. As much as 40% of all trips made into or out from
a city during the day takes place within just 4 hours. (2 in the morning and 2 in
the late afternoon). RUSH HOUR!!! In large cities, public transportation, like
subways and busses, are better suited to move people but Americans still
prefer their own cars. Public transportation is cheaper, cleaner, and more
energy efficient than personal cars, yet in the US only 5% of city travel is
done using public transit systems. American’s love their personal car too
much.
Local Government Fragmentation: Because of the large number of local
governments in the US (look at the settlements in Pinellas County) it is
difficult to solve some of the regional problems like garbage disposal, water
management, traffic and public housing.
62

Metropolitan government: This idea tries to put many local governments into a
larger unit that can better handle the urban problems. The 2 ways to do this
are:
1. Federations in which the individual settlements have their own police,
firemen, and tax collection but they all agree to be part of a second
government which handles transportation, water, sewage, parks and
welfare for all the communities.
2. Consolidations: In this method, several cities and the county may form one
government. Jacksonville’s government runs not only the town but the
county too, this makes Jacksonville the largest city, in land size, in the US.
Smart growth: A new movement by many states to curb suburban sprawl by
limiting where new construction can take place. Smart growth laws require that
land near cities be used up before any land further out can be developed. So
far, this is only being done an a few parts of our country.
63

The new
US as
some
people
see it.

64

Quiz Yourself:
1. The process where middle-class people move into inner city neighborhoods and
renovate them is called ____________
2. ____________ happens when banks refuse to give loans in what they consider
risky neighborhoods.
3. Because of the housing shortages, the poor have constructed their own settlements
around the city known as __________ _________

4. Businesses are allowed only in certain areas of the settlement because of
____________ ____________
5. Areas known as _____ _______ are areas of about 5,000 people. The data from
that area is used to help define needed services for that area.
6. When cities are so close that they form one continuous band of development this is
known as a ____________
65

7. Social relationships are often described as “colder” in urban areas because…
8. In this model the city develops in a series of sectors not rings. _______

9. ______ (LDC’s or MDC’s) have a higher percentage of people living in urban
settlements but ________ (LDC’s or MDC’s) have more of the very large urban
settlements.
10. _____________ was the first model developed to explain the distributions
of different social groups within urban areas.
11. New cities which develop around the beltway are nodes of consumer and
business services known as ________ _________.

12. When the Europeans took over lands around the world, they changed the
cities by adding services to help the Europeans control the conquered people.
These European planned cities are known as __________ cities.
66

Answer Key:
1.

Gentrification

2.

Redlining

3.

Squatter Settlements

4.

Zoning ordinances

5.

Census tracks

6.

Megalopolis

7. There is a stronger feeling of belonging together in small rural settlements.
8. Hoyt sector model
9. MDC, LDC
10. Burgess Concentric Zone model
11. Edge cities
12. Colonial cities
67

Test Key topic/chapter 13:
These questions come from a combination of our slides, your text book, and common knowledge you should
have discussed in your AP classroom. They are very typical of what you will see on the National Exam.
1) The multiple nuclei theory best explains why different neighborhoods of a city attract people of different… A) ages.
B) ethnic origin C) income D) marital status.
2) Sprawl is the… A) change in density within an urban area from the center to the periphery B) development of new
housing sites not contiguous to the existing built-up area. C) land maintained as open space surrounding an urban area.
D) period in the morning and evening with the heaviest volumes of traffic.
3) People are attracted to suburbs in part because suburbs are characterized by…A) heavy traffic. B) lower opportunity
for home ownership. C) private land surrounding the house. D) row houses and apartments.
4) Megalopolis refers to… A) adjacent, overlapping Metropolitan Statistical Areas. B) central cities. C) consolidated
Metropolitan Statistical Areas. D) central cities plus urbanized areas.
5) Which statement best describes the relationship between urbanization and the Industrial Revolution? A) Urbanization
promoted the Industrial Revolution. B) The Industrial Revolution promoted urbanization. C) Urbanization preceded the
Industrial Revolution by thousands of years. D) Urbanization and the Industrial Revolution are no longer related.
6) The process of legally adding land area to a city in the United States is… A) annexation. B) accreditation. C) an
application of eminent domain. D) defined by urbanized area.

68

7) The process of change in the use of a house, from single-family owner occupancy to abandonment, is… A) blockbusting.
B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining.
8) A process by which banks designate an area within which they refuse to lend money for improvements is… A) blockbusting.
B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining.
9) A recent change in the density gradient has been… A) the elimination of the gap traditionally found in the center. B) an
increase in the extremes between the inner and outer areas. C) an increase in the number of people living in the center.
D) a reduction in the differences in densities found within an urban area.
10) U.S. central cities face fiscal problems because… A) federal and state funds are available. B) low-income people are
concentrated there. C) middle-class families are attracted there. D) redlining is no longer legal.
11) A legal form of segregation in U.S. cities is achieved through...A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) zoning. D) greenbelts.
12) Factories have moved to suburban locations in part because of… A) access to main highways. B) adequate space to build
vertical structures. C) availability of large tracts of high-priced land. D) good rail connections.
13) According to the sector model, the best housing is located in…A) a corridor from downtown to the edge of the city.
B) an outer ring surrounding the city. C) nodes near universities and parks. D) renovated inner-city neighborhoods.
14) Ramshackle houses on the periphery of cities in less developed countries are known as… A) squatter settlements. B) council
estates. C) public housing. D) zone in transition.
15) Higher income people tend to live near the center of the city in all but which of the following regions? A) Latin America
B) North America C) South Asia D) Western Europe

16) The wide boulevards built in cities in less developed countries were most likely built during what era? A) pre-colonial
B) colonial C) independence D) all of the above equally

69

17) According to the multiple nuclei model, an airport is likely to attract nearby… A) industries. B) residences. C) shops.
D) universities.
18) The largest percentage of the U.S. population lives in…A) central cities. B) suburbs. C) non-metropolitan areas. D) all of the
above
19) In U.S. cities, the underclass is… A) clustered in inner-city neighborhoods. B) dispersed throughout the city. C) clustered in
suburbs. D) distributed uniformly in the city.

20) A process of converting a neighborhood from low-income to middle-class is…A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) gentrification.
D) redlining.
21) Higher social heterogeneity in urban settlements means that… A) the people with whom you relax are probably the same ones you
see at work. B) you play a specialized role in the urban economy. C) you compete for limited space. D) you may feel lonely and
isolated in a crowd.
22) The city plus its contiguous built-up suburbs is the… A) central city. B) urbanized area.
D) consolidated metropolitan statistical area

C) metropolitan statistical area.

23) The process whereby an increasing percentage of people live in an urban area is known as… A) demographic transition.
B) rank-size rule. C) urbanization. D) central place theory.
24) Of the ten largest urban areas in the world, how many are in More Developed Countries today? A) 1 B) 4 C) 7 D) 10 E) 2
25) Public housing is…A) conversion of low-income housing to middle-class housing. B) illegally established low-income housing.
C) housing that has changed from single-family owner occupancy to abandonment. D) low-income government-owned housing.
26) According to the concentric zone model, a city develops in a series of… A) corridors. B) nodes. C) rings. D) all of the above

70

27) Chicago is a good location in which to develop urban models because it is located… A) at the hub of the nation's transportation
system. B) in the center of the country. C) on a flat prairie. D) on the shore of Lake Michigan.
28) According to the sector model, the best housing is located in… A) a corridor from downtown to the edge of the city. B) an outer
ring surrounding the city. C) nodes near universities and parks. D) renovated inner-city neighborhoods.
29) The zone of transition in US cities generally contain…A) warehouses B) wealthy neighborhoods C) transportation hubs
D) universities and hospitals E) suburban homes
30) The attractions of shopping malls include all but which of the following? A) frequent concerts and exhibitions B) generous
parking lots C) place to meet friends D) walking distance from homes
The following questions are written at the high school level. You will find some questions from part one often rewritten
here. This is all designed to help you transition to the college/AP style of written questions. Any question preceded with ***
are questions that have been on the national exam before.
31. Most Latin American cities are focused on a…A) central plaza B) government housing project C) zone of heavy industry
D) skyscraper office building E) squatter settlement
32. The multiple-nuclei model of a city structure tends to be most applicable to…A) small cities B) traditional C) Latin American
cities D) newer, fast growing cities E) cities with homogeneous land use
33. ***Locational advantages important to the development of the earliest cities include…A) availability of good harbors for large
ships B) productive agricultural land and defensible sites C) temperate climate and proximity to coal mines D) good
connections by road and canal E) proximity to manufacturing areas

34. In cities, the CBD’s often show uniqueness while the suburbs usually show…A) a large hinterland. B) placelessness C) more
than one node. D) newer zones of transition.

71

35. Many LDC’s have tried to help a previously under-developed part of their country develop by moving their capital
city to that area. This new capital is known as a…A) forward capital B) new development zone C) enterprise zone
D) neocolonial city
36. Today the greatest number of urban dwellers is found in…A) North America
D) Europe E) Asia

B) South America C) Africa

37. ***All of the following have helped create ghettos in North American cities except…A)blockbusting and racial
steering B) redlining by financial institutions C) concentration of public housing and social services D) fixed school
districts E) Economic Enterprise Zones

38. Which of the following is NOT as reason for rapid suburbanization in the US after WW2? A) Mass production of
the automobile B) Reduction of long distance commuting C) Expansion of home construction D) Expansion of the
interstate highway system E) Availability of low down payment terms and long-term mortgages.
39. New cities which developed in the hinterland of large urban areas because of the automobile, are known as…
A) edge cities B) census tracts C) suburban sprawl D) squatter settlements. E) none of these
40. Gentrification refers to… A) moving the homeless into inner city shelters B) The “White Flight” from the urban city
C) losing tax revenue because of stores closing in downtown areas D) middle-class people moving into and renovating
inner city neighborhoods E) the creation of “beltway cities” around the city.

72

4
7
3

5

1
6

2

41-48 all use the sketch above.
41. The sketch in box A above represents which model of the inner structure of urban areas?
C) multiple nuclei model D) Burgess concentric zone model E) peripheral model
42. The models in boxes B and C represent A) Concentric zone and multiple nuclei
concentric zone D) peripheral and concentric zone E) Von Thunen and peripheral

A) Hoyt sector model B) VonThunen’s model

B) Multiple nuclei and Hoyt sector C) Hoyt sector and

43. In which ring (1, 2, etc.) of sketch A above would high-status households in North American cities likely live? A) 1 B) 2 C) 3 D) 4&5
44. In which ring (1, 2, etc.) of sketch A above would high status households in a European city likely live? A) 1

B) 2

C) 3

D) 4&5

45. In model B, zone # 2 is where it is likely because of: A) greenbelting B) squatter settling C) the culture of poverty D) transportation
E) no one knows
46. The model in sketch B is the; A) Hoyt sector model B) Burgess model C) multiple nuclei model D) peripheral model
47. The model in sketch C is the; A) Hoyt sector model B) Burgess model C) multiple nuclei model D) peripheral model
48. Which of these models best describes what has happened in US cities in the last 40 years? A)

B)

C)

73

49.*** In the U.S. a city plus its contiguous built-up suburbs is known as an…A) urbanized area B) zoned area
C) census tract D) Squatter settlement E) none of these
50. Done mostly in Europe, these are areas where land is kept as parks, farms or other kinds of open space and urban
sprawl is not allowed. A) Smart growth
B) zoning
C) filtering
D) census tracts E) greenbelts
51. Which statement best describes the relationship between urbanization and the Industrial Revolution?
A) Urbanization promoted the Industrial Revolution. B) The Industrial Revolution promoted urbanization.
C) Urbanization preceded the Industrial Revolution by thousands of years. D) Urbanization and the Industrial
Revolution are no longer related.
52. The process whereby an increasing percentage of people live in an urban area is known as…
A) Demographic transition. B) rank-size rule. C) Urbanization. D) Central place theory.
53. The city (if it has 50,000 or more people) plus its contiguous built-up suburbs AND the county it is in as well as any
other counties it influences, is known as the ...A) central city B) urbanized area
C) metropolitan statistical area
D) consolidated metropolitan area E) micropolitan statistical area
54. ***Higher social heterogeneity in urban settlements means that …A) the people with whom you relax are probably
the same ones you see at work. B) you play a specialized role in the urban economy. C) you compete for limited
space. D) you may feel lonely and isolated in a crowd.

55. The process of change in the use of a house, from single-family owner occupancy to smaller dwellings for the poor
and then sometimes to abandonment, is…A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining. E) none of
these

74

Free Response #1:
The Bid Rent theory says that the closer you get to the
CBD the higher the cost for land, yet in most American
cities you find the poorest people living near the
expensive CBD and the richest living further away.
Explain:
A. Why neighborhoods near the CBD are often poor and
run down?
B. Why are there few grocery and other retail stores in
these neighborhoods?
C. Why is this not really true in European and Latin
American countries?

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75

FR #2:
Think of the map of your school, explain the
layout of your school using the Multiple Nuclei
Model
The main office is the CBD.
Completely explain your answer using specific
buildings and/or land areas in your explanation
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76

Answer Key:
1. B

14. A

27. C

40. D

53. C

2. B

15. B

28. A

41. D

54. D

3. C

16. B

29. A

42. B

55. B

4. A

17. A

30. D

43. D

5. B

18. B

31. A

44. A

6. A

19. A

32. D

45. D

7. B

20. C

33. B

46. A

8. D

21. D

34. B

47. C

9. D

22. B

35. A

48. C

10. B

23. C

36. E

49. A

11. C

24. C

37. E

50. E

12. A

25. D

38. B

51. B

13. A

26. C

39. A

52. C
77

FR. #1: ( 15 pts. for each section…total of 45 pts.)
A. In the US the move of the wealthy and middle class to the suburbs has left the older houses and apartments near the CBD empty.
This has lowered their value to the point where the poor can afford these dwellings and have made these neighborhoods their
homes. The poor can not pay for upkeep of these dwellings, or to pay high taxes. The lack of upkeep and tax money to repair the
roads and schools, adds to the downward spiral of the neighborhood. With little spending money for shopping, the poor do not
spend much in the stores. This causes many stores to close and move to the suburbs where the spending customers and money
went. The closing of the stores adds to the poverty of the area by taking away some of the jobs that were in the neighborhood. This
becomes a vicious cycle of poverty and deterioration. (15 points)

B. There are few retail stores and groceries is the area because the poor do not have money to shop. The lack of spending forces
many stores out of business or forces them to move to better locations. There also can be higher crime in these areas and the
crime often takes place at the stores. This is another reason for the stores to move out of the neighborhood. (15 points)
C. Neighborhoods in European and Latin American cities are different from those of US cities. In Europe and Latin America, the
wealthy and middle class still live near or in the CBD. The higher tax base and more spending ability of the upper and middle
classes, keeps the CBD area flourishing with jobs and in constant repair and upkeep of the cities’ physical condition. (15 points)

FR #2: (10 total points.)
You will need to judge how effectively you displayed you school
in the Multiple Nuclei Model. Refer to the model itself to help you
determine your success and grade.
School’s main office
78

Calculating your grade on test 13.
Add how many you got correct on the multiple choice part (55 possible) to how many
points you scored on the FR portion (55 possible)…110 total.
The following scale will show the approximate score if this test were the real AP exam. Remember that this
is an approximation. While 65-74% is normally the range for a 3 on the test, it is not definite. Over the
years I have seen scores as low as 60% be the low portion of a 3 score.

Out of 110 possible points:
72-83 is most likely a 3
84-94 is most likely a 4

95-110 is most likely a 5

Now lets start our review for the national exam by
reviewing the 33 key models and theories of the
course…the next PowerPoint.


Slide 64

Key topic/chapter 13…Urban Patterns
Key terms:
Annexation
Concentric zone model
Density gradient
Edge cities
Filtering
Galactic city
Gentrification
Greenbelts
Megalopolis
MSA
Multiple nuclei model
Peripheral model

Public housing
Redlining
Renovated housing
Scattered site
Squatter settlement
Sector model
Smart growth
Sprawl
Underclass
Urban renewal
Zone in transition
Zoning
1

Chapter 13…Urban Areas.
How are Cities planned?
Why

are cities where they are?
How are they organized?
Why are some areas of a city
different from
other areas of the same city?
What is the future of cities?
2

Settlement


Settlement - permanent collections of buildings,
where people live, work, and obtain services

3

ORIGINS OF SETTLEMENTS


Religious - graves, churches, temples



Cultural - schools, libraries



Political/Military - leader’s house, walls



Economic - stores, food
4

TYPES OF SETTLEMENTS


Rural Settlements - agriculture as the
predominant occupation.



Urban settlements - principal industries are
secondary and tertiary.

5

RURAL SETTLEMENTS
Clustered rural settlements –grouped
settlements in rural areas to minimize travel

Dispersed rural Settlements - isolated farms
with enclosed continuous fields (Found only in
N. America and Britain).

6

Urban Geographers want to know the global distribution of urban
settlements. MDC’s have a high percentage of people living in urban
areas because of the shift from agriculture-manufacturing-services.
Geographers are also interested in where people and activities are
distributed within urban spaces. What are the differences between the
inner-city and suburban areas and why?
As we saw in the last chapter, many downtowns are unique and can
often be recognized in photos where the suburbs often look very
much alike (Placelessness). Why? Suburbs offer the chance to avoid
some of the city problems (crime, tight living area, expensive
land/rent, noise, age of buildings) while still keeping a connection with
the goods and services of the city: jobs, sports teams, culture, shops,
recreation, etc.
7

Where is this place?

8

Today’s cities are evolving and changing. Although different internal
situations characterize urban areas in the US and elsewhere, the
problems arising from current spatial trends are quite similar in all cities.
Where have urban areas grown: in the early 1800’s only 3% of the earth’s
people lived in cities and only Beijing China had more than 1 million
people. Today over ½ of the world’s people live in cities and we have over
400 cities of at least 1 million people.

Urbanization: is the process by which city population grows.
Cities population growth is measured in 2 dimensions;
1. An increase in the number of people living in the cities.
2. An increase in the percentage of people living in the cities.
This distinction is important because they happen for different reason and
have different global distributions.
9

Increasing Percentage of People in Cities: a large percentage of people living in urban
areas is a measure of a country’s level of development. In MDC’s about ¾ of the people
live in urban areas compared to about 2/5 of people in LDC’s. (Except in Latin America
where the level is closer to MDC’s.)
The higher percentage of people in urban areas comes from the changes that have
occurred in the last 200 years as we went from agriculture (primary jobs) to industrial
(secondary jobs) and now service jobs, all created by the Industrial Revolution of the
1800’s.
People moved to the cities for industrial jobs, but in MDC’s this process has largely
ended because nearly everyone interested in moving to the cities from farms has already
done so.
In LDC’s the percentage of people living in urban areas is growing as people are pushed
off of their farms and replaced by machines and as people move to cities looking/hoping
for industrial jobs.
10

Increasing Number of People in Cities: MDC’s have a higher percentage of
people living in urban settlements but LDC’s have more of the very large urban
settlements (Primate cities). (Rank-size rule, primate cities, chapter 12.)

This is interesting because typically the large cities are created from the
improvements brought by the Industrial Revolution. This is not the case with the
large LDC cities. Migration to the primate city in LDC’s is happening even though
job opportunities may not be available. Increasing the population growth in LDC
cities is the fact that medical services are better in these cities, thus the child
mortality rate is lower.
Defining Urban Settlements: defining where urban areas end and rural areas
begin is not easy. Geographers have formulated definitions that distinguish
between urban and rural areas in two ways: Social differences and Physical
differences.
11

Percent Urban Population

Percent of the population living in urban areas is usually higher in MDCs
than in LDCs.

12

The most populated cities in the world

Of the top
20, only
Moscow,
Tokyo and
New York
are in MDC’s

Shanghai China has 14,608,512 people
13

14

15

Social Differences Between Urban and Rural Settlements: it is fair to say that rural
people and urban people follow different ways of life. A city can be defined as having 3
characteristics:
1. Large size. People in rural settlements know most of the other people in the
settlement. Not true in big cities. Social relationships are often described as “colder” in
urban areas because you only see some people at work instead of growing up with
them in the settlement.
2. High Density. Having lots of people in a tiny area creates social consequences. A
high density of people living in a small area can only be supported if the people
specialize (they can’t all be farmers). People are encouraged to compete for jobs, room,
and survival in a tightly limited space. Social groups compete to occupy the same space
(ethnic/ race problems). Rural settlements have very little of this problem.
3. Social Heterogeneity. The larger the settlement, the greater the variety of people.
Being “unusual” in a large settlement is more likely to be accepted than in a small rural
one. But despite the freedom to be different that large urban settlements give you,
people living there often feel alone because so many people are different from them.
There is a stronger feeling of belonging together in small rural settlements.
16

These 3 differences do not fully answer the question of where urban settlements
begin and rural ones end because in today’s MDC’s most everyone has access to
cars, telephones, televisions, and “urban type” jobs which reduce the differences
between urban and rural lifestyles. “City folk” and “Country folk” are more alike
today than they are different. To help distinguish between urban and rural areas we
need to add the physical definition of rural and urban to the equation.
Physical Definitions of Urban Settlements: In ancient time, cities had defensive
walls for protection which clearly defined the physical boundaries of the city. Today
the walls are gone but we can still define the physical boundaries in 3 ways:
1. Legal boundary. These are the official boundaries of a city as recognized by
the government of the country or state. These “city limits” have been officially given
to the city and are physically marked on official maps. The local government of the
city has authority to make laws and protect the people inside the city boundaries.
17

2. Urbanized area. This is the city plus its suburbs or urbanized area that
surrounds the city. About 70 percent of US residents live in urbanized areas with
40% being in the suburbs and 30% inside the city limits. The suburbs may have
their own city governments but the huge central city dominates what happens in
the entire area.
3. Metropolitan Statistical Area. Cities have an even bigger influence on people
than just those living in their city limits and surrounding urbanized areas. People
from far away come to shop, use the services, support the sports teams, read
the newspapers and watch the television broadcasts of the city. Thus the city
has a “functional area” which is its total zone of influence. The US Bureau of
Census has created a method of measuring the functional area of the city.
Known as the Metropolitan statistical area (MSA) this area includes:
•An urbanized area with a population of at least 50,000
•The county within which the city is located.
•Adjacent counties with a high population density and a large percentage of
residents working in the central city’s county.
18

Metropolitan Area of Philadelphia

City of
Philadelphia

Urbanized
area
(suburbs)
Metropolitan
Statistical
Area

The metropolitan area of Philadelphia is
spread over several counties and four states.
It is also a diversified trade center, given its
position on the Delaware river.

19

20

21

Micropolitan Statistical Areas: Smaller areas with between
10,000 and 50,000 people, the county where it is found, and
adjacent counties tied to the city. This would be a small town and
the area dominated by it.
Overlapping Metropolitan Areas: Some adjacent MSA’s overlap.
A county between two central cities may send a large number of
commuters to jobs in both cities. In some areas the cities are so
close that they form one continuous urban complex. This is
known as a Megalopolis (great city).
In a megalopolis, the downtown CBD often has its own
distinctive look and the urban areas are visually separated by
parks, open spaces, and dairy/truck farms. But at the periphery
of the urban areas, the boundaries overlap.
22

Colorado Springs, population 431,000

Ocala, Florida, population 56,000

Florala, Alabama, population 1,900

23

Megalopolis, from northern Va. To Maine.
This Illustrates the
difference between
strict city proper
definitions and broader
urban agglomerations.
To define urbanized
areas, the U.S. Census
Bureau uses the term
Metropolitan Statistical
Area (MSA) or
Consolidated MSA
(CMSA) if two or more of
them overlap.
24

Where are People Distributed within Urban Areas? People are not
just distributed at random in urban areas. For the most part they
concentrate in particular neighborhoods depending on their social
characteristics. Geographers want to see where people with
particular characteristics are likely to live and why.

Three models which try to explain the growth of a city:

The Burgess Model

The Hoyt Sector Model

The Harris and Ullman
multiple Nuclei Model
25

Burgess Concentric Zone Model

In the concentric zone model, a city grows in a series of rings surrounding the CBD.

Burgess Concentric Zone Model: This is the first used to explain the
distributions of different social groups within urban areas. It says that a
city grows outward from a central place in a series of concentric rings.
The precise size and width of the rings vary from one city to another, but
some basic types of rings appear in all cities in the same order (see chart
above).
26

•Hoyt Sector Model: In this model the city develops in a
series of sectors not rings. Certain areas of the city are
more attractive for various activities, originally because
of an environmental factor (or even pure chance). As the
city grows, activities extend outward in a wedge shape.
For example, once a wealthy neighborhood is built the
next wealthy neighborhood will extend from the first
neighborhood further outward from the center. In this
way, the best housing is found in a corridor extending
outward from the center to the outer edge (see chart on
the next page).
27

The Hoyt Sector Model

In the sector model, a city grows in a series of
wedges or corridors extending out from the
CBD.
28

•Harris and Ullman’s Multiple Nuclei Model: According
to this model, a city is a complex structure that includes
more than one center around which activities revolve.
Examples of these nodes include a port, parks,
stadium, neighborhood business center, university, and
airport (see chart). This theory states that some
activities are attracted to particular nodes, whereas
others try to avoid them. A university node may attract
well educated people and bookstores while the port will
attract hotels and warehouses. Heavy industry and
expensive houses rarely are found together. This
model shows the effect of the automobile more than
any other model.
29

The Harris and Ullman Multiple Nuclei model

The multiple nuclei model views a city as a
collection of individual centers, around which
different people and activities cluster.

30

Applications of the Models: The three models help explain where and in some
cases, why people live where they do. None of the models by themselves fully
explains why and where different types of people live, but combined they give
you as good a look as possible at the “Why” of “Where.” Effective use of the
models depends on getting good data on the areas. Most countries take a
census every 10 years to help determine useful data about the people and
places of the country. In our country we divide the census data into areas
known as census tracts of about 5,000 people. Each census tract has the data
that summarizes the characteristics of the people living within that tract. This
information includes things like the race, income, age, and education of the
people living in that tract.
Social Area Analysis: The data from the census tracts can all be plotted onto
maps to show the characteristics of the people living in that tract. This map is
known as a social area analysis.
31

Using Census tract information…Seattle, Washington
Each lined area is a
census tract of about 5000
people in Seattle
Washington. These maps
show average household
income for 1990 and
2000…note the changes in
income in some areas
between 1990 and 2000.
Using this information, a
business can make
decisions about where
they want to locate a new
store or the future of
existing stores.
You can find census tract
information on many topics
such as; age, education
level, race, ethnicity, crime
rate, and land ownership.
Note the areas with
incomes over
$63,000.

All can be very valuable
information to people
looking to open
businesses.

32

Examine the changes
between 1990 and
2000.

Oakland, California’s Ethnic neighborhoods
The small bordered areas are census tracks of 5000 people.

33

Use of the Models Outside of North America: The 3 models will also work in other
places in the world; however social groups in other countries may not have the
same reasons for selecting particular neighborhoods as Americans do.
European Cities: As in the US, wealthier people in European cities cluster along a
sector extending outward from the CBD, however unlike the US, wealthy and
middle class Europeans still live in the inner rings of the neighborhoods near the
CBD not out in the suburbs. In the past, poorer people lived in the center of the
city. Before electricity, social segregation was vertical: richer people lived on the
first or second floor of a building while the poorer people lived in the basement or
upper floors. In the Industrial Revolution, housing for the poor was constructed
near the factories and away from the rich.
Today poorer Europeans are less likely to live in the inner-city. Poor quality
housing has been renovated for the rich or turned into office buildings. Poorer
Europeans tend to live in the outskirts of the city. Vast suburbs with dozens of high
rise apartments house the poor. They face long commutes to reach their jobs in
the city.
34

European cities generally do not have the “suburban
sprawl” that US cities have. European cities tend to be
more pedestrian friendly with more parks downtown as
Europeans tend to still live downtown.
US cities have taller buildings as European cities tend to
be older and more historic.

American cities have more ethnic neighborhoods than
European cities. Ethnic neighborhoods that do exist in
European cities tend to be in the suburbs. WHY?
Because the established richer neighborhoods tend to be
downtown in European cities.
35

Less Developed Countries: Like Europe, most LDC’s accommodate their poor in the
suburbs with their middle class and rich living near the center of the city. LDC’s have
passed through 3 periods of city building: before the Europeans arrived, during the
period of European colonialism, and since independence from European control.

Pre-colonial Cities: Before the Europeans arrived few cities existed in Africa, Asia, and
Latin America and most people lived in small rural settlements. Those cities that existed
were mostly laid out surrounding a religious center; with the rest of the city laid out in a
hieratical concentric pattern (like the Burgess model) from government buildings,
homes of the wealthy, and businesses related to the religion out to other businesses
and shops.
Colonial cities: When the Europeans took over these lands, they changed the cities by
adding services to help the Europeans control the conquered people. Often a new
European style city would be build next to the existing native one. The new European
cities contained wider streets, a public square, larger houses and a much lower density.
The Spanish used the “Law of the Indies” which was a city plan designed specifically to
build cities in a “Spanish” style. (Gridiron pattern for streets centered on a church and
central plaza, walls around individual houses and neighborhoods centered around
smaller plazas and more churches.)
36

Early Mexico city was laid out in a grid pattern of streets. This followed
the Spanish “Law of the Indies.”

37

Central Plaza in Mexico City 1920 photo. Typical Colonial City plan.

Part of downtown Mexico city today still shows the
building plan of the “Law of the Indies.”

38

Cities since Independence: Following independence, cities have become
the focal point of the development of most LDC’s. Millions of people have
migrated to the cities (Primate cities) looking for jobs and services. Some
capitals have been moved to isolated areas in an attempt to help develop
that area of the country (Brasília) This is know as a forward capital. Latin
American cities have developed their own unique style.
Squatter settlements: The LDC’s are unable to house the rapidly growing
number of poor who are flowing into the cities. Because of the housing
shortages, the poor have constructed their own settlements around the city.
These settlements have few services because neither the city nor the
residents can afford them. Squatters have two basic choices for housing.
1. Illegally move into empty real houses located in the city or,
2. Rent slum housing.
(85% of the population of Addis Ababa in Ethiopia lives in squatter
settlements, slums or other illegal housing.)
39

Squatter shacks in Manila, the Philippines

40

Squatter settlement in Ethiopia

41

Zimbabwe, Africa

42

Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

43

Latin American City Model:
In many Latin
American cities,
the wealthy live in
the inner city and
in a sector
extending along a
commercial spine.
In situ accretion- businesses
and homes constantly under
construction/repair.
Zone of maturity-2nd best
housing in the city.
The poor live in squatter settlements on the
periphery of the city.

Disamenity- unpleasant area
used by the poor to get to the
market.

44

The City Outline of Rio de Janeiro
The rich tourist areas and expensive condo apartments are along the coast
and beach while the poor live in squatter shacks in the hills.

45

City problems:
Inner-City Physical Problems: Most US inner cities were constructed before the 1950’s
(people began to move to the suburbs in the 1950’s so new construction moved out of
the city).
Process of Deterioration (how a city deteriorates): A city doesn’t suddenly become old
and full of slummy areas. It happens over time. When a group of low-income people
inhabit an area of a city, nearby neighborhoods will often look to move out. They sell or
rent to more low-income occupants thus expanding the low-income area. Two processes
cause/speed up the devaluation of areas:
1. Filtering, 2. Redlining.
Filtering: Large houses and buildings that once housed rich downtown workers (who
moved to the suburbs) are taken over by landlords who don’t live in that area (they
moved to the suburbs too). Rents are low so the landlord doesn’t take as good care of
the property as they should and the property becomes run down or abandoned. Stores
close, or move, due to lack of sales. 100 years ago these neighborhoods would be used
by immigrants and ethnic businesses would succeed in those areas. Now, with a decline
in immigration, these neighborhoods have shrunk and so have schools, businesses and
other services. Thousands of vacant houses and buildings stand empty in inner cities
across America.

46

Redlining: Some banks refuse to give loans in what they consider
risky neighborhoods. They draw a red line on a map around areas
where they will not give loans. Without loans, these neighborhoods
have a hard time rebuilding/remodeling. Though illegal, this still
happens. Bankers just don’t put these “no-loan” areas on a map.

Urban Renewal: This is the series of projects to improve European
and N. American cities by buying up the blighted neighborhoods,
moving the people to new government built housing projects, and
building new roads, and other projects to make the inner city
attractive for business again. National and State government grants
help pay for these projects.
47

Public housing: Housing for the poor, built with government funding as part of
urban renewal. In the US this is only about 2% of the housing while in some
countries it may be more (Britain is 30%). Public housing built in the 50’s & 60’s
were largely high rise apartments, but those are seen as being unsatisfactory.
Problems arise from cramming large numbers of poor people into one area.
Today most public housing projects are one to three story buildings with many of
them being scattered around different parts of the city rather than clustered into
one area.
Because urban renewal has been criticized for destroying the social cohesion of
older neighborhoods, many governments (like the US) have stopped funding
most projects since the 1970’s. What do we do instead?
Renovated Housing: An alternative often used since the 70’s is to renovate a
building instead of urban renewal. The process where middle-class people
move into inner-city neighborhoods and renovate them is called gentrification.
Gentrified inner-city neighborhoods also attract middle-class people who work
downtown. Living close to work saves the hassle of commuting and rejuvenates
run down inner-city neighborhoods
48

Gentrified building downtown Harlem, NY. Note the supermarket.

49

Inner-City Social Problems: Inner-city residents are often referred to as the
permanent underclass because they are trapped in an unending cycle of
economic and social problems. High unemployment, alcoholism, drug
addiction, literacy, juvenile delinquency, and crime all exist at a higher rate
among those who live in the inner-city. Lack of jobs means lack of tax dollars
to pay for police and fire protection as well as good schools. Lack of job skills
and homelessness are also tremendous problems.
Culture of Poverty: Inner-city residents are trapped in a permanent underclass
culture that reproduces itself. In the US, unwed mothers give birth to 2/3 of the
babies in the inner-city. 90% of these children live with only one parent and it
is real hard for one parent to keep a job and take care of children. Both suffer
and a shortage of care and daily attention by the parent contributes to the kids
not learning the skills necessary to do well in school which leads to poor jobs
for their futures. Poverty leads to more poverty. Many families on welfare have
only one parent because it is financially better if one parent is gone, that way
the single parent gets food stamps and other services from the government
that they would not get if it was a 2 family household.
50

Crime: Trapped in a hopeless environment, some inner-city
residents turn to drugs. Drug use is a problem in inner-city
areas and the suburbs, but rates of drug use in inner-cities
are the highest.
Ethnic and Racial Segregation: As seen in chapter 7, many
neighborhoods in the US are segregated by ethnicity with
African Americans and Hispanics concentrated in one or two
continuous areas and whites living in the suburbs. Even small
cities display a strong distinction among neighborhoods. A
frequent division is between the east and west or north and
south side of town, or the railroad tracks. A family seeking a
new residence will seek the areas where the characteristics
of the people meet their own.

51

The exodus
from the
American city.
This has
happened in
many American
cities since the
1960’s.

52

Changes in Cities in the U.S.
U.S. population has been moving out of the city centers to the suburbs:
suburbanization and counter urbanization

Developed Countries: suburbanization

 wealthy move to suburbs
 automobiles and roads; ‘American
Dream’ of the home in the suburbs.
 better services
 wealthy move to suburbs
Counter urbanization

idyllic settings
cost of land for retirement
slow pace, yet high tech
connections to services and markets
53

U.S. intraregional migration during 1990s.

Inner city economic problems: the concentration of low income
residents in inner cities has caused economic problems. These
people require public services but can pay very little in taxes to
support the services. They need stores and jobs but have little
money to spend in the store and few skills for jobs (so the stores
close). To try to fight these problems many local and state
governments use tax monies to try to renovate these areas, but this
shifts tax money needed for other areas to the inner city (votes on
election day).
Annexation: Many cities could help their tax problem by adding the
new suburbs to be part of their city (annexation). After all, many of
these suburban people use the city for its’ jobs etc., so why not add
them into the city? Today, most people in the suburbs do not want
to be annexed into the city and so they do not vote to be annexed.
54

The Peripheral Model: According to this model, an urban area
consists of an inner city surrounded by large suburban residential
and business areas (MSA) tied together by a beltway or highway
that circles the city. Around the beltway are nodes of consumer
and business services called edge cities (see diagram of multiple
nuclei model). These edge cities sprang up to provide services
and jobs to the people in the suburbs.
Density Gradient: As you travel outward from the center of the
city, the density of people declines. Inner city has big apartments
of 250 of more people per acre. Suburbs have fewer people per
acre (but lots of acres) and finally you leave the cities periphery
you find few people. The number of houses per unit of land
diminishes as distance from the center of the city increases.
55

The Edge cities (bedroom communities) of Houston

The central city is surrounded by a ring road, around which are
suburban areas and edge cities, shopping malls, office parks,
industrial areas, and service complexes.

Known as
bedroom
communities
because
people live
there but
mostly don’t
work there.
They drive
into the city
for work.
56

As you move from the center of the city outward, the density of the population
changes. This is know as the density gradient. Two big changes have occurred in
the density gradient of today’s cities:
1. The number of people living in the center has decreased.
2. The density difference between the inner city and the suburbs is declining
because the inner city density is dropping and the suburban density is growing
due to more large apartments being built in the suburbs.
Cost of Suburban or Urban Sprawl: Urban Sprawl is the progressive spread of
development over the landscape. As long as we Americans want single-family
detached houses, land on the fringe of urban areas will be converted from open
space to residential use. The cost of this growth is more than the loss of land, it is
also the cost of new roads, utilities, building stores and offices and the cost of
automobiles to move these people over even longer distances. Lots of these new
developments are built on what was once farmland. Wonderful productive soil now
under concrete.

Greenbelts: are areas where, by law, the open space can not be used for any
construction. This is mostly found in Europe.

57

Once farmland that is being converted to suburbs and cities.

58

Tyson’s Corner Virginia in 1940

59

Washington, DC. MSA.

Tyson’s Corner Virginia
today.
Washington D.C. is off
In the distance.

60

Suburban Segregation: The “new” segregation.
Suburban segregation takes two forms:
1. Residents are separated from commercial and manufacturing activities
which are confined someplace else. (The whole neighborhood is
nothing but houses because they drive for services.)
2. The price of the house eliminates some from being able to live there. This
creates a homogeneous suburb of the same economic class of people.
This never existed before in history. Where we once had vertical
segregation of the classes we now we have horizontal segregation.
3. But this may be reversing as new statistics show that people are beginning
to move back to the city. Why? Cost of transportation.
Zoning Ordinances: This idea developed in Europe and later America in the
early decades of the 20th century. This means that businesses are allowed only
in certain areas of the settlement. (No all night taco stands inside your single
family neighborhood.)
Motor vehicles: The wide use of the automobile is largely responsible for the
American movement to the suburbs. Not only did people move out but 1/4 of
the land inside all American cities are now roads, streets, and parking lots.

61

Public Transportation: Because few US workers live within walking distance
of their jobs, urban areas are characterized by extensive commuting and the
problems that come with it. As much as 40% of all trips made into or out from
a city during the day takes place within just 4 hours. (2 in the morning and 2 in
the late afternoon). RUSH HOUR!!! In large cities, public transportation, like
subways and busses, are better suited to move people but Americans still
prefer their own cars. Public transportation is cheaper, cleaner, and more
energy efficient than personal cars, yet in the US only 5% of city travel is
done using public transit systems. American’s love their personal car too
much.
Local Government Fragmentation: Because of the large number of local
governments in the US (look at the settlements in Pinellas County) it is
difficult to solve some of the regional problems like garbage disposal, water
management, traffic and public housing.
62

Metropolitan government: This idea tries to put many local governments into a
larger unit that can better handle the urban problems. The 2 ways to do this
are:
1. Federations in which the individual settlements have their own police,
firemen, and tax collection but they all agree to be part of a second
government which handles transportation, water, sewage, parks and
welfare for all the communities.
2. Consolidations: In this method, several cities and the county may form one
government. Jacksonville’s government runs not only the town but the
county too, this makes Jacksonville the largest city, in land size, in the US.
Smart growth: A new movement by many states to curb suburban sprawl by
limiting where new construction can take place. Smart growth laws require that
land near cities be used up before any land further out can be developed. So
far, this is only being done an a few parts of our country.
63

The new
US as
some
people
see it.

64

Quiz Yourself:
1. The process where middle-class people move into inner city neighborhoods and
renovate them is called ____________
2. ____________ happens when banks refuse to give loans in what they consider
risky neighborhoods.
3. Because of the housing shortages, the poor have constructed their own settlements
around the city known as __________ _________

4. Businesses are allowed only in certain areas of the settlement because of
____________ ____________
5. Areas known as _____ _______ are areas of about 5,000 people. The data from
that area is used to help define needed services for that area.
6. When cities are so close that they form one continuous band of development this is
known as a ____________
65

7. Social relationships are often described as “colder” in urban areas because…
8. In this model the city develops in a series of sectors not rings. _______

9. ______ (LDC’s or MDC’s) have a higher percentage of people living in urban
settlements but ________ (LDC’s or MDC’s) have more of the very large urban
settlements.
10. _____________ was the first model developed to explain the distributions
of different social groups within urban areas.
11. New cities which develop around the beltway are nodes of consumer and
business services known as ________ _________.

12. When the Europeans took over lands around the world, they changed the
cities by adding services to help the Europeans control the conquered people.
These European planned cities are known as __________ cities.
66

Answer Key:
1.

Gentrification

2.

Redlining

3.

Squatter Settlements

4.

Zoning ordinances

5.

Census tracks

6.

Megalopolis

7. There is a stronger feeling of belonging together in small rural settlements.
8. Hoyt sector model
9. MDC, LDC
10. Burgess Concentric Zone model
11. Edge cities
12. Colonial cities
67

Test Key topic/chapter 13:
These questions come from a combination of our slides, your text book, and common knowledge you should
have discussed in your AP classroom. They are very typical of what you will see on the National Exam.
1) The multiple nuclei theory best explains why different neighborhoods of a city attract people of different… A) ages.
B) ethnic origin C) income D) marital status.
2) Sprawl is the… A) change in density within an urban area from the center to the periphery B) development of new
housing sites not contiguous to the existing built-up area. C) land maintained as open space surrounding an urban area.
D) period in the morning and evening with the heaviest volumes of traffic.
3) People are attracted to suburbs in part because suburbs are characterized by…A) heavy traffic. B) lower opportunity
for home ownership. C) private land surrounding the house. D) row houses and apartments.
4) Megalopolis refers to… A) adjacent, overlapping Metropolitan Statistical Areas. B) central cities. C) consolidated
Metropolitan Statistical Areas. D) central cities plus urbanized areas.
5) Which statement best describes the relationship between urbanization and the Industrial Revolution? A) Urbanization
promoted the Industrial Revolution. B) The Industrial Revolution promoted urbanization. C) Urbanization preceded the
Industrial Revolution by thousands of years. D) Urbanization and the Industrial Revolution are no longer related.
6) The process of legally adding land area to a city in the United States is… A) annexation. B) accreditation. C) an
application of eminent domain. D) defined by urbanized area.

68

7) The process of change in the use of a house, from single-family owner occupancy to abandonment, is… A) blockbusting.
B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining.
8) A process by which banks designate an area within which they refuse to lend money for improvements is… A) blockbusting.
B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining.
9) A recent change in the density gradient has been… A) the elimination of the gap traditionally found in the center. B) an
increase in the extremes between the inner and outer areas. C) an increase in the number of people living in the center.
D) a reduction in the differences in densities found within an urban area.
10) U.S. central cities face fiscal problems because… A) federal and state funds are available. B) low-income people are
concentrated there. C) middle-class families are attracted there. D) redlining is no longer legal.
11) A legal form of segregation in U.S. cities is achieved through...A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) zoning. D) greenbelts.
12) Factories have moved to suburban locations in part because of… A) access to main highways. B) adequate space to build
vertical structures. C) availability of large tracts of high-priced land. D) good rail connections.
13) According to the sector model, the best housing is located in…A) a corridor from downtown to the edge of the city.
B) an outer ring surrounding the city. C) nodes near universities and parks. D) renovated inner-city neighborhoods.
14) Ramshackle houses on the periphery of cities in less developed countries are known as… A) squatter settlements. B) council
estates. C) public housing. D) zone in transition.
15) Higher income people tend to live near the center of the city in all but which of the following regions? A) Latin America
B) North America C) South Asia D) Western Europe

16) The wide boulevards built in cities in less developed countries were most likely built during what era? A) pre-colonial
B) colonial C) independence D) all of the above equally

69

17) According to the multiple nuclei model, an airport is likely to attract nearby… A) industries. B) residences. C) shops.
D) universities.
18) The largest percentage of the U.S. population lives in…A) central cities. B) suburbs. C) non-metropolitan areas. D) all of the
above
19) In U.S. cities, the underclass is… A) clustered in inner-city neighborhoods. B) dispersed throughout the city. C) clustered in
suburbs. D) distributed uniformly in the city.

20) A process of converting a neighborhood from low-income to middle-class is…A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) gentrification.
D) redlining.
21) Higher social heterogeneity in urban settlements means that… A) the people with whom you relax are probably the same ones you
see at work. B) you play a specialized role in the urban economy. C) you compete for limited space. D) you may feel lonely and
isolated in a crowd.
22) The city plus its contiguous built-up suburbs is the… A) central city. B) urbanized area.
D) consolidated metropolitan statistical area

C) metropolitan statistical area.

23) The process whereby an increasing percentage of people live in an urban area is known as… A) demographic transition.
B) rank-size rule. C) urbanization. D) central place theory.
24) Of the ten largest urban areas in the world, how many are in More Developed Countries today? A) 1 B) 4 C) 7 D) 10 E) 2
25) Public housing is…A) conversion of low-income housing to middle-class housing. B) illegally established low-income housing.
C) housing that has changed from single-family owner occupancy to abandonment. D) low-income government-owned housing.
26) According to the concentric zone model, a city develops in a series of… A) corridors. B) nodes. C) rings. D) all of the above

70

27) Chicago is a good location in which to develop urban models because it is located… A) at the hub of the nation's transportation
system. B) in the center of the country. C) on a flat prairie. D) on the shore of Lake Michigan.
28) According to the sector model, the best housing is located in… A) a corridor from downtown to the edge of the city. B) an outer
ring surrounding the city. C) nodes near universities and parks. D) renovated inner-city neighborhoods.
29) The zone of transition in US cities generally contain…A) warehouses B) wealthy neighborhoods C) transportation hubs
D) universities and hospitals E) suburban homes
30) The attractions of shopping malls include all but which of the following? A) frequent concerts and exhibitions B) generous
parking lots C) place to meet friends D) walking distance from homes
The following questions are written at the high school level. You will find some questions from part one often rewritten
here. This is all designed to help you transition to the college/AP style of written questions. Any question preceded with ***
are questions that have been on the national exam before.
31. Most Latin American cities are focused on a…A) central plaza B) government housing project C) zone of heavy industry
D) skyscraper office building E) squatter settlement
32. The multiple-nuclei model of a city structure tends to be most applicable to…A) small cities B) traditional C) Latin American
cities D) newer, fast growing cities E) cities with homogeneous land use
33. ***Locational advantages important to the development of the earliest cities include…A) availability of good harbors for large
ships B) productive agricultural land and defensible sites C) temperate climate and proximity to coal mines D) good
connections by road and canal E) proximity to manufacturing areas

34. In cities, the CBD’s often show uniqueness while the suburbs usually show…A) a large hinterland. B) placelessness C) more
than one node. D) newer zones of transition.

71

35. Many LDC’s have tried to help a previously under-developed part of their country develop by moving their capital
city to that area. This new capital is known as a…A) forward capital B) new development zone C) enterprise zone
D) neocolonial city
36. Today the greatest number of urban dwellers is found in…A) North America
D) Europe E) Asia

B) South America C) Africa

37. ***All of the following have helped create ghettos in North American cities except…A)blockbusting and racial
steering B) redlining by financial institutions C) concentration of public housing and social services D) fixed school
districts E) Economic Enterprise Zones

38. Which of the following is NOT as reason for rapid suburbanization in the US after WW2? A) Mass production of
the automobile B) Reduction of long distance commuting C) Expansion of home construction D) Expansion of the
interstate highway system E) Availability of low down payment terms and long-term mortgages.
39. New cities which developed in the hinterland of large urban areas because of the automobile, are known as…
A) edge cities B) census tracts C) suburban sprawl D) squatter settlements. E) none of these
40. Gentrification refers to… A) moving the homeless into inner city shelters B) The “White Flight” from the urban city
C) losing tax revenue because of stores closing in downtown areas D) middle-class people moving into and renovating
inner city neighborhoods E) the creation of “beltway cities” around the city.

72

4
7
3

5

1
6

2

41-48 all use the sketch above.
41. The sketch in box A above represents which model of the inner structure of urban areas?
C) multiple nuclei model D) Burgess concentric zone model E) peripheral model
42. The models in boxes B and C represent A) Concentric zone and multiple nuclei
concentric zone D) peripheral and concentric zone E) Von Thunen and peripheral

A) Hoyt sector model B) VonThunen’s model

B) Multiple nuclei and Hoyt sector C) Hoyt sector and

43. In which ring (1, 2, etc.) of sketch A above would high-status households in North American cities likely live? A) 1 B) 2 C) 3 D) 4&5
44. In which ring (1, 2, etc.) of sketch A above would high status households in a European city likely live? A) 1

B) 2

C) 3

D) 4&5

45. In model B, zone # 2 is where it is likely because of: A) greenbelting B) squatter settling C) the culture of poverty D) transportation
E) no one knows
46. The model in sketch B is the; A) Hoyt sector model B) Burgess model C) multiple nuclei model D) peripheral model
47. The model in sketch C is the; A) Hoyt sector model B) Burgess model C) multiple nuclei model D) peripheral model
48. Which of these models best describes what has happened in US cities in the last 40 years? A)

B)

C)

73

49.*** In the U.S. a city plus its contiguous built-up suburbs is known as an…A) urbanized area B) zoned area
C) census tract D) Squatter settlement E) none of these
50. Done mostly in Europe, these are areas where land is kept as parks, farms or other kinds of open space and urban
sprawl is not allowed. A) Smart growth
B) zoning
C) filtering
D) census tracts E) greenbelts
51. Which statement best describes the relationship between urbanization and the Industrial Revolution?
A) Urbanization promoted the Industrial Revolution. B) The Industrial Revolution promoted urbanization.
C) Urbanization preceded the Industrial Revolution by thousands of years. D) Urbanization and the Industrial
Revolution are no longer related.
52. The process whereby an increasing percentage of people live in an urban area is known as…
A) Demographic transition. B) rank-size rule. C) Urbanization. D) Central place theory.
53. The city (if it has 50,000 or more people) plus its contiguous built-up suburbs AND the county it is in as well as any
other counties it influences, is known as the ...A) central city B) urbanized area
C) metropolitan statistical area
D) consolidated metropolitan area E) micropolitan statistical area
54. ***Higher social heterogeneity in urban settlements means that …A) the people with whom you relax are probably
the same ones you see at work. B) you play a specialized role in the urban economy. C) you compete for limited
space. D) you may feel lonely and isolated in a crowd.

55. The process of change in the use of a house, from single-family owner occupancy to smaller dwellings for the poor
and then sometimes to abandonment, is…A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining. E) none of
these

74

Free Response #1:
The Bid Rent theory says that the closer you get to the
CBD the higher the cost for land, yet in most American
cities you find the poorest people living near the
expensive CBD and the richest living further away.
Explain:
A. Why neighborhoods near the CBD are often poor and
run down?
B. Why are there few grocery and other retail stores in
these neighborhoods?
C. Why is this not really true in European and Latin
American countries?

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75

FR #2:
Think of the map of your school, explain the
layout of your school using the Multiple Nuclei
Model
The main office is the CBD.
Completely explain your answer using specific
buildings and/or land areas in your explanation
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76

Answer Key:
1. B

14. A

27. C

40. D

53. C

2. B

15. B

28. A

41. D

54. D

3. C

16. B

29. A

42. B

55. B

4. A

17. A

30. D

43. D

5. B

18. B

31. A

44. A

6. A

19. A

32. D

45. D

7. B

20. C

33. B

46. A

8. D

21. D

34. B

47. C

9. D

22. B

35. A

48. C

10. B

23. C

36. E

49. A

11. C

24. C

37. E

50. E

12. A

25. D

38. B

51. B

13. A

26. C

39. A

52. C
77

FR. #1: ( 15 pts. for each section…total of 45 pts.)
A. In the US the move of the wealthy and middle class to the suburbs has left the older houses and apartments near the CBD empty.
This has lowered their value to the point where the poor can afford these dwellings and have made these neighborhoods their
homes. The poor can not pay for upkeep of these dwellings, or to pay high taxes. The lack of upkeep and tax money to repair the
roads and schools, adds to the downward spiral of the neighborhood. With little spending money for shopping, the poor do not
spend much in the stores. This causes many stores to close and move to the suburbs where the spending customers and money
went. The closing of the stores adds to the poverty of the area by taking away some of the jobs that were in the neighborhood. This
becomes a vicious cycle of poverty and deterioration. (15 points)

B. There are few retail stores and groceries is the area because the poor do not have money to shop. The lack of spending forces
many stores out of business or forces them to move to better locations. There also can be higher crime in these areas and the
crime often takes place at the stores. This is another reason for the stores to move out of the neighborhood. (15 points)
C. Neighborhoods in European and Latin American cities are different from those of US cities. In Europe and Latin America, the
wealthy and middle class still live near or in the CBD. The higher tax base and more spending ability of the upper and middle
classes, keeps the CBD area flourishing with jobs and in constant repair and upkeep of the cities’ physical condition. (15 points)

FR #2: (10 total points.)
You will need to judge how effectively you displayed you school
in the Multiple Nuclei Model. Refer to the model itself to help you
determine your success and grade.
School’s main office
78

Calculating your grade on test 13.
Add how many you got correct on the multiple choice part (55 possible) to how many
points you scored on the FR portion (55 possible)…110 total.
The following scale will show the approximate score if this test were the real AP exam. Remember that this
is an approximation. While 65-74% is normally the range for a 3 on the test, it is not definite. Over the
years I have seen scores as low as 60% be the low portion of a 3 score.

Out of 110 possible points:
72-83 is most likely a 3
84-94 is most likely a 4

95-110 is most likely a 5

Now lets start our review for the national exam by
reviewing the 33 key models and theories of the
course…the next PowerPoint.


Slide 65

Key topic/chapter 13…Urban Patterns
Key terms:
Annexation
Concentric zone model
Density gradient
Edge cities
Filtering
Galactic city
Gentrification
Greenbelts
Megalopolis
MSA
Multiple nuclei model
Peripheral model

Public housing
Redlining
Renovated housing
Scattered site
Squatter settlement
Sector model
Smart growth
Sprawl
Underclass
Urban renewal
Zone in transition
Zoning
1

Chapter 13…Urban Areas.
How are Cities planned?
Why

are cities where they are?
How are they organized?
Why are some areas of a city
different from
other areas of the same city?
What is the future of cities?
2

Settlement


Settlement - permanent collections of buildings,
where people live, work, and obtain services

3

ORIGINS OF SETTLEMENTS


Religious - graves, churches, temples



Cultural - schools, libraries



Political/Military - leader’s house, walls



Economic - stores, food
4

TYPES OF SETTLEMENTS


Rural Settlements - agriculture as the
predominant occupation.



Urban settlements - principal industries are
secondary and tertiary.

5

RURAL SETTLEMENTS
Clustered rural settlements –grouped
settlements in rural areas to minimize travel

Dispersed rural Settlements - isolated farms
with enclosed continuous fields (Found only in
N. America and Britain).

6

Urban Geographers want to know the global distribution of urban
settlements. MDC’s have a high percentage of people living in urban
areas because of the shift from agriculture-manufacturing-services.
Geographers are also interested in where people and activities are
distributed within urban spaces. What are the differences between the
inner-city and suburban areas and why?
As we saw in the last chapter, many downtowns are unique and can
often be recognized in photos where the suburbs often look very
much alike (Placelessness). Why? Suburbs offer the chance to avoid
some of the city problems (crime, tight living area, expensive
land/rent, noise, age of buildings) while still keeping a connection with
the goods and services of the city: jobs, sports teams, culture, shops,
recreation, etc.
7

Where is this place?

8

Today’s cities are evolving and changing. Although different internal
situations characterize urban areas in the US and elsewhere, the
problems arising from current spatial trends are quite similar in all cities.
Where have urban areas grown: in the early 1800’s only 3% of the earth’s
people lived in cities and only Beijing China had more than 1 million
people. Today over ½ of the world’s people live in cities and we have over
400 cities of at least 1 million people.

Urbanization: is the process by which city population grows.
Cities population growth is measured in 2 dimensions;
1. An increase in the number of people living in the cities.
2. An increase in the percentage of people living in the cities.
This distinction is important because they happen for different reason and
have different global distributions.
9

Increasing Percentage of People in Cities: a large percentage of people living in urban
areas is a measure of a country’s level of development. In MDC’s about ¾ of the people
live in urban areas compared to about 2/5 of people in LDC’s. (Except in Latin America
where the level is closer to MDC’s.)
The higher percentage of people in urban areas comes from the changes that have
occurred in the last 200 years as we went from agriculture (primary jobs) to industrial
(secondary jobs) and now service jobs, all created by the Industrial Revolution of the
1800’s.
People moved to the cities for industrial jobs, but in MDC’s this process has largely
ended because nearly everyone interested in moving to the cities from farms has already
done so.
In LDC’s the percentage of people living in urban areas is growing as people are pushed
off of their farms and replaced by machines and as people move to cities looking/hoping
for industrial jobs.
10

Increasing Number of People in Cities: MDC’s have a higher percentage of
people living in urban settlements but LDC’s have more of the very large urban
settlements (Primate cities). (Rank-size rule, primate cities, chapter 12.)

This is interesting because typically the large cities are created from the
improvements brought by the Industrial Revolution. This is not the case with the
large LDC cities. Migration to the primate city in LDC’s is happening even though
job opportunities may not be available. Increasing the population growth in LDC
cities is the fact that medical services are better in these cities, thus the child
mortality rate is lower.
Defining Urban Settlements: defining where urban areas end and rural areas
begin is not easy. Geographers have formulated definitions that distinguish
between urban and rural areas in two ways: Social differences and Physical
differences.
11

Percent Urban Population

Percent of the population living in urban areas is usually higher in MDCs
than in LDCs.

12

The most populated cities in the world

Of the top
20, only
Moscow,
Tokyo and
New York
are in MDC’s

Shanghai China has 14,608,512 people
13

14

15

Social Differences Between Urban and Rural Settlements: it is fair to say that rural
people and urban people follow different ways of life. A city can be defined as having 3
characteristics:
1. Large size. People in rural settlements know most of the other people in the
settlement. Not true in big cities. Social relationships are often described as “colder” in
urban areas because you only see some people at work instead of growing up with
them in the settlement.
2. High Density. Having lots of people in a tiny area creates social consequences. A
high density of people living in a small area can only be supported if the people
specialize (they can’t all be farmers). People are encouraged to compete for jobs, room,
and survival in a tightly limited space. Social groups compete to occupy the same space
(ethnic/ race problems). Rural settlements have very little of this problem.
3. Social Heterogeneity. The larger the settlement, the greater the variety of people.
Being “unusual” in a large settlement is more likely to be accepted than in a small rural
one. But despite the freedom to be different that large urban settlements give you,
people living there often feel alone because so many people are different from them.
There is a stronger feeling of belonging together in small rural settlements.
16

These 3 differences do not fully answer the question of where urban settlements
begin and rural ones end because in today’s MDC’s most everyone has access to
cars, telephones, televisions, and “urban type” jobs which reduce the differences
between urban and rural lifestyles. “City folk” and “Country folk” are more alike
today than they are different. To help distinguish between urban and rural areas we
need to add the physical definition of rural and urban to the equation.
Physical Definitions of Urban Settlements: In ancient time, cities had defensive
walls for protection which clearly defined the physical boundaries of the city. Today
the walls are gone but we can still define the physical boundaries in 3 ways:
1. Legal boundary. These are the official boundaries of a city as recognized by
the government of the country or state. These “city limits” have been officially given
to the city and are physically marked on official maps. The local government of the
city has authority to make laws and protect the people inside the city boundaries.
17

2. Urbanized area. This is the city plus its suburbs or urbanized area that
surrounds the city. About 70 percent of US residents live in urbanized areas with
40% being in the suburbs and 30% inside the city limits. The suburbs may have
their own city governments but the huge central city dominates what happens in
the entire area.
3. Metropolitan Statistical Area. Cities have an even bigger influence on people
than just those living in their city limits and surrounding urbanized areas. People
from far away come to shop, use the services, support the sports teams, read
the newspapers and watch the television broadcasts of the city. Thus the city
has a “functional area” which is its total zone of influence. The US Bureau of
Census has created a method of measuring the functional area of the city.
Known as the Metropolitan statistical area (MSA) this area includes:
•An urbanized area with a population of at least 50,000
•The county within which the city is located.
•Adjacent counties with a high population density and a large percentage of
residents working in the central city’s county.
18

Metropolitan Area of Philadelphia

City of
Philadelphia

Urbanized
area
(suburbs)
Metropolitan
Statistical
Area

The metropolitan area of Philadelphia is
spread over several counties and four states.
It is also a diversified trade center, given its
position on the Delaware river.

19

20

21

Micropolitan Statistical Areas: Smaller areas with between
10,000 and 50,000 people, the county where it is found, and
adjacent counties tied to the city. This would be a small town and
the area dominated by it.
Overlapping Metropolitan Areas: Some adjacent MSA’s overlap.
A county between two central cities may send a large number of
commuters to jobs in both cities. In some areas the cities are so
close that they form one continuous urban complex. This is
known as a Megalopolis (great city).
In a megalopolis, the downtown CBD often has its own
distinctive look and the urban areas are visually separated by
parks, open spaces, and dairy/truck farms. But at the periphery
of the urban areas, the boundaries overlap.
22

Colorado Springs, population 431,000

Ocala, Florida, population 56,000

Florala, Alabama, population 1,900

23

Megalopolis, from northern Va. To Maine.
This Illustrates the
difference between
strict city proper
definitions and broader
urban agglomerations.
To define urbanized
areas, the U.S. Census
Bureau uses the term
Metropolitan Statistical
Area (MSA) or
Consolidated MSA
(CMSA) if two or more of
them overlap.
24

Where are People Distributed within Urban Areas? People are not
just distributed at random in urban areas. For the most part they
concentrate in particular neighborhoods depending on their social
characteristics. Geographers want to see where people with
particular characteristics are likely to live and why.

Three models which try to explain the growth of a city:

The Burgess Model

The Hoyt Sector Model

The Harris and Ullman
multiple Nuclei Model
25

Burgess Concentric Zone Model

In the concentric zone model, a city grows in a series of rings surrounding the CBD.

Burgess Concentric Zone Model: This is the first used to explain the
distributions of different social groups within urban areas. It says that a
city grows outward from a central place in a series of concentric rings.
The precise size and width of the rings vary from one city to another, but
some basic types of rings appear in all cities in the same order (see chart
above).
26

•Hoyt Sector Model: In this model the city develops in a
series of sectors not rings. Certain areas of the city are
more attractive for various activities, originally because
of an environmental factor (or even pure chance). As the
city grows, activities extend outward in a wedge shape.
For example, once a wealthy neighborhood is built the
next wealthy neighborhood will extend from the first
neighborhood further outward from the center. In this
way, the best housing is found in a corridor extending
outward from the center to the outer edge (see chart on
the next page).
27

The Hoyt Sector Model

In the sector model, a city grows in a series of
wedges or corridors extending out from the
CBD.
28

•Harris and Ullman’s Multiple Nuclei Model: According
to this model, a city is a complex structure that includes
more than one center around which activities revolve.
Examples of these nodes include a port, parks,
stadium, neighborhood business center, university, and
airport (see chart). This theory states that some
activities are attracted to particular nodes, whereas
others try to avoid them. A university node may attract
well educated people and bookstores while the port will
attract hotels and warehouses. Heavy industry and
expensive houses rarely are found together. This
model shows the effect of the automobile more than
any other model.
29

The Harris and Ullman Multiple Nuclei model

The multiple nuclei model views a city as a
collection of individual centers, around which
different people and activities cluster.

30

Applications of the Models: The three models help explain where and in some
cases, why people live where they do. None of the models by themselves fully
explains why and where different types of people live, but combined they give
you as good a look as possible at the “Why” of “Where.” Effective use of the
models depends on getting good data on the areas. Most countries take a
census every 10 years to help determine useful data about the people and
places of the country. In our country we divide the census data into areas
known as census tracts of about 5,000 people. Each census tract has the data
that summarizes the characteristics of the people living within that tract. This
information includes things like the race, income, age, and education of the
people living in that tract.
Social Area Analysis: The data from the census tracts can all be plotted onto
maps to show the characteristics of the people living in that tract. This map is
known as a social area analysis.
31

Using Census tract information…Seattle, Washington
Each lined area is a
census tract of about 5000
people in Seattle
Washington. These maps
show average household
income for 1990 and
2000…note the changes in
income in some areas
between 1990 and 2000.
Using this information, a
business can make
decisions about where
they want to locate a new
store or the future of
existing stores.
You can find census tract
information on many topics
such as; age, education
level, race, ethnicity, crime
rate, and land ownership.
Note the areas with
incomes over
$63,000.

All can be very valuable
information to people
looking to open
businesses.

32

Examine the changes
between 1990 and
2000.

Oakland, California’s Ethnic neighborhoods
The small bordered areas are census tracks of 5000 people.

33

Use of the Models Outside of North America: The 3 models will also work in other
places in the world; however social groups in other countries may not have the
same reasons for selecting particular neighborhoods as Americans do.
European Cities: As in the US, wealthier people in European cities cluster along a
sector extending outward from the CBD, however unlike the US, wealthy and
middle class Europeans still live in the inner rings of the neighborhoods near the
CBD not out in the suburbs. In the past, poorer people lived in the center of the
city. Before electricity, social segregation was vertical: richer people lived on the
first or second floor of a building while the poorer people lived in the basement or
upper floors. In the Industrial Revolution, housing for the poor was constructed
near the factories and away from the rich.
Today poorer Europeans are less likely to live in the inner-city. Poor quality
housing has been renovated for the rich or turned into office buildings. Poorer
Europeans tend to live in the outskirts of the city. Vast suburbs with dozens of high
rise apartments house the poor. They face long commutes to reach their jobs in
the city.
34

European cities generally do not have the “suburban
sprawl” that US cities have. European cities tend to be
more pedestrian friendly with more parks downtown as
Europeans tend to still live downtown.
US cities have taller buildings as European cities tend to
be older and more historic.

American cities have more ethnic neighborhoods than
European cities. Ethnic neighborhoods that do exist in
European cities tend to be in the suburbs. WHY?
Because the established richer neighborhoods tend to be
downtown in European cities.
35

Less Developed Countries: Like Europe, most LDC’s accommodate their poor in the
suburbs with their middle class and rich living near the center of the city. LDC’s have
passed through 3 periods of city building: before the Europeans arrived, during the
period of European colonialism, and since independence from European control.

Pre-colonial Cities: Before the Europeans arrived few cities existed in Africa, Asia, and
Latin America and most people lived in small rural settlements. Those cities that existed
were mostly laid out surrounding a religious center; with the rest of the city laid out in a
hieratical concentric pattern (like the Burgess model) from government buildings,
homes of the wealthy, and businesses related to the religion out to other businesses
and shops.
Colonial cities: When the Europeans took over these lands, they changed the cities by
adding services to help the Europeans control the conquered people. Often a new
European style city would be build next to the existing native one. The new European
cities contained wider streets, a public square, larger houses and a much lower density.
The Spanish used the “Law of the Indies” which was a city plan designed specifically to
build cities in a “Spanish” style. (Gridiron pattern for streets centered on a church and
central plaza, walls around individual houses and neighborhoods centered around
smaller plazas and more churches.)
36

Early Mexico city was laid out in a grid pattern of streets. This followed
the Spanish “Law of the Indies.”

37

Central Plaza in Mexico City 1920 photo. Typical Colonial City plan.

Part of downtown Mexico city today still shows the
building plan of the “Law of the Indies.”

38

Cities since Independence: Following independence, cities have become
the focal point of the development of most LDC’s. Millions of people have
migrated to the cities (Primate cities) looking for jobs and services. Some
capitals have been moved to isolated areas in an attempt to help develop
that area of the country (Brasília) This is know as a forward capital. Latin
American cities have developed their own unique style.
Squatter settlements: The LDC’s are unable to house the rapidly growing
number of poor who are flowing into the cities. Because of the housing
shortages, the poor have constructed their own settlements around the city.
These settlements have few services because neither the city nor the
residents can afford them. Squatters have two basic choices for housing.
1. Illegally move into empty real houses located in the city or,
2. Rent slum housing.
(85% of the population of Addis Ababa in Ethiopia lives in squatter
settlements, slums or other illegal housing.)
39

Squatter shacks in Manila, the Philippines

40

Squatter settlement in Ethiopia

41

Zimbabwe, Africa

42

Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

43

Latin American City Model:
In many Latin
American cities,
the wealthy live in
the inner city and
in a sector
extending along a
commercial spine.
In situ accretion- businesses
and homes constantly under
construction/repair.
Zone of maturity-2nd best
housing in the city.
The poor live in squatter settlements on the
periphery of the city.

Disamenity- unpleasant area
used by the poor to get to the
market.

44

The City Outline of Rio de Janeiro
The rich tourist areas and expensive condo apartments are along the coast
and beach while the poor live in squatter shacks in the hills.

45

City problems:
Inner-City Physical Problems: Most US inner cities were constructed before the 1950’s
(people began to move to the suburbs in the 1950’s so new construction moved out of
the city).
Process of Deterioration (how a city deteriorates): A city doesn’t suddenly become old
and full of slummy areas. It happens over time. When a group of low-income people
inhabit an area of a city, nearby neighborhoods will often look to move out. They sell or
rent to more low-income occupants thus expanding the low-income area. Two processes
cause/speed up the devaluation of areas:
1. Filtering, 2. Redlining.
Filtering: Large houses and buildings that once housed rich downtown workers (who
moved to the suburbs) are taken over by landlords who don’t live in that area (they
moved to the suburbs too). Rents are low so the landlord doesn’t take as good care of
the property as they should and the property becomes run down or abandoned. Stores
close, or move, due to lack of sales. 100 years ago these neighborhoods would be used
by immigrants and ethnic businesses would succeed in those areas. Now, with a decline
in immigration, these neighborhoods have shrunk and so have schools, businesses and
other services. Thousands of vacant houses and buildings stand empty in inner cities
across America.

46

Redlining: Some banks refuse to give loans in what they consider
risky neighborhoods. They draw a red line on a map around areas
where they will not give loans. Without loans, these neighborhoods
have a hard time rebuilding/remodeling. Though illegal, this still
happens. Bankers just don’t put these “no-loan” areas on a map.

Urban Renewal: This is the series of projects to improve European
and N. American cities by buying up the blighted neighborhoods,
moving the people to new government built housing projects, and
building new roads, and other projects to make the inner city
attractive for business again. National and State government grants
help pay for these projects.
47

Public housing: Housing for the poor, built with government funding as part of
urban renewal. In the US this is only about 2% of the housing while in some
countries it may be more (Britain is 30%). Public housing built in the 50’s & 60’s
were largely high rise apartments, but those are seen as being unsatisfactory.
Problems arise from cramming large numbers of poor people into one area.
Today most public housing projects are one to three story buildings with many of
them being scattered around different parts of the city rather than clustered into
one area.
Because urban renewal has been criticized for destroying the social cohesion of
older neighborhoods, many governments (like the US) have stopped funding
most projects since the 1970’s. What do we do instead?
Renovated Housing: An alternative often used since the 70’s is to renovate a
building instead of urban renewal. The process where middle-class people
move into inner-city neighborhoods and renovate them is called gentrification.
Gentrified inner-city neighborhoods also attract middle-class people who work
downtown. Living close to work saves the hassle of commuting and rejuvenates
run down inner-city neighborhoods
48

Gentrified building downtown Harlem, NY. Note the supermarket.

49

Inner-City Social Problems: Inner-city residents are often referred to as the
permanent underclass because they are trapped in an unending cycle of
economic and social problems. High unemployment, alcoholism, drug
addiction, literacy, juvenile delinquency, and crime all exist at a higher rate
among those who live in the inner-city. Lack of jobs means lack of tax dollars
to pay for police and fire protection as well as good schools. Lack of job skills
and homelessness are also tremendous problems.
Culture of Poverty: Inner-city residents are trapped in a permanent underclass
culture that reproduces itself. In the US, unwed mothers give birth to 2/3 of the
babies in the inner-city. 90% of these children live with only one parent and it
is real hard for one parent to keep a job and take care of children. Both suffer
and a shortage of care and daily attention by the parent contributes to the kids
not learning the skills necessary to do well in school which leads to poor jobs
for their futures. Poverty leads to more poverty. Many families on welfare have
only one parent because it is financially better if one parent is gone, that way
the single parent gets food stamps and other services from the government
that they would not get if it was a 2 family household.
50

Crime: Trapped in a hopeless environment, some inner-city
residents turn to drugs. Drug use is a problem in inner-city
areas and the suburbs, but rates of drug use in inner-cities
are the highest.
Ethnic and Racial Segregation: As seen in chapter 7, many
neighborhoods in the US are segregated by ethnicity with
African Americans and Hispanics concentrated in one or two
continuous areas and whites living in the suburbs. Even small
cities display a strong distinction among neighborhoods. A
frequent division is between the east and west or north and
south side of town, or the railroad tracks. A family seeking a
new residence will seek the areas where the characteristics
of the people meet their own.

51

The exodus
from the
American city.
This has
happened in
many American
cities since the
1960’s.

52

Changes in Cities in the U.S.
U.S. population has been moving out of the city centers to the suburbs:
suburbanization and counter urbanization

Developed Countries: suburbanization

 wealthy move to suburbs
 automobiles and roads; ‘American
Dream’ of the home in the suburbs.
 better services
 wealthy move to suburbs
Counter urbanization

idyllic settings
cost of land for retirement
slow pace, yet high tech
connections to services and markets
53

U.S. intraregional migration during 1990s.

Inner city economic problems: the concentration of low income
residents in inner cities has caused economic problems. These
people require public services but can pay very little in taxes to
support the services. They need stores and jobs but have little
money to spend in the store and few skills for jobs (so the stores
close). To try to fight these problems many local and state
governments use tax monies to try to renovate these areas, but this
shifts tax money needed for other areas to the inner city (votes on
election day).
Annexation: Many cities could help their tax problem by adding the
new suburbs to be part of their city (annexation). After all, many of
these suburban people use the city for its’ jobs etc., so why not add
them into the city? Today, most people in the suburbs do not want
to be annexed into the city and so they do not vote to be annexed.
54

The Peripheral Model: According to this model, an urban area
consists of an inner city surrounded by large suburban residential
and business areas (MSA) tied together by a beltway or highway
that circles the city. Around the beltway are nodes of consumer
and business services called edge cities (see diagram of multiple
nuclei model). These edge cities sprang up to provide services
and jobs to the people in the suburbs.
Density Gradient: As you travel outward from the center of the
city, the density of people declines. Inner city has big apartments
of 250 of more people per acre. Suburbs have fewer people per
acre (but lots of acres) and finally you leave the cities periphery
you find few people. The number of houses per unit of land
diminishes as distance from the center of the city increases.
55

The Edge cities (bedroom communities) of Houston

The central city is surrounded by a ring road, around which are
suburban areas and edge cities, shopping malls, office parks,
industrial areas, and service complexes.

Known as
bedroom
communities
because
people live
there but
mostly don’t
work there.
They drive
into the city
for work.
56

As you move from the center of the city outward, the density of the population
changes. This is know as the density gradient. Two big changes have occurred in
the density gradient of today’s cities:
1. The number of people living in the center has decreased.
2. The density difference between the inner city and the suburbs is declining
because the inner city density is dropping and the suburban density is growing
due to more large apartments being built in the suburbs.
Cost of Suburban or Urban Sprawl: Urban Sprawl is the progressive spread of
development over the landscape. As long as we Americans want single-family
detached houses, land on the fringe of urban areas will be converted from open
space to residential use. The cost of this growth is more than the loss of land, it is
also the cost of new roads, utilities, building stores and offices and the cost of
automobiles to move these people over even longer distances. Lots of these new
developments are built on what was once farmland. Wonderful productive soil now
under concrete.

Greenbelts: are areas where, by law, the open space can not be used for any
construction. This is mostly found in Europe.

57

Once farmland that is being converted to suburbs and cities.

58

Tyson’s Corner Virginia in 1940

59

Washington, DC. MSA.

Tyson’s Corner Virginia
today.
Washington D.C. is off
In the distance.

60

Suburban Segregation: The “new” segregation.
Suburban segregation takes two forms:
1. Residents are separated from commercial and manufacturing activities
which are confined someplace else. (The whole neighborhood is
nothing but houses because they drive for services.)
2. The price of the house eliminates some from being able to live there. This
creates a homogeneous suburb of the same economic class of people.
This never existed before in history. Where we once had vertical
segregation of the classes we now we have horizontal segregation.
3. But this may be reversing as new statistics show that people are beginning
to move back to the city. Why? Cost of transportation.
Zoning Ordinances: This idea developed in Europe and later America in the
early decades of the 20th century. This means that businesses are allowed only
in certain areas of the settlement. (No all night taco stands inside your single
family neighborhood.)
Motor vehicles: The wide use of the automobile is largely responsible for the
American movement to the suburbs. Not only did people move out but 1/4 of
the land inside all American cities are now roads, streets, and parking lots.

61

Public Transportation: Because few US workers live within walking distance
of their jobs, urban areas are characterized by extensive commuting and the
problems that come with it. As much as 40% of all trips made into or out from
a city during the day takes place within just 4 hours. (2 in the morning and 2 in
the late afternoon). RUSH HOUR!!! In large cities, public transportation, like
subways and busses, are better suited to move people but Americans still
prefer their own cars. Public transportation is cheaper, cleaner, and more
energy efficient than personal cars, yet in the US only 5% of city travel is
done using public transit systems. American’s love their personal car too
much.
Local Government Fragmentation: Because of the large number of local
governments in the US (look at the settlements in Pinellas County) it is
difficult to solve some of the regional problems like garbage disposal, water
management, traffic and public housing.
62

Metropolitan government: This idea tries to put many local governments into a
larger unit that can better handle the urban problems. The 2 ways to do this
are:
1. Federations in which the individual settlements have their own police,
firemen, and tax collection but they all agree to be part of a second
government which handles transportation, water, sewage, parks and
welfare for all the communities.
2. Consolidations: In this method, several cities and the county may form one
government. Jacksonville’s government runs not only the town but the
county too, this makes Jacksonville the largest city, in land size, in the US.
Smart growth: A new movement by many states to curb suburban sprawl by
limiting where new construction can take place. Smart growth laws require that
land near cities be used up before any land further out can be developed. So
far, this is only being done an a few parts of our country.
63

The new
US as
some
people
see it.

64

Quiz Yourself:
1. The process where middle-class people move into inner city neighborhoods and
renovate them is called ____________
2. ____________ happens when banks refuse to give loans in what they consider
risky neighborhoods.
3. Because of the housing shortages, the poor have constructed their own settlements
around the city known as __________ _________

4. Businesses are allowed only in certain areas of the settlement because of
____________ ____________
5. Areas known as _____ _______ are areas of about 5,000 people. The data from
that area is used to help define needed services for that area.
6. When cities are so close that they form one continuous band of development this is
known as a ____________
65

7. Social relationships are often described as “colder” in urban areas because…
8. In this model the city develops in a series of sectors not rings. _______

9. ______ (LDC’s or MDC’s) have a higher percentage of people living in urban
settlements but ________ (LDC’s or MDC’s) have more of the very large urban
settlements.
10. _____________ was the first model developed to explain the distributions
of different social groups within urban areas.
11. New cities which develop around the beltway are nodes of consumer and
business services known as ________ _________.

12. When the Europeans took over lands around the world, they changed the
cities by adding services to help the Europeans control the conquered people.
These European planned cities are known as __________ cities.
66

Answer Key:
1.

Gentrification

2.

Redlining

3.

Squatter Settlements

4.

Zoning ordinances

5.

Census tracks

6.

Megalopolis

7. There is a stronger feeling of belonging together in small rural settlements.
8. Hoyt sector model
9. MDC, LDC
10. Burgess Concentric Zone model
11. Edge cities
12. Colonial cities
67

Test Key topic/chapter 13:
These questions come from a combination of our slides, your text book, and common knowledge you should
have discussed in your AP classroom. They are very typical of what you will see on the National Exam.
1) The multiple nuclei theory best explains why different neighborhoods of a city attract people of different… A) ages.
B) ethnic origin C) income D) marital status.
2) Sprawl is the… A) change in density within an urban area from the center to the periphery B) development of new
housing sites not contiguous to the existing built-up area. C) land maintained as open space surrounding an urban area.
D) period in the morning and evening with the heaviest volumes of traffic.
3) People are attracted to suburbs in part because suburbs are characterized by…A) heavy traffic. B) lower opportunity
for home ownership. C) private land surrounding the house. D) row houses and apartments.
4) Megalopolis refers to… A) adjacent, overlapping Metropolitan Statistical Areas. B) central cities. C) consolidated
Metropolitan Statistical Areas. D) central cities plus urbanized areas.
5) Which statement best describes the relationship between urbanization and the Industrial Revolution? A) Urbanization
promoted the Industrial Revolution. B) The Industrial Revolution promoted urbanization. C) Urbanization preceded the
Industrial Revolution by thousands of years. D) Urbanization and the Industrial Revolution are no longer related.
6) The process of legally adding land area to a city in the United States is… A) annexation. B) accreditation. C) an
application of eminent domain. D) defined by urbanized area.

68

7) The process of change in the use of a house, from single-family owner occupancy to abandonment, is… A) blockbusting.
B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining.
8) A process by which banks designate an area within which they refuse to lend money for improvements is… A) blockbusting.
B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining.
9) A recent change in the density gradient has been… A) the elimination of the gap traditionally found in the center. B) an
increase in the extremes between the inner and outer areas. C) an increase in the number of people living in the center.
D) a reduction in the differences in densities found within an urban area.
10) U.S. central cities face fiscal problems because… A) federal and state funds are available. B) low-income people are
concentrated there. C) middle-class families are attracted there. D) redlining is no longer legal.
11) A legal form of segregation in U.S. cities is achieved through...A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) zoning. D) greenbelts.
12) Factories have moved to suburban locations in part because of… A) access to main highways. B) adequate space to build
vertical structures. C) availability of large tracts of high-priced land. D) good rail connections.
13) According to the sector model, the best housing is located in…A) a corridor from downtown to the edge of the city.
B) an outer ring surrounding the city. C) nodes near universities and parks. D) renovated inner-city neighborhoods.
14) Ramshackle houses on the periphery of cities in less developed countries are known as… A) squatter settlements. B) council
estates. C) public housing. D) zone in transition.
15) Higher income people tend to live near the center of the city in all but which of the following regions? A) Latin America
B) North America C) South Asia D) Western Europe

16) The wide boulevards built in cities in less developed countries were most likely built during what era? A) pre-colonial
B) colonial C) independence D) all of the above equally

69

17) According to the multiple nuclei model, an airport is likely to attract nearby… A) industries. B) residences. C) shops.
D) universities.
18) The largest percentage of the U.S. population lives in…A) central cities. B) suburbs. C) non-metropolitan areas. D) all of the
above
19) In U.S. cities, the underclass is… A) clustered in inner-city neighborhoods. B) dispersed throughout the city. C) clustered in
suburbs. D) distributed uniformly in the city.

20) A process of converting a neighborhood from low-income to middle-class is…A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) gentrification.
D) redlining.
21) Higher social heterogeneity in urban settlements means that… A) the people with whom you relax are probably the same ones you
see at work. B) you play a specialized role in the urban economy. C) you compete for limited space. D) you may feel lonely and
isolated in a crowd.
22) The city plus its contiguous built-up suburbs is the… A) central city. B) urbanized area.
D) consolidated metropolitan statistical area

C) metropolitan statistical area.

23) The process whereby an increasing percentage of people live in an urban area is known as… A) demographic transition.
B) rank-size rule. C) urbanization. D) central place theory.
24) Of the ten largest urban areas in the world, how many are in More Developed Countries today? A) 1 B) 4 C) 7 D) 10 E) 2
25) Public housing is…A) conversion of low-income housing to middle-class housing. B) illegally established low-income housing.
C) housing that has changed from single-family owner occupancy to abandonment. D) low-income government-owned housing.
26) According to the concentric zone model, a city develops in a series of… A) corridors. B) nodes. C) rings. D) all of the above

70

27) Chicago is a good location in which to develop urban models because it is located… A) at the hub of the nation's transportation
system. B) in the center of the country. C) on a flat prairie. D) on the shore of Lake Michigan.
28) According to the sector model, the best housing is located in… A) a corridor from downtown to the edge of the city. B) an outer
ring surrounding the city. C) nodes near universities and parks. D) renovated inner-city neighborhoods.
29) The zone of transition in US cities generally contain…A) warehouses B) wealthy neighborhoods C) transportation hubs
D) universities and hospitals E) suburban homes
30) The attractions of shopping malls include all but which of the following? A) frequent concerts and exhibitions B) generous
parking lots C) place to meet friends D) walking distance from homes
The following questions are written at the high school level. You will find some questions from part one often rewritten
here. This is all designed to help you transition to the college/AP style of written questions. Any question preceded with ***
are questions that have been on the national exam before.
31. Most Latin American cities are focused on a…A) central plaza B) government housing project C) zone of heavy industry
D) skyscraper office building E) squatter settlement
32. The multiple-nuclei model of a city structure tends to be most applicable to…A) small cities B) traditional C) Latin American
cities D) newer, fast growing cities E) cities with homogeneous land use
33. ***Locational advantages important to the development of the earliest cities include…A) availability of good harbors for large
ships B) productive agricultural land and defensible sites C) temperate climate and proximity to coal mines D) good
connections by road and canal E) proximity to manufacturing areas

34. In cities, the CBD’s often show uniqueness while the suburbs usually show…A) a large hinterland. B) placelessness C) more
than one node. D) newer zones of transition.

71

35. Many LDC’s have tried to help a previously under-developed part of their country develop by moving their capital
city to that area. This new capital is known as a…A) forward capital B) new development zone C) enterprise zone
D) neocolonial city
36. Today the greatest number of urban dwellers is found in…A) North America
D) Europe E) Asia

B) South America C) Africa

37. ***All of the following have helped create ghettos in North American cities except…A)blockbusting and racial
steering B) redlining by financial institutions C) concentration of public housing and social services D) fixed school
districts E) Economic Enterprise Zones

38. Which of the following is NOT as reason for rapid suburbanization in the US after WW2? A) Mass production of
the automobile B) Reduction of long distance commuting C) Expansion of home construction D) Expansion of the
interstate highway system E) Availability of low down payment terms and long-term mortgages.
39. New cities which developed in the hinterland of large urban areas because of the automobile, are known as…
A) edge cities B) census tracts C) suburban sprawl D) squatter settlements. E) none of these
40. Gentrification refers to… A) moving the homeless into inner city shelters B) The “White Flight” from the urban city
C) losing tax revenue because of stores closing in downtown areas D) middle-class people moving into and renovating
inner city neighborhoods E) the creation of “beltway cities” around the city.

72

4
7
3

5

1
6

2

41-48 all use the sketch above.
41. The sketch in box A above represents which model of the inner structure of urban areas?
C) multiple nuclei model D) Burgess concentric zone model E) peripheral model
42. The models in boxes B and C represent A) Concentric zone and multiple nuclei
concentric zone D) peripheral and concentric zone E) Von Thunen and peripheral

A) Hoyt sector model B) VonThunen’s model

B) Multiple nuclei and Hoyt sector C) Hoyt sector and

43. In which ring (1, 2, etc.) of sketch A above would high-status households in North American cities likely live? A) 1 B) 2 C) 3 D) 4&5
44. In which ring (1, 2, etc.) of sketch A above would high status households in a European city likely live? A) 1

B) 2

C) 3

D) 4&5

45. In model B, zone # 2 is where it is likely because of: A) greenbelting B) squatter settling C) the culture of poverty D) transportation
E) no one knows
46. The model in sketch B is the; A) Hoyt sector model B) Burgess model C) multiple nuclei model D) peripheral model
47. The model in sketch C is the; A) Hoyt sector model B) Burgess model C) multiple nuclei model D) peripheral model
48. Which of these models best describes what has happened in US cities in the last 40 years? A)

B)

C)

73

49.*** In the U.S. a city plus its contiguous built-up suburbs is known as an…A) urbanized area B) zoned area
C) census tract D) Squatter settlement E) none of these
50. Done mostly in Europe, these are areas where land is kept as parks, farms or other kinds of open space and urban
sprawl is not allowed. A) Smart growth
B) zoning
C) filtering
D) census tracts E) greenbelts
51. Which statement best describes the relationship between urbanization and the Industrial Revolution?
A) Urbanization promoted the Industrial Revolution. B) The Industrial Revolution promoted urbanization.
C) Urbanization preceded the Industrial Revolution by thousands of years. D) Urbanization and the Industrial
Revolution are no longer related.
52. The process whereby an increasing percentage of people live in an urban area is known as…
A) Demographic transition. B) rank-size rule. C) Urbanization. D) Central place theory.
53. The city (if it has 50,000 or more people) plus its contiguous built-up suburbs AND the county it is in as well as any
other counties it influences, is known as the ...A) central city B) urbanized area
C) metropolitan statistical area
D) consolidated metropolitan area E) micropolitan statistical area
54. ***Higher social heterogeneity in urban settlements means that …A) the people with whom you relax are probably
the same ones you see at work. B) you play a specialized role in the urban economy. C) you compete for limited
space. D) you may feel lonely and isolated in a crowd.

55. The process of change in the use of a house, from single-family owner occupancy to smaller dwellings for the poor
and then sometimes to abandonment, is…A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining. E) none of
these

74

Free Response #1:
The Bid Rent theory says that the closer you get to the
CBD the higher the cost for land, yet in most American
cities you find the poorest people living near the
expensive CBD and the richest living further away.
Explain:
A. Why neighborhoods near the CBD are often poor and
run down?
B. Why are there few grocery and other retail stores in
these neighborhoods?
C. Why is this not really true in European and Latin
American countries?

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75

FR #2:
Think of the map of your school, explain the
layout of your school using the Multiple Nuclei
Model
The main office is the CBD.
Completely explain your answer using specific
buildings and/or land areas in your explanation
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76

Answer Key:
1. B

14. A

27. C

40. D

53. C

2. B

15. B

28. A

41. D

54. D

3. C

16. B

29. A

42. B

55. B

4. A

17. A

30. D

43. D

5. B

18. B

31. A

44. A

6. A

19. A

32. D

45. D

7. B

20. C

33. B

46. A

8. D

21. D

34. B

47. C

9. D

22. B

35. A

48. C

10. B

23. C

36. E

49. A

11. C

24. C

37. E

50. E

12. A

25. D

38. B

51. B

13. A

26. C

39. A

52. C
77

FR. #1: ( 15 pts. for each section…total of 45 pts.)
A. In the US the move of the wealthy and middle class to the suburbs has left the older houses and apartments near the CBD empty.
This has lowered their value to the point where the poor can afford these dwellings and have made these neighborhoods their
homes. The poor can not pay for upkeep of these dwellings, or to pay high taxes. The lack of upkeep and tax money to repair the
roads and schools, adds to the downward spiral of the neighborhood. With little spending money for shopping, the poor do not
spend much in the stores. This causes many stores to close and move to the suburbs where the spending customers and money
went. The closing of the stores adds to the poverty of the area by taking away some of the jobs that were in the neighborhood. This
becomes a vicious cycle of poverty and deterioration. (15 points)

B. There are few retail stores and groceries is the area because the poor do not have money to shop. The lack of spending forces
many stores out of business or forces them to move to better locations. There also can be higher crime in these areas and the
crime often takes place at the stores. This is another reason for the stores to move out of the neighborhood. (15 points)
C. Neighborhoods in European and Latin American cities are different from those of US cities. In Europe and Latin America, the
wealthy and middle class still live near or in the CBD. The higher tax base and more spending ability of the upper and middle
classes, keeps the CBD area flourishing with jobs and in constant repair and upkeep of the cities’ physical condition. (15 points)

FR #2: (10 total points.)
You will need to judge how effectively you displayed you school
in the Multiple Nuclei Model. Refer to the model itself to help you
determine your success and grade.
School’s main office
78

Calculating your grade on test 13.
Add how many you got correct on the multiple choice part (55 possible) to how many
points you scored on the FR portion (55 possible)…110 total.
The following scale will show the approximate score if this test were the real AP exam. Remember that this
is an approximation. While 65-74% is normally the range for a 3 on the test, it is not definite. Over the
years I have seen scores as low as 60% be the low portion of a 3 score.

Out of 110 possible points:
72-83 is most likely a 3
84-94 is most likely a 4

95-110 is most likely a 5

Now lets start our review for the national exam by
reviewing the 33 key models and theories of the
course…the next PowerPoint.


Slide 66

Key topic/chapter 13…Urban Patterns
Key terms:
Annexation
Concentric zone model
Density gradient
Edge cities
Filtering
Galactic city
Gentrification
Greenbelts
Megalopolis
MSA
Multiple nuclei model
Peripheral model

Public housing
Redlining
Renovated housing
Scattered site
Squatter settlement
Sector model
Smart growth
Sprawl
Underclass
Urban renewal
Zone in transition
Zoning
1

Chapter 13…Urban Areas.
How are Cities planned?
Why

are cities where they are?
How are they organized?
Why are some areas of a city
different from
other areas of the same city?
What is the future of cities?
2

Settlement


Settlement - permanent collections of buildings,
where people live, work, and obtain services

3

ORIGINS OF SETTLEMENTS


Religious - graves, churches, temples



Cultural - schools, libraries



Political/Military - leader’s house, walls



Economic - stores, food
4

TYPES OF SETTLEMENTS


Rural Settlements - agriculture as the
predominant occupation.



Urban settlements - principal industries are
secondary and tertiary.

5

RURAL SETTLEMENTS
Clustered rural settlements –grouped
settlements in rural areas to minimize travel

Dispersed rural Settlements - isolated farms
with enclosed continuous fields (Found only in
N. America and Britain).

6

Urban Geographers want to know the global distribution of urban
settlements. MDC’s have a high percentage of people living in urban
areas because of the shift from agriculture-manufacturing-services.
Geographers are also interested in where people and activities are
distributed within urban spaces. What are the differences between the
inner-city and suburban areas and why?
As we saw in the last chapter, many downtowns are unique and can
often be recognized in photos where the suburbs often look very
much alike (Placelessness). Why? Suburbs offer the chance to avoid
some of the city problems (crime, tight living area, expensive
land/rent, noise, age of buildings) while still keeping a connection with
the goods and services of the city: jobs, sports teams, culture, shops,
recreation, etc.
7

Where is this place?

8

Today’s cities are evolving and changing. Although different internal
situations characterize urban areas in the US and elsewhere, the
problems arising from current spatial trends are quite similar in all cities.
Where have urban areas grown: in the early 1800’s only 3% of the earth’s
people lived in cities and only Beijing China had more than 1 million
people. Today over ½ of the world’s people live in cities and we have over
400 cities of at least 1 million people.

Urbanization: is the process by which city population grows.
Cities population growth is measured in 2 dimensions;
1. An increase in the number of people living in the cities.
2. An increase in the percentage of people living in the cities.
This distinction is important because they happen for different reason and
have different global distributions.
9

Increasing Percentage of People in Cities: a large percentage of people living in urban
areas is a measure of a country’s level of development. In MDC’s about ¾ of the people
live in urban areas compared to about 2/5 of people in LDC’s. (Except in Latin America
where the level is closer to MDC’s.)
The higher percentage of people in urban areas comes from the changes that have
occurred in the last 200 years as we went from agriculture (primary jobs) to industrial
(secondary jobs) and now service jobs, all created by the Industrial Revolution of the
1800’s.
People moved to the cities for industrial jobs, but in MDC’s this process has largely
ended because nearly everyone interested in moving to the cities from farms has already
done so.
In LDC’s the percentage of people living in urban areas is growing as people are pushed
off of their farms and replaced by machines and as people move to cities looking/hoping
for industrial jobs.
10

Increasing Number of People in Cities: MDC’s have a higher percentage of
people living in urban settlements but LDC’s have more of the very large urban
settlements (Primate cities). (Rank-size rule, primate cities, chapter 12.)

This is interesting because typically the large cities are created from the
improvements brought by the Industrial Revolution. This is not the case with the
large LDC cities. Migration to the primate city in LDC’s is happening even though
job opportunities may not be available. Increasing the population growth in LDC
cities is the fact that medical services are better in these cities, thus the child
mortality rate is lower.
Defining Urban Settlements: defining where urban areas end and rural areas
begin is not easy. Geographers have formulated definitions that distinguish
between urban and rural areas in two ways: Social differences and Physical
differences.
11

Percent Urban Population

Percent of the population living in urban areas is usually higher in MDCs
than in LDCs.

12

The most populated cities in the world

Of the top
20, only
Moscow,
Tokyo and
New York
are in MDC’s

Shanghai China has 14,608,512 people
13

14

15

Social Differences Between Urban and Rural Settlements: it is fair to say that rural
people and urban people follow different ways of life. A city can be defined as having 3
characteristics:
1. Large size. People in rural settlements know most of the other people in the
settlement. Not true in big cities. Social relationships are often described as “colder” in
urban areas because you only see some people at work instead of growing up with
them in the settlement.
2. High Density. Having lots of people in a tiny area creates social consequences. A
high density of people living in a small area can only be supported if the people
specialize (they can’t all be farmers). People are encouraged to compete for jobs, room,
and survival in a tightly limited space. Social groups compete to occupy the same space
(ethnic/ race problems). Rural settlements have very little of this problem.
3. Social Heterogeneity. The larger the settlement, the greater the variety of people.
Being “unusual” in a large settlement is more likely to be accepted than in a small rural
one. But despite the freedom to be different that large urban settlements give you,
people living there often feel alone because so many people are different from them.
There is a stronger feeling of belonging together in small rural settlements.
16

These 3 differences do not fully answer the question of where urban settlements
begin and rural ones end because in today’s MDC’s most everyone has access to
cars, telephones, televisions, and “urban type” jobs which reduce the differences
between urban and rural lifestyles. “City folk” and “Country folk” are more alike
today than they are different. To help distinguish between urban and rural areas we
need to add the physical definition of rural and urban to the equation.
Physical Definitions of Urban Settlements: In ancient time, cities had defensive
walls for protection which clearly defined the physical boundaries of the city. Today
the walls are gone but we can still define the physical boundaries in 3 ways:
1. Legal boundary. These are the official boundaries of a city as recognized by
the government of the country or state. These “city limits” have been officially given
to the city and are physically marked on official maps. The local government of the
city has authority to make laws and protect the people inside the city boundaries.
17

2. Urbanized area. This is the city plus its suburbs or urbanized area that
surrounds the city. About 70 percent of US residents live in urbanized areas with
40% being in the suburbs and 30% inside the city limits. The suburbs may have
their own city governments but the huge central city dominates what happens in
the entire area.
3. Metropolitan Statistical Area. Cities have an even bigger influence on people
than just those living in their city limits and surrounding urbanized areas. People
from far away come to shop, use the services, support the sports teams, read
the newspapers and watch the television broadcasts of the city. Thus the city
has a “functional area” which is its total zone of influence. The US Bureau of
Census has created a method of measuring the functional area of the city.
Known as the Metropolitan statistical area (MSA) this area includes:
•An urbanized area with a population of at least 50,000
•The county within which the city is located.
•Adjacent counties with a high population density and a large percentage of
residents working in the central city’s county.
18

Metropolitan Area of Philadelphia

City of
Philadelphia

Urbanized
area
(suburbs)
Metropolitan
Statistical
Area

The metropolitan area of Philadelphia is
spread over several counties and four states.
It is also a diversified trade center, given its
position on the Delaware river.

19

20

21

Micropolitan Statistical Areas: Smaller areas with between
10,000 and 50,000 people, the county where it is found, and
adjacent counties tied to the city. This would be a small town and
the area dominated by it.
Overlapping Metropolitan Areas: Some adjacent MSA’s overlap.
A county between two central cities may send a large number of
commuters to jobs in both cities. In some areas the cities are so
close that they form one continuous urban complex. This is
known as a Megalopolis (great city).
In a megalopolis, the downtown CBD often has its own
distinctive look and the urban areas are visually separated by
parks, open spaces, and dairy/truck farms. But at the periphery
of the urban areas, the boundaries overlap.
22

Colorado Springs, population 431,000

Ocala, Florida, population 56,000

Florala, Alabama, population 1,900

23

Megalopolis, from northern Va. To Maine.
This Illustrates the
difference between
strict city proper
definitions and broader
urban agglomerations.
To define urbanized
areas, the U.S. Census
Bureau uses the term
Metropolitan Statistical
Area (MSA) or
Consolidated MSA
(CMSA) if two or more of
them overlap.
24

Where are People Distributed within Urban Areas? People are not
just distributed at random in urban areas. For the most part they
concentrate in particular neighborhoods depending on their social
characteristics. Geographers want to see where people with
particular characteristics are likely to live and why.

Three models which try to explain the growth of a city:

The Burgess Model

The Hoyt Sector Model

The Harris and Ullman
multiple Nuclei Model
25

Burgess Concentric Zone Model

In the concentric zone model, a city grows in a series of rings surrounding the CBD.

Burgess Concentric Zone Model: This is the first used to explain the
distributions of different social groups within urban areas. It says that a
city grows outward from a central place in a series of concentric rings.
The precise size and width of the rings vary from one city to another, but
some basic types of rings appear in all cities in the same order (see chart
above).
26

•Hoyt Sector Model: In this model the city develops in a
series of sectors not rings. Certain areas of the city are
more attractive for various activities, originally because
of an environmental factor (or even pure chance). As the
city grows, activities extend outward in a wedge shape.
For example, once a wealthy neighborhood is built the
next wealthy neighborhood will extend from the first
neighborhood further outward from the center. In this
way, the best housing is found in a corridor extending
outward from the center to the outer edge (see chart on
the next page).
27

The Hoyt Sector Model

In the sector model, a city grows in a series of
wedges or corridors extending out from the
CBD.
28

•Harris and Ullman’s Multiple Nuclei Model: According
to this model, a city is a complex structure that includes
more than one center around which activities revolve.
Examples of these nodes include a port, parks,
stadium, neighborhood business center, university, and
airport (see chart). This theory states that some
activities are attracted to particular nodes, whereas
others try to avoid them. A university node may attract
well educated people and bookstores while the port will
attract hotels and warehouses. Heavy industry and
expensive houses rarely are found together. This
model shows the effect of the automobile more than
any other model.
29

The Harris and Ullman Multiple Nuclei model

The multiple nuclei model views a city as a
collection of individual centers, around which
different people and activities cluster.

30

Applications of the Models: The three models help explain where and in some
cases, why people live where they do. None of the models by themselves fully
explains why and where different types of people live, but combined they give
you as good a look as possible at the “Why” of “Where.” Effective use of the
models depends on getting good data on the areas. Most countries take a
census every 10 years to help determine useful data about the people and
places of the country. In our country we divide the census data into areas
known as census tracts of about 5,000 people. Each census tract has the data
that summarizes the characteristics of the people living within that tract. This
information includes things like the race, income, age, and education of the
people living in that tract.
Social Area Analysis: The data from the census tracts can all be plotted onto
maps to show the characteristics of the people living in that tract. This map is
known as a social area analysis.
31

Using Census tract information…Seattle, Washington
Each lined area is a
census tract of about 5000
people in Seattle
Washington. These maps
show average household
income for 1990 and
2000…note the changes in
income in some areas
between 1990 and 2000.
Using this information, a
business can make
decisions about where
they want to locate a new
store or the future of
existing stores.
You can find census tract
information on many topics
such as; age, education
level, race, ethnicity, crime
rate, and land ownership.
Note the areas with
incomes over
$63,000.

All can be very valuable
information to people
looking to open
businesses.

32

Examine the changes
between 1990 and
2000.

Oakland, California’s Ethnic neighborhoods
The small bordered areas are census tracks of 5000 people.

33

Use of the Models Outside of North America: The 3 models will also work in other
places in the world; however social groups in other countries may not have the
same reasons for selecting particular neighborhoods as Americans do.
European Cities: As in the US, wealthier people in European cities cluster along a
sector extending outward from the CBD, however unlike the US, wealthy and
middle class Europeans still live in the inner rings of the neighborhoods near the
CBD not out in the suburbs. In the past, poorer people lived in the center of the
city. Before electricity, social segregation was vertical: richer people lived on the
first or second floor of a building while the poorer people lived in the basement or
upper floors. In the Industrial Revolution, housing for the poor was constructed
near the factories and away from the rich.
Today poorer Europeans are less likely to live in the inner-city. Poor quality
housing has been renovated for the rich or turned into office buildings. Poorer
Europeans tend to live in the outskirts of the city. Vast suburbs with dozens of high
rise apartments house the poor. They face long commutes to reach their jobs in
the city.
34

European cities generally do not have the “suburban
sprawl” that US cities have. European cities tend to be
more pedestrian friendly with more parks downtown as
Europeans tend to still live downtown.
US cities have taller buildings as European cities tend to
be older and more historic.

American cities have more ethnic neighborhoods than
European cities. Ethnic neighborhoods that do exist in
European cities tend to be in the suburbs. WHY?
Because the established richer neighborhoods tend to be
downtown in European cities.
35

Less Developed Countries: Like Europe, most LDC’s accommodate their poor in the
suburbs with their middle class and rich living near the center of the city. LDC’s have
passed through 3 periods of city building: before the Europeans arrived, during the
period of European colonialism, and since independence from European control.

Pre-colonial Cities: Before the Europeans arrived few cities existed in Africa, Asia, and
Latin America and most people lived in small rural settlements. Those cities that existed
were mostly laid out surrounding a religious center; with the rest of the city laid out in a
hieratical concentric pattern (like the Burgess model) from government buildings,
homes of the wealthy, and businesses related to the religion out to other businesses
and shops.
Colonial cities: When the Europeans took over these lands, they changed the cities by
adding services to help the Europeans control the conquered people. Often a new
European style city would be build next to the existing native one. The new European
cities contained wider streets, a public square, larger houses and a much lower density.
The Spanish used the “Law of the Indies” which was a city plan designed specifically to
build cities in a “Spanish” style. (Gridiron pattern for streets centered on a church and
central plaza, walls around individual houses and neighborhoods centered around
smaller plazas and more churches.)
36

Early Mexico city was laid out in a grid pattern of streets. This followed
the Spanish “Law of the Indies.”

37

Central Plaza in Mexico City 1920 photo. Typical Colonial City plan.

Part of downtown Mexico city today still shows the
building plan of the “Law of the Indies.”

38

Cities since Independence: Following independence, cities have become
the focal point of the development of most LDC’s. Millions of people have
migrated to the cities (Primate cities) looking for jobs and services. Some
capitals have been moved to isolated areas in an attempt to help develop
that area of the country (Brasília) This is know as a forward capital. Latin
American cities have developed their own unique style.
Squatter settlements: The LDC’s are unable to house the rapidly growing
number of poor who are flowing into the cities. Because of the housing
shortages, the poor have constructed their own settlements around the city.
These settlements have few services because neither the city nor the
residents can afford them. Squatters have two basic choices for housing.
1. Illegally move into empty real houses located in the city or,
2. Rent slum housing.
(85% of the population of Addis Ababa in Ethiopia lives in squatter
settlements, slums or other illegal housing.)
39

Squatter shacks in Manila, the Philippines

40

Squatter settlement in Ethiopia

41

Zimbabwe, Africa

42

Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

43

Latin American City Model:
In many Latin
American cities,
the wealthy live in
the inner city and
in a sector
extending along a
commercial spine.
In situ accretion- businesses
and homes constantly under
construction/repair.
Zone of maturity-2nd best
housing in the city.
The poor live in squatter settlements on the
periphery of the city.

Disamenity- unpleasant area
used by the poor to get to the
market.

44

The City Outline of Rio de Janeiro
The rich tourist areas and expensive condo apartments are along the coast
and beach while the poor live in squatter shacks in the hills.

45

City problems:
Inner-City Physical Problems: Most US inner cities were constructed before the 1950’s
(people began to move to the suburbs in the 1950’s so new construction moved out of
the city).
Process of Deterioration (how a city deteriorates): A city doesn’t suddenly become old
and full of slummy areas. It happens over time. When a group of low-income people
inhabit an area of a city, nearby neighborhoods will often look to move out. They sell or
rent to more low-income occupants thus expanding the low-income area. Two processes
cause/speed up the devaluation of areas:
1. Filtering, 2. Redlining.
Filtering: Large houses and buildings that once housed rich downtown workers (who
moved to the suburbs) are taken over by landlords who don’t live in that area (they
moved to the suburbs too). Rents are low so the landlord doesn’t take as good care of
the property as they should and the property becomes run down or abandoned. Stores
close, or move, due to lack of sales. 100 years ago these neighborhoods would be used
by immigrants and ethnic businesses would succeed in those areas. Now, with a decline
in immigration, these neighborhoods have shrunk and so have schools, businesses and
other services. Thousands of vacant houses and buildings stand empty in inner cities
across America.

46

Redlining: Some banks refuse to give loans in what they consider
risky neighborhoods. They draw a red line on a map around areas
where they will not give loans. Without loans, these neighborhoods
have a hard time rebuilding/remodeling. Though illegal, this still
happens. Bankers just don’t put these “no-loan” areas on a map.

Urban Renewal: This is the series of projects to improve European
and N. American cities by buying up the blighted neighborhoods,
moving the people to new government built housing projects, and
building new roads, and other projects to make the inner city
attractive for business again. National and State government grants
help pay for these projects.
47

Public housing: Housing for the poor, built with government funding as part of
urban renewal. In the US this is only about 2% of the housing while in some
countries it may be more (Britain is 30%). Public housing built in the 50’s & 60’s
were largely high rise apartments, but those are seen as being unsatisfactory.
Problems arise from cramming large numbers of poor people into one area.
Today most public housing projects are one to three story buildings with many of
them being scattered around different parts of the city rather than clustered into
one area.
Because urban renewal has been criticized for destroying the social cohesion of
older neighborhoods, many governments (like the US) have stopped funding
most projects since the 1970’s. What do we do instead?
Renovated Housing: An alternative often used since the 70’s is to renovate a
building instead of urban renewal. The process where middle-class people
move into inner-city neighborhoods and renovate them is called gentrification.
Gentrified inner-city neighborhoods also attract middle-class people who work
downtown. Living close to work saves the hassle of commuting and rejuvenates
run down inner-city neighborhoods
48

Gentrified building downtown Harlem, NY. Note the supermarket.

49

Inner-City Social Problems: Inner-city residents are often referred to as the
permanent underclass because they are trapped in an unending cycle of
economic and social problems. High unemployment, alcoholism, drug
addiction, literacy, juvenile delinquency, and crime all exist at a higher rate
among those who live in the inner-city. Lack of jobs means lack of tax dollars
to pay for police and fire protection as well as good schools. Lack of job skills
and homelessness are also tremendous problems.
Culture of Poverty: Inner-city residents are trapped in a permanent underclass
culture that reproduces itself. In the US, unwed mothers give birth to 2/3 of the
babies in the inner-city. 90% of these children live with only one parent and it
is real hard for one parent to keep a job and take care of children. Both suffer
and a shortage of care and daily attention by the parent contributes to the kids
not learning the skills necessary to do well in school which leads to poor jobs
for their futures. Poverty leads to more poverty. Many families on welfare have
only one parent because it is financially better if one parent is gone, that way
the single parent gets food stamps and other services from the government
that they would not get if it was a 2 family household.
50

Crime: Trapped in a hopeless environment, some inner-city
residents turn to drugs. Drug use is a problem in inner-city
areas and the suburbs, but rates of drug use in inner-cities
are the highest.
Ethnic and Racial Segregation: As seen in chapter 7, many
neighborhoods in the US are segregated by ethnicity with
African Americans and Hispanics concentrated in one or two
continuous areas and whites living in the suburbs. Even small
cities display a strong distinction among neighborhoods. A
frequent division is between the east and west or north and
south side of town, or the railroad tracks. A family seeking a
new residence will seek the areas where the characteristics
of the people meet their own.

51

The exodus
from the
American city.
This has
happened in
many American
cities since the
1960’s.

52

Changes in Cities in the U.S.
U.S. population has been moving out of the city centers to the suburbs:
suburbanization and counter urbanization

Developed Countries: suburbanization

 wealthy move to suburbs
 automobiles and roads; ‘American
Dream’ of the home in the suburbs.
 better services
 wealthy move to suburbs
Counter urbanization

idyllic settings
cost of land for retirement
slow pace, yet high tech
connections to services and markets
53

U.S. intraregional migration during 1990s.

Inner city economic problems: the concentration of low income
residents in inner cities has caused economic problems. These
people require public services but can pay very little in taxes to
support the services. They need stores and jobs but have little
money to spend in the store and few skills for jobs (so the stores
close). To try to fight these problems many local and state
governments use tax monies to try to renovate these areas, but this
shifts tax money needed for other areas to the inner city (votes on
election day).
Annexation: Many cities could help their tax problem by adding the
new suburbs to be part of their city (annexation). After all, many of
these suburban people use the city for its’ jobs etc., so why not add
them into the city? Today, most people in the suburbs do not want
to be annexed into the city and so they do not vote to be annexed.
54

The Peripheral Model: According to this model, an urban area
consists of an inner city surrounded by large suburban residential
and business areas (MSA) tied together by a beltway or highway
that circles the city. Around the beltway are nodes of consumer
and business services called edge cities (see diagram of multiple
nuclei model). These edge cities sprang up to provide services
and jobs to the people in the suburbs.
Density Gradient: As you travel outward from the center of the
city, the density of people declines. Inner city has big apartments
of 250 of more people per acre. Suburbs have fewer people per
acre (but lots of acres) and finally you leave the cities periphery
you find few people. The number of houses per unit of land
diminishes as distance from the center of the city increases.
55

The Edge cities (bedroom communities) of Houston

The central city is surrounded by a ring road, around which are
suburban areas and edge cities, shopping malls, office parks,
industrial areas, and service complexes.

Known as
bedroom
communities
because
people live
there but
mostly don’t
work there.
They drive
into the city
for work.
56

As you move from the center of the city outward, the density of the population
changes. This is know as the density gradient. Two big changes have occurred in
the density gradient of today’s cities:
1. The number of people living in the center has decreased.
2. The density difference between the inner city and the suburbs is declining
because the inner city density is dropping and the suburban density is growing
due to more large apartments being built in the suburbs.
Cost of Suburban or Urban Sprawl: Urban Sprawl is the progressive spread of
development over the landscape. As long as we Americans want single-family
detached houses, land on the fringe of urban areas will be converted from open
space to residential use. The cost of this growth is more than the loss of land, it is
also the cost of new roads, utilities, building stores and offices and the cost of
automobiles to move these people over even longer distances. Lots of these new
developments are built on what was once farmland. Wonderful productive soil now
under concrete.

Greenbelts: are areas where, by law, the open space can not be used for any
construction. This is mostly found in Europe.

57

Once farmland that is being converted to suburbs and cities.

58

Tyson’s Corner Virginia in 1940

59

Washington, DC. MSA.

Tyson’s Corner Virginia
today.
Washington D.C. is off
In the distance.

60

Suburban Segregation: The “new” segregation.
Suburban segregation takes two forms:
1. Residents are separated from commercial and manufacturing activities
which are confined someplace else. (The whole neighborhood is
nothing but houses because they drive for services.)
2. The price of the house eliminates some from being able to live there. This
creates a homogeneous suburb of the same economic class of people.
This never existed before in history. Where we once had vertical
segregation of the classes we now we have horizontal segregation.
3. But this may be reversing as new statistics show that people are beginning
to move back to the city. Why? Cost of transportation.
Zoning Ordinances: This idea developed in Europe and later America in the
early decades of the 20th century. This means that businesses are allowed only
in certain areas of the settlement. (No all night taco stands inside your single
family neighborhood.)
Motor vehicles: The wide use of the automobile is largely responsible for the
American movement to the suburbs. Not only did people move out but 1/4 of
the land inside all American cities are now roads, streets, and parking lots.

61

Public Transportation: Because few US workers live within walking distance
of their jobs, urban areas are characterized by extensive commuting and the
problems that come with it. As much as 40% of all trips made into or out from
a city during the day takes place within just 4 hours. (2 in the morning and 2 in
the late afternoon). RUSH HOUR!!! In large cities, public transportation, like
subways and busses, are better suited to move people but Americans still
prefer their own cars. Public transportation is cheaper, cleaner, and more
energy efficient than personal cars, yet in the US only 5% of city travel is
done using public transit systems. American’s love their personal car too
much.
Local Government Fragmentation: Because of the large number of local
governments in the US (look at the settlements in Pinellas County) it is
difficult to solve some of the regional problems like garbage disposal, water
management, traffic and public housing.
62

Metropolitan government: This idea tries to put many local governments into a
larger unit that can better handle the urban problems. The 2 ways to do this
are:
1. Federations in which the individual settlements have their own police,
firemen, and tax collection but they all agree to be part of a second
government which handles transportation, water, sewage, parks and
welfare for all the communities.
2. Consolidations: In this method, several cities and the county may form one
government. Jacksonville’s government runs not only the town but the
county too, this makes Jacksonville the largest city, in land size, in the US.
Smart growth: A new movement by many states to curb suburban sprawl by
limiting where new construction can take place. Smart growth laws require that
land near cities be used up before any land further out can be developed. So
far, this is only being done an a few parts of our country.
63

The new
US as
some
people
see it.

64

Quiz Yourself:
1. The process where middle-class people move into inner city neighborhoods and
renovate them is called ____________
2. ____________ happens when banks refuse to give loans in what they consider
risky neighborhoods.
3. Because of the housing shortages, the poor have constructed their own settlements
around the city known as __________ _________

4. Businesses are allowed only in certain areas of the settlement because of
____________ ____________
5. Areas known as _____ _______ are areas of about 5,000 people. The data from
that area is used to help define needed services for that area.
6. When cities are so close that they form one continuous band of development this is
known as a ____________
65

7. Social relationships are often described as “colder” in urban areas because…
8. In this model the city develops in a series of sectors not rings. _______

9. ______ (LDC’s or MDC’s) have a higher percentage of people living in urban
settlements but ________ (LDC’s or MDC’s) have more of the very large urban
settlements.
10. _____________ was the first model developed to explain the distributions
of different social groups within urban areas.
11. New cities which develop around the beltway are nodes of consumer and
business services known as ________ _________.

12. When the Europeans took over lands around the world, they changed the
cities by adding services to help the Europeans control the conquered people.
These European planned cities are known as __________ cities.
66

Answer Key:
1.

Gentrification

2.

Redlining

3.

Squatter Settlements

4.

Zoning ordinances

5.

Census tracks

6.

Megalopolis

7. There is a stronger feeling of belonging together in small rural settlements.
8. Hoyt sector model
9. MDC, LDC
10. Burgess Concentric Zone model
11. Edge cities
12. Colonial cities
67

Test Key topic/chapter 13:
These questions come from a combination of our slides, your text book, and common knowledge you should
have discussed in your AP classroom. They are very typical of what you will see on the National Exam.
1) The multiple nuclei theory best explains why different neighborhoods of a city attract people of different… A) ages.
B) ethnic origin C) income D) marital status.
2) Sprawl is the… A) change in density within an urban area from the center to the periphery B) development of new
housing sites not contiguous to the existing built-up area. C) land maintained as open space surrounding an urban area.
D) period in the morning and evening with the heaviest volumes of traffic.
3) People are attracted to suburbs in part because suburbs are characterized by…A) heavy traffic. B) lower opportunity
for home ownership. C) private land surrounding the house. D) row houses and apartments.
4) Megalopolis refers to… A) adjacent, overlapping Metropolitan Statistical Areas. B) central cities. C) consolidated
Metropolitan Statistical Areas. D) central cities plus urbanized areas.
5) Which statement best describes the relationship between urbanization and the Industrial Revolution? A) Urbanization
promoted the Industrial Revolution. B) The Industrial Revolution promoted urbanization. C) Urbanization preceded the
Industrial Revolution by thousands of years. D) Urbanization and the Industrial Revolution are no longer related.
6) The process of legally adding land area to a city in the United States is… A) annexation. B) accreditation. C) an
application of eminent domain. D) defined by urbanized area.

68

7) The process of change in the use of a house, from single-family owner occupancy to abandonment, is… A) blockbusting.
B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining.
8) A process by which banks designate an area within which they refuse to lend money for improvements is… A) blockbusting.
B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining.
9) A recent change in the density gradient has been… A) the elimination of the gap traditionally found in the center. B) an
increase in the extremes between the inner and outer areas. C) an increase in the number of people living in the center.
D) a reduction in the differences in densities found within an urban area.
10) U.S. central cities face fiscal problems because… A) federal and state funds are available. B) low-income people are
concentrated there. C) middle-class families are attracted there. D) redlining is no longer legal.
11) A legal form of segregation in U.S. cities is achieved through...A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) zoning. D) greenbelts.
12) Factories have moved to suburban locations in part because of… A) access to main highways. B) adequate space to build
vertical structures. C) availability of large tracts of high-priced land. D) good rail connections.
13) According to the sector model, the best housing is located in…A) a corridor from downtown to the edge of the city.
B) an outer ring surrounding the city. C) nodes near universities and parks. D) renovated inner-city neighborhoods.
14) Ramshackle houses on the periphery of cities in less developed countries are known as… A) squatter settlements. B) council
estates. C) public housing. D) zone in transition.
15) Higher income people tend to live near the center of the city in all but which of the following regions? A) Latin America
B) North America C) South Asia D) Western Europe

16) The wide boulevards built in cities in less developed countries were most likely built during what era? A) pre-colonial
B) colonial C) independence D) all of the above equally

69

17) According to the multiple nuclei model, an airport is likely to attract nearby… A) industries. B) residences. C) shops.
D) universities.
18) The largest percentage of the U.S. population lives in…A) central cities. B) suburbs. C) non-metropolitan areas. D) all of the
above
19) In U.S. cities, the underclass is… A) clustered in inner-city neighborhoods. B) dispersed throughout the city. C) clustered in
suburbs. D) distributed uniformly in the city.

20) A process of converting a neighborhood from low-income to middle-class is…A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) gentrification.
D) redlining.
21) Higher social heterogeneity in urban settlements means that… A) the people with whom you relax are probably the same ones you
see at work. B) you play a specialized role in the urban economy. C) you compete for limited space. D) you may feel lonely and
isolated in a crowd.
22) The city plus its contiguous built-up suburbs is the… A) central city. B) urbanized area.
D) consolidated metropolitan statistical area

C) metropolitan statistical area.

23) The process whereby an increasing percentage of people live in an urban area is known as… A) demographic transition.
B) rank-size rule. C) urbanization. D) central place theory.
24) Of the ten largest urban areas in the world, how many are in More Developed Countries today? A) 1 B) 4 C) 7 D) 10 E) 2
25) Public housing is…A) conversion of low-income housing to middle-class housing. B) illegally established low-income housing.
C) housing that has changed from single-family owner occupancy to abandonment. D) low-income government-owned housing.
26) According to the concentric zone model, a city develops in a series of… A) corridors. B) nodes. C) rings. D) all of the above

70

27) Chicago is a good location in which to develop urban models because it is located… A) at the hub of the nation's transportation
system. B) in the center of the country. C) on a flat prairie. D) on the shore of Lake Michigan.
28) According to the sector model, the best housing is located in… A) a corridor from downtown to the edge of the city. B) an outer
ring surrounding the city. C) nodes near universities and parks. D) renovated inner-city neighborhoods.
29) The zone of transition in US cities generally contain…A) warehouses B) wealthy neighborhoods C) transportation hubs
D) universities and hospitals E) suburban homes
30) The attractions of shopping malls include all but which of the following? A) frequent concerts and exhibitions B) generous
parking lots C) place to meet friends D) walking distance from homes
The following questions are written at the high school level. You will find some questions from part one often rewritten
here. This is all designed to help you transition to the college/AP style of written questions. Any question preceded with ***
are questions that have been on the national exam before.
31. Most Latin American cities are focused on a…A) central plaza B) government housing project C) zone of heavy industry
D) skyscraper office building E) squatter settlement
32. The multiple-nuclei model of a city structure tends to be most applicable to…A) small cities B) traditional C) Latin American
cities D) newer, fast growing cities E) cities with homogeneous land use
33. ***Locational advantages important to the development of the earliest cities include…A) availability of good harbors for large
ships B) productive agricultural land and defensible sites C) temperate climate and proximity to coal mines D) good
connections by road and canal E) proximity to manufacturing areas

34. In cities, the CBD’s often show uniqueness while the suburbs usually show…A) a large hinterland. B) placelessness C) more
than one node. D) newer zones of transition.

71

35. Many LDC’s have tried to help a previously under-developed part of their country develop by moving their capital
city to that area. This new capital is known as a…A) forward capital B) new development zone C) enterprise zone
D) neocolonial city
36. Today the greatest number of urban dwellers is found in…A) North America
D) Europe E) Asia

B) South America C) Africa

37. ***All of the following have helped create ghettos in North American cities except…A)blockbusting and racial
steering B) redlining by financial institutions C) concentration of public housing and social services D) fixed school
districts E) Economic Enterprise Zones

38. Which of the following is NOT as reason for rapid suburbanization in the US after WW2? A) Mass production of
the automobile B) Reduction of long distance commuting C) Expansion of home construction D) Expansion of the
interstate highway system E) Availability of low down payment terms and long-term mortgages.
39. New cities which developed in the hinterland of large urban areas because of the automobile, are known as…
A) edge cities B) census tracts C) suburban sprawl D) squatter settlements. E) none of these
40. Gentrification refers to… A) moving the homeless into inner city shelters B) The “White Flight” from the urban city
C) losing tax revenue because of stores closing in downtown areas D) middle-class people moving into and renovating
inner city neighborhoods E) the creation of “beltway cities” around the city.

72

4
7
3

5

1
6

2

41-48 all use the sketch above.
41. The sketch in box A above represents which model of the inner structure of urban areas?
C) multiple nuclei model D) Burgess concentric zone model E) peripheral model
42. The models in boxes B and C represent A) Concentric zone and multiple nuclei
concentric zone D) peripheral and concentric zone E) Von Thunen and peripheral

A) Hoyt sector model B) VonThunen’s model

B) Multiple nuclei and Hoyt sector C) Hoyt sector and

43. In which ring (1, 2, etc.) of sketch A above would high-status households in North American cities likely live? A) 1 B) 2 C) 3 D) 4&5
44. In which ring (1, 2, etc.) of sketch A above would high status households in a European city likely live? A) 1

B) 2

C) 3

D) 4&5

45. In model B, zone # 2 is where it is likely because of: A) greenbelting B) squatter settling C) the culture of poverty D) transportation
E) no one knows
46. The model in sketch B is the; A) Hoyt sector model B) Burgess model C) multiple nuclei model D) peripheral model
47. The model in sketch C is the; A) Hoyt sector model B) Burgess model C) multiple nuclei model D) peripheral model
48. Which of these models best describes what has happened in US cities in the last 40 years? A)

B)

C)

73

49.*** In the U.S. a city plus its contiguous built-up suburbs is known as an…A) urbanized area B) zoned area
C) census tract D) Squatter settlement E) none of these
50. Done mostly in Europe, these are areas where land is kept as parks, farms or other kinds of open space and urban
sprawl is not allowed. A) Smart growth
B) zoning
C) filtering
D) census tracts E) greenbelts
51. Which statement best describes the relationship between urbanization and the Industrial Revolution?
A) Urbanization promoted the Industrial Revolution. B) The Industrial Revolution promoted urbanization.
C) Urbanization preceded the Industrial Revolution by thousands of years. D) Urbanization and the Industrial
Revolution are no longer related.
52. The process whereby an increasing percentage of people live in an urban area is known as…
A) Demographic transition. B) rank-size rule. C) Urbanization. D) Central place theory.
53. The city (if it has 50,000 or more people) plus its contiguous built-up suburbs AND the county it is in as well as any
other counties it influences, is known as the ...A) central city B) urbanized area
C) metropolitan statistical area
D) consolidated metropolitan area E) micropolitan statistical area
54. ***Higher social heterogeneity in urban settlements means that …A) the people with whom you relax are probably
the same ones you see at work. B) you play a specialized role in the urban economy. C) you compete for limited
space. D) you may feel lonely and isolated in a crowd.

55. The process of change in the use of a house, from single-family owner occupancy to smaller dwellings for the poor
and then sometimes to abandonment, is…A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining. E) none of
these

74

Free Response #1:
The Bid Rent theory says that the closer you get to the
CBD the higher the cost for land, yet in most American
cities you find the poorest people living near the
expensive CBD and the richest living further away.
Explain:
A. Why neighborhoods near the CBD are often poor and
run down?
B. Why are there few grocery and other retail stores in
these neighborhoods?
C. Why is this not really true in European and Latin
American countries?

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75

FR #2:
Think of the map of your school, explain the
layout of your school using the Multiple Nuclei
Model
The main office is the CBD.
Completely explain your answer using specific
buildings and/or land areas in your explanation
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76

Answer Key:
1. B

14. A

27. C

40. D

53. C

2. B

15. B

28. A

41. D

54. D

3. C

16. B

29. A

42. B

55. B

4. A

17. A

30. D

43. D

5. B

18. B

31. A

44. A

6. A

19. A

32. D

45. D

7. B

20. C

33. B

46. A

8. D

21. D

34. B

47. C

9. D

22. B

35. A

48. C

10. B

23. C

36. E

49. A

11. C

24. C

37. E

50. E

12. A

25. D

38. B

51. B

13. A

26. C

39. A

52. C
77

FR. #1: ( 15 pts. for each section…total of 45 pts.)
A. In the US the move of the wealthy and middle class to the suburbs has left the older houses and apartments near the CBD empty.
This has lowered their value to the point where the poor can afford these dwellings and have made these neighborhoods their
homes. The poor can not pay for upkeep of these dwellings, or to pay high taxes. The lack of upkeep and tax money to repair the
roads and schools, adds to the downward spiral of the neighborhood. With little spending money for shopping, the poor do not
spend much in the stores. This causes many stores to close and move to the suburbs where the spending customers and money
went. The closing of the stores adds to the poverty of the area by taking away some of the jobs that were in the neighborhood. This
becomes a vicious cycle of poverty and deterioration. (15 points)

B. There are few retail stores and groceries is the area because the poor do not have money to shop. The lack of spending forces
many stores out of business or forces them to move to better locations. There also can be higher crime in these areas and the
crime often takes place at the stores. This is another reason for the stores to move out of the neighborhood. (15 points)
C. Neighborhoods in European and Latin American cities are different from those of US cities. In Europe and Latin America, the
wealthy and middle class still live near or in the CBD. The higher tax base and more spending ability of the upper and middle
classes, keeps the CBD area flourishing with jobs and in constant repair and upkeep of the cities’ physical condition. (15 points)

FR #2: (10 total points.)
You will need to judge how effectively you displayed you school
in the Multiple Nuclei Model. Refer to the model itself to help you
determine your success and grade.
School’s main office
78

Calculating your grade on test 13.
Add how many you got correct on the multiple choice part (55 possible) to how many
points you scored on the FR portion (55 possible)…110 total.
The following scale will show the approximate score if this test were the real AP exam. Remember that this
is an approximation. While 65-74% is normally the range for a 3 on the test, it is not definite. Over the
years I have seen scores as low as 60% be the low portion of a 3 score.

Out of 110 possible points:
72-83 is most likely a 3
84-94 is most likely a 4

95-110 is most likely a 5

Now lets start our review for the national exam by
reviewing the 33 key models and theories of the
course…the next PowerPoint.


Slide 67

Key topic/chapter 13…Urban Patterns
Key terms:
Annexation
Concentric zone model
Density gradient
Edge cities
Filtering
Galactic city
Gentrification
Greenbelts
Megalopolis
MSA
Multiple nuclei model
Peripheral model

Public housing
Redlining
Renovated housing
Scattered site
Squatter settlement
Sector model
Smart growth
Sprawl
Underclass
Urban renewal
Zone in transition
Zoning
1

Chapter 13…Urban Areas.
How are Cities planned?
Why

are cities where they are?
How are they organized?
Why are some areas of a city
different from
other areas of the same city?
What is the future of cities?
2

Settlement


Settlement - permanent collections of buildings,
where people live, work, and obtain services

3

ORIGINS OF SETTLEMENTS


Religious - graves, churches, temples



Cultural - schools, libraries



Political/Military - leader’s house, walls



Economic - stores, food
4

TYPES OF SETTLEMENTS


Rural Settlements - agriculture as the
predominant occupation.



Urban settlements - principal industries are
secondary and tertiary.

5

RURAL SETTLEMENTS
Clustered rural settlements –grouped
settlements in rural areas to minimize travel

Dispersed rural Settlements - isolated farms
with enclosed continuous fields (Found only in
N. America and Britain).

6

Urban Geographers want to know the global distribution of urban
settlements. MDC’s have a high percentage of people living in urban
areas because of the shift from agriculture-manufacturing-services.
Geographers are also interested in where people and activities are
distributed within urban spaces. What are the differences between the
inner-city and suburban areas and why?
As we saw in the last chapter, many downtowns are unique and can
often be recognized in photos where the suburbs often look very
much alike (Placelessness). Why? Suburbs offer the chance to avoid
some of the city problems (crime, tight living area, expensive
land/rent, noise, age of buildings) while still keeping a connection with
the goods and services of the city: jobs, sports teams, culture, shops,
recreation, etc.
7

Where is this place?

8

Today’s cities are evolving and changing. Although different internal
situations characterize urban areas in the US and elsewhere, the
problems arising from current spatial trends are quite similar in all cities.
Where have urban areas grown: in the early 1800’s only 3% of the earth’s
people lived in cities and only Beijing China had more than 1 million
people. Today over ½ of the world’s people live in cities and we have over
400 cities of at least 1 million people.

Urbanization: is the process by which city population grows.
Cities population growth is measured in 2 dimensions;
1. An increase in the number of people living in the cities.
2. An increase in the percentage of people living in the cities.
This distinction is important because they happen for different reason and
have different global distributions.
9

Increasing Percentage of People in Cities: a large percentage of people living in urban
areas is a measure of a country’s level of development. In MDC’s about ¾ of the people
live in urban areas compared to about 2/5 of people in LDC’s. (Except in Latin America
where the level is closer to MDC’s.)
The higher percentage of people in urban areas comes from the changes that have
occurred in the last 200 years as we went from agriculture (primary jobs) to industrial
(secondary jobs) and now service jobs, all created by the Industrial Revolution of the
1800’s.
People moved to the cities for industrial jobs, but in MDC’s this process has largely
ended because nearly everyone interested in moving to the cities from farms has already
done so.
In LDC’s the percentage of people living in urban areas is growing as people are pushed
off of their farms and replaced by machines and as people move to cities looking/hoping
for industrial jobs.
10

Increasing Number of People in Cities: MDC’s have a higher percentage of
people living in urban settlements but LDC’s have more of the very large urban
settlements (Primate cities). (Rank-size rule, primate cities, chapter 12.)

This is interesting because typically the large cities are created from the
improvements brought by the Industrial Revolution. This is not the case with the
large LDC cities. Migration to the primate city in LDC’s is happening even though
job opportunities may not be available. Increasing the population growth in LDC
cities is the fact that medical services are better in these cities, thus the child
mortality rate is lower.
Defining Urban Settlements: defining where urban areas end and rural areas
begin is not easy. Geographers have formulated definitions that distinguish
between urban and rural areas in two ways: Social differences and Physical
differences.
11

Percent Urban Population

Percent of the population living in urban areas is usually higher in MDCs
than in LDCs.

12

The most populated cities in the world

Of the top
20, only
Moscow,
Tokyo and
New York
are in MDC’s

Shanghai China has 14,608,512 people
13

14

15

Social Differences Between Urban and Rural Settlements: it is fair to say that rural
people and urban people follow different ways of life. A city can be defined as having 3
characteristics:
1. Large size. People in rural settlements know most of the other people in the
settlement. Not true in big cities. Social relationships are often described as “colder” in
urban areas because you only see some people at work instead of growing up with
them in the settlement.
2. High Density. Having lots of people in a tiny area creates social consequences. A
high density of people living in a small area can only be supported if the people
specialize (they can’t all be farmers). People are encouraged to compete for jobs, room,
and survival in a tightly limited space. Social groups compete to occupy the same space
(ethnic/ race problems). Rural settlements have very little of this problem.
3. Social Heterogeneity. The larger the settlement, the greater the variety of people.
Being “unusual” in a large settlement is more likely to be accepted than in a small rural
one. But despite the freedom to be different that large urban settlements give you,
people living there often feel alone because so many people are different from them.
There is a stronger feeling of belonging together in small rural settlements.
16

These 3 differences do not fully answer the question of where urban settlements
begin and rural ones end because in today’s MDC’s most everyone has access to
cars, telephones, televisions, and “urban type” jobs which reduce the differences
between urban and rural lifestyles. “City folk” and “Country folk” are more alike
today than they are different. To help distinguish between urban and rural areas we
need to add the physical definition of rural and urban to the equation.
Physical Definitions of Urban Settlements: In ancient time, cities had defensive
walls for protection which clearly defined the physical boundaries of the city. Today
the walls are gone but we can still define the physical boundaries in 3 ways:
1. Legal boundary. These are the official boundaries of a city as recognized by
the government of the country or state. These “city limits” have been officially given
to the city and are physically marked on official maps. The local government of the
city has authority to make laws and protect the people inside the city boundaries.
17

2. Urbanized area. This is the city plus its suburbs or urbanized area that
surrounds the city. About 70 percent of US residents live in urbanized areas with
40% being in the suburbs and 30% inside the city limits. The suburbs may have
their own city governments but the huge central city dominates what happens in
the entire area.
3. Metropolitan Statistical Area. Cities have an even bigger influence on people
than just those living in their city limits and surrounding urbanized areas. People
from far away come to shop, use the services, support the sports teams, read
the newspapers and watch the television broadcasts of the city. Thus the city
has a “functional area” which is its total zone of influence. The US Bureau of
Census has created a method of measuring the functional area of the city.
Known as the Metropolitan statistical area (MSA) this area includes:
•An urbanized area with a population of at least 50,000
•The county within which the city is located.
•Adjacent counties with a high population density and a large percentage of
residents working in the central city’s county.
18

Metropolitan Area of Philadelphia

City of
Philadelphia

Urbanized
area
(suburbs)
Metropolitan
Statistical
Area

The metropolitan area of Philadelphia is
spread over several counties and four states.
It is also a diversified trade center, given its
position on the Delaware river.

19

20

21

Micropolitan Statistical Areas: Smaller areas with between
10,000 and 50,000 people, the county where it is found, and
adjacent counties tied to the city. This would be a small town and
the area dominated by it.
Overlapping Metropolitan Areas: Some adjacent MSA’s overlap.
A county between two central cities may send a large number of
commuters to jobs in both cities. In some areas the cities are so
close that they form one continuous urban complex. This is
known as a Megalopolis (great city).
In a megalopolis, the downtown CBD often has its own
distinctive look and the urban areas are visually separated by
parks, open spaces, and dairy/truck farms. But at the periphery
of the urban areas, the boundaries overlap.
22

Colorado Springs, population 431,000

Ocala, Florida, population 56,000

Florala, Alabama, population 1,900

23

Megalopolis, from northern Va. To Maine.
This Illustrates the
difference between
strict city proper
definitions and broader
urban agglomerations.
To define urbanized
areas, the U.S. Census
Bureau uses the term
Metropolitan Statistical
Area (MSA) or
Consolidated MSA
(CMSA) if two or more of
them overlap.
24

Where are People Distributed within Urban Areas? People are not
just distributed at random in urban areas. For the most part they
concentrate in particular neighborhoods depending on their social
characteristics. Geographers want to see where people with
particular characteristics are likely to live and why.

Three models which try to explain the growth of a city:

The Burgess Model

The Hoyt Sector Model

The Harris and Ullman
multiple Nuclei Model
25

Burgess Concentric Zone Model

In the concentric zone model, a city grows in a series of rings surrounding the CBD.

Burgess Concentric Zone Model: This is the first used to explain the
distributions of different social groups within urban areas. It says that a
city grows outward from a central place in a series of concentric rings.
The precise size and width of the rings vary from one city to another, but
some basic types of rings appear in all cities in the same order (see chart
above).
26

•Hoyt Sector Model: In this model the city develops in a
series of sectors not rings. Certain areas of the city are
more attractive for various activities, originally because
of an environmental factor (or even pure chance). As the
city grows, activities extend outward in a wedge shape.
For example, once a wealthy neighborhood is built the
next wealthy neighborhood will extend from the first
neighborhood further outward from the center. In this
way, the best housing is found in a corridor extending
outward from the center to the outer edge (see chart on
the next page).
27

The Hoyt Sector Model

In the sector model, a city grows in a series of
wedges or corridors extending out from the
CBD.
28

•Harris and Ullman’s Multiple Nuclei Model: According
to this model, a city is a complex structure that includes
more than one center around which activities revolve.
Examples of these nodes include a port, parks,
stadium, neighborhood business center, university, and
airport (see chart). This theory states that some
activities are attracted to particular nodes, whereas
others try to avoid them. A university node may attract
well educated people and bookstores while the port will
attract hotels and warehouses. Heavy industry and
expensive houses rarely are found together. This
model shows the effect of the automobile more than
any other model.
29

The Harris and Ullman Multiple Nuclei model

The multiple nuclei model views a city as a
collection of individual centers, around which
different people and activities cluster.

30

Applications of the Models: The three models help explain where and in some
cases, why people live where they do. None of the models by themselves fully
explains why and where different types of people live, but combined they give
you as good a look as possible at the “Why” of “Where.” Effective use of the
models depends on getting good data on the areas. Most countries take a
census every 10 years to help determine useful data about the people and
places of the country. In our country we divide the census data into areas
known as census tracts of about 5,000 people. Each census tract has the data
that summarizes the characteristics of the people living within that tract. This
information includes things like the race, income, age, and education of the
people living in that tract.
Social Area Analysis: The data from the census tracts can all be plotted onto
maps to show the characteristics of the people living in that tract. This map is
known as a social area analysis.
31

Using Census tract information…Seattle, Washington
Each lined area is a
census tract of about 5000
people in Seattle
Washington. These maps
show average household
income for 1990 and
2000…note the changes in
income in some areas
between 1990 and 2000.
Using this information, a
business can make
decisions about where
they want to locate a new
store or the future of
existing stores.
You can find census tract
information on many topics
such as; age, education
level, race, ethnicity, crime
rate, and land ownership.
Note the areas with
incomes over
$63,000.

All can be very valuable
information to people
looking to open
businesses.

32

Examine the changes
between 1990 and
2000.

Oakland, California’s Ethnic neighborhoods
The small bordered areas are census tracks of 5000 people.

33

Use of the Models Outside of North America: The 3 models will also work in other
places in the world; however social groups in other countries may not have the
same reasons for selecting particular neighborhoods as Americans do.
European Cities: As in the US, wealthier people in European cities cluster along a
sector extending outward from the CBD, however unlike the US, wealthy and
middle class Europeans still live in the inner rings of the neighborhoods near the
CBD not out in the suburbs. In the past, poorer people lived in the center of the
city. Before electricity, social segregation was vertical: richer people lived on the
first or second floor of a building while the poorer people lived in the basement or
upper floors. In the Industrial Revolution, housing for the poor was constructed
near the factories and away from the rich.
Today poorer Europeans are less likely to live in the inner-city. Poor quality
housing has been renovated for the rich or turned into office buildings. Poorer
Europeans tend to live in the outskirts of the city. Vast suburbs with dozens of high
rise apartments house the poor. They face long commutes to reach their jobs in
the city.
34

European cities generally do not have the “suburban
sprawl” that US cities have. European cities tend to be
more pedestrian friendly with more parks downtown as
Europeans tend to still live downtown.
US cities have taller buildings as European cities tend to
be older and more historic.

American cities have more ethnic neighborhoods than
European cities. Ethnic neighborhoods that do exist in
European cities tend to be in the suburbs. WHY?
Because the established richer neighborhoods tend to be
downtown in European cities.
35

Less Developed Countries: Like Europe, most LDC’s accommodate their poor in the
suburbs with their middle class and rich living near the center of the city. LDC’s have
passed through 3 periods of city building: before the Europeans arrived, during the
period of European colonialism, and since independence from European control.

Pre-colonial Cities: Before the Europeans arrived few cities existed in Africa, Asia, and
Latin America and most people lived in small rural settlements. Those cities that existed
were mostly laid out surrounding a religious center; with the rest of the city laid out in a
hieratical concentric pattern (like the Burgess model) from government buildings,
homes of the wealthy, and businesses related to the religion out to other businesses
and shops.
Colonial cities: When the Europeans took over these lands, they changed the cities by
adding services to help the Europeans control the conquered people. Often a new
European style city would be build next to the existing native one. The new European
cities contained wider streets, a public square, larger houses and a much lower density.
The Spanish used the “Law of the Indies” which was a city plan designed specifically to
build cities in a “Spanish” style. (Gridiron pattern for streets centered on a church and
central plaza, walls around individual houses and neighborhoods centered around
smaller plazas and more churches.)
36

Early Mexico city was laid out in a grid pattern of streets. This followed
the Spanish “Law of the Indies.”

37

Central Plaza in Mexico City 1920 photo. Typical Colonial City plan.

Part of downtown Mexico city today still shows the
building plan of the “Law of the Indies.”

38

Cities since Independence: Following independence, cities have become
the focal point of the development of most LDC’s. Millions of people have
migrated to the cities (Primate cities) looking for jobs and services. Some
capitals have been moved to isolated areas in an attempt to help develop
that area of the country (Brasília) This is know as a forward capital. Latin
American cities have developed their own unique style.
Squatter settlements: The LDC’s are unable to house the rapidly growing
number of poor who are flowing into the cities. Because of the housing
shortages, the poor have constructed their own settlements around the city.
These settlements have few services because neither the city nor the
residents can afford them. Squatters have two basic choices for housing.
1. Illegally move into empty real houses located in the city or,
2. Rent slum housing.
(85% of the population of Addis Ababa in Ethiopia lives in squatter
settlements, slums or other illegal housing.)
39

Squatter shacks in Manila, the Philippines

40

Squatter settlement in Ethiopia

41

Zimbabwe, Africa

42

Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

43

Latin American City Model:
In many Latin
American cities,
the wealthy live in
the inner city and
in a sector
extending along a
commercial spine.
In situ accretion- businesses
and homes constantly under
construction/repair.
Zone of maturity-2nd best
housing in the city.
The poor live in squatter settlements on the
periphery of the city.

Disamenity- unpleasant area
used by the poor to get to the
market.

44

The City Outline of Rio de Janeiro
The rich tourist areas and expensive condo apartments are along the coast
and beach while the poor live in squatter shacks in the hills.

45

City problems:
Inner-City Physical Problems: Most US inner cities were constructed before the 1950’s
(people began to move to the suburbs in the 1950’s so new construction moved out of
the city).
Process of Deterioration (how a city deteriorates): A city doesn’t suddenly become old
and full of slummy areas. It happens over time. When a group of low-income people
inhabit an area of a city, nearby neighborhoods will often look to move out. They sell or
rent to more low-income occupants thus expanding the low-income area. Two processes
cause/speed up the devaluation of areas:
1. Filtering, 2. Redlining.
Filtering: Large houses and buildings that once housed rich downtown workers (who
moved to the suburbs) are taken over by landlords who don’t live in that area (they
moved to the suburbs too). Rents are low so the landlord doesn’t take as good care of
the property as they should and the property becomes run down or abandoned. Stores
close, or move, due to lack of sales. 100 years ago these neighborhoods would be used
by immigrants and ethnic businesses would succeed in those areas. Now, with a decline
in immigration, these neighborhoods have shrunk and so have schools, businesses and
other services. Thousands of vacant houses and buildings stand empty in inner cities
across America.

46

Redlining: Some banks refuse to give loans in what they consider
risky neighborhoods. They draw a red line on a map around areas
where they will not give loans. Without loans, these neighborhoods
have a hard time rebuilding/remodeling. Though illegal, this still
happens. Bankers just don’t put these “no-loan” areas on a map.

Urban Renewal: This is the series of projects to improve European
and N. American cities by buying up the blighted neighborhoods,
moving the people to new government built housing projects, and
building new roads, and other projects to make the inner city
attractive for business again. National and State government grants
help pay for these projects.
47

Public housing: Housing for the poor, built with government funding as part of
urban renewal. In the US this is only about 2% of the housing while in some
countries it may be more (Britain is 30%). Public housing built in the 50’s & 60’s
were largely high rise apartments, but those are seen as being unsatisfactory.
Problems arise from cramming large numbers of poor people into one area.
Today most public housing projects are one to three story buildings with many of
them being scattered around different parts of the city rather than clustered into
one area.
Because urban renewal has been criticized for destroying the social cohesion of
older neighborhoods, many governments (like the US) have stopped funding
most projects since the 1970’s. What do we do instead?
Renovated Housing: An alternative often used since the 70’s is to renovate a
building instead of urban renewal. The process where middle-class people
move into inner-city neighborhoods and renovate them is called gentrification.
Gentrified inner-city neighborhoods also attract middle-class people who work
downtown. Living close to work saves the hassle of commuting and rejuvenates
run down inner-city neighborhoods
48

Gentrified building downtown Harlem, NY. Note the supermarket.

49

Inner-City Social Problems: Inner-city residents are often referred to as the
permanent underclass because they are trapped in an unending cycle of
economic and social problems. High unemployment, alcoholism, drug
addiction, literacy, juvenile delinquency, and crime all exist at a higher rate
among those who live in the inner-city. Lack of jobs means lack of tax dollars
to pay for police and fire protection as well as good schools. Lack of job skills
and homelessness are also tremendous problems.
Culture of Poverty: Inner-city residents are trapped in a permanent underclass
culture that reproduces itself. In the US, unwed mothers give birth to 2/3 of the
babies in the inner-city. 90% of these children live with only one parent and it
is real hard for one parent to keep a job and take care of children. Both suffer
and a shortage of care and daily attention by the parent contributes to the kids
not learning the skills necessary to do well in school which leads to poor jobs
for their futures. Poverty leads to more poverty. Many families on welfare have
only one parent because it is financially better if one parent is gone, that way
the single parent gets food stamps and other services from the government
that they would not get if it was a 2 family household.
50

Crime: Trapped in a hopeless environment, some inner-city
residents turn to drugs. Drug use is a problem in inner-city
areas and the suburbs, but rates of drug use in inner-cities
are the highest.
Ethnic and Racial Segregation: As seen in chapter 7, many
neighborhoods in the US are segregated by ethnicity with
African Americans and Hispanics concentrated in one or two
continuous areas and whites living in the suburbs. Even small
cities display a strong distinction among neighborhoods. A
frequent division is between the east and west or north and
south side of town, or the railroad tracks. A family seeking a
new residence will seek the areas where the characteristics
of the people meet their own.

51

The exodus
from the
American city.
This has
happened in
many American
cities since the
1960’s.

52

Changes in Cities in the U.S.
U.S. population has been moving out of the city centers to the suburbs:
suburbanization and counter urbanization

Developed Countries: suburbanization

 wealthy move to suburbs
 automobiles and roads; ‘American
Dream’ of the home in the suburbs.
 better services
 wealthy move to suburbs
Counter urbanization

idyllic settings
cost of land for retirement
slow pace, yet high tech
connections to services and markets
53

U.S. intraregional migration during 1990s.

Inner city economic problems: the concentration of low income
residents in inner cities has caused economic problems. These
people require public services but can pay very little in taxes to
support the services. They need stores and jobs but have little
money to spend in the store and few skills for jobs (so the stores
close). To try to fight these problems many local and state
governments use tax monies to try to renovate these areas, but this
shifts tax money needed for other areas to the inner city (votes on
election day).
Annexation: Many cities could help their tax problem by adding the
new suburbs to be part of their city (annexation). After all, many of
these suburban people use the city for its’ jobs etc., so why not add
them into the city? Today, most people in the suburbs do not want
to be annexed into the city and so they do not vote to be annexed.
54

The Peripheral Model: According to this model, an urban area
consists of an inner city surrounded by large suburban residential
and business areas (MSA) tied together by a beltway or highway
that circles the city. Around the beltway are nodes of consumer
and business services called edge cities (see diagram of multiple
nuclei model). These edge cities sprang up to provide services
and jobs to the people in the suburbs.
Density Gradient: As you travel outward from the center of the
city, the density of people declines. Inner city has big apartments
of 250 of more people per acre. Suburbs have fewer people per
acre (but lots of acres) and finally you leave the cities periphery
you find few people. The number of houses per unit of land
diminishes as distance from the center of the city increases.
55

The Edge cities (bedroom communities) of Houston

The central city is surrounded by a ring road, around which are
suburban areas and edge cities, shopping malls, office parks,
industrial areas, and service complexes.

Known as
bedroom
communities
because
people live
there but
mostly don’t
work there.
They drive
into the city
for work.
56

As you move from the center of the city outward, the density of the population
changes. This is know as the density gradient. Two big changes have occurred in
the density gradient of today’s cities:
1. The number of people living in the center has decreased.
2. The density difference between the inner city and the suburbs is declining
because the inner city density is dropping and the suburban density is growing
due to more large apartments being built in the suburbs.
Cost of Suburban or Urban Sprawl: Urban Sprawl is the progressive spread of
development over the landscape. As long as we Americans want single-family
detached houses, land on the fringe of urban areas will be converted from open
space to residential use. The cost of this growth is more than the loss of land, it is
also the cost of new roads, utilities, building stores and offices and the cost of
automobiles to move these people over even longer distances. Lots of these new
developments are built on what was once farmland. Wonderful productive soil now
under concrete.

Greenbelts: are areas where, by law, the open space can not be used for any
construction. This is mostly found in Europe.

57

Once farmland that is being converted to suburbs and cities.

58

Tyson’s Corner Virginia in 1940

59

Washington, DC. MSA.

Tyson’s Corner Virginia
today.
Washington D.C. is off
In the distance.

60

Suburban Segregation: The “new” segregation.
Suburban segregation takes two forms:
1. Residents are separated from commercial and manufacturing activities
which are confined someplace else. (The whole neighborhood is
nothing but houses because they drive for services.)
2. The price of the house eliminates some from being able to live there. This
creates a homogeneous suburb of the same economic class of people.
This never existed before in history. Where we once had vertical
segregation of the classes we now we have horizontal segregation.
3. But this may be reversing as new statistics show that people are beginning
to move back to the city. Why? Cost of transportation.
Zoning Ordinances: This idea developed in Europe and later America in the
early decades of the 20th century. This means that businesses are allowed only
in certain areas of the settlement. (No all night taco stands inside your single
family neighborhood.)
Motor vehicles: The wide use of the automobile is largely responsible for the
American movement to the suburbs. Not only did people move out but 1/4 of
the land inside all American cities are now roads, streets, and parking lots.

61

Public Transportation: Because few US workers live within walking distance
of their jobs, urban areas are characterized by extensive commuting and the
problems that come with it. As much as 40% of all trips made into or out from
a city during the day takes place within just 4 hours. (2 in the morning and 2 in
the late afternoon). RUSH HOUR!!! In large cities, public transportation, like
subways and busses, are better suited to move people but Americans still
prefer their own cars. Public transportation is cheaper, cleaner, and more
energy efficient than personal cars, yet in the US only 5% of city travel is
done using public transit systems. American’s love their personal car too
much.
Local Government Fragmentation: Because of the large number of local
governments in the US (look at the settlements in Pinellas County) it is
difficult to solve some of the regional problems like garbage disposal, water
management, traffic and public housing.
62

Metropolitan government: This idea tries to put many local governments into a
larger unit that can better handle the urban problems. The 2 ways to do this
are:
1. Federations in which the individual settlements have their own police,
firemen, and tax collection but they all agree to be part of a second
government which handles transportation, water, sewage, parks and
welfare for all the communities.
2. Consolidations: In this method, several cities and the county may form one
government. Jacksonville’s government runs not only the town but the
county too, this makes Jacksonville the largest city, in land size, in the US.
Smart growth: A new movement by many states to curb suburban sprawl by
limiting where new construction can take place. Smart growth laws require that
land near cities be used up before any land further out can be developed. So
far, this is only being done an a few parts of our country.
63

The new
US as
some
people
see it.

64

Quiz Yourself:
1. The process where middle-class people move into inner city neighborhoods and
renovate them is called ____________
2. ____________ happens when banks refuse to give loans in what they consider
risky neighborhoods.
3. Because of the housing shortages, the poor have constructed their own settlements
around the city known as __________ _________

4. Businesses are allowed only in certain areas of the settlement because of
____________ ____________
5. Areas known as _____ _______ are areas of about 5,000 people. The data from
that area is used to help define needed services for that area.
6. When cities are so close that they form one continuous band of development this is
known as a ____________
65

7. Social relationships are often described as “colder” in urban areas because…
8. In this model the city develops in a series of sectors not rings. _______

9. ______ (LDC’s or MDC’s) have a higher percentage of people living in urban
settlements but ________ (LDC’s or MDC’s) have more of the very large urban
settlements.
10. _____________ was the first model developed to explain the distributions
of different social groups within urban areas.
11. New cities which develop around the beltway are nodes of consumer and
business services known as ________ _________.

12. When the Europeans took over lands around the world, they changed the
cities by adding services to help the Europeans control the conquered people.
These European planned cities are known as __________ cities.
66

Answer Key:
1.

Gentrification

2.

Redlining

3.

Squatter Settlements

4.

Zoning ordinances

5.

Census tracks

6.

Megalopolis

7. There is a stronger feeling of belonging together in small rural settlements.
8. Hoyt sector model
9. MDC, LDC
10. Burgess Concentric Zone model
11. Edge cities
12. Colonial cities
67

Test Key topic/chapter 13:
These questions come from a combination of our slides, your text book, and common knowledge you should
have discussed in your AP classroom. They are very typical of what you will see on the National Exam.
1) The multiple nuclei theory best explains why different neighborhoods of a city attract people of different… A) ages.
B) ethnic origin C) income D) marital status.
2) Sprawl is the… A) change in density within an urban area from the center to the periphery B) development of new
housing sites not contiguous to the existing built-up area. C) land maintained as open space surrounding an urban area.
D) period in the morning and evening with the heaviest volumes of traffic.
3) People are attracted to suburbs in part because suburbs are characterized by…A) heavy traffic. B) lower opportunity
for home ownership. C) private land surrounding the house. D) row houses and apartments.
4) Megalopolis refers to… A) adjacent, overlapping Metropolitan Statistical Areas. B) central cities. C) consolidated
Metropolitan Statistical Areas. D) central cities plus urbanized areas.
5) Which statement best describes the relationship between urbanization and the Industrial Revolution? A) Urbanization
promoted the Industrial Revolution. B) The Industrial Revolution promoted urbanization. C) Urbanization preceded the
Industrial Revolution by thousands of years. D) Urbanization and the Industrial Revolution are no longer related.
6) The process of legally adding land area to a city in the United States is… A) annexation. B) accreditation. C) an
application of eminent domain. D) defined by urbanized area.

68

7) The process of change in the use of a house, from single-family owner occupancy to abandonment, is… A) blockbusting.
B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining.
8) A process by which banks designate an area within which they refuse to lend money for improvements is… A) blockbusting.
B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining.
9) A recent change in the density gradient has been… A) the elimination of the gap traditionally found in the center. B) an
increase in the extremes between the inner and outer areas. C) an increase in the number of people living in the center.
D) a reduction in the differences in densities found within an urban area.
10) U.S. central cities face fiscal problems because… A) federal and state funds are available. B) low-income people are
concentrated there. C) middle-class families are attracted there. D) redlining is no longer legal.
11) A legal form of segregation in U.S. cities is achieved through...A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) zoning. D) greenbelts.
12) Factories have moved to suburban locations in part because of… A) access to main highways. B) adequate space to build
vertical structures. C) availability of large tracts of high-priced land. D) good rail connections.
13) According to the sector model, the best housing is located in…A) a corridor from downtown to the edge of the city.
B) an outer ring surrounding the city. C) nodes near universities and parks. D) renovated inner-city neighborhoods.
14) Ramshackle houses on the periphery of cities in less developed countries are known as… A) squatter settlements. B) council
estates. C) public housing. D) zone in transition.
15) Higher income people tend to live near the center of the city in all but which of the following regions? A) Latin America
B) North America C) South Asia D) Western Europe

16) The wide boulevards built in cities in less developed countries were most likely built during what era? A) pre-colonial
B) colonial C) independence D) all of the above equally

69

17) According to the multiple nuclei model, an airport is likely to attract nearby… A) industries. B) residences. C) shops.
D) universities.
18) The largest percentage of the U.S. population lives in…A) central cities. B) suburbs. C) non-metropolitan areas. D) all of the
above
19) In U.S. cities, the underclass is… A) clustered in inner-city neighborhoods. B) dispersed throughout the city. C) clustered in
suburbs. D) distributed uniformly in the city.

20) A process of converting a neighborhood from low-income to middle-class is…A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) gentrification.
D) redlining.
21) Higher social heterogeneity in urban settlements means that… A) the people with whom you relax are probably the same ones you
see at work. B) you play a specialized role in the urban economy. C) you compete for limited space. D) you may feel lonely and
isolated in a crowd.
22) The city plus its contiguous built-up suburbs is the… A) central city. B) urbanized area.
D) consolidated metropolitan statistical area

C) metropolitan statistical area.

23) The process whereby an increasing percentage of people live in an urban area is known as… A) demographic transition.
B) rank-size rule. C) urbanization. D) central place theory.
24) Of the ten largest urban areas in the world, how many are in More Developed Countries today? A) 1 B) 4 C) 7 D) 10 E) 2
25) Public housing is…A) conversion of low-income housing to middle-class housing. B) illegally established low-income housing.
C) housing that has changed from single-family owner occupancy to abandonment. D) low-income government-owned housing.
26) According to the concentric zone model, a city develops in a series of… A) corridors. B) nodes. C) rings. D) all of the above

70

27) Chicago is a good location in which to develop urban models because it is located… A) at the hub of the nation's transportation
system. B) in the center of the country. C) on a flat prairie. D) on the shore of Lake Michigan.
28) According to the sector model, the best housing is located in… A) a corridor from downtown to the edge of the city. B) an outer
ring surrounding the city. C) nodes near universities and parks. D) renovated inner-city neighborhoods.
29) The zone of transition in US cities generally contain…A) warehouses B) wealthy neighborhoods C) transportation hubs
D) universities and hospitals E) suburban homes
30) The attractions of shopping malls include all but which of the following? A) frequent concerts and exhibitions B) generous
parking lots C) place to meet friends D) walking distance from homes
The following questions are written at the high school level. You will find some questions from part one often rewritten
here. This is all designed to help you transition to the college/AP style of written questions. Any question preceded with ***
are questions that have been on the national exam before.
31. Most Latin American cities are focused on a…A) central plaza B) government housing project C) zone of heavy industry
D) skyscraper office building E) squatter settlement
32. The multiple-nuclei model of a city structure tends to be most applicable to…A) small cities B) traditional C) Latin American
cities D) newer, fast growing cities E) cities with homogeneous land use
33. ***Locational advantages important to the development of the earliest cities include…A) availability of good harbors for large
ships B) productive agricultural land and defensible sites C) temperate climate and proximity to coal mines D) good
connections by road and canal E) proximity to manufacturing areas

34. In cities, the CBD’s often show uniqueness while the suburbs usually show…A) a large hinterland. B) placelessness C) more
than one node. D) newer zones of transition.

71

35. Many LDC’s have tried to help a previously under-developed part of their country develop by moving their capital
city to that area. This new capital is known as a…A) forward capital B) new development zone C) enterprise zone
D) neocolonial city
36. Today the greatest number of urban dwellers is found in…A) North America
D) Europe E) Asia

B) South America C) Africa

37. ***All of the following have helped create ghettos in North American cities except…A)blockbusting and racial
steering B) redlining by financial institutions C) concentration of public housing and social services D) fixed school
districts E) Economic Enterprise Zones

38. Which of the following is NOT as reason for rapid suburbanization in the US after WW2? A) Mass production of
the automobile B) Reduction of long distance commuting C) Expansion of home construction D) Expansion of the
interstate highway system E) Availability of low down payment terms and long-term mortgages.
39. New cities which developed in the hinterland of large urban areas because of the automobile, are known as…
A) edge cities B) census tracts C) suburban sprawl D) squatter settlements. E) none of these
40. Gentrification refers to… A) moving the homeless into inner city shelters B) The “White Flight” from the urban city
C) losing tax revenue because of stores closing in downtown areas D) middle-class people moving into and renovating
inner city neighborhoods E) the creation of “beltway cities” around the city.

72

4
7
3

5

1
6

2

41-48 all use the sketch above.
41. The sketch in box A above represents which model of the inner structure of urban areas?
C) multiple nuclei model D) Burgess concentric zone model E) peripheral model
42. The models in boxes B and C represent A) Concentric zone and multiple nuclei
concentric zone D) peripheral and concentric zone E) Von Thunen and peripheral

A) Hoyt sector model B) VonThunen’s model

B) Multiple nuclei and Hoyt sector C) Hoyt sector and

43. In which ring (1, 2, etc.) of sketch A above would high-status households in North American cities likely live? A) 1 B) 2 C) 3 D) 4&5
44. In which ring (1, 2, etc.) of sketch A above would high status households in a European city likely live? A) 1

B) 2

C) 3

D) 4&5

45. In model B, zone # 2 is where it is likely because of: A) greenbelting B) squatter settling C) the culture of poverty D) transportation
E) no one knows
46. The model in sketch B is the; A) Hoyt sector model B) Burgess model C) multiple nuclei model D) peripheral model
47. The model in sketch C is the; A) Hoyt sector model B) Burgess model C) multiple nuclei model D) peripheral model
48. Which of these models best describes what has happened in US cities in the last 40 years? A)

B)

C)

73

49.*** In the U.S. a city plus its contiguous built-up suburbs is known as an…A) urbanized area B) zoned area
C) census tract D) Squatter settlement E) none of these
50. Done mostly in Europe, these are areas where land is kept as parks, farms or other kinds of open space and urban
sprawl is not allowed. A) Smart growth
B) zoning
C) filtering
D) census tracts E) greenbelts
51. Which statement best describes the relationship between urbanization and the Industrial Revolution?
A) Urbanization promoted the Industrial Revolution. B) The Industrial Revolution promoted urbanization.
C) Urbanization preceded the Industrial Revolution by thousands of years. D) Urbanization and the Industrial
Revolution are no longer related.
52. The process whereby an increasing percentage of people live in an urban area is known as…
A) Demographic transition. B) rank-size rule. C) Urbanization. D) Central place theory.
53. The city (if it has 50,000 or more people) plus its contiguous built-up suburbs AND the county it is in as well as any
other counties it influences, is known as the ...A) central city B) urbanized area
C) metropolitan statistical area
D) consolidated metropolitan area E) micropolitan statistical area
54. ***Higher social heterogeneity in urban settlements means that …A) the people with whom you relax are probably
the same ones you see at work. B) you play a specialized role in the urban economy. C) you compete for limited
space. D) you may feel lonely and isolated in a crowd.

55. The process of change in the use of a house, from single-family owner occupancy to smaller dwellings for the poor
and then sometimes to abandonment, is…A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining. E) none of
these

74

Free Response #1:
The Bid Rent theory says that the closer you get to the
CBD the higher the cost for land, yet in most American
cities you find the poorest people living near the
expensive CBD and the richest living further away.
Explain:
A. Why neighborhoods near the CBD are often poor and
run down?
B. Why are there few grocery and other retail stores in
these neighborhoods?
C. Why is this not really true in European and Latin
American countries?

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75

FR #2:
Think of the map of your school, explain the
layout of your school using the Multiple Nuclei
Model
The main office is the CBD.
Completely explain your answer using specific
buildings and/or land areas in your explanation
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76

Answer Key:
1. B

14. A

27. C

40. D

53. C

2. B

15. B

28. A

41. D

54. D

3. C

16. B

29. A

42. B

55. B

4. A

17. A

30. D

43. D

5. B

18. B

31. A

44. A

6. A

19. A

32. D

45. D

7. B

20. C

33. B

46. A

8. D

21. D

34. B

47. C

9. D

22. B

35. A

48. C

10. B

23. C

36. E

49. A

11. C

24. C

37. E

50. E

12. A

25. D

38. B

51. B

13. A

26. C

39. A

52. C
77

FR. #1: ( 15 pts. for each section…total of 45 pts.)
A. In the US the move of the wealthy and middle class to the suburbs has left the older houses and apartments near the CBD empty.
This has lowered their value to the point where the poor can afford these dwellings and have made these neighborhoods their
homes. The poor can not pay for upkeep of these dwellings, or to pay high taxes. The lack of upkeep and tax money to repair the
roads and schools, adds to the downward spiral of the neighborhood. With little spending money for shopping, the poor do not
spend much in the stores. This causes many stores to close and move to the suburbs where the spending customers and money
went. The closing of the stores adds to the poverty of the area by taking away some of the jobs that were in the neighborhood. This
becomes a vicious cycle of poverty and deterioration. (15 points)

B. There are few retail stores and groceries is the area because the poor do not have money to shop. The lack of spending forces
many stores out of business or forces them to move to better locations. There also can be higher crime in these areas and the
crime often takes place at the stores. This is another reason for the stores to move out of the neighborhood. (15 points)
C. Neighborhoods in European and Latin American cities are different from those of US cities. In Europe and Latin America, the
wealthy and middle class still live near or in the CBD. The higher tax base and more spending ability of the upper and middle
classes, keeps the CBD area flourishing with jobs and in constant repair and upkeep of the cities’ physical condition. (15 points)

FR #2: (10 total points.)
You will need to judge how effectively you displayed you school
in the Multiple Nuclei Model. Refer to the model itself to help you
determine your success and grade.
School’s main office
78

Calculating your grade on test 13.
Add how many you got correct on the multiple choice part (55 possible) to how many
points you scored on the FR portion (55 possible)…110 total.
The following scale will show the approximate score if this test were the real AP exam. Remember that this
is an approximation. While 65-74% is normally the range for a 3 on the test, it is not definite. Over the
years I have seen scores as low as 60% be the low portion of a 3 score.

Out of 110 possible points:
72-83 is most likely a 3
84-94 is most likely a 4

95-110 is most likely a 5

Now lets start our review for the national exam by
reviewing the 33 key models and theories of the
course…the next PowerPoint.


Slide 68

Key topic/chapter 13…Urban Patterns
Key terms:
Annexation
Concentric zone model
Density gradient
Edge cities
Filtering
Galactic city
Gentrification
Greenbelts
Megalopolis
MSA
Multiple nuclei model
Peripheral model

Public housing
Redlining
Renovated housing
Scattered site
Squatter settlement
Sector model
Smart growth
Sprawl
Underclass
Urban renewal
Zone in transition
Zoning
1

Chapter 13…Urban Areas.
How are Cities planned?
Why

are cities where they are?
How are they organized?
Why are some areas of a city
different from
other areas of the same city?
What is the future of cities?
2

Settlement


Settlement - permanent collections of buildings,
where people live, work, and obtain services

3

ORIGINS OF SETTLEMENTS


Religious - graves, churches, temples



Cultural - schools, libraries



Political/Military - leader’s house, walls



Economic - stores, food
4

TYPES OF SETTLEMENTS


Rural Settlements - agriculture as the
predominant occupation.



Urban settlements - principal industries are
secondary and tertiary.

5

RURAL SETTLEMENTS
Clustered rural settlements –grouped
settlements in rural areas to minimize travel

Dispersed rural Settlements - isolated farms
with enclosed continuous fields (Found only in
N. America and Britain).

6

Urban Geographers want to know the global distribution of urban
settlements. MDC’s have a high percentage of people living in urban
areas because of the shift from agriculture-manufacturing-services.
Geographers are also interested in where people and activities are
distributed within urban spaces. What are the differences between the
inner-city and suburban areas and why?
As we saw in the last chapter, many downtowns are unique and can
often be recognized in photos where the suburbs often look very
much alike (Placelessness). Why? Suburbs offer the chance to avoid
some of the city problems (crime, tight living area, expensive
land/rent, noise, age of buildings) while still keeping a connection with
the goods and services of the city: jobs, sports teams, culture, shops,
recreation, etc.
7

Where is this place?

8

Today’s cities are evolving and changing. Although different internal
situations characterize urban areas in the US and elsewhere, the
problems arising from current spatial trends are quite similar in all cities.
Where have urban areas grown: in the early 1800’s only 3% of the earth’s
people lived in cities and only Beijing China had more than 1 million
people. Today over ½ of the world’s people live in cities and we have over
400 cities of at least 1 million people.

Urbanization: is the process by which city population grows.
Cities population growth is measured in 2 dimensions;
1. An increase in the number of people living in the cities.
2. An increase in the percentage of people living in the cities.
This distinction is important because they happen for different reason and
have different global distributions.
9

Increasing Percentage of People in Cities: a large percentage of people living in urban
areas is a measure of a country’s level of development. In MDC’s about ¾ of the people
live in urban areas compared to about 2/5 of people in LDC’s. (Except in Latin America
where the level is closer to MDC’s.)
The higher percentage of people in urban areas comes from the changes that have
occurred in the last 200 years as we went from agriculture (primary jobs) to industrial
(secondary jobs) and now service jobs, all created by the Industrial Revolution of the
1800’s.
People moved to the cities for industrial jobs, but in MDC’s this process has largely
ended because nearly everyone interested in moving to the cities from farms has already
done so.
In LDC’s the percentage of people living in urban areas is growing as people are pushed
off of their farms and replaced by machines and as people move to cities looking/hoping
for industrial jobs.
10

Increasing Number of People in Cities: MDC’s have a higher percentage of
people living in urban settlements but LDC’s have more of the very large urban
settlements (Primate cities). (Rank-size rule, primate cities, chapter 12.)

This is interesting because typically the large cities are created from the
improvements brought by the Industrial Revolution. This is not the case with the
large LDC cities. Migration to the primate city in LDC’s is happening even though
job opportunities may not be available. Increasing the population growth in LDC
cities is the fact that medical services are better in these cities, thus the child
mortality rate is lower.
Defining Urban Settlements: defining where urban areas end and rural areas
begin is not easy. Geographers have formulated definitions that distinguish
between urban and rural areas in two ways: Social differences and Physical
differences.
11

Percent Urban Population

Percent of the population living in urban areas is usually higher in MDCs
than in LDCs.

12

The most populated cities in the world

Of the top
20, only
Moscow,
Tokyo and
New York
are in MDC’s

Shanghai China has 14,608,512 people
13

14

15

Social Differences Between Urban and Rural Settlements: it is fair to say that rural
people and urban people follow different ways of life. A city can be defined as having 3
characteristics:
1. Large size. People in rural settlements know most of the other people in the
settlement. Not true in big cities. Social relationships are often described as “colder” in
urban areas because you only see some people at work instead of growing up with
them in the settlement.
2. High Density. Having lots of people in a tiny area creates social consequences. A
high density of people living in a small area can only be supported if the people
specialize (they can’t all be farmers). People are encouraged to compete for jobs, room,
and survival in a tightly limited space. Social groups compete to occupy the same space
(ethnic/ race problems). Rural settlements have very little of this problem.
3. Social Heterogeneity. The larger the settlement, the greater the variety of people.
Being “unusual” in a large settlement is more likely to be accepted than in a small rural
one. But despite the freedom to be different that large urban settlements give you,
people living there often feel alone because so many people are different from them.
There is a stronger feeling of belonging together in small rural settlements.
16

These 3 differences do not fully answer the question of where urban settlements
begin and rural ones end because in today’s MDC’s most everyone has access to
cars, telephones, televisions, and “urban type” jobs which reduce the differences
between urban and rural lifestyles. “City folk” and “Country folk” are more alike
today than they are different. To help distinguish between urban and rural areas we
need to add the physical definition of rural and urban to the equation.
Physical Definitions of Urban Settlements: In ancient time, cities had defensive
walls for protection which clearly defined the physical boundaries of the city. Today
the walls are gone but we can still define the physical boundaries in 3 ways:
1. Legal boundary. These are the official boundaries of a city as recognized by
the government of the country or state. These “city limits” have been officially given
to the city and are physically marked on official maps. The local government of the
city has authority to make laws and protect the people inside the city boundaries.
17

2. Urbanized area. This is the city plus its suburbs or urbanized area that
surrounds the city. About 70 percent of US residents live in urbanized areas with
40% being in the suburbs and 30% inside the city limits. The suburbs may have
their own city governments but the huge central city dominates what happens in
the entire area.
3. Metropolitan Statistical Area. Cities have an even bigger influence on people
than just those living in their city limits and surrounding urbanized areas. People
from far away come to shop, use the services, support the sports teams, read
the newspapers and watch the television broadcasts of the city. Thus the city
has a “functional area” which is its total zone of influence. The US Bureau of
Census has created a method of measuring the functional area of the city.
Known as the Metropolitan statistical area (MSA) this area includes:
•An urbanized area with a population of at least 50,000
•The county within which the city is located.
•Adjacent counties with a high population density and a large percentage of
residents working in the central city’s county.
18

Metropolitan Area of Philadelphia

City of
Philadelphia

Urbanized
area
(suburbs)
Metropolitan
Statistical
Area

The metropolitan area of Philadelphia is
spread over several counties and four states.
It is also a diversified trade center, given its
position on the Delaware river.

19

20

21

Micropolitan Statistical Areas: Smaller areas with between
10,000 and 50,000 people, the county where it is found, and
adjacent counties tied to the city. This would be a small town and
the area dominated by it.
Overlapping Metropolitan Areas: Some adjacent MSA’s overlap.
A county between two central cities may send a large number of
commuters to jobs in both cities. In some areas the cities are so
close that they form one continuous urban complex. This is
known as a Megalopolis (great city).
In a megalopolis, the downtown CBD often has its own
distinctive look and the urban areas are visually separated by
parks, open spaces, and dairy/truck farms. But at the periphery
of the urban areas, the boundaries overlap.
22

Colorado Springs, population 431,000

Ocala, Florida, population 56,000

Florala, Alabama, population 1,900

23

Megalopolis, from northern Va. To Maine.
This Illustrates the
difference between
strict city proper
definitions and broader
urban agglomerations.
To define urbanized
areas, the U.S. Census
Bureau uses the term
Metropolitan Statistical
Area (MSA) or
Consolidated MSA
(CMSA) if two or more of
them overlap.
24

Where are People Distributed within Urban Areas? People are not
just distributed at random in urban areas. For the most part they
concentrate in particular neighborhoods depending on their social
characteristics. Geographers want to see where people with
particular characteristics are likely to live and why.

Three models which try to explain the growth of a city:

The Burgess Model

The Hoyt Sector Model

The Harris and Ullman
multiple Nuclei Model
25

Burgess Concentric Zone Model

In the concentric zone model, a city grows in a series of rings surrounding the CBD.

Burgess Concentric Zone Model: This is the first used to explain the
distributions of different social groups within urban areas. It says that a
city grows outward from a central place in a series of concentric rings.
The precise size and width of the rings vary from one city to another, but
some basic types of rings appear in all cities in the same order (see chart
above).
26

•Hoyt Sector Model: In this model the city develops in a
series of sectors not rings. Certain areas of the city are
more attractive for various activities, originally because
of an environmental factor (or even pure chance). As the
city grows, activities extend outward in a wedge shape.
For example, once a wealthy neighborhood is built the
next wealthy neighborhood will extend from the first
neighborhood further outward from the center. In this
way, the best housing is found in a corridor extending
outward from the center to the outer edge (see chart on
the next page).
27

The Hoyt Sector Model

In the sector model, a city grows in a series of
wedges or corridors extending out from the
CBD.
28

•Harris and Ullman’s Multiple Nuclei Model: According
to this model, a city is a complex structure that includes
more than one center around which activities revolve.
Examples of these nodes include a port, parks,
stadium, neighborhood business center, university, and
airport (see chart). This theory states that some
activities are attracted to particular nodes, whereas
others try to avoid them. A university node may attract
well educated people and bookstores while the port will
attract hotels and warehouses. Heavy industry and
expensive houses rarely are found together. This
model shows the effect of the automobile more than
any other model.
29

The Harris and Ullman Multiple Nuclei model

The multiple nuclei model views a city as a
collection of individual centers, around which
different people and activities cluster.

30

Applications of the Models: The three models help explain where and in some
cases, why people live where they do. None of the models by themselves fully
explains why and where different types of people live, but combined they give
you as good a look as possible at the “Why” of “Where.” Effective use of the
models depends on getting good data on the areas. Most countries take a
census every 10 years to help determine useful data about the people and
places of the country. In our country we divide the census data into areas
known as census tracts of about 5,000 people. Each census tract has the data
that summarizes the characteristics of the people living within that tract. This
information includes things like the race, income, age, and education of the
people living in that tract.
Social Area Analysis: The data from the census tracts can all be plotted onto
maps to show the characteristics of the people living in that tract. This map is
known as a social area analysis.
31

Using Census tract information…Seattle, Washington
Each lined area is a
census tract of about 5000
people in Seattle
Washington. These maps
show average household
income for 1990 and
2000…note the changes in
income in some areas
between 1990 and 2000.
Using this information, a
business can make
decisions about where
they want to locate a new
store or the future of
existing stores.
You can find census tract
information on many topics
such as; age, education
level, race, ethnicity, crime
rate, and land ownership.
Note the areas with
incomes over
$63,000.

All can be very valuable
information to people
looking to open
businesses.

32

Examine the changes
between 1990 and
2000.

Oakland, California’s Ethnic neighborhoods
The small bordered areas are census tracks of 5000 people.

33

Use of the Models Outside of North America: The 3 models will also work in other
places in the world; however social groups in other countries may not have the
same reasons for selecting particular neighborhoods as Americans do.
European Cities: As in the US, wealthier people in European cities cluster along a
sector extending outward from the CBD, however unlike the US, wealthy and
middle class Europeans still live in the inner rings of the neighborhoods near the
CBD not out in the suburbs. In the past, poorer people lived in the center of the
city. Before electricity, social segregation was vertical: richer people lived on the
first or second floor of a building while the poorer people lived in the basement or
upper floors. In the Industrial Revolution, housing for the poor was constructed
near the factories and away from the rich.
Today poorer Europeans are less likely to live in the inner-city. Poor quality
housing has been renovated for the rich or turned into office buildings. Poorer
Europeans tend to live in the outskirts of the city. Vast suburbs with dozens of high
rise apartments house the poor. They face long commutes to reach their jobs in
the city.
34

European cities generally do not have the “suburban
sprawl” that US cities have. European cities tend to be
more pedestrian friendly with more parks downtown as
Europeans tend to still live downtown.
US cities have taller buildings as European cities tend to
be older and more historic.

American cities have more ethnic neighborhoods than
European cities. Ethnic neighborhoods that do exist in
European cities tend to be in the suburbs. WHY?
Because the established richer neighborhoods tend to be
downtown in European cities.
35

Less Developed Countries: Like Europe, most LDC’s accommodate their poor in the
suburbs with their middle class and rich living near the center of the city. LDC’s have
passed through 3 periods of city building: before the Europeans arrived, during the
period of European colonialism, and since independence from European control.

Pre-colonial Cities: Before the Europeans arrived few cities existed in Africa, Asia, and
Latin America and most people lived in small rural settlements. Those cities that existed
were mostly laid out surrounding a religious center; with the rest of the city laid out in a
hieratical concentric pattern (like the Burgess model) from government buildings,
homes of the wealthy, and businesses related to the religion out to other businesses
and shops.
Colonial cities: When the Europeans took over these lands, they changed the cities by
adding services to help the Europeans control the conquered people. Often a new
European style city would be build next to the existing native one. The new European
cities contained wider streets, a public square, larger houses and a much lower density.
The Spanish used the “Law of the Indies” which was a city plan designed specifically to
build cities in a “Spanish” style. (Gridiron pattern for streets centered on a church and
central plaza, walls around individual houses and neighborhoods centered around
smaller plazas and more churches.)
36

Early Mexico city was laid out in a grid pattern of streets. This followed
the Spanish “Law of the Indies.”

37

Central Plaza in Mexico City 1920 photo. Typical Colonial City plan.

Part of downtown Mexico city today still shows the
building plan of the “Law of the Indies.”

38

Cities since Independence: Following independence, cities have become
the focal point of the development of most LDC’s. Millions of people have
migrated to the cities (Primate cities) looking for jobs and services. Some
capitals have been moved to isolated areas in an attempt to help develop
that area of the country (Brasília) This is know as a forward capital. Latin
American cities have developed their own unique style.
Squatter settlements: The LDC’s are unable to house the rapidly growing
number of poor who are flowing into the cities. Because of the housing
shortages, the poor have constructed their own settlements around the city.
These settlements have few services because neither the city nor the
residents can afford them. Squatters have two basic choices for housing.
1. Illegally move into empty real houses located in the city or,
2. Rent slum housing.
(85% of the population of Addis Ababa in Ethiopia lives in squatter
settlements, slums or other illegal housing.)
39

Squatter shacks in Manila, the Philippines

40

Squatter settlement in Ethiopia

41

Zimbabwe, Africa

42

Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

43

Latin American City Model:
In many Latin
American cities,
the wealthy live in
the inner city and
in a sector
extending along a
commercial spine.
In situ accretion- businesses
and homes constantly under
construction/repair.
Zone of maturity-2nd best
housing in the city.
The poor live in squatter settlements on the
periphery of the city.

Disamenity- unpleasant area
used by the poor to get to the
market.

44

The City Outline of Rio de Janeiro
The rich tourist areas and expensive condo apartments are along the coast
and beach while the poor live in squatter shacks in the hills.

45

City problems:
Inner-City Physical Problems: Most US inner cities were constructed before the 1950’s
(people began to move to the suburbs in the 1950’s so new construction moved out of
the city).
Process of Deterioration (how a city deteriorates): A city doesn’t suddenly become old
and full of slummy areas. It happens over time. When a group of low-income people
inhabit an area of a city, nearby neighborhoods will often look to move out. They sell or
rent to more low-income occupants thus expanding the low-income area. Two processes
cause/speed up the devaluation of areas:
1. Filtering, 2. Redlining.
Filtering: Large houses and buildings that once housed rich downtown workers (who
moved to the suburbs) are taken over by landlords who don’t live in that area (they
moved to the suburbs too). Rents are low so the landlord doesn’t take as good care of
the property as they should and the property becomes run down or abandoned. Stores
close, or move, due to lack of sales. 100 years ago these neighborhoods would be used
by immigrants and ethnic businesses would succeed in those areas. Now, with a decline
in immigration, these neighborhoods have shrunk and so have schools, businesses and
other services. Thousands of vacant houses and buildings stand empty in inner cities
across America.

46

Redlining: Some banks refuse to give loans in what they consider
risky neighborhoods. They draw a red line on a map around areas
where they will not give loans. Without loans, these neighborhoods
have a hard time rebuilding/remodeling. Though illegal, this still
happens. Bankers just don’t put these “no-loan” areas on a map.

Urban Renewal: This is the series of projects to improve European
and N. American cities by buying up the blighted neighborhoods,
moving the people to new government built housing projects, and
building new roads, and other projects to make the inner city
attractive for business again. National and State government grants
help pay for these projects.
47

Public housing: Housing for the poor, built with government funding as part of
urban renewal. In the US this is only about 2% of the housing while in some
countries it may be more (Britain is 30%). Public housing built in the 50’s & 60’s
were largely high rise apartments, but those are seen as being unsatisfactory.
Problems arise from cramming large numbers of poor people into one area.
Today most public housing projects are one to three story buildings with many of
them being scattered around different parts of the city rather than clustered into
one area.
Because urban renewal has been criticized for destroying the social cohesion of
older neighborhoods, many governments (like the US) have stopped funding
most projects since the 1970’s. What do we do instead?
Renovated Housing: An alternative often used since the 70’s is to renovate a
building instead of urban renewal. The process where middle-class people
move into inner-city neighborhoods and renovate them is called gentrification.
Gentrified inner-city neighborhoods also attract middle-class people who work
downtown. Living close to work saves the hassle of commuting and rejuvenates
run down inner-city neighborhoods
48

Gentrified building downtown Harlem, NY. Note the supermarket.

49

Inner-City Social Problems: Inner-city residents are often referred to as the
permanent underclass because they are trapped in an unending cycle of
economic and social problems. High unemployment, alcoholism, drug
addiction, literacy, juvenile delinquency, and crime all exist at a higher rate
among those who live in the inner-city. Lack of jobs means lack of tax dollars
to pay for police and fire protection as well as good schools. Lack of job skills
and homelessness are also tremendous problems.
Culture of Poverty: Inner-city residents are trapped in a permanent underclass
culture that reproduces itself. In the US, unwed mothers give birth to 2/3 of the
babies in the inner-city. 90% of these children live with only one parent and it
is real hard for one parent to keep a job and take care of children. Both suffer
and a shortage of care and daily attention by the parent contributes to the kids
not learning the skills necessary to do well in school which leads to poor jobs
for their futures. Poverty leads to more poverty. Many families on welfare have
only one parent because it is financially better if one parent is gone, that way
the single parent gets food stamps and other services from the government
that they would not get if it was a 2 family household.
50

Crime: Trapped in a hopeless environment, some inner-city
residents turn to drugs. Drug use is a problem in inner-city
areas and the suburbs, but rates of drug use in inner-cities
are the highest.
Ethnic and Racial Segregation: As seen in chapter 7, many
neighborhoods in the US are segregated by ethnicity with
African Americans and Hispanics concentrated in one or two
continuous areas and whites living in the suburbs. Even small
cities display a strong distinction among neighborhoods. A
frequent division is between the east and west or north and
south side of town, or the railroad tracks. A family seeking a
new residence will seek the areas where the characteristics
of the people meet their own.

51

The exodus
from the
American city.
This has
happened in
many American
cities since the
1960’s.

52

Changes in Cities in the U.S.
U.S. population has been moving out of the city centers to the suburbs:
suburbanization and counter urbanization

Developed Countries: suburbanization

 wealthy move to suburbs
 automobiles and roads; ‘American
Dream’ of the home in the suburbs.
 better services
 wealthy move to suburbs
Counter urbanization

idyllic settings
cost of land for retirement
slow pace, yet high tech
connections to services and markets
53

U.S. intraregional migration during 1990s.

Inner city economic problems: the concentration of low income
residents in inner cities has caused economic problems. These
people require public services but can pay very little in taxes to
support the services. They need stores and jobs but have little
money to spend in the store and few skills for jobs (so the stores
close). To try to fight these problems many local and state
governments use tax monies to try to renovate these areas, but this
shifts tax money needed for other areas to the inner city (votes on
election day).
Annexation: Many cities could help their tax problem by adding the
new suburbs to be part of their city (annexation). After all, many of
these suburban people use the city for its’ jobs etc., so why not add
them into the city? Today, most people in the suburbs do not want
to be annexed into the city and so they do not vote to be annexed.
54

The Peripheral Model: According to this model, an urban area
consists of an inner city surrounded by large suburban residential
and business areas (MSA) tied together by a beltway or highway
that circles the city. Around the beltway are nodes of consumer
and business services called edge cities (see diagram of multiple
nuclei model). These edge cities sprang up to provide services
and jobs to the people in the suburbs.
Density Gradient: As you travel outward from the center of the
city, the density of people declines. Inner city has big apartments
of 250 of more people per acre. Suburbs have fewer people per
acre (but lots of acres) and finally you leave the cities periphery
you find few people. The number of houses per unit of land
diminishes as distance from the center of the city increases.
55

The Edge cities (bedroom communities) of Houston

The central city is surrounded by a ring road, around which are
suburban areas and edge cities, shopping malls, office parks,
industrial areas, and service complexes.

Known as
bedroom
communities
because
people live
there but
mostly don’t
work there.
They drive
into the city
for work.
56

As you move from the center of the city outward, the density of the population
changes. This is know as the density gradient. Two big changes have occurred in
the density gradient of today’s cities:
1. The number of people living in the center has decreased.
2. The density difference between the inner city and the suburbs is declining
because the inner city density is dropping and the suburban density is growing
due to more large apartments being built in the suburbs.
Cost of Suburban or Urban Sprawl: Urban Sprawl is the progressive spread of
development over the landscape. As long as we Americans want single-family
detached houses, land on the fringe of urban areas will be converted from open
space to residential use. The cost of this growth is more than the loss of land, it is
also the cost of new roads, utilities, building stores and offices and the cost of
automobiles to move these people over even longer distances. Lots of these new
developments are built on what was once farmland. Wonderful productive soil now
under concrete.

Greenbelts: are areas where, by law, the open space can not be used for any
construction. This is mostly found in Europe.

57

Once farmland that is being converted to suburbs and cities.

58

Tyson’s Corner Virginia in 1940

59

Washington, DC. MSA.

Tyson’s Corner Virginia
today.
Washington D.C. is off
In the distance.

60

Suburban Segregation: The “new” segregation.
Suburban segregation takes two forms:
1. Residents are separated from commercial and manufacturing activities
which are confined someplace else. (The whole neighborhood is
nothing but houses because they drive for services.)
2. The price of the house eliminates some from being able to live there. This
creates a homogeneous suburb of the same economic class of people.
This never existed before in history. Where we once had vertical
segregation of the classes we now we have horizontal segregation.
3. But this may be reversing as new statistics show that people are beginning
to move back to the city. Why? Cost of transportation.
Zoning Ordinances: This idea developed in Europe and later America in the
early decades of the 20th century. This means that businesses are allowed only
in certain areas of the settlement. (No all night taco stands inside your single
family neighborhood.)
Motor vehicles: The wide use of the automobile is largely responsible for the
American movement to the suburbs. Not only did people move out but 1/4 of
the land inside all American cities are now roads, streets, and parking lots.

61

Public Transportation: Because few US workers live within walking distance
of their jobs, urban areas are characterized by extensive commuting and the
problems that come with it. As much as 40% of all trips made into or out from
a city during the day takes place within just 4 hours. (2 in the morning and 2 in
the late afternoon). RUSH HOUR!!! In large cities, public transportation, like
subways and busses, are better suited to move people but Americans still
prefer their own cars. Public transportation is cheaper, cleaner, and more
energy efficient than personal cars, yet in the US only 5% of city travel is
done using public transit systems. American’s love their personal car too
much.
Local Government Fragmentation: Because of the large number of local
governments in the US (look at the settlements in Pinellas County) it is
difficult to solve some of the regional problems like garbage disposal, water
management, traffic and public housing.
62

Metropolitan government: This idea tries to put many local governments into a
larger unit that can better handle the urban problems. The 2 ways to do this
are:
1. Federations in which the individual settlements have their own police,
firemen, and tax collection but they all agree to be part of a second
government which handles transportation, water, sewage, parks and
welfare for all the communities.
2. Consolidations: In this method, several cities and the county may form one
government. Jacksonville’s government runs not only the town but the
county too, this makes Jacksonville the largest city, in land size, in the US.
Smart growth: A new movement by many states to curb suburban sprawl by
limiting where new construction can take place. Smart growth laws require that
land near cities be used up before any land further out can be developed. So
far, this is only being done an a few parts of our country.
63

The new
US as
some
people
see it.

64

Quiz Yourself:
1. The process where middle-class people move into inner city neighborhoods and
renovate them is called ____________
2. ____________ happens when banks refuse to give loans in what they consider
risky neighborhoods.
3. Because of the housing shortages, the poor have constructed their own settlements
around the city known as __________ _________

4. Businesses are allowed only in certain areas of the settlement because of
____________ ____________
5. Areas known as _____ _______ are areas of about 5,000 people. The data from
that area is used to help define needed services for that area.
6. When cities are so close that they form one continuous band of development this is
known as a ____________
65

7. Social relationships are often described as “colder” in urban areas because…
8. In this model the city develops in a series of sectors not rings. _______

9. ______ (LDC’s or MDC’s) have a higher percentage of people living in urban
settlements but ________ (LDC’s or MDC’s) have more of the very large urban
settlements.
10. _____________ was the first model developed to explain the distributions
of different social groups within urban areas.
11. New cities which develop around the beltway are nodes of consumer and
business services known as ________ _________.

12. When the Europeans took over lands around the world, they changed the
cities by adding services to help the Europeans control the conquered people.
These European planned cities are known as __________ cities.
66

Answer Key:
1.

Gentrification

2.

Redlining

3.

Squatter Settlements

4.

Zoning ordinances

5.

Census tracks

6.

Megalopolis

7. There is a stronger feeling of belonging together in small rural settlements.
8. Hoyt sector model
9. MDC, LDC
10. Burgess Concentric Zone model
11. Edge cities
12. Colonial cities
67

Test Key topic/chapter 13:
These questions come from a combination of our slides, your text book, and common knowledge you should
have discussed in your AP classroom. They are very typical of what you will see on the National Exam.
1) The multiple nuclei theory best explains why different neighborhoods of a city attract people of different… A) ages.
B) ethnic origin C) income D) marital status.
2) Sprawl is the… A) change in density within an urban area from the center to the periphery B) development of new
housing sites not contiguous to the existing built-up area. C) land maintained as open space surrounding an urban area.
D) period in the morning and evening with the heaviest volumes of traffic.
3) People are attracted to suburbs in part because suburbs are characterized by…A) heavy traffic. B) lower opportunity
for home ownership. C) private land surrounding the house. D) row houses and apartments.
4) Megalopolis refers to… A) adjacent, overlapping Metropolitan Statistical Areas. B) central cities. C) consolidated
Metropolitan Statistical Areas. D) central cities plus urbanized areas.
5) Which statement best describes the relationship between urbanization and the Industrial Revolution? A) Urbanization
promoted the Industrial Revolution. B) The Industrial Revolution promoted urbanization. C) Urbanization preceded the
Industrial Revolution by thousands of years. D) Urbanization and the Industrial Revolution are no longer related.
6) The process of legally adding land area to a city in the United States is… A) annexation. B) accreditation. C) an
application of eminent domain. D) defined by urbanized area.

68

7) The process of change in the use of a house, from single-family owner occupancy to abandonment, is… A) blockbusting.
B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining.
8) A process by which banks designate an area within which they refuse to lend money for improvements is… A) blockbusting.
B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining.
9) A recent change in the density gradient has been… A) the elimination of the gap traditionally found in the center. B) an
increase in the extremes between the inner and outer areas. C) an increase in the number of people living in the center.
D) a reduction in the differences in densities found within an urban area.
10) U.S. central cities face fiscal problems because… A) federal and state funds are available. B) low-income people are
concentrated there. C) middle-class families are attracted there. D) redlining is no longer legal.
11) A legal form of segregation in U.S. cities is achieved through...A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) zoning. D) greenbelts.
12) Factories have moved to suburban locations in part because of… A) access to main highways. B) adequate space to build
vertical structures. C) availability of large tracts of high-priced land. D) good rail connections.
13) According to the sector model, the best housing is located in…A) a corridor from downtown to the edge of the city.
B) an outer ring surrounding the city. C) nodes near universities and parks. D) renovated inner-city neighborhoods.
14) Ramshackle houses on the periphery of cities in less developed countries are known as… A) squatter settlements. B) council
estates. C) public housing. D) zone in transition.
15) Higher income people tend to live near the center of the city in all but which of the following regions? A) Latin America
B) North America C) South Asia D) Western Europe

16) The wide boulevards built in cities in less developed countries were most likely built during what era? A) pre-colonial
B) colonial C) independence D) all of the above equally

69

17) According to the multiple nuclei model, an airport is likely to attract nearby… A) industries. B) residences. C) shops.
D) universities.
18) The largest percentage of the U.S. population lives in…A) central cities. B) suburbs. C) non-metropolitan areas. D) all of the
above
19) In U.S. cities, the underclass is… A) clustered in inner-city neighborhoods. B) dispersed throughout the city. C) clustered in
suburbs. D) distributed uniformly in the city.

20) A process of converting a neighborhood from low-income to middle-class is…A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) gentrification.
D) redlining.
21) Higher social heterogeneity in urban settlements means that… A) the people with whom you relax are probably the same ones you
see at work. B) you play a specialized role in the urban economy. C) you compete for limited space. D) you may feel lonely and
isolated in a crowd.
22) The city plus its contiguous built-up suburbs is the… A) central city. B) urbanized area.
D) consolidated metropolitan statistical area

C) metropolitan statistical area.

23) The process whereby an increasing percentage of people live in an urban area is known as… A) demographic transition.
B) rank-size rule. C) urbanization. D) central place theory.
24) Of the ten largest urban areas in the world, how many are in More Developed Countries today? A) 1 B) 4 C) 7 D) 10 E) 2
25) Public housing is…A) conversion of low-income housing to middle-class housing. B) illegally established low-income housing.
C) housing that has changed from single-family owner occupancy to abandonment. D) low-income government-owned housing.
26) According to the concentric zone model, a city develops in a series of… A) corridors. B) nodes. C) rings. D) all of the above

70

27) Chicago is a good location in which to develop urban models because it is located… A) at the hub of the nation's transportation
system. B) in the center of the country. C) on a flat prairie. D) on the shore of Lake Michigan.
28) According to the sector model, the best housing is located in… A) a corridor from downtown to the edge of the city. B) an outer
ring surrounding the city. C) nodes near universities and parks. D) renovated inner-city neighborhoods.
29) The zone of transition in US cities generally contain…A) warehouses B) wealthy neighborhoods C) transportation hubs
D) universities and hospitals E) suburban homes
30) The attractions of shopping malls include all but which of the following? A) frequent concerts and exhibitions B) generous
parking lots C) place to meet friends D) walking distance from homes
The following questions are written at the high school level. You will find some questions from part one often rewritten
here. This is all designed to help you transition to the college/AP style of written questions. Any question preceded with ***
are questions that have been on the national exam before.
31. Most Latin American cities are focused on a…A) central plaza B) government housing project C) zone of heavy industry
D) skyscraper office building E) squatter settlement
32. The multiple-nuclei model of a city structure tends to be most applicable to…A) small cities B) traditional C) Latin American
cities D) newer, fast growing cities E) cities with homogeneous land use
33. ***Locational advantages important to the development of the earliest cities include…A) availability of good harbors for large
ships B) productive agricultural land and defensible sites C) temperate climate and proximity to coal mines D) good
connections by road and canal E) proximity to manufacturing areas

34. In cities, the CBD’s often show uniqueness while the suburbs usually show…A) a large hinterland. B) placelessness C) more
than one node. D) newer zones of transition.

71

35. Many LDC’s have tried to help a previously under-developed part of their country develop by moving their capital
city to that area. This new capital is known as a…A) forward capital B) new development zone C) enterprise zone
D) neocolonial city
36. Today the greatest number of urban dwellers is found in…A) North America
D) Europe E) Asia

B) South America C) Africa

37. ***All of the following have helped create ghettos in North American cities except…A)blockbusting and racial
steering B) redlining by financial institutions C) concentration of public housing and social services D) fixed school
districts E) Economic Enterprise Zones

38. Which of the following is NOT as reason for rapid suburbanization in the US after WW2? A) Mass production of
the automobile B) Reduction of long distance commuting C) Expansion of home construction D) Expansion of the
interstate highway system E) Availability of low down payment terms and long-term mortgages.
39. New cities which developed in the hinterland of large urban areas because of the automobile, are known as…
A) edge cities B) census tracts C) suburban sprawl D) squatter settlements. E) none of these
40. Gentrification refers to… A) moving the homeless into inner city shelters B) The “White Flight” from the urban city
C) losing tax revenue because of stores closing in downtown areas D) middle-class people moving into and renovating
inner city neighborhoods E) the creation of “beltway cities” around the city.

72

4
7
3

5

1
6

2

41-48 all use the sketch above.
41. The sketch in box A above represents which model of the inner structure of urban areas?
C) multiple nuclei model D) Burgess concentric zone model E) peripheral model
42. The models in boxes B and C represent A) Concentric zone and multiple nuclei
concentric zone D) peripheral and concentric zone E) Von Thunen and peripheral

A) Hoyt sector model B) VonThunen’s model

B) Multiple nuclei and Hoyt sector C) Hoyt sector and

43. In which ring (1, 2, etc.) of sketch A above would high-status households in North American cities likely live? A) 1 B) 2 C) 3 D) 4&5
44. In which ring (1, 2, etc.) of sketch A above would high status households in a European city likely live? A) 1

B) 2

C) 3

D) 4&5

45. In model B, zone # 2 is where it is likely because of: A) greenbelting B) squatter settling C) the culture of poverty D) transportation
E) no one knows
46. The model in sketch B is the; A) Hoyt sector model B) Burgess model C) multiple nuclei model D) peripheral model
47. The model in sketch C is the; A) Hoyt sector model B) Burgess model C) multiple nuclei model D) peripheral model
48. Which of these models best describes what has happened in US cities in the last 40 years? A)

B)

C)

73

49.*** In the U.S. a city plus its contiguous built-up suburbs is known as an…A) urbanized area B) zoned area
C) census tract D) Squatter settlement E) none of these
50. Done mostly in Europe, these are areas where land is kept as parks, farms or other kinds of open space and urban
sprawl is not allowed. A) Smart growth
B) zoning
C) filtering
D) census tracts E) greenbelts
51. Which statement best describes the relationship between urbanization and the Industrial Revolution?
A) Urbanization promoted the Industrial Revolution. B) The Industrial Revolution promoted urbanization.
C) Urbanization preceded the Industrial Revolution by thousands of years. D) Urbanization and the Industrial
Revolution are no longer related.
52. The process whereby an increasing percentage of people live in an urban area is known as…
A) Demographic transition. B) rank-size rule. C) Urbanization. D) Central place theory.
53. The city (if it has 50,000 or more people) plus its contiguous built-up suburbs AND the county it is in as well as any
other counties it influences, is known as the ...A) central city B) urbanized area
C) metropolitan statistical area
D) consolidated metropolitan area E) micropolitan statistical area
54. ***Higher social heterogeneity in urban settlements means that …A) the people with whom you relax are probably
the same ones you see at work. B) you play a specialized role in the urban economy. C) you compete for limited
space. D) you may feel lonely and isolated in a crowd.

55. The process of change in the use of a house, from single-family owner occupancy to smaller dwellings for the poor
and then sometimes to abandonment, is…A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining. E) none of
these

74

Free Response #1:
The Bid Rent theory says that the closer you get to the
CBD the higher the cost for land, yet in most American
cities you find the poorest people living near the
expensive CBD and the richest living further away.
Explain:
A. Why neighborhoods near the CBD are often poor and
run down?
B. Why are there few grocery and other retail stores in
these neighborhoods?
C. Why is this not really true in European and Latin
American countries?

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75

FR #2:
Think of the map of your school, explain the
layout of your school using the Multiple Nuclei
Model
The main office is the CBD.
Completely explain your answer using specific
buildings and/or land areas in your explanation
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76

Answer Key:
1. B

14. A

27. C

40. D

53. C

2. B

15. B

28. A

41. D

54. D

3. C

16. B

29. A

42. B

55. B

4. A

17. A

30. D

43. D

5. B

18. B

31. A

44. A

6. A

19. A

32. D

45. D

7. B

20. C

33. B

46. A

8. D

21. D

34. B

47. C

9. D

22. B

35. A

48. C

10. B

23. C

36. E

49. A

11. C

24. C

37. E

50. E

12. A

25. D

38. B

51. B

13. A

26. C

39. A

52. C
77

FR. #1: ( 15 pts. for each section…total of 45 pts.)
A. In the US the move of the wealthy and middle class to the suburbs has left the older houses and apartments near the CBD empty.
This has lowered their value to the point where the poor can afford these dwellings and have made these neighborhoods their
homes. The poor can not pay for upkeep of these dwellings, or to pay high taxes. The lack of upkeep and tax money to repair the
roads and schools, adds to the downward spiral of the neighborhood. With little spending money for shopping, the poor do not
spend much in the stores. This causes many stores to close and move to the suburbs where the spending customers and money
went. The closing of the stores adds to the poverty of the area by taking away some of the jobs that were in the neighborhood. This
becomes a vicious cycle of poverty and deterioration. (15 points)

B. There are few retail stores and groceries is the area because the poor do not have money to shop. The lack of spending forces
many stores out of business or forces them to move to better locations. There also can be higher crime in these areas and the
crime often takes place at the stores. This is another reason for the stores to move out of the neighborhood. (15 points)
C. Neighborhoods in European and Latin American cities are different from those of US cities. In Europe and Latin America, the
wealthy and middle class still live near or in the CBD. The higher tax base and more spending ability of the upper and middle
classes, keeps the CBD area flourishing with jobs and in constant repair and upkeep of the cities’ physical condition. (15 points)

FR #2: (10 total points.)
You will need to judge how effectively you displayed you school
in the Multiple Nuclei Model. Refer to the model itself to help you
determine your success and grade.
School’s main office
78

Calculating your grade on test 13.
Add how many you got correct on the multiple choice part (55 possible) to how many
points you scored on the FR portion (55 possible)…110 total.
The following scale will show the approximate score if this test were the real AP exam. Remember that this
is an approximation. While 65-74% is normally the range for a 3 on the test, it is not definite. Over the
years I have seen scores as low as 60% be the low portion of a 3 score.

Out of 110 possible points:
72-83 is most likely a 3
84-94 is most likely a 4

95-110 is most likely a 5

Now lets start our review for the national exam by
reviewing the 33 key models and theories of the
course…the next PowerPoint.


Slide 69

Key topic/chapter 13…Urban Patterns
Key terms:
Annexation
Concentric zone model
Density gradient
Edge cities
Filtering
Galactic city
Gentrification
Greenbelts
Megalopolis
MSA
Multiple nuclei model
Peripheral model

Public housing
Redlining
Renovated housing
Scattered site
Squatter settlement
Sector model
Smart growth
Sprawl
Underclass
Urban renewal
Zone in transition
Zoning
1

Chapter 13…Urban Areas.
How are Cities planned?
Why

are cities where they are?
How are they organized?
Why are some areas of a city
different from
other areas of the same city?
What is the future of cities?
2

Settlement


Settlement - permanent collections of buildings,
where people live, work, and obtain services

3

ORIGINS OF SETTLEMENTS


Religious - graves, churches, temples



Cultural - schools, libraries



Political/Military - leader’s house, walls



Economic - stores, food
4

TYPES OF SETTLEMENTS


Rural Settlements - agriculture as the
predominant occupation.



Urban settlements - principal industries are
secondary and tertiary.

5

RURAL SETTLEMENTS
Clustered rural settlements –grouped
settlements in rural areas to minimize travel

Dispersed rural Settlements - isolated farms
with enclosed continuous fields (Found only in
N. America and Britain).

6

Urban Geographers want to know the global distribution of urban
settlements. MDC’s have a high percentage of people living in urban
areas because of the shift from agriculture-manufacturing-services.
Geographers are also interested in where people and activities are
distributed within urban spaces. What are the differences between the
inner-city and suburban areas and why?
As we saw in the last chapter, many downtowns are unique and can
often be recognized in photos where the suburbs often look very
much alike (Placelessness). Why? Suburbs offer the chance to avoid
some of the city problems (crime, tight living area, expensive
land/rent, noise, age of buildings) while still keeping a connection with
the goods and services of the city: jobs, sports teams, culture, shops,
recreation, etc.
7

Where is this place?

8

Today’s cities are evolving and changing. Although different internal
situations characterize urban areas in the US and elsewhere, the
problems arising from current spatial trends are quite similar in all cities.
Where have urban areas grown: in the early 1800’s only 3% of the earth’s
people lived in cities and only Beijing China had more than 1 million
people. Today over ½ of the world’s people live in cities and we have over
400 cities of at least 1 million people.

Urbanization: is the process by which city population grows.
Cities population growth is measured in 2 dimensions;
1. An increase in the number of people living in the cities.
2. An increase in the percentage of people living in the cities.
This distinction is important because they happen for different reason and
have different global distributions.
9

Increasing Percentage of People in Cities: a large percentage of people living in urban
areas is a measure of a country’s level of development. In MDC’s about ¾ of the people
live in urban areas compared to about 2/5 of people in LDC’s. (Except in Latin America
where the level is closer to MDC’s.)
The higher percentage of people in urban areas comes from the changes that have
occurred in the last 200 years as we went from agriculture (primary jobs) to industrial
(secondary jobs) and now service jobs, all created by the Industrial Revolution of the
1800’s.
People moved to the cities for industrial jobs, but in MDC’s this process has largely
ended because nearly everyone interested in moving to the cities from farms has already
done so.
In LDC’s the percentage of people living in urban areas is growing as people are pushed
off of their farms and replaced by machines and as people move to cities looking/hoping
for industrial jobs.
10

Increasing Number of People in Cities: MDC’s have a higher percentage of
people living in urban settlements but LDC’s have more of the very large urban
settlements (Primate cities). (Rank-size rule, primate cities, chapter 12.)

This is interesting because typically the large cities are created from the
improvements brought by the Industrial Revolution. This is not the case with the
large LDC cities. Migration to the primate city in LDC’s is happening even though
job opportunities may not be available. Increasing the population growth in LDC
cities is the fact that medical services are better in these cities, thus the child
mortality rate is lower.
Defining Urban Settlements: defining where urban areas end and rural areas
begin is not easy. Geographers have formulated definitions that distinguish
between urban and rural areas in two ways: Social differences and Physical
differences.
11

Percent Urban Population

Percent of the population living in urban areas is usually higher in MDCs
than in LDCs.

12

The most populated cities in the world

Of the top
20, only
Moscow,
Tokyo and
New York
are in MDC’s

Shanghai China has 14,608,512 people
13

14

15

Social Differences Between Urban and Rural Settlements: it is fair to say that rural
people and urban people follow different ways of life. A city can be defined as having 3
characteristics:
1. Large size. People in rural settlements know most of the other people in the
settlement. Not true in big cities. Social relationships are often described as “colder” in
urban areas because you only see some people at work instead of growing up with
them in the settlement.
2. High Density. Having lots of people in a tiny area creates social consequences. A
high density of people living in a small area can only be supported if the people
specialize (they can’t all be farmers). People are encouraged to compete for jobs, room,
and survival in a tightly limited space. Social groups compete to occupy the same space
(ethnic/ race problems). Rural settlements have very little of this problem.
3. Social Heterogeneity. The larger the settlement, the greater the variety of people.
Being “unusual” in a large settlement is more likely to be accepted than in a small rural
one. But despite the freedom to be different that large urban settlements give you,
people living there often feel alone because so many people are different from them.
There is a stronger feeling of belonging together in small rural settlements.
16

These 3 differences do not fully answer the question of where urban settlements
begin and rural ones end because in today’s MDC’s most everyone has access to
cars, telephones, televisions, and “urban type” jobs which reduce the differences
between urban and rural lifestyles. “City folk” and “Country folk” are more alike
today than they are different. To help distinguish between urban and rural areas we
need to add the physical definition of rural and urban to the equation.
Physical Definitions of Urban Settlements: In ancient time, cities had defensive
walls for protection which clearly defined the physical boundaries of the city. Today
the walls are gone but we can still define the physical boundaries in 3 ways:
1. Legal boundary. These are the official boundaries of a city as recognized by
the government of the country or state. These “city limits” have been officially given
to the city and are physically marked on official maps. The local government of the
city has authority to make laws and protect the people inside the city boundaries.
17

2. Urbanized area. This is the city plus its suburbs or urbanized area that
surrounds the city. About 70 percent of US residents live in urbanized areas with
40% being in the suburbs and 30% inside the city limits. The suburbs may have
their own city governments but the huge central city dominates what happens in
the entire area.
3. Metropolitan Statistical Area. Cities have an even bigger influence on people
than just those living in their city limits and surrounding urbanized areas. People
from far away come to shop, use the services, support the sports teams, read
the newspapers and watch the television broadcasts of the city. Thus the city
has a “functional area” which is its total zone of influence. The US Bureau of
Census has created a method of measuring the functional area of the city.
Known as the Metropolitan statistical area (MSA) this area includes:
•An urbanized area with a population of at least 50,000
•The county within which the city is located.
•Adjacent counties with a high population density and a large percentage of
residents working in the central city’s county.
18

Metropolitan Area of Philadelphia

City of
Philadelphia

Urbanized
area
(suburbs)
Metropolitan
Statistical
Area

The metropolitan area of Philadelphia is
spread over several counties and four states.
It is also a diversified trade center, given its
position on the Delaware river.

19

20

21

Micropolitan Statistical Areas: Smaller areas with between
10,000 and 50,000 people, the county where it is found, and
adjacent counties tied to the city. This would be a small town and
the area dominated by it.
Overlapping Metropolitan Areas: Some adjacent MSA’s overlap.
A county between two central cities may send a large number of
commuters to jobs in both cities. In some areas the cities are so
close that they form one continuous urban complex. This is
known as a Megalopolis (great city).
In a megalopolis, the downtown CBD often has its own
distinctive look and the urban areas are visually separated by
parks, open spaces, and dairy/truck farms. But at the periphery
of the urban areas, the boundaries overlap.
22

Colorado Springs, population 431,000

Ocala, Florida, population 56,000

Florala, Alabama, population 1,900

23

Megalopolis, from northern Va. To Maine.
This Illustrates the
difference between
strict city proper
definitions and broader
urban agglomerations.
To define urbanized
areas, the U.S. Census
Bureau uses the term
Metropolitan Statistical
Area (MSA) or
Consolidated MSA
(CMSA) if two or more of
them overlap.
24

Where are People Distributed within Urban Areas? People are not
just distributed at random in urban areas. For the most part they
concentrate in particular neighborhoods depending on their social
characteristics. Geographers want to see where people with
particular characteristics are likely to live and why.

Three models which try to explain the growth of a city:

The Burgess Model

The Hoyt Sector Model

The Harris and Ullman
multiple Nuclei Model
25

Burgess Concentric Zone Model

In the concentric zone model, a city grows in a series of rings surrounding the CBD.

Burgess Concentric Zone Model: This is the first used to explain the
distributions of different social groups within urban areas. It says that a
city grows outward from a central place in a series of concentric rings.
The precise size and width of the rings vary from one city to another, but
some basic types of rings appear in all cities in the same order (see chart
above).
26

•Hoyt Sector Model: In this model the city develops in a
series of sectors not rings. Certain areas of the city are
more attractive for various activities, originally because
of an environmental factor (or even pure chance). As the
city grows, activities extend outward in a wedge shape.
For example, once a wealthy neighborhood is built the
next wealthy neighborhood will extend from the first
neighborhood further outward from the center. In this
way, the best housing is found in a corridor extending
outward from the center to the outer edge (see chart on
the next page).
27

The Hoyt Sector Model

In the sector model, a city grows in a series of
wedges or corridors extending out from the
CBD.
28

•Harris and Ullman’s Multiple Nuclei Model: According
to this model, a city is a complex structure that includes
more than one center around which activities revolve.
Examples of these nodes include a port, parks,
stadium, neighborhood business center, university, and
airport (see chart). This theory states that some
activities are attracted to particular nodes, whereas
others try to avoid them. A university node may attract
well educated people and bookstores while the port will
attract hotels and warehouses. Heavy industry and
expensive houses rarely are found together. This
model shows the effect of the automobile more than
any other model.
29

The Harris and Ullman Multiple Nuclei model

The multiple nuclei model views a city as a
collection of individual centers, around which
different people and activities cluster.

30

Applications of the Models: The three models help explain where and in some
cases, why people live where they do. None of the models by themselves fully
explains why and where different types of people live, but combined they give
you as good a look as possible at the “Why” of “Where.” Effective use of the
models depends on getting good data on the areas. Most countries take a
census every 10 years to help determine useful data about the people and
places of the country. In our country we divide the census data into areas
known as census tracts of about 5,000 people. Each census tract has the data
that summarizes the characteristics of the people living within that tract. This
information includes things like the race, income, age, and education of the
people living in that tract.
Social Area Analysis: The data from the census tracts can all be plotted onto
maps to show the characteristics of the people living in that tract. This map is
known as a social area analysis.
31

Using Census tract information…Seattle, Washington
Each lined area is a
census tract of about 5000
people in Seattle
Washington. These maps
show average household
income for 1990 and
2000…note the changes in
income in some areas
between 1990 and 2000.
Using this information, a
business can make
decisions about where
they want to locate a new
store or the future of
existing stores.
You can find census tract
information on many topics
such as; age, education
level, race, ethnicity, crime
rate, and land ownership.
Note the areas with
incomes over
$63,000.

All can be very valuable
information to people
looking to open
businesses.

32

Examine the changes
between 1990 and
2000.

Oakland, California’s Ethnic neighborhoods
The small bordered areas are census tracks of 5000 people.

33

Use of the Models Outside of North America: The 3 models will also work in other
places in the world; however social groups in other countries may not have the
same reasons for selecting particular neighborhoods as Americans do.
European Cities: As in the US, wealthier people in European cities cluster along a
sector extending outward from the CBD, however unlike the US, wealthy and
middle class Europeans still live in the inner rings of the neighborhoods near the
CBD not out in the suburbs. In the past, poorer people lived in the center of the
city. Before electricity, social segregation was vertical: richer people lived on the
first or second floor of a building while the poorer people lived in the basement or
upper floors. In the Industrial Revolution, housing for the poor was constructed
near the factories and away from the rich.
Today poorer Europeans are less likely to live in the inner-city. Poor quality
housing has been renovated for the rich or turned into office buildings. Poorer
Europeans tend to live in the outskirts of the city. Vast suburbs with dozens of high
rise apartments house the poor. They face long commutes to reach their jobs in
the city.
34

European cities generally do not have the “suburban
sprawl” that US cities have. European cities tend to be
more pedestrian friendly with more parks downtown as
Europeans tend to still live downtown.
US cities have taller buildings as European cities tend to
be older and more historic.

American cities have more ethnic neighborhoods than
European cities. Ethnic neighborhoods that do exist in
European cities tend to be in the suburbs. WHY?
Because the established richer neighborhoods tend to be
downtown in European cities.
35

Less Developed Countries: Like Europe, most LDC’s accommodate their poor in the
suburbs with their middle class and rich living near the center of the city. LDC’s have
passed through 3 periods of city building: before the Europeans arrived, during the
period of European colonialism, and since independence from European control.

Pre-colonial Cities: Before the Europeans arrived few cities existed in Africa, Asia, and
Latin America and most people lived in small rural settlements. Those cities that existed
were mostly laid out surrounding a religious center; with the rest of the city laid out in a
hieratical concentric pattern (like the Burgess model) from government buildings,
homes of the wealthy, and businesses related to the religion out to other businesses
and shops.
Colonial cities: When the Europeans took over these lands, they changed the cities by
adding services to help the Europeans control the conquered people. Often a new
European style city would be build next to the existing native one. The new European
cities contained wider streets, a public square, larger houses and a much lower density.
The Spanish used the “Law of the Indies” which was a city plan designed specifically to
build cities in a “Spanish” style. (Gridiron pattern for streets centered on a church and
central plaza, walls around individual houses and neighborhoods centered around
smaller plazas and more churches.)
36

Early Mexico city was laid out in a grid pattern of streets. This followed
the Spanish “Law of the Indies.”

37

Central Plaza in Mexico City 1920 photo. Typical Colonial City plan.

Part of downtown Mexico city today still shows the
building plan of the “Law of the Indies.”

38

Cities since Independence: Following independence, cities have become
the focal point of the development of most LDC’s. Millions of people have
migrated to the cities (Primate cities) looking for jobs and services. Some
capitals have been moved to isolated areas in an attempt to help develop
that area of the country (Brasília) This is know as a forward capital. Latin
American cities have developed their own unique style.
Squatter settlements: The LDC’s are unable to house the rapidly growing
number of poor who are flowing into the cities. Because of the housing
shortages, the poor have constructed their own settlements around the city.
These settlements have few services because neither the city nor the
residents can afford them. Squatters have two basic choices for housing.
1. Illegally move into empty real houses located in the city or,
2. Rent slum housing.
(85% of the population of Addis Ababa in Ethiopia lives in squatter
settlements, slums or other illegal housing.)
39

Squatter shacks in Manila, the Philippines

40

Squatter settlement in Ethiopia

41

Zimbabwe, Africa

42

Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

43

Latin American City Model:
In many Latin
American cities,
the wealthy live in
the inner city and
in a sector
extending along a
commercial spine.
In situ accretion- businesses
and homes constantly under
construction/repair.
Zone of maturity-2nd best
housing in the city.
The poor live in squatter settlements on the
periphery of the city.

Disamenity- unpleasant area
used by the poor to get to the
market.

44

The City Outline of Rio de Janeiro
The rich tourist areas and expensive condo apartments are along the coast
and beach while the poor live in squatter shacks in the hills.

45

City problems:
Inner-City Physical Problems: Most US inner cities were constructed before the 1950’s
(people began to move to the suburbs in the 1950’s so new construction moved out of
the city).
Process of Deterioration (how a city deteriorates): A city doesn’t suddenly become old
and full of slummy areas. It happens over time. When a group of low-income people
inhabit an area of a city, nearby neighborhoods will often look to move out. They sell or
rent to more low-income occupants thus expanding the low-income area. Two processes
cause/speed up the devaluation of areas:
1. Filtering, 2. Redlining.
Filtering: Large houses and buildings that once housed rich downtown workers (who
moved to the suburbs) are taken over by landlords who don’t live in that area (they
moved to the suburbs too). Rents are low so the landlord doesn’t take as good care of
the property as they should and the property becomes run down or abandoned. Stores
close, or move, due to lack of sales. 100 years ago these neighborhoods would be used
by immigrants and ethnic businesses would succeed in those areas. Now, with a decline
in immigration, these neighborhoods have shrunk and so have schools, businesses and
other services. Thousands of vacant houses and buildings stand empty in inner cities
across America.

46

Redlining: Some banks refuse to give loans in what they consider
risky neighborhoods. They draw a red line on a map around areas
where they will not give loans. Without loans, these neighborhoods
have a hard time rebuilding/remodeling. Though illegal, this still
happens. Bankers just don’t put these “no-loan” areas on a map.

Urban Renewal: This is the series of projects to improve European
and N. American cities by buying up the blighted neighborhoods,
moving the people to new government built housing projects, and
building new roads, and other projects to make the inner city
attractive for business again. National and State government grants
help pay for these projects.
47

Public housing: Housing for the poor, built with government funding as part of
urban renewal. In the US this is only about 2% of the housing while in some
countries it may be more (Britain is 30%). Public housing built in the 50’s & 60’s
were largely high rise apartments, but those are seen as being unsatisfactory.
Problems arise from cramming large numbers of poor people into one area.
Today most public housing projects are one to three story buildings with many of
them being scattered around different parts of the city rather than clustered into
one area.
Because urban renewal has been criticized for destroying the social cohesion of
older neighborhoods, many governments (like the US) have stopped funding
most projects since the 1970’s. What do we do instead?
Renovated Housing: An alternative often used since the 70’s is to renovate a
building instead of urban renewal. The process where middle-class people
move into inner-city neighborhoods and renovate them is called gentrification.
Gentrified inner-city neighborhoods also attract middle-class people who work
downtown. Living close to work saves the hassle of commuting and rejuvenates
run down inner-city neighborhoods
48

Gentrified building downtown Harlem, NY. Note the supermarket.

49

Inner-City Social Problems: Inner-city residents are often referred to as the
permanent underclass because they are trapped in an unending cycle of
economic and social problems. High unemployment, alcoholism, drug
addiction, literacy, juvenile delinquency, and crime all exist at a higher rate
among those who live in the inner-city. Lack of jobs means lack of tax dollars
to pay for police and fire protection as well as good schools. Lack of job skills
and homelessness are also tremendous problems.
Culture of Poverty: Inner-city residents are trapped in a permanent underclass
culture that reproduces itself. In the US, unwed mothers give birth to 2/3 of the
babies in the inner-city. 90% of these children live with only one parent and it
is real hard for one parent to keep a job and take care of children. Both suffer
and a shortage of care and daily attention by the parent contributes to the kids
not learning the skills necessary to do well in school which leads to poor jobs
for their futures. Poverty leads to more poverty. Many families on welfare have
only one parent because it is financially better if one parent is gone, that way
the single parent gets food stamps and other services from the government
that they would not get if it was a 2 family household.
50

Crime: Trapped in a hopeless environment, some inner-city
residents turn to drugs. Drug use is a problem in inner-city
areas and the suburbs, but rates of drug use in inner-cities
are the highest.
Ethnic and Racial Segregation: As seen in chapter 7, many
neighborhoods in the US are segregated by ethnicity with
African Americans and Hispanics concentrated in one or two
continuous areas and whites living in the suburbs. Even small
cities display a strong distinction among neighborhoods. A
frequent division is between the east and west or north and
south side of town, or the railroad tracks. A family seeking a
new residence will seek the areas where the characteristics
of the people meet their own.

51

The exodus
from the
American city.
This has
happened in
many American
cities since the
1960’s.

52

Changes in Cities in the U.S.
U.S. population has been moving out of the city centers to the suburbs:
suburbanization and counter urbanization

Developed Countries: suburbanization

 wealthy move to suburbs
 automobiles and roads; ‘American
Dream’ of the home in the suburbs.
 better services
 wealthy move to suburbs
Counter urbanization

idyllic settings
cost of land for retirement
slow pace, yet high tech
connections to services and markets
53

U.S. intraregional migration during 1990s.

Inner city economic problems: the concentration of low income
residents in inner cities has caused economic problems. These
people require public services but can pay very little in taxes to
support the services. They need stores and jobs but have little
money to spend in the store and few skills for jobs (so the stores
close). To try to fight these problems many local and state
governments use tax monies to try to renovate these areas, but this
shifts tax money needed for other areas to the inner city (votes on
election day).
Annexation: Many cities could help their tax problem by adding the
new suburbs to be part of their city (annexation). After all, many of
these suburban people use the city for its’ jobs etc., so why not add
them into the city? Today, most people in the suburbs do not want
to be annexed into the city and so they do not vote to be annexed.
54

The Peripheral Model: According to this model, an urban area
consists of an inner city surrounded by large suburban residential
and business areas (MSA) tied together by a beltway or highway
that circles the city. Around the beltway are nodes of consumer
and business services called edge cities (see diagram of multiple
nuclei model). These edge cities sprang up to provide services
and jobs to the people in the suburbs.
Density Gradient: As you travel outward from the center of the
city, the density of people declines. Inner city has big apartments
of 250 of more people per acre. Suburbs have fewer people per
acre (but lots of acres) and finally you leave the cities periphery
you find few people. The number of houses per unit of land
diminishes as distance from the center of the city increases.
55

The Edge cities (bedroom communities) of Houston

The central city is surrounded by a ring road, around which are
suburban areas and edge cities, shopping malls, office parks,
industrial areas, and service complexes.

Known as
bedroom
communities
because
people live
there but
mostly don’t
work there.
They drive
into the city
for work.
56

As you move from the center of the city outward, the density of the population
changes. This is know as the density gradient. Two big changes have occurred in
the density gradient of today’s cities:
1. The number of people living in the center has decreased.
2. The density difference between the inner city and the suburbs is declining
because the inner city density is dropping and the suburban density is growing
due to more large apartments being built in the suburbs.
Cost of Suburban or Urban Sprawl: Urban Sprawl is the progressive spread of
development over the landscape. As long as we Americans want single-family
detached houses, land on the fringe of urban areas will be converted from open
space to residential use. The cost of this growth is more than the loss of land, it is
also the cost of new roads, utilities, building stores and offices and the cost of
automobiles to move these people over even longer distances. Lots of these new
developments are built on what was once farmland. Wonderful productive soil now
under concrete.

Greenbelts: are areas where, by law, the open space can not be used for any
construction. This is mostly found in Europe.

57

Once farmland that is being converted to suburbs and cities.

58

Tyson’s Corner Virginia in 1940

59

Washington, DC. MSA.

Tyson’s Corner Virginia
today.
Washington D.C. is off
In the distance.

60

Suburban Segregation: The “new” segregation.
Suburban segregation takes two forms:
1. Residents are separated from commercial and manufacturing activities
which are confined someplace else. (The whole neighborhood is
nothing but houses because they drive for services.)
2. The price of the house eliminates some from being able to live there. This
creates a homogeneous suburb of the same economic class of people.
This never existed before in history. Where we once had vertical
segregation of the classes we now we have horizontal segregation.
3. But this may be reversing as new statistics show that people are beginning
to move back to the city. Why? Cost of transportation.
Zoning Ordinances: This idea developed in Europe and later America in the
early decades of the 20th century. This means that businesses are allowed only
in certain areas of the settlement. (No all night taco stands inside your single
family neighborhood.)
Motor vehicles: The wide use of the automobile is largely responsible for the
American movement to the suburbs. Not only did people move out but 1/4 of
the land inside all American cities are now roads, streets, and parking lots.

61

Public Transportation: Because few US workers live within walking distance
of their jobs, urban areas are characterized by extensive commuting and the
problems that come with it. As much as 40% of all trips made into or out from
a city during the day takes place within just 4 hours. (2 in the morning and 2 in
the late afternoon). RUSH HOUR!!! In large cities, public transportation, like
subways and busses, are better suited to move people but Americans still
prefer their own cars. Public transportation is cheaper, cleaner, and more
energy efficient than personal cars, yet in the US only 5% of city travel is
done using public transit systems. American’s love their personal car too
much.
Local Government Fragmentation: Because of the large number of local
governments in the US (look at the settlements in Pinellas County) it is
difficult to solve some of the regional problems like garbage disposal, water
management, traffic and public housing.
62

Metropolitan government: This idea tries to put many local governments into a
larger unit that can better handle the urban problems. The 2 ways to do this
are:
1. Federations in which the individual settlements have their own police,
firemen, and tax collection but they all agree to be part of a second
government which handles transportation, water, sewage, parks and
welfare for all the communities.
2. Consolidations: In this method, several cities and the county may form one
government. Jacksonville’s government runs not only the town but the
county too, this makes Jacksonville the largest city, in land size, in the US.
Smart growth: A new movement by many states to curb suburban sprawl by
limiting where new construction can take place. Smart growth laws require that
land near cities be used up before any land further out can be developed. So
far, this is only being done an a few parts of our country.
63

The new
US as
some
people
see it.

64

Quiz Yourself:
1. The process where middle-class people move into inner city neighborhoods and
renovate them is called ____________
2. ____________ happens when banks refuse to give loans in what they consider
risky neighborhoods.
3. Because of the housing shortages, the poor have constructed their own settlements
around the city known as __________ _________

4. Businesses are allowed only in certain areas of the settlement because of
____________ ____________
5. Areas known as _____ _______ are areas of about 5,000 people. The data from
that area is used to help define needed services for that area.
6. When cities are so close that they form one continuous band of development this is
known as a ____________
65

7. Social relationships are often described as “colder” in urban areas because…
8. In this model the city develops in a series of sectors not rings. _______

9. ______ (LDC’s or MDC’s) have a higher percentage of people living in urban
settlements but ________ (LDC’s or MDC’s) have more of the very large urban
settlements.
10. _____________ was the first model developed to explain the distributions
of different social groups within urban areas.
11. New cities which develop around the beltway are nodes of consumer and
business services known as ________ _________.

12. When the Europeans took over lands around the world, they changed the
cities by adding services to help the Europeans control the conquered people.
These European planned cities are known as __________ cities.
66

Answer Key:
1.

Gentrification

2.

Redlining

3.

Squatter Settlements

4.

Zoning ordinances

5.

Census tracks

6.

Megalopolis

7. There is a stronger feeling of belonging together in small rural settlements.
8. Hoyt sector model
9. MDC, LDC
10. Burgess Concentric Zone model
11. Edge cities
12. Colonial cities
67

Test Key topic/chapter 13:
These questions come from a combination of our slides, your text book, and common knowledge you should
have discussed in your AP classroom. They are very typical of what you will see on the National Exam.
1) The multiple nuclei theory best explains why different neighborhoods of a city attract people of different… A) ages.
B) ethnic origin C) income D) marital status.
2) Sprawl is the… A) change in density within an urban area from the center to the periphery B) development of new
housing sites not contiguous to the existing built-up area. C) land maintained as open space surrounding an urban area.
D) period in the morning and evening with the heaviest volumes of traffic.
3) People are attracted to suburbs in part because suburbs are characterized by…A) heavy traffic. B) lower opportunity
for home ownership. C) private land surrounding the house. D) row houses and apartments.
4) Megalopolis refers to… A) adjacent, overlapping Metropolitan Statistical Areas. B) central cities. C) consolidated
Metropolitan Statistical Areas. D) central cities plus urbanized areas.
5) Which statement best describes the relationship between urbanization and the Industrial Revolution? A) Urbanization
promoted the Industrial Revolution. B) The Industrial Revolution promoted urbanization. C) Urbanization preceded the
Industrial Revolution by thousands of years. D) Urbanization and the Industrial Revolution are no longer related.
6) The process of legally adding land area to a city in the United States is… A) annexation. B) accreditation. C) an
application of eminent domain. D) defined by urbanized area.

68

7) The process of change in the use of a house, from single-family owner occupancy to abandonment, is… A) blockbusting.
B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining.
8) A process by which banks designate an area within which they refuse to lend money for improvements is… A) blockbusting.
B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining.
9) A recent change in the density gradient has been… A) the elimination of the gap traditionally found in the center. B) an
increase in the extremes between the inner and outer areas. C) an increase in the number of people living in the center.
D) a reduction in the differences in densities found within an urban area.
10) U.S. central cities face fiscal problems because… A) federal and state funds are available. B) low-income people are
concentrated there. C) middle-class families are attracted there. D) redlining is no longer legal.
11) A legal form of segregation in U.S. cities is achieved through...A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) zoning. D) greenbelts.
12) Factories have moved to suburban locations in part because of… A) access to main highways. B) adequate space to build
vertical structures. C) availability of large tracts of high-priced land. D) good rail connections.
13) According to the sector model, the best housing is located in…A) a corridor from downtown to the edge of the city.
B) an outer ring surrounding the city. C) nodes near universities and parks. D) renovated inner-city neighborhoods.
14) Ramshackle houses on the periphery of cities in less developed countries are known as… A) squatter settlements. B) council
estates. C) public housing. D) zone in transition.
15) Higher income people tend to live near the center of the city in all but which of the following regions? A) Latin America
B) North America C) South Asia D) Western Europe

16) The wide boulevards built in cities in less developed countries were most likely built during what era? A) pre-colonial
B) colonial C) independence D) all of the above equally

69

17) According to the multiple nuclei model, an airport is likely to attract nearby… A) industries. B) residences. C) shops.
D) universities.
18) The largest percentage of the U.S. population lives in…A) central cities. B) suburbs. C) non-metropolitan areas. D) all of the
above
19) In U.S. cities, the underclass is… A) clustered in inner-city neighborhoods. B) dispersed throughout the city. C) clustered in
suburbs. D) distributed uniformly in the city.

20) A process of converting a neighborhood from low-income to middle-class is…A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) gentrification.
D) redlining.
21) Higher social heterogeneity in urban settlements means that… A) the people with whom you relax are probably the same ones you
see at work. B) you play a specialized role in the urban economy. C) you compete for limited space. D) you may feel lonely and
isolated in a crowd.
22) The city plus its contiguous built-up suburbs is the… A) central city. B) urbanized area.
D) consolidated metropolitan statistical area

C) metropolitan statistical area.

23) The process whereby an increasing percentage of people live in an urban area is known as… A) demographic transition.
B) rank-size rule. C) urbanization. D) central place theory.
24) Of the ten largest urban areas in the world, how many are in More Developed Countries today? A) 1 B) 4 C) 7 D) 10 E) 2
25) Public housing is…A) conversion of low-income housing to middle-class housing. B) illegally established low-income housing.
C) housing that has changed from single-family owner occupancy to abandonment. D) low-income government-owned housing.
26) According to the concentric zone model, a city develops in a series of… A) corridors. B) nodes. C) rings. D) all of the above

70

27) Chicago is a good location in which to develop urban models because it is located… A) at the hub of the nation's transportation
system. B) in the center of the country. C) on a flat prairie. D) on the shore of Lake Michigan.
28) According to the sector model, the best housing is located in… A) a corridor from downtown to the edge of the city. B) an outer
ring surrounding the city. C) nodes near universities and parks. D) renovated inner-city neighborhoods.
29) The zone of transition in US cities generally contain…A) warehouses B) wealthy neighborhoods C) transportation hubs
D) universities and hospitals E) suburban homes
30) The attractions of shopping malls include all but which of the following? A) frequent concerts and exhibitions B) generous
parking lots C) place to meet friends D) walking distance from homes
The following questions are written at the high school level. You will find some questions from part one often rewritten
here. This is all designed to help you transition to the college/AP style of written questions. Any question preceded with ***
are questions that have been on the national exam before.
31. Most Latin American cities are focused on a…A) central plaza B) government housing project C) zone of heavy industry
D) skyscraper office building E) squatter settlement
32. The multiple-nuclei model of a city structure tends to be most applicable to…A) small cities B) traditional C) Latin American
cities D) newer, fast growing cities E) cities with homogeneous land use
33. ***Locational advantages important to the development of the earliest cities include…A) availability of good harbors for large
ships B) productive agricultural land and defensible sites C) temperate climate and proximity to coal mines D) good
connections by road and canal E) proximity to manufacturing areas

34. In cities, the CBD’s often show uniqueness while the suburbs usually show…A) a large hinterland. B) placelessness C) more
than one node. D) newer zones of transition.

71

35. Many LDC’s have tried to help a previously under-developed part of their country develop by moving their capital
city to that area. This new capital is known as a…A) forward capital B) new development zone C) enterprise zone
D) neocolonial city
36. Today the greatest number of urban dwellers is found in…A) North America
D) Europe E) Asia

B) South America C) Africa

37. ***All of the following have helped create ghettos in North American cities except…A)blockbusting and racial
steering B) redlining by financial institutions C) concentration of public housing and social services D) fixed school
districts E) Economic Enterprise Zones

38. Which of the following is NOT as reason for rapid suburbanization in the US after WW2? A) Mass production of
the automobile B) Reduction of long distance commuting C) Expansion of home construction D) Expansion of the
interstate highway system E) Availability of low down payment terms and long-term mortgages.
39. New cities which developed in the hinterland of large urban areas because of the automobile, are known as…
A) edge cities B) census tracts C) suburban sprawl D) squatter settlements. E) none of these
40. Gentrification refers to… A) moving the homeless into inner city shelters B) The “White Flight” from the urban city
C) losing tax revenue because of stores closing in downtown areas D) middle-class people moving into and renovating
inner city neighborhoods E) the creation of “beltway cities” around the city.

72

4
7
3

5

1
6

2

41-48 all use the sketch above.
41. The sketch in box A above represents which model of the inner structure of urban areas?
C) multiple nuclei model D) Burgess concentric zone model E) peripheral model
42. The models in boxes B and C represent A) Concentric zone and multiple nuclei
concentric zone D) peripheral and concentric zone E) Von Thunen and peripheral

A) Hoyt sector model B) VonThunen’s model

B) Multiple nuclei and Hoyt sector C) Hoyt sector and

43. In which ring (1, 2, etc.) of sketch A above would high-status households in North American cities likely live? A) 1 B) 2 C) 3 D) 4&5
44. In which ring (1, 2, etc.) of sketch A above would high status households in a European city likely live? A) 1

B) 2

C) 3

D) 4&5

45. In model B, zone # 2 is where it is likely because of: A) greenbelting B) squatter settling C) the culture of poverty D) transportation
E) no one knows
46. The model in sketch B is the; A) Hoyt sector model B) Burgess model C) multiple nuclei model D) peripheral model
47. The model in sketch C is the; A) Hoyt sector model B) Burgess model C) multiple nuclei model D) peripheral model
48. Which of these models best describes what has happened in US cities in the last 40 years? A)

B)

C)

73

49.*** In the U.S. a city plus its contiguous built-up suburbs is known as an…A) urbanized area B) zoned area
C) census tract D) Squatter settlement E) none of these
50. Done mostly in Europe, these are areas where land is kept as parks, farms or other kinds of open space and urban
sprawl is not allowed. A) Smart growth
B) zoning
C) filtering
D) census tracts E) greenbelts
51. Which statement best describes the relationship between urbanization and the Industrial Revolution?
A) Urbanization promoted the Industrial Revolution. B) The Industrial Revolution promoted urbanization.
C) Urbanization preceded the Industrial Revolution by thousands of years. D) Urbanization and the Industrial
Revolution are no longer related.
52. The process whereby an increasing percentage of people live in an urban area is known as…
A) Demographic transition. B) rank-size rule. C) Urbanization. D) Central place theory.
53. The city (if it has 50,000 or more people) plus its contiguous built-up suburbs AND the county it is in as well as any
other counties it influences, is known as the ...A) central city B) urbanized area
C) metropolitan statistical area
D) consolidated metropolitan area E) micropolitan statistical area
54. ***Higher social heterogeneity in urban settlements means that …A) the people with whom you relax are probably
the same ones you see at work. B) you play a specialized role in the urban economy. C) you compete for limited
space. D) you may feel lonely and isolated in a crowd.

55. The process of change in the use of a house, from single-family owner occupancy to smaller dwellings for the poor
and then sometimes to abandonment, is…A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining. E) none of
these

74

Free Response #1:
The Bid Rent theory says that the closer you get to the
CBD the higher the cost for land, yet in most American
cities you find the poorest people living near the
expensive CBD and the richest living further away.
Explain:
A. Why neighborhoods near the CBD are often poor and
run down?
B. Why are there few grocery and other retail stores in
these neighborhoods?
C. Why is this not really true in European and Latin
American countries?

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75

FR #2:
Think of the map of your school, explain the
layout of your school using the Multiple Nuclei
Model
The main office is the CBD.
Completely explain your answer using specific
buildings and/or land areas in your explanation
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76

Answer Key:
1. B

14. A

27. C

40. D

53. C

2. B

15. B

28. A

41. D

54. D

3. C

16. B

29. A

42. B

55. B

4. A

17. A

30. D

43. D

5. B

18. B

31. A

44. A

6. A

19. A

32. D

45. D

7. B

20. C

33. B

46. A

8. D

21. D

34. B

47. C

9. D

22. B

35. A

48. C

10. B

23. C

36. E

49. A

11. C

24. C

37. E

50. E

12. A

25. D

38. B

51. B

13. A

26. C

39. A

52. C
77

FR. #1: ( 15 pts. for each section…total of 45 pts.)
A. In the US the move of the wealthy and middle class to the suburbs has left the older houses and apartments near the CBD empty.
This has lowered their value to the point where the poor can afford these dwellings and have made these neighborhoods their
homes. The poor can not pay for upkeep of these dwellings, or to pay high taxes. The lack of upkeep and tax money to repair the
roads and schools, adds to the downward spiral of the neighborhood. With little spending money for shopping, the poor do not
spend much in the stores. This causes many stores to close and move to the suburbs where the spending customers and money
went. The closing of the stores adds to the poverty of the area by taking away some of the jobs that were in the neighborhood. This
becomes a vicious cycle of poverty and deterioration. (15 points)

B. There are few retail stores and groceries is the area because the poor do not have money to shop. The lack of spending forces
many stores out of business or forces them to move to better locations. There also can be higher crime in these areas and the
crime often takes place at the stores. This is another reason for the stores to move out of the neighborhood. (15 points)
C. Neighborhoods in European and Latin American cities are different from those of US cities. In Europe and Latin America, the
wealthy and middle class still live near or in the CBD. The higher tax base and more spending ability of the upper and middle
classes, keeps the CBD area flourishing with jobs and in constant repair and upkeep of the cities’ physical condition. (15 points)

FR #2: (10 total points.)
You will need to judge how effectively you displayed you school
in the Multiple Nuclei Model. Refer to the model itself to help you
determine your success and grade.
School’s main office
78

Calculating your grade on test 13.
Add how many you got correct on the multiple choice part (55 possible) to how many
points you scored on the FR portion (55 possible)…110 total.
The following scale will show the approximate score if this test were the real AP exam. Remember that this
is an approximation. While 65-74% is normally the range for a 3 on the test, it is not definite. Over the
years I have seen scores as low as 60% be the low portion of a 3 score.

Out of 110 possible points:
72-83 is most likely a 3
84-94 is most likely a 4

95-110 is most likely a 5

Now lets start our review for the national exam by
reviewing the 33 key models and theories of the
course…the next PowerPoint.


Slide 70

Key topic/chapter 13…Urban Patterns
Key terms:
Annexation
Concentric zone model
Density gradient
Edge cities
Filtering
Galactic city
Gentrification
Greenbelts
Megalopolis
MSA
Multiple nuclei model
Peripheral model

Public housing
Redlining
Renovated housing
Scattered site
Squatter settlement
Sector model
Smart growth
Sprawl
Underclass
Urban renewal
Zone in transition
Zoning
1

Chapter 13…Urban Areas.
How are Cities planned?
Why

are cities where they are?
How are they organized?
Why are some areas of a city
different from
other areas of the same city?
What is the future of cities?
2

Settlement


Settlement - permanent collections of buildings,
where people live, work, and obtain services

3

ORIGINS OF SETTLEMENTS


Religious - graves, churches, temples



Cultural - schools, libraries



Political/Military - leader’s house, walls



Economic - stores, food
4

TYPES OF SETTLEMENTS


Rural Settlements - agriculture as the
predominant occupation.



Urban settlements - principal industries are
secondary and tertiary.

5

RURAL SETTLEMENTS
Clustered rural settlements –grouped
settlements in rural areas to minimize travel

Dispersed rural Settlements - isolated farms
with enclosed continuous fields (Found only in
N. America and Britain).

6

Urban Geographers want to know the global distribution of urban
settlements. MDC’s have a high percentage of people living in urban
areas because of the shift from agriculture-manufacturing-services.
Geographers are also interested in where people and activities are
distributed within urban spaces. What are the differences between the
inner-city and suburban areas and why?
As we saw in the last chapter, many downtowns are unique and can
often be recognized in photos where the suburbs often look very
much alike (Placelessness). Why? Suburbs offer the chance to avoid
some of the city problems (crime, tight living area, expensive
land/rent, noise, age of buildings) while still keeping a connection with
the goods and services of the city: jobs, sports teams, culture, shops,
recreation, etc.
7

Where is this place?

8

Today’s cities are evolving and changing. Although different internal
situations characterize urban areas in the US and elsewhere, the
problems arising from current spatial trends are quite similar in all cities.
Where have urban areas grown: in the early 1800’s only 3% of the earth’s
people lived in cities and only Beijing China had more than 1 million
people. Today over ½ of the world’s people live in cities and we have over
400 cities of at least 1 million people.

Urbanization: is the process by which city population grows.
Cities population growth is measured in 2 dimensions;
1. An increase in the number of people living in the cities.
2. An increase in the percentage of people living in the cities.
This distinction is important because they happen for different reason and
have different global distributions.
9

Increasing Percentage of People in Cities: a large percentage of people living in urban
areas is a measure of a country’s level of development. In MDC’s about ¾ of the people
live in urban areas compared to about 2/5 of people in LDC’s. (Except in Latin America
where the level is closer to MDC’s.)
The higher percentage of people in urban areas comes from the changes that have
occurred in the last 200 years as we went from agriculture (primary jobs) to industrial
(secondary jobs) and now service jobs, all created by the Industrial Revolution of the
1800’s.
People moved to the cities for industrial jobs, but in MDC’s this process has largely
ended because nearly everyone interested in moving to the cities from farms has already
done so.
In LDC’s the percentage of people living in urban areas is growing as people are pushed
off of their farms and replaced by machines and as people move to cities looking/hoping
for industrial jobs.
10

Increasing Number of People in Cities: MDC’s have a higher percentage of
people living in urban settlements but LDC’s have more of the very large urban
settlements (Primate cities). (Rank-size rule, primate cities, chapter 12.)

This is interesting because typically the large cities are created from the
improvements brought by the Industrial Revolution. This is not the case with the
large LDC cities. Migration to the primate city in LDC’s is happening even though
job opportunities may not be available. Increasing the population growth in LDC
cities is the fact that medical services are better in these cities, thus the child
mortality rate is lower.
Defining Urban Settlements: defining where urban areas end and rural areas
begin is not easy. Geographers have formulated definitions that distinguish
between urban and rural areas in two ways: Social differences and Physical
differences.
11

Percent Urban Population

Percent of the population living in urban areas is usually higher in MDCs
than in LDCs.

12

The most populated cities in the world

Of the top
20, only
Moscow,
Tokyo and
New York
are in MDC’s

Shanghai China has 14,608,512 people
13

14

15

Social Differences Between Urban and Rural Settlements: it is fair to say that rural
people and urban people follow different ways of life. A city can be defined as having 3
characteristics:
1. Large size. People in rural settlements know most of the other people in the
settlement. Not true in big cities. Social relationships are often described as “colder” in
urban areas because you only see some people at work instead of growing up with
them in the settlement.
2. High Density. Having lots of people in a tiny area creates social consequences. A
high density of people living in a small area can only be supported if the people
specialize (they can’t all be farmers). People are encouraged to compete for jobs, room,
and survival in a tightly limited space. Social groups compete to occupy the same space
(ethnic/ race problems). Rural settlements have very little of this problem.
3. Social Heterogeneity. The larger the settlement, the greater the variety of people.
Being “unusual” in a large settlement is more likely to be accepted than in a small rural
one. But despite the freedom to be different that large urban settlements give you,
people living there often feel alone because so many people are different from them.
There is a stronger feeling of belonging together in small rural settlements.
16

These 3 differences do not fully answer the question of where urban settlements
begin and rural ones end because in today’s MDC’s most everyone has access to
cars, telephones, televisions, and “urban type” jobs which reduce the differences
between urban and rural lifestyles. “City folk” and “Country folk” are more alike
today than they are different. To help distinguish between urban and rural areas we
need to add the physical definition of rural and urban to the equation.
Physical Definitions of Urban Settlements: In ancient time, cities had defensive
walls for protection which clearly defined the physical boundaries of the city. Today
the walls are gone but we can still define the physical boundaries in 3 ways:
1. Legal boundary. These are the official boundaries of a city as recognized by
the government of the country or state. These “city limits” have been officially given
to the city and are physically marked on official maps. The local government of the
city has authority to make laws and protect the people inside the city boundaries.
17

2. Urbanized area. This is the city plus its suburbs or urbanized area that
surrounds the city. About 70 percent of US residents live in urbanized areas with
40% being in the suburbs and 30% inside the city limits. The suburbs may have
their own city governments but the huge central city dominates what happens in
the entire area.
3. Metropolitan Statistical Area. Cities have an even bigger influence on people
than just those living in their city limits and surrounding urbanized areas. People
from far away come to shop, use the services, support the sports teams, read
the newspapers and watch the television broadcasts of the city. Thus the city
has a “functional area” which is its total zone of influence. The US Bureau of
Census has created a method of measuring the functional area of the city.
Known as the Metropolitan statistical area (MSA) this area includes:
•An urbanized area with a population of at least 50,000
•The county within which the city is located.
•Adjacent counties with a high population density and a large percentage of
residents working in the central city’s county.
18

Metropolitan Area of Philadelphia

City of
Philadelphia

Urbanized
area
(suburbs)
Metropolitan
Statistical
Area

The metropolitan area of Philadelphia is
spread over several counties and four states.
It is also a diversified trade center, given its
position on the Delaware river.

19

20

21

Micropolitan Statistical Areas: Smaller areas with between
10,000 and 50,000 people, the county where it is found, and
adjacent counties tied to the city. This would be a small town and
the area dominated by it.
Overlapping Metropolitan Areas: Some adjacent MSA’s overlap.
A county between two central cities may send a large number of
commuters to jobs in both cities. In some areas the cities are so
close that they form one continuous urban complex. This is
known as a Megalopolis (great city).
In a megalopolis, the downtown CBD often has its own
distinctive look and the urban areas are visually separated by
parks, open spaces, and dairy/truck farms. But at the periphery
of the urban areas, the boundaries overlap.
22

Colorado Springs, population 431,000

Ocala, Florida, population 56,000

Florala, Alabama, population 1,900

23

Megalopolis, from northern Va. To Maine.
This Illustrates the
difference between
strict city proper
definitions and broader
urban agglomerations.
To define urbanized
areas, the U.S. Census
Bureau uses the term
Metropolitan Statistical
Area (MSA) or
Consolidated MSA
(CMSA) if two or more of
them overlap.
24

Where are People Distributed within Urban Areas? People are not
just distributed at random in urban areas. For the most part they
concentrate in particular neighborhoods depending on their social
characteristics. Geographers want to see where people with
particular characteristics are likely to live and why.

Three models which try to explain the growth of a city:

The Burgess Model

The Hoyt Sector Model

The Harris and Ullman
multiple Nuclei Model
25

Burgess Concentric Zone Model

In the concentric zone model, a city grows in a series of rings surrounding the CBD.

Burgess Concentric Zone Model: This is the first used to explain the
distributions of different social groups within urban areas. It says that a
city grows outward from a central place in a series of concentric rings.
The precise size and width of the rings vary from one city to another, but
some basic types of rings appear in all cities in the same order (see chart
above).
26

•Hoyt Sector Model: In this model the city develops in a
series of sectors not rings. Certain areas of the city are
more attractive for various activities, originally because
of an environmental factor (or even pure chance). As the
city grows, activities extend outward in a wedge shape.
For example, once a wealthy neighborhood is built the
next wealthy neighborhood will extend from the first
neighborhood further outward from the center. In this
way, the best housing is found in a corridor extending
outward from the center to the outer edge (see chart on
the next page).
27

The Hoyt Sector Model

In the sector model, a city grows in a series of
wedges or corridors extending out from the
CBD.
28

•Harris and Ullman’s Multiple Nuclei Model: According
to this model, a city is a complex structure that includes
more than one center around which activities revolve.
Examples of these nodes include a port, parks,
stadium, neighborhood business center, university, and
airport (see chart). This theory states that some
activities are attracted to particular nodes, whereas
others try to avoid them. A university node may attract
well educated people and bookstores while the port will
attract hotels and warehouses. Heavy industry and
expensive houses rarely are found together. This
model shows the effect of the automobile more than
any other model.
29

The Harris and Ullman Multiple Nuclei model

The multiple nuclei model views a city as a
collection of individual centers, around which
different people and activities cluster.

30

Applications of the Models: The three models help explain where and in some
cases, why people live where they do. None of the models by themselves fully
explains why and where different types of people live, but combined they give
you as good a look as possible at the “Why” of “Where.” Effective use of the
models depends on getting good data on the areas. Most countries take a
census every 10 years to help determine useful data about the people and
places of the country. In our country we divide the census data into areas
known as census tracts of about 5,000 people. Each census tract has the data
that summarizes the characteristics of the people living within that tract. This
information includes things like the race, income, age, and education of the
people living in that tract.
Social Area Analysis: The data from the census tracts can all be plotted onto
maps to show the characteristics of the people living in that tract. This map is
known as a social area analysis.
31

Using Census tract information…Seattle, Washington
Each lined area is a
census tract of about 5000
people in Seattle
Washington. These maps
show average household
income for 1990 and
2000…note the changes in
income in some areas
between 1990 and 2000.
Using this information, a
business can make
decisions about where
they want to locate a new
store or the future of
existing stores.
You can find census tract
information on many topics
such as; age, education
level, race, ethnicity, crime
rate, and land ownership.
Note the areas with
incomes over
$63,000.

All can be very valuable
information to people
looking to open
businesses.

32

Examine the changes
between 1990 and
2000.

Oakland, California’s Ethnic neighborhoods
The small bordered areas are census tracks of 5000 people.

33

Use of the Models Outside of North America: The 3 models will also work in other
places in the world; however social groups in other countries may not have the
same reasons for selecting particular neighborhoods as Americans do.
European Cities: As in the US, wealthier people in European cities cluster along a
sector extending outward from the CBD, however unlike the US, wealthy and
middle class Europeans still live in the inner rings of the neighborhoods near the
CBD not out in the suburbs. In the past, poorer people lived in the center of the
city. Before electricity, social segregation was vertical: richer people lived on the
first or second floor of a building while the poorer people lived in the basement or
upper floors. In the Industrial Revolution, housing for the poor was constructed
near the factories and away from the rich.
Today poorer Europeans are less likely to live in the inner-city. Poor quality
housing has been renovated for the rich or turned into office buildings. Poorer
Europeans tend to live in the outskirts of the city. Vast suburbs with dozens of high
rise apartments house the poor. They face long commutes to reach their jobs in
the city.
34

European cities generally do not have the “suburban
sprawl” that US cities have. European cities tend to be
more pedestrian friendly with more parks downtown as
Europeans tend to still live downtown.
US cities have taller buildings as European cities tend to
be older and more historic.

American cities have more ethnic neighborhoods than
European cities. Ethnic neighborhoods that do exist in
European cities tend to be in the suburbs. WHY?
Because the established richer neighborhoods tend to be
downtown in European cities.
35

Less Developed Countries: Like Europe, most LDC’s accommodate their poor in the
suburbs with their middle class and rich living near the center of the city. LDC’s have
passed through 3 periods of city building: before the Europeans arrived, during the
period of European colonialism, and since independence from European control.

Pre-colonial Cities: Before the Europeans arrived few cities existed in Africa, Asia, and
Latin America and most people lived in small rural settlements. Those cities that existed
were mostly laid out surrounding a religious center; with the rest of the city laid out in a
hieratical concentric pattern (like the Burgess model) from government buildings,
homes of the wealthy, and businesses related to the religion out to other businesses
and shops.
Colonial cities: When the Europeans took over these lands, they changed the cities by
adding services to help the Europeans control the conquered people. Often a new
European style city would be build next to the existing native one. The new European
cities contained wider streets, a public square, larger houses and a much lower density.
The Spanish used the “Law of the Indies” which was a city plan designed specifically to
build cities in a “Spanish” style. (Gridiron pattern for streets centered on a church and
central plaza, walls around individual houses and neighborhoods centered around
smaller plazas and more churches.)
36

Early Mexico city was laid out in a grid pattern of streets. This followed
the Spanish “Law of the Indies.”

37

Central Plaza in Mexico City 1920 photo. Typical Colonial City plan.

Part of downtown Mexico city today still shows the
building plan of the “Law of the Indies.”

38

Cities since Independence: Following independence, cities have become
the focal point of the development of most LDC’s. Millions of people have
migrated to the cities (Primate cities) looking for jobs and services. Some
capitals have been moved to isolated areas in an attempt to help develop
that area of the country (Brasília) This is know as a forward capital. Latin
American cities have developed their own unique style.
Squatter settlements: The LDC’s are unable to house the rapidly growing
number of poor who are flowing into the cities. Because of the housing
shortages, the poor have constructed their own settlements around the city.
These settlements have few services because neither the city nor the
residents can afford them. Squatters have two basic choices for housing.
1. Illegally move into empty real houses located in the city or,
2. Rent slum housing.
(85% of the population of Addis Ababa in Ethiopia lives in squatter
settlements, slums or other illegal housing.)
39

Squatter shacks in Manila, the Philippines

40

Squatter settlement in Ethiopia

41

Zimbabwe, Africa

42

Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

43

Latin American City Model:
In many Latin
American cities,
the wealthy live in
the inner city and
in a sector
extending along a
commercial spine.
In situ accretion- businesses
and homes constantly under
construction/repair.
Zone of maturity-2nd best
housing in the city.
The poor live in squatter settlements on the
periphery of the city.

Disamenity- unpleasant area
used by the poor to get to the
market.

44

The City Outline of Rio de Janeiro
The rich tourist areas and expensive condo apartments are along the coast
and beach while the poor live in squatter shacks in the hills.

45

City problems:
Inner-City Physical Problems: Most US inner cities were constructed before the 1950’s
(people began to move to the suburbs in the 1950’s so new construction moved out of
the city).
Process of Deterioration (how a city deteriorates): A city doesn’t suddenly become old
and full of slummy areas. It happens over time. When a group of low-income people
inhabit an area of a city, nearby neighborhoods will often look to move out. They sell or
rent to more low-income occupants thus expanding the low-income area. Two processes
cause/speed up the devaluation of areas:
1. Filtering, 2. Redlining.
Filtering: Large houses and buildings that once housed rich downtown workers (who
moved to the suburbs) are taken over by landlords who don’t live in that area (they
moved to the suburbs too). Rents are low so the landlord doesn’t take as good care of
the property as they should and the property becomes run down or abandoned. Stores
close, or move, due to lack of sales. 100 years ago these neighborhoods would be used
by immigrants and ethnic businesses would succeed in those areas. Now, with a decline
in immigration, these neighborhoods have shrunk and so have schools, businesses and
other services. Thousands of vacant houses and buildings stand empty in inner cities
across America.

46

Redlining: Some banks refuse to give loans in what they consider
risky neighborhoods. They draw a red line on a map around areas
where they will not give loans. Without loans, these neighborhoods
have a hard time rebuilding/remodeling. Though illegal, this still
happens. Bankers just don’t put these “no-loan” areas on a map.

Urban Renewal: This is the series of projects to improve European
and N. American cities by buying up the blighted neighborhoods,
moving the people to new government built housing projects, and
building new roads, and other projects to make the inner city
attractive for business again. National and State government grants
help pay for these projects.
47

Public housing: Housing for the poor, built with government funding as part of
urban renewal. In the US this is only about 2% of the housing while in some
countries it may be more (Britain is 30%). Public housing built in the 50’s & 60’s
were largely high rise apartments, but those are seen as being unsatisfactory.
Problems arise from cramming large numbers of poor people into one area.
Today most public housing projects are one to three story buildings with many of
them being scattered around different parts of the city rather than clustered into
one area.
Because urban renewal has been criticized for destroying the social cohesion of
older neighborhoods, many governments (like the US) have stopped funding
most projects since the 1970’s. What do we do instead?
Renovated Housing: An alternative often used since the 70’s is to renovate a
building instead of urban renewal. The process where middle-class people
move into inner-city neighborhoods and renovate them is called gentrification.
Gentrified inner-city neighborhoods also attract middle-class people who work
downtown. Living close to work saves the hassle of commuting and rejuvenates
run down inner-city neighborhoods
48

Gentrified building downtown Harlem, NY. Note the supermarket.

49

Inner-City Social Problems: Inner-city residents are often referred to as the
permanent underclass because they are trapped in an unending cycle of
economic and social problems. High unemployment, alcoholism, drug
addiction, literacy, juvenile delinquency, and crime all exist at a higher rate
among those who live in the inner-city. Lack of jobs means lack of tax dollars
to pay for police and fire protection as well as good schools. Lack of job skills
and homelessness are also tremendous problems.
Culture of Poverty: Inner-city residents are trapped in a permanent underclass
culture that reproduces itself. In the US, unwed mothers give birth to 2/3 of the
babies in the inner-city. 90% of these children live with only one parent and it
is real hard for one parent to keep a job and take care of children. Both suffer
and a shortage of care and daily attention by the parent contributes to the kids
not learning the skills necessary to do well in school which leads to poor jobs
for their futures. Poverty leads to more poverty. Many families on welfare have
only one parent because it is financially better if one parent is gone, that way
the single parent gets food stamps and other services from the government
that they would not get if it was a 2 family household.
50

Crime: Trapped in a hopeless environment, some inner-city
residents turn to drugs. Drug use is a problem in inner-city
areas and the suburbs, but rates of drug use in inner-cities
are the highest.
Ethnic and Racial Segregation: As seen in chapter 7, many
neighborhoods in the US are segregated by ethnicity with
African Americans and Hispanics concentrated in one or two
continuous areas and whites living in the suburbs. Even small
cities display a strong distinction among neighborhoods. A
frequent division is between the east and west or north and
south side of town, or the railroad tracks. A family seeking a
new residence will seek the areas where the characteristics
of the people meet their own.

51

The exodus
from the
American city.
This has
happened in
many American
cities since the
1960’s.

52

Changes in Cities in the U.S.
U.S. population has been moving out of the city centers to the suburbs:
suburbanization and counter urbanization

Developed Countries: suburbanization

 wealthy move to suburbs
 automobiles and roads; ‘American
Dream’ of the home in the suburbs.
 better services
 wealthy move to suburbs
Counter urbanization

idyllic settings
cost of land for retirement
slow pace, yet high tech
connections to services and markets
53

U.S. intraregional migration during 1990s.

Inner city economic problems: the concentration of low income
residents in inner cities has caused economic problems. These
people require public services but can pay very little in taxes to
support the services. They need stores and jobs but have little
money to spend in the store and few skills for jobs (so the stores
close). To try to fight these problems many local and state
governments use tax monies to try to renovate these areas, but this
shifts tax money needed for other areas to the inner city (votes on
election day).
Annexation: Many cities could help their tax problem by adding the
new suburbs to be part of their city (annexation). After all, many of
these suburban people use the city for its’ jobs etc., so why not add
them into the city? Today, most people in the suburbs do not want
to be annexed into the city and so they do not vote to be annexed.
54

The Peripheral Model: According to this model, an urban area
consists of an inner city surrounded by large suburban residential
and business areas (MSA) tied together by a beltway or highway
that circles the city. Around the beltway are nodes of consumer
and business services called edge cities (see diagram of multiple
nuclei model). These edge cities sprang up to provide services
and jobs to the people in the suburbs.
Density Gradient: As you travel outward from the center of the
city, the density of people declines. Inner city has big apartments
of 250 of more people per acre. Suburbs have fewer people per
acre (but lots of acres) and finally you leave the cities periphery
you find few people. The number of houses per unit of land
diminishes as distance from the center of the city increases.
55

The Edge cities (bedroom communities) of Houston

The central city is surrounded by a ring road, around which are
suburban areas and edge cities, shopping malls, office parks,
industrial areas, and service complexes.

Known as
bedroom
communities
because
people live
there but
mostly don’t
work there.
They drive
into the city
for work.
56

As you move from the center of the city outward, the density of the population
changes. This is know as the density gradient. Two big changes have occurred in
the density gradient of today’s cities:
1. The number of people living in the center has decreased.
2. The density difference between the inner city and the suburbs is declining
because the inner city density is dropping and the suburban density is growing
due to more large apartments being built in the suburbs.
Cost of Suburban or Urban Sprawl: Urban Sprawl is the progressive spread of
development over the landscape. As long as we Americans want single-family
detached houses, land on the fringe of urban areas will be converted from open
space to residential use. The cost of this growth is more than the loss of land, it is
also the cost of new roads, utilities, building stores and offices and the cost of
automobiles to move these people over even longer distances. Lots of these new
developments are built on what was once farmland. Wonderful productive soil now
under concrete.

Greenbelts: are areas where, by law, the open space can not be used for any
construction. This is mostly found in Europe.

57

Once farmland that is being converted to suburbs and cities.

58

Tyson’s Corner Virginia in 1940

59

Washington, DC. MSA.

Tyson’s Corner Virginia
today.
Washington D.C. is off
In the distance.

60

Suburban Segregation: The “new” segregation.
Suburban segregation takes two forms:
1. Residents are separated from commercial and manufacturing activities
which are confined someplace else. (The whole neighborhood is
nothing but houses because they drive for services.)
2. The price of the house eliminates some from being able to live there. This
creates a homogeneous suburb of the same economic class of people.
This never existed before in history. Where we once had vertical
segregation of the classes we now we have horizontal segregation.
3. But this may be reversing as new statistics show that people are beginning
to move back to the city. Why? Cost of transportation.
Zoning Ordinances: This idea developed in Europe and later America in the
early decades of the 20th century. This means that businesses are allowed only
in certain areas of the settlement. (No all night taco stands inside your single
family neighborhood.)
Motor vehicles: The wide use of the automobile is largely responsible for the
American movement to the suburbs. Not only did people move out but 1/4 of
the land inside all American cities are now roads, streets, and parking lots.

61

Public Transportation: Because few US workers live within walking distance
of their jobs, urban areas are characterized by extensive commuting and the
problems that come with it. As much as 40% of all trips made into or out from
a city during the day takes place within just 4 hours. (2 in the morning and 2 in
the late afternoon). RUSH HOUR!!! In large cities, public transportation, like
subways and busses, are better suited to move people but Americans still
prefer their own cars. Public transportation is cheaper, cleaner, and more
energy efficient than personal cars, yet in the US only 5% of city travel is
done using public transit systems. American’s love their personal car too
much.
Local Government Fragmentation: Because of the large number of local
governments in the US (look at the settlements in Pinellas County) it is
difficult to solve some of the regional problems like garbage disposal, water
management, traffic and public housing.
62

Metropolitan government: This idea tries to put many local governments into a
larger unit that can better handle the urban problems. The 2 ways to do this
are:
1. Federations in which the individual settlements have their own police,
firemen, and tax collection but they all agree to be part of a second
government which handles transportation, water, sewage, parks and
welfare for all the communities.
2. Consolidations: In this method, several cities and the county may form one
government. Jacksonville’s government runs not only the town but the
county too, this makes Jacksonville the largest city, in land size, in the US.
Smart growth: A new movement by many states to curb suburban sprawl by
limiting where new construction can take place. Smart growth laws require that
land near cities be used up before any land further out can be developed. So
far, this is only being done an a few parts of our country.
63

The new
US as
some
people
see it.

64

Quiz Yourself:
1. The process where middle-class people move into inner city neighborhoods and
renovate them is called ____________
2. ____________ happens when banks refuse to give loans in what they consider
risky neighborhoods.
3. Because of the housing shortages, the poor have constructed their own settlements
around the city known as __________ _________

4. Businesses are allowed only in certain areas of the settlement because of
____________ ____________
5. Areas known as _____ _______ are areas of about 5,000 people. The data from
that area is used to help define needed services for that area.
6. When cities are so close that they form one continuous band of development this is
known as a ____________
65

7. Social relationships are often described as “colder” in urban areas because…
8. In this model the city develops in a series of sectors not rings. _______

9. ______ (LDC’s or MDC’s) have a higher percentage of people living in urban
settlements but ________ (LDC’s or MDC’s) have more of the very large urban
settlements.
10. _____________ was the first model developed to explain the distributions
of different social groups within urban areas.
11. New cities which develop around the beltway are nodes of consumer and
business services known as ________ _________.

12. When the Europeans took over lands around the world, they changed the
cities by adding services to help the Europeans control the conquered people.
These European planned cities are known as __________ cities.
66

Answer Key:
1.

Gentrification

2.

Redlining

3.

Squatter Settlements

4.

Zoning ordinances

5.

Census tracks

6.

Megalopolis

7. There is a stronger feeling of belonging together in small rural settlements.
8. Hoyt sector model
9. MDC, LDC
10. Burgess Concentric Zone model
11. Edge cities
12. Colonial cities
67

Test Key topic/chapter 13:
These questions come from a combination of our slides, your text book, and common knowledge you should
have discussed in your AP classroom. They are very typical of what you will see on the National Exam.
1) The multiple nuclei theory best explains why different neighborhoods of a city attract people of different… A) ages.
B) ethnic origin C) income D) marital status.
2) Sprawl is the… A) change in density within an urban area from the center to the periphery B) development of new
housing sites not contiguous to the existing built-up area. C) land maintained as open space surrounding an urban area.
D) period in the morning and evening with the heaviest volumes of traffic.
3) People are attracted to suburbs in part because suburbs are characterized by…A) heavy traffic. B) lower opportunity
for home ownership. C) private land surrounding the house. D) row houses and apartments.
4) Megalopolis refers to… A) adjacent, overlapping Metropolitan Statistical Areas. B) central cities. C) consolidated
Metropolitan Statistical Areas. D) central cities plus urbanized areas.
5) Which statement best describes the relationship between urbanization and the Industrial Revolution? A) Urbanization
promoted the Industrial Revolution. B) The Industrial Revolution promoted urbanization. C) Urbanization preceded the
Industrial Revolution by thousands of years. D) Urbanization and the Industrial Revolution are no longer related.
6) The process of legally adding land area to a city in the United States is… A) annexation. B) accreditation. C) an
application of eminent domain. D) defined by urbanized area.

68

7) The process of change in the use of a house, from single-family owner occupancy to abandonment, is… A) blockbusting.
B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining.
8) A process by which banks designate an area within which they refuse to lend money for improvements is… A) blockbusting.
B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining.
9) A recent change in the density gradient has been… A) the elimination of the gap traditionally found in the center. B) an
increase in the extremes between the inner and outer areas. C) an increase in the number of people living in the center.
D) a reduction in the differences in densities found within an urban area.
10) U.S. central cities face fiscal problems because… A) federal and state funds are available. B) low-income people are
concentrated there. C) middle-class families are attracted there. D) redlining is no longer legal.
11) A legal form of segregation in U.S. cities is achieved through...A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) zoning. D) greenbelts.
12) Factories have moved to suburban locations in part because of… A) access to main highways. B) adequate space to build
vertical structures. C) availability of large tracts of high-priced land. D) good rail connections.
13) According to the sector model, the best housing is located in…A) a corridor from downtown to the edge of the city.
B) an outer ring surrounding the city. C) nodes near universities and parks. D) renovated inner-city neighborhoods.
14) Ramshackle houses on the periphery of cities in less developed countries are known as… A) squatter settlements. B) council
estates. C) public housing. D) zone in transition.
15) Higher income people tend to live near the center of the city in all but which of the following regions? A) Latin America
B) North America C) South Asia D) Western Europe

16) The wide boulevards built in cities in less developed countries were most likely built during what era? A) pre-colonial
B) colonial C) independence D) all of the above equally

69

17) According to the multiple nuclei model, an airport is likely to attract nearby… A) industries. B) residences. C) shops.
D) universities.
18) The largest percentage of the U.S. population lives in…A) central cities. B) suburbs. C) non-metropolitan areas. D) all of the
above
19) In U.S. cities, the underclass is… A) clustered in inner-city neighborhoods. B) dispersed throughout the city. C) clustered in
suburbs. D) distributed uniformly in the city.

20) A process of converting a neighborhood from low-income to middle-class is…A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) gentrification.
D) redlining.
21) Higher social heterogeneity in urban settlements means that… A) the people with whom you relax are probably the same ones you
see at work. B) you play a specialized role in the urban economy. C) you compete for limited space. D) you may feel lonely and
isolated in a crowd.
22) The city plus its contiguous built-up suburbs is the… A) central city. B) urbanized area.
D) consolidated metropolitan statistical area

C) metropolitan statistical area.

23) The process whereby an increasing percentage of people live in an urban area is known as… A) demographic transition.
B) rank-size rule. C) urbanization. D) central place theory.
24) Of the ten largest urban areas in the world, how many are in More Developed Countries today? A) 1 B) 4 C) 7 D) 10 E) 2
25) Public housing is…A) conversion of low-income housing to middle-class housing. B) illegally established low-income housing.
C) housing that has changed from single-family owner occupancy to abandonment. D) low-income government-owned housing.
26) According to the concentric zone model, a city develops in a series of… A) corridors. B) nodes. C) rings. D) all of the above

70

27) Chicago is a good location in which to develop urban models because it is located… A) at the hub of the nation's transportation
system. B) in the center of the country. C) on a flat prairie. D) on the shore of Lake Michigan.
28) According to the sector model, the best housing is located in… A) a corridor from downtown to the edge of the city. B) an outer
ring surrounding the city. C) nodes near universities and parks. D) renovated inner-city neighborhoods.
29) The zone of transition in US cities generally contain…A) warehouses B) wealthy neighborhoods C) transportation hubs
D) universities and hospitals E) suburban homes
30) The attractions of shopping malls include all but which of the following? A) frequent concerts and exhibitions B) generous
parking lots C) place to meet friends D) walking distance from homes
The following questions are written at the high school level. You will find some questions from part one often rewritten
here. This is all designed to help you transition to the college/AP style of written questions. Any question preceded with ***
are questions that have been on the national exam before.
31. Most Latin American cities are focused on a…A) central plaza B) government housing project C) zone of heavy industry
D) skyscraper office building E) squatter settlement
32. The multiple-nuclei model of a city structure tends to be most applicable to…A) small cities B) traditional C) Latin American
cities D) newer, fast growing cities E) cities with homogeneous land use
33. ***Locational advantages important to the development of the earliest cities include…A) availability of good harbors for large
ships B) productive agricultural land and defensible sites C) temperate climate and proximity to coal mines D) good
connections by road and canal E) proximity to manufacturing areas

34. In cities, the CBD’s often show uniqueness while the suburbs usually show…A) a large hinterland. B) placelessness C) more
than one node. D) newer zones of transition.

71

35. Many LDC’s have tried to help a previously under-developed part of their country develop by moving their capital
city to that area. This new capital is known as a…A) forward capital B) new development zone C) enterprise zone
D) neocolonial city
36. Today the greatest number of urban dwellers is found in…A) North America
D) Europe E) Asia

B) South America C) Africa

37. ***All of the following have helped create ghettos in North American cities except…A)blockbusting and racial
steering B) redlining by financial institutions C) concentration of public housing and social services D) fixed school
districts E) Economic Enterprise Zones

38. Which of the following is NOT as reason for rapid suburbanization in the US after WW2? A) Mass production of
the automobile B) Reduction of long distance commuting C) Expansion of home construction D) Expansion of the
interstate highway system E) Availability of low down payment terms and long-term mortgages.
39. New cities which developed in the hinterland of large urban areas because of the automobile, are known as…
A) edge cities B) census tracts C) suburban sprawl D) squatter settlements. E) none of these
40. Gentrification refers to… A) moving the homeless into inner city shelters B) The “White Flight” from the urban city
C) losing tax revenue because of stores closing in downtown areas D) middle-class people moving into and renovating
inner city neighborhoods E) the creation of “beltway cities” around the city.

72

4
7
3

5

1
6

2

41-48 all use the sketch above.
41. The sketch in box A above represents which model of the inner structure of urban areas?
C) multiple nuclei model D) Burgess concentric zone model E) peripheral model
42. The models in boxes B and C represent A) Concentric zone and multiple nuclei
concentric zone D) peripheral and concentric zone E) Von Thunen and peripheral

A) Hoyt sector model B) VonThunen’s model

B) Multiple nuclei and Hoyt sector C) Hoyt sector and

43. In which ring (1, 2, etc.) of sketch A above would high-status households in North American cities likely live? A) 1 B) 2 C) 3 D) 4&5
44. In which ring (1, 2, etc.) of sketch A above would high status households in a European city likely live? A) 1

B) 2

C) 3

D) 4&5

45. In model B, zone # 2 is where it is likely because of: A) greenbelting B) squatter settling C) the culture of poverty D) transportation
E) no one knows
46. The model in sketch B is the; A) Hoyt sector model B) Burgess model C) multiple nuclei model D) peripheral model
47. The model in sketch C is the; A) Hoyt sector model B) Burgess model C) multiple nuclei model D) peripheral model
48. Which of these models best describes what has happened in US cities in the last 40 years? A)

B)

C)

73

49.*** In the U.S. a city plus its contiguous built-up suburbs is known as an…A) urbanized area B) zoned area
C) census tract D) Squatter settlement E) none of these
50. Done mostly in Europe, these are areas where land is kept as parks, farms or other kinds of open space and urban
sprawl is not allowed. A) Smart growth
B) zoning
C) filtering
D) census tracts E) greenbelts
51. Which statement best describes the relationship between urbanization and the Industrial Revolution?
A) Urbanization promoted the Industrial Revolution. B) The Industrial Revolution promoted urbanization.
C) Urbanization preceded the Industrial Revolution by thousands of years. D) Urbanization and the Industrial
Revolution are no longer related.
52. The process whereby an increasing percentage of people live in an urban area is known as…
A) Demographic transition. B) rank-size rule. C) Urbanization. D) Central place theory.
53. The city (if it has 50,000 or more people) plus its contiguous built-up suburbs AND the county it is in as well as any
other counties it influences, is known as the ...A) central city B) urbanized area
C) metropolitan statistical area
D) consolidated metropolitan area E) micropolitan statistical area
54. ***Higher social heterogeneity in urban settlements means that …A) the people with whom you relax are probably
the same ones you see at work. B) you play a specialized role in the urban economy. C) you compete for limited
space. D) you may feel lonely and isolated in a crowd.

55. The process of change in the use of a house, from single-family owner occupancy to smaller dwellings for the poor
and then sometimes to abandonment, is…A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining. E) none of
these

74

Free Response #1:
The Bid Rent theory says that the closer you get to the
CBD the higher the cost for land, yet in most American
cities you find the poorest people living near the
expensive CBD and the richest living further away.
Explain:
A. Why neighborhoods near the CBD are often poor and
run down?
B. Why are there few grocery and other retail stores in
these neighborhoods?
C. Why is this not really true in European and Latin
American countries?

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75

FR #2:
Think of the map of your school, explain the
layout of your school using the Multiple Nuclei
Model
The main office is the CBD.
Completely explain your answer using specific
buildings and/or land areas in your explanation
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76

Answer Key:
1. B

14. A

27. C

40. D

53. C

2. B

15. B

28. A

41. D

54. D

3. C

16. B

29. A

42. B

55. B

4. A

17. A

30. D

43. D

5. B

18. B

31. A

44. A

6. A

19. A

32. D

45. D

7. B

20. C

33. B

46. A

8. D

21. D

34. B

47. C

9. D

22. B

35. A

48. C

10. B

23. C

36. E

49. A

11. C

24. C

37. E

50. E

12. A

25. D

38. B

51. B

13. A

26. C

39. A

52. C
77

FR. #1: ( 15 pts. for each section…total of 45 pts.)
A. In the US the move of the wealthy and middle class to the suburbs has left the older houses and apartments near the CBD empty.
This has lowered their value to the point where the poor can afford these dwellings and have made these neighborhoods their
homes. The poor can not pay for upkeep of these dwellings, or to pay high taxes. The lack of upkeep and tax money to repair the
roads and schools, adds to the downward spiral of the neighborhood. With little spending money for shopping, the poor do not
spend much in the stores. This causes many stores to close and move to the suburbs where the spending customers and money
went. The closing of the stores adds to the poverty of the area by taking away some of the jobs that were in the neighborhood. This
becomes a vicious cycle of poverty and deterioration. (15 points)

B. There are few retail stores and groceries is the area because the poor do not have money to shop. The lack of spending forces
many stores out of business or forces them to move to better locations. There also can be higher crime in these areas and the
crime often takes place at the stores. This is another reason for the stores to move out of the neighborhood. (15 points)
C. Neighborhoods in European and Latin American cities are different from those of US cities. In Europe and Latin America, the
wealthy and middle class still live near or in the CBD. The higher tax base and more spending ability of the upper and middle
classes, keeps the CBD area flourishing with jobs and in constant repair and upkeep of the cities’ physical condition. (15 points)

FR #2: (10 total points.)
You will need to judge how effectively you displayed you school
in the Multiple Nuclei Model. Refer to the model itself to help you
determine your success and grade.
School’s main office
78

Calculating your grade on test 13.
Add how many you got correct on the multiple choice part (55 possible) to how many
points you scored on the FR portion (55 possible)…110 total.
The following scale will show the approximate score if this test were the real AP exam. Remember that this
is an approximation. While 65-74% is normally the range for a 3 on the test, it is not definite. Over the
years I have seen scores as low as 60% be the low portion of a 3 score.

Out of 110 possible points:
72-83 is most likely a 3
84-94 is most likely a 4

95-110 is most likely a 5

Now lets start our review for the national exam by
reviewing the 33 key models and theories of the
course…the next PowerPoint.


Slide 71

Key topic/chapter 13…Urban Patterns
Key terms:
Annexation
Concentric zone model
Density gradient
Edge cities
Filtering
Galactic city
Gentrification
Greenbelts
Megalopolis
MSA
Multiple nuclei model
Peripheral model

Public housing
Redlining
Renovated housing
Scattered site
Squatter settlement
Sector model
Smart growth
Sprawl
Underclass
Urban renewal
Zone in transition
Zoning
1

Chapter 13…Urban Areas.
How are Cities planned?
Why

are cities where they are?
How are they organized?
Why are some areas of a city
different from
other areas of the same city?
What is the future of cities?
2

Settlement


Settlement - permanent collections of buildings,
where people live, work, and obtain services

3

ORIGINS OF SETTLEMENTS


Religious - graves, churches, temples



Cultural - schools, libraries



Political/Military - leader’s house, walls



Economic - stores, food
4

TYPES OF SETTLEMENTS


Rural Settlements - agriculture as the
predominant occupation.



Urban settlements - principal industries are
secondary and tertiary.

5

RURAL SETTLEMENTS
Clustered rural settlements –grouped
settlements in rural areas to minimize travel

Dispersed rural Settlements - isolated farms
with enclosed continuous fields (Found only in
N. America and Britain).

6

Urban Geographers want to know the global distribution of urban
settlements. MDC’s have a high percentage of people living in urban
areas because of the shift from agriculture-manufacturing-services.
Geographers are also interested in where people and activities are
distributed within urban spaces. What are the differences between the
inner-city and suburban areas and why?
As we saw in the last chapter, many downtowns are unique and can
often be recognized in photos where the suburbs often look very
much alike (Placelessness). Why? Suburbs offer the chance to avoid
some of the city problems (crime, tight living area, expensive
land/rent, noise, age of buildings) while still keeping a connection with
the goods and services of the city: jobs, sports teams, culture, shops,
recreation, etc.
7

Where is this place?

8

Today’s cities are evolving and changing. Although different internal
situations characterize urban areas in the US and elsewhere, the
problems arising from current spatial trends are quite similar in all cities.
Where have urban areas grown: in the early 1800’s only 3% of the earth’s
people lived in cities and only Beijing China had more than 1 million
people. Today over ½ of the world’s people live in cities and we have over
400 cities of at least 1 million people.

Urbanization: is the process by which city population grows.
Cities population growth is measured in 2 dimensions;
1. An increase in the number of people living in the cities.
2. An increase in the percentage of people living in the cities.
This distinction is important because they happen for different reason and
have different global distributions.
9

Increasing Percentage of People in Cities: a large percentage of people living in urban
areas is a measure of a country’s level of development. In MDC’s about ¾ of the people
live in urban areas compared to about 2/5 of people in LDC’s. (Except in Latin America
where the level is closer to MDC’s.)
The higher percentage of people in urban areas comes from the changes that have
occurred in the last 200 years as we went from agriculture (primary jobs) to industrial
(secondary jobs) and now service jobs, all created by the Industrial Revolution of the
1800’s.
People moved to the cities for industrial jobs, but in MDC’s this process has largely
ended because nearly everyone interested in moving to the cities from farms has already
done so.
In LDC’s the percentage of people living in urban areas is growing as people are pushed
off of their farms and replaced by machines and as people move to cities looking/hoping
for industrial jobs.
10

Increasing Number of People in Cities: MDC’s have a higher percentage of
people living in urban settlements but LDC’s have more of the very large urban
settlements (Primate cities). (Rank-size rule, primate cities, chapter 12.)

This is interesting because typically the large cities are created from the
improvements brought by the Industrial Revolution. This is not the case with the
large LDC cities. Migration to the primate city in LDC’s is happening even though
job opportunities may not be available. Increasing the population growth in LDC
cities is the fact that medical services are better in these cities, thus the child
mortality rate is lower.
Defining Urban Settlements: defining where urban areas end and rural areas
begin is not easy. Geographers have formulated definitions that distinguish
between urban and rural areas in two ways: Social differences and Physical
differences.
11

Percent Urban Population

Percent of the population living in urban areas is usually higher in MDCs
than in LDCs.

12

The most populated cities in the world

Of the top
20, only
Moscow,
Tokyo and
New York
are in MDC’s

Shanghai China has 14,608,512 people
13

14

15

Social Differences Between Urban and Rural Settlements: it is fair to say that rural
people and urban people follow different ways of life. A city can be defined as having 3
characteristics:
1. Large size. People in rural settlements know most of the other people in the
settlement. Not true in big cities. Social relationships are often described as “colder” in
urban areas because you only see some people at work instead of growing up with
them in the settlement.
2. High Density. Having lots of people in a tiny area creates social consequences. A
high density of people living in a small area can only be supported if the people
specialize (they can’t all be farmers). People are encouraged to compete for jobs, room,
and survival in a tightly limited space. Social groups compete to occupy the same space
(ethnic/ race problems). Rural settlements have very little of this problem.
3. Social Heterogeneity. The larger the settlement, the greater the variety of people.
Being “unusual” in a large settlement is more likely to be accepted than in a small rural
one. But despite the freedom to be different that large urban settlements give you,
people living there often feel alone because so many people are different from them.
There is a stronger feeling of belonging together in small rural settlements.
16

These 3 differences do not fully answer the question of where urban settlements
begin and rural ones end because in today’s MDC’s most everyone has access to
cars, telephones, televisions, and “urban type” jobs which reduce the differences
between urban and rural lifestyles. “City folk” and “Country folk” are more alike
today than they are different. To help distinguish between urban and rural areas we
need to add the physical definition of rural and urban to the equation.
Physical Definitions of Urban Settlements: In ancient time, cities had defensive
walls for protection which clearly defined the physical boundaries of the city. Today
the walls are gone but we can still define the physical boundaries in 3 ways:
1. Legal boundary. These are the official boundaries of a city as recognized by
the government of the country or state. These “city limits” have been officially given
to the city and are physically marked on official maps. The local government of the
city has authority to make laws and protect the people inside the city boundaries.
17

2. Urbanized area. This is the city plus its suburbs or urbanized area that
surrounds the city. About 70 percent of US residents live in urbanized areas with
40% being in the suburbs and 30% inside the city limits. The suburbs may have
their own city governments but the huge central city dominates what happens in
the entire area.
3. Metropolitan Statistical Area. Cities have an even bigger influence on people
than just those living in their city limits and surrounding urbanized areas. People
from far away come to shop, use the services, support the sports teams, read
the newspapers and watch the television broadcasts of the city. Thus the city
has a “functional area” which is its total zone of influence. The US Bureau of
Census has created a method of measuring the functional area of the city.
Known as the Metropolitan statistical area (MSA) this area includes:
•An urbanized area with a population of at least 50,000
•The county within which the city is located.
•Adjacent counties with a high population density and a large percentage of
residents working in the central city’s county.
18

Metropolitan Area of Philadelphia

City of
Philadelphia

Urbanized
area
(suburbs)
Metropolitan
Statistical
Area

The metropolitan area of Philadelphia is
spread over several counties and four states.
It is also a diversified trade center, given its
position on the Delaware river.

19

20

21

Micropolitan Statistical Areas: Smaller areas with between
10,000 and 50,000 people, the county where it is found, and
adjacent counties tied to the city. This would be a small town and
the area dominated by it.
Overlapping Metropolitan Areas: Some adjacent MSA’s overlap.
A county between two central cities may send a large number of
commuters to jobs in both cities. In some areas the cities are so
close that they form one continuous urban complex. This is
known as a Megalopolis (great city).
In a megalopolis, the downtown CBD often has its own
distinctive look and the urban areas are visually separated by
parks, open spaces, and dairy/truck farms. But at the periphery
of the urban areas, the boundaries overlap.
22

Colorado Springs, population 431,000

Ocala, Florida, population 56,000

Florala, Alabama, population 1,900

23

Megalopolis, from northern Va. To Maine.
This Illustrates the
difference between
strict city proper
definitions and broader
urban agglomerations.
To define urbanized
areas, the U.S. Census
Bureau uses the term
Metropolitan Statistical
Area (MSA) or
Consolidated MSA
(CMSA) if two or more of
them overlap.
24

Where are People Distributed within Urban Areas? People are not
just distributed at random in urban areas. For the most part they
concentrate in particular neighborhoods depending on their social
characteristics. Geographers want to see where people with
particular characteristics are likely to live and why.

Three models which try to explain the growth of a city:

The Burgess Model

The Hoyt Sector Model

The Harris and Ullman
multiple Nuclei Model
25

Burgess Concentric Zone Model

In the concentric zone model, a city grows in a series of rings surrounding the CBD.

Burgess Concentric Zone Model: This is the first used to explain the
distributions of different social groups within urban areas. It says that a
city grows outward from a central place in a series of concentric rings.
The precise size and width of the rings vary from one city to another, but
some basic types of rings appear in all cities in the same order (see chart
above).
26

•Hoyt Sector Model: In this model the city develops in a
series of sectors not rings. Certain areas of the city are
more attractive for various activities, originally because
of an environmental factor (or even pure chance). As the
city grows, activities extend outward in a wedge shape.
For example, once a wealthy neighborhood is built the
next wealthy neighborhood will extend from the first
neighborhood further outward from the center. In this
way, the best housing is found in a corridor extending
outward from the center to the outer edge (see chart on
the next page).
27

The Hoyt Sector Model

In the sector model, a city grows in a series of
wedges or corridors extending out from the
CBD.
28

•Harris and Ullman’s Multiple Nuclei Model: According
to this model, a city is a complex structure that includes
more than one center around which activities revolve.
Examples of these nodes include a port, parks,
stadium, neighborhood business center, university, and
airport (see chart). This theory states that some
activities are attracted to particular nodes, whereas
others try to avoid them. A university node may attract
well educated people and bookstores while the port will
attract hotels and warehouses. Heavy industry and
expensive houses rarely are found together. This
model shows the effect of the automobile more than
any other model.
29

The Harris and Ullman Multiple Nuclei model

The multiple nuclei model views a city as a
collection of individual centers, around which
different people and activities cluster.

30

Applications of the Models: The three models help explain where and in some
cases, why people live where they do. None of the models by themselves fully
explains why and where different types of people live, but combined they give
you as good a look as possible at the “Why” of “Where.” Effective use of the
models depends on getting good data on the areas. Most countries take a
census every 10 years to help determine useful data about the people and
places of the country. In our country we divide the census data into areas
known as census tracts of about 5,000 people. Each census tract has the data
that summarizes the characteristics of the people living within that tract. This
information includes things like the race, income, age, and education of the
people living in that tract.
Social Area Analysis: The data from the census tracts can all be plotted onto
maps to show the characteristics of the people living in that tract. This map is
known as a social area analysis.
31

Using Census tract information…Seattle, Washington
Each lined area is a
census tract of about 5000
people in Seattle
Washington. These maps
show average household
income for 1990 and
2000…note the changes in
income in some areas
between 1990 and 2000.
Using this information, a
business can make
decisions about where
they want to locate a new
store or the future of
existing stores.
You can find census tract
information on many topics
such as; age, education
level, race, ethnicity, crime
rate, and land ownership.
Note the areas with
incomes over
$63,000.

All can be very valuable
information to people
looking to open
businesses.

32

Examine the changes
between 1990 and
2000.

Oakland, California’s Ethnic neighborhoods
The small bordered areas are census tracks of 5000 people.

33

Use of the Models Outside of North America: The 3 models will also work in other
places in the world; however social groups in other countries may not have the
same reasons for selecting particular neighborhoods as Americans do.
European Cities: As in the US, wealthier people in European cities cluster along a
sector extending outward from the CBD, however unlike the US, wealthy and
middle class Europeans still live in the inner rings of the neighborhoods near the
CBD not out in the suburbs. In the past, poorer people lived in the center of the
city. Before electricity, social segregation was vertical: richer people lived on the
first or second floor of a building while the poorer people lived in the basement or
upper floors. In the Industrial Revolution, housing for the poor was constructed
near the factories and away from the rich.
Today poorer Europeans are less likely to live in the inner-city. Poor quality
housing has been renovated for the rich or turned into office buildings. Poorer
Europeans tend to live in the outskirts of the city. Vast suburbs with dozens of high
rise apartments house the poor. They face long commutes to reach their jobs in
the city.
34

European cities generally do not have the “suburban
sprawl” that US cities have. European cities tend to be
more pedestrian friendly with more parks downtown as
Europeans tend to still live downtown.
US cities have taller buildings as European cities tend to
be older and more historic.

American cities have more ethnic neighborhoods than
European cities. Ethnic neighborhoods that do exist in
European cities tend to be in the suburbs. WHY?
Because the established richer neighborhoods tend to be
downtown in European cities.
35

Less Developed Countries: Like Europe, most LDC’s accommodate their poor in the
suburbs with their middle class and rich living near the center of the city. LDC’s have
passed through 3 periods of city building: before the Europeans arrived, during the
period of European colonialism, and since independence from European control.

Pre-colonial Cities: Before the Europeans arrived few cities existed in Africa, Asia, and
Latin America and most people lived in small rural settlements. Those cities that existed
were mostly laid out surrounding a religious center; with the rest of the city laid out in a
hieratical concentric pattern (like the Burgess model) from government buildings,
homes of the wealthy, and businesses related to the religion out to other businesses
and shops.
Colonial cities: When the Europeans took over these lands, they changed the cities by
adding services to help the Europeans control the conquered people. Often a new
European style city would be build next to the existing native one. The new European
cities contained wider streets, a public square, larger houses and a much lower density.
The Spanish used the “Law of the Indies” which was a city plan designed specifically to
build cities in a “Spanish” style. (Gridiron pattern for streets centered on a church and
central plaza, walls around individual houses and neighborhoods centered around
smaller plazas and more churches.)
36

Early Mexico city was laid out in a grid pattern of streets. This followed
the Spanish “Law of the Indies.”

37

Central Plaza in Mexico City 1920 photo. Typical Colonial City plan.

Part of downtown Mexico city today still shows the
building plan of the “Law of the Indies.”

38

Cities since Independence: Following independence, cities have become
the focal point of the development of most LDC’s. Millions of people have
migrated to the cities (Primate cities) looking for jobs and services. Some
capitals have been moved to isolated areas in an attempt to help develop
that area of the country (Brasília) This is know as a forward capital. Latin
American cities have developed their own unique style.
Squatter settlements: The LDC’s are unable to house the rapidly growing
number of poor who are flowing into the cities. Because of the housing
shortages, the poor have constructed their own settlements around the city.
These settlements have few services because neither the city nor the
residents can afford them. Squatters have two basic choices for housing.
1. Illegally move into empty real houses located in the city or,
2. Rent slum housing.
(85% of the population of Addis Ababa in Ethiopia lives in squatter
settlements, slums or other illegal housing.)
39

Squatter shacks in Manila, the Philippines

40

Squatter settlement in Ethiopia

41

Zimbabwe, Africa

42

Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

43

Latin American City Model:
In many Latin
American cities,
the wealthy live in
the inner city and
in a sector
extending along a
commercial spine.
In situ accretion- businesses
and homes constantly under
construction/repair.
Zone of maturity-2nd best
housing in the city.
The poor live in squatter settlements on the
periphery of the city.

Disamenity- unpleasant area
used by the poor to get to the
market.

44

The City Outline of Rio de Janeiro
The rich tourist areas and expensive condo apartments are along the coast
and beach while the poor live in squatter shacks in the hills.

45

City problems:
Inner-City Physical Problems: Most US inner cities were constructed before the 1950’s
(people began to move to the suburbs in the 1950’s so new construction moved out of
the city).
Process of Deterioration (how a city deteriorates): A city doesn’t suddenly become old
and full of slummy areas. It happens over time. When a group of low-income people
inhabit an area of a city, nearby neighborhoods will often look to move out. They sell or
rent to more low-income occupants thus expanding the low-income area. Two processes
cause/speed up the devaluation of areas:
1. Filtering, 2. Redlining.
Filtering: Large houses and buildings that once housed rich downtown workers (who
moved to the suburbs) are taken over by landlords who don’t live in that area (they
moved to the suburbs too). Rents are low so the landlord doesn’t take as good care of
the property as they should and the property becomes run down or abandoned. Stores
close, or move, due to lack of sales. 100 years ago these neighborhoods would be used
by immigrants and ethnic businesses would succeed in those areas. Now, with a decline
in immigration, these neighborhoods have shrunk and so have schools, businesses and
other services. Thousands of vacant houses and buildings stand empty in inner cities
across America.

46

Redlining: Some banks refuse to give loans in what they consider
risky neighborhoods. They draw a red line on a map around areas
where they will not give loans. Without loans, these neighborhoods
have a hard time rebuilding/remodeling. Though illegal, this still
happens. Bankers just don’t put these “no-loan” areas on a map.

Urban Renewal: This is the series of projects to improve European
and N. American cities by buying up the blighted neighborhoods,
moving the people to new government built housing projects, and
building new roads, and other projects to make the inner city
attractive for business again. National and State government grants
help pay for these projects.
47

Public housing: Housing for the poor, built with government funding as part of
urban renewal. In the US this is only about 2% of the housing while in some
countries it may be more (Britain is 30%). Public housing built in the 50’s & 60’s
were largely high rise apartments, but those are seen as being unsatisfactory.
Problems arise from cramming large numbers of poor people into one area.
Today most public housing projects are one to three story buildings with many of
them being scattered around different parts of the city rather than clustered into
one area.
Because urban renewal has been criticized for destroying the social cohesion of
older neighborhoods, many governments (like the US) have stopped funding
most projects since the 1970’s. What do we do instead?
Renovated Housing: An alternative often used since the 70’s is to renovate a
building instead of urban renewal. The process where middle-class people
move into inner-city neighborhoods and renovate them is called gentrification.
Gentrified inner-city neighborhoods also attract middle-class people who work
downtown. Living close to work saves the hassle of commuting and rejuvenates
run down inner-city neighborhoods
48

Gentrified building downtown Harlem, NY. Note the supermarket.

49

Inner-City Social Problems: Inner-city residents are often referred to as the
permanent underclass because they are trapped in an unending cycle of
economic and social problems. High unemployment, alcoholism, drug
addiction, literacy, juvenile delinquency, and crime all exist at a higher rate
among those who live in the inner-city. Lack of jobs means lack of tax dollars
to pay for police and fire protection as well as good schools. Lack of job skills
and homelessness are also tremendous problems.
Culture of Poverty: Inner-city residents are trapped in a permanent underclass
culture that reproduces itself. In the US, unwed mothers give birth to 2/3 of the
babies in the inner-city. 90% of these children live with only one parent and it
is real hard for one parent to keep a job and take care of children. Both suffer
and a shortage of care and daily attention by the parent contributes to the kids
not learning the skills necessary to do well in school which leads to poor jobs
for their futures. Poverty leads to more poverty. Many families on welfare have
only one parent because it is financially better if one parent is gone, that way
the single parent gets food stamps and other services from the government
that they would not get if it was a 2 family household.
50

Crime: Trapped in a hopeless environment, some inner-city
residents turn to drugs. Drug use is a problem in inner-city
areas and the suburbs, but rates of drug use in inner-cities
are the highest.
Ethnic and Racial Segregation: As seen in chapter 7, many
neighborhoods in the US are segregated by ethnicity with
African Americans and Hispanics concentrated in one or two
continuous areas and whites living in the suburbs. Even small
cities display a strong distinction among neighborhoods. A
frequent division is between the east and west or north and
south side of town, or the railroad tracks. A family seeking a
new residence will seek the areas where the characteristics
of the people meet their own.

51

The exodus
from the
American city.
This has
happened in
many American
cities since the
1960’s.

52

Changes in Cities in the U.S.
U.S. population has been moving out of the city centers to the suburbs:
suburbanization and counter urbanization

Developed Countries: suburbanization

 wealthy move to suburbs
 automobiles and roads; ‘American
Dream’ of the home in the suburbs.
 better services
 wealthy move to suburbs
Counter urbanization

idyllic settings
cost of land for retirement
slow pace, yet high tech
connections to services and markets
53

U.S. intraregional migration during 1990s.

Inner city economic problems: the concentration of low income
residents in inner cities has caused economic problems. These
people require public services but can pay very little in taxes to
support the services. They need stores and jobs but have little
money to spend in the store and few skills for jobs (so the stores
close). To try to fight these problems many local and state
governments use tax monies to try to renovate these areas, but this
shifts tax money needed for other areas to the inner city (votes on
election day).
Annexation: Many cities could help their tax problem by adding the
new suburbs to be part of their city (annexation). After all, many of
these suburban people use the city for its’ jobs etc., so why not add
them into the city? Today, most people in the suburbs do not want
to be annexed into the city and so they do not vote to be annexed.
54

The Peripheral Model: According to this model, an urban area
consists of an inner city surrounded by large suburban residential
and business areas (MSA) tied together by a beltway or highway
that circles the city. Around the beltway are nodes of consumer
and business services called edge cities (see diagram of multiple
nuclei model). These edge cities sprang up to provide services
and jobs to the people in the suburbs.
Density Gradient: As you travel outward from the center of the
city, the density of people declines. Inner city has big apartments
of 250 of more people per acre. Suburbs have fewer people per
acre (but lots of acres) and finally you leave the cities periphery
you find few people. The number of houses per unit of land
diminishes as distance from the center of the city increases.
55

The Edge cities (bedroom communities) of Houston

The central city is surrounded by a ring road, around which are
suburban areas and edge cities, shopping malls, office parks,
industrial areas, and service complexes.

Known as
bedroom
communities
because
people live
there but
mostly don’t
work there.
They drive
into the city
for work.
56

As you move from the center of the city outward, the density of the population
changes. This is know as the density gradient. Two big changes have occurred in
the density gradient of today’s cities:
1. The number of people living in the center has decreased.
2. The density difference between the inner city and the suburbs is declining
because the inner city density is dropping and the suburban density is growing
due to more large apartments being built in the suburbs.
Cost of Suburban or Urban Sprawl: Urban Sprawl is the progressive spread of
development over the landscape. As long as we Americans want single-family
detached houses, land on the fringe of urban areas will be converted from open
space to residential use. The cost of this growth is more than the loss of land, it is
also the cost of new roads, utilities, building stores and offices and the cost of
automobiles to move these people over even longer distances. Lots of these new
developments are built on what was once farmland. Wonderful productive soil now
under concrete.

Greenbelts: are areas where, by law, the open space can not be used for any
construction. This is mostly found in Europe.

57

Once farmland that is being converted to suburbs and cities.

58

Tyson’s Corner Virginia in 1940

59

Washington, DC. MSA.

Tyson’s Corner Virginia
today.
Washington D.C. is off
In the distance.

60

Suburban Segregation: The “new” segregation.
Suburban segregation takes two forms:
1. Residents are separated from commercial and manufacturing activities
which are confined someplace else. (The whole neighborhood is
nothing but houses because they drive for services.)
2. The price of the house eliminates some from being able to live there. This
creates a homogeneous suburb of the same economic class of people.
This never existed before in history. Where we once had vertical
segregation of the classes we now we have horizontal segregation.
3. But this may be reversing as new statistics show that people are beginning
to move back to the city. Why? Cost of transportation.
Zoning Ordinances: This idea developed in Europe and later America in the
early decades of the 20th century. This means that businesses are allowed only
in certain areas of the settlement. (No all night taco stands inside your single
family neighborhood.)
Motor vehicles: The wide use of the automobile is largely responsible for the
American movement to the suburbs. Not only did people move out but 1/4 of
the land inside all American cities are now roads, streets, and parking lots.

61

Public Transportation: Because few US workers live within walking distance
of their jobs, urban areas are characterized by extensive commuting and the
problems that come with it. As much as 40% of all trips made into or out from
a city during the day takes place within just 4 hours. (2 in the morning and 2 in
the late afternoon). RUSH HOUR!!! In large cities, public transportation, like
subways and busses, are better suited to move people but Americans still
prefer their own cars. Public transportation is cheaper, cleaner, and more
energy efficient than personal cars, yet in the US only 5% of city travel is
done using public transit systems. American’s love their personal car too
much.
Local Government Fragmentation: Because of the large number of local
governments in the US (look at the settlements in Pinellas County) it is
difficult to solve some of the regional problems like garbage disposal, water
management, traffic and public housing.
62

Metropolitan government: This idea tries to put many local governments into a
larger unit that can better handle the urban problems. The 2 ways to do this
are:
1. Federations in which the individual settlements have their own police,
firemen, and tax collection but they all agree to be part of a second
government which handles transportation, water, sewage, parks and
welfare for all the communities.
2. Consolidations: In this method, several cities and the county may form one
government. Jacksonville’s government runs not only the town but the
county too, this makes Jacksonville the largest city, in land size, in the US.
Smart growth: A new movement by many states to curb suburban sprawl by
limiting where new construction can take place. Smart growth laws require that
land near cities be used up before any land further out can be developed. So
far, this is only being done an a few parts of our country.
63

The new
US as
some
people
see it.

64

Quiz Yourself:
1. The process where middle-class people move into inner city neighborhoods and
renovate them is called ____________
2. ____________ happens when banks refuse to give loans in what they consider
risky neighborhoods.
3. Because of the housing shortages, the poor have constructed their own settlements
around the city known as __________ _________

4. Businesses are allowed only in certain areas of the settlement because of
____________ ____________
5. Areas known as _____ _______ are areas of about 5,000 people. The data from
that area is used to help define needed services for that area.
6. When cities are so close that they form one continuous band of development this is
known as a ____________
65

7. Social relationships are often described as “colder” in urban areas because…
8. In this model the city develops in a series of sectors not rings. _______

9. ______ (LDC’s or MDC’s) have a higher percentage of people living in urban
settlements but ________ (LDC’s or MDC’s) have more of the very large urban
settlements.
10. _____________ was the first model developed to explain the distributions
of different social groups within urban areas.
11. New cities which develop around the beltway are nodes of consumer and
business services known as ________ _________.

12. When the Europeans took over lands around the world, they changed the
cities by adding services to help the Europeans control the conquered people.
These European planned cities are known as __________ cities.
66

Answer Key:
1.

Gentrification

2.

Redlining

3.

Squatter Settlements

4.

Zoning ordinances

5.

Census tracks

6.

Megalopolis

7. There is a stronger feeling of belonging together in small rural settlements.
8. Hoyt sector model
9. MDC, LDC
10. Burgess Concentric Zone model
11. Edge cities
12. Colonial cities
67

Test Key topic/chapter 13:
These questions come from a combination of our slides, your text book, and common knowledge you should
have discussed in your AP classroom. They are very typical of what you will see on the National Exam.
1) The multiple nuclei theory best explains why different neighborhoods of a city attract people of different… A) ages.
B) ethnic origin C) income D) marital status.
2) Sprawl is the… A) change in density within an urban area from the center to the periphery B) development of new
housing sites not contiguous to the existing built-up area. C) land maintained as open space surrounding an urban area.
D) period in the morning and evening with the heaviest volumes of traffic.
3) People are attracted to suburbs in part because suburbs are characterized by…A) heavy traffic. B) lower opportunity
for home ownership. C) private land surrounding the house. D) row houses and apartments.
4) Megalopolis refers to… A) adjacent, overlapping Metropolitan Statistical Areas. B) central cities. C) consolidated
Metropolitan Statistical Areas. D) central cities plus urbanized areas.
5) Which statement best describes the relationship between urbanization and the Industrial Revolution? A) Urbanization
promoted the Industrial Revolution. B) The Industrial Revolution promoted urbanization. C) Urbanization preceded the
Industrial Revolution by thousands of years. D) Urbanization and the Industrial Revolution are no longer related.
6) The process of legally adding land area to a city in the United States is… A) annexation. B) accreditation. C) an
application of eminent domain. D) defined by urbanized area.

68

7) The process of change in the use of a house, from single-family owner occupancy to abandonment, is… A) blockbusting.
B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining.
8) A process by which banks designate an area within which they refuse to lend money for improvements is… A) blockbusting.
B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining.
9) A recent change in the density gradient has been… A) the elimination of the gap traditionally found in the center. B) an
increase in the extremes between the inner and outer areas. C) an increase in the number of people living in the center.
D) a reduction in the differences in densities found within an urban area.
10) U.S. central cities face fiscal problems because… A) federal and state funds are available. B) low-income people are
concentrated there. C) middle-class families are attracted there. D) redlining is no longer legal.
11) A legal form of segregation in U.S. cities is achieved through...A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) zoning. D) greenbelts.
12) Factories have moved to suburban locations in part because of… A) access to main highways. B) adequate space to build
vertical structures. C) availability of large tracts of high-priced land. D) good rail connections.
13) According to the sector model, the best housing is located in…A) a corridor from downtown to the edge of the city.
B) an outer ring surrounding the city. C) nodes near universities and parks. D) renovated inner-city neighborhoods.
14) Ramshackle houses on the periphery of cities in less developed countries are known as… A) squatter settlements. B) council
estates. C) public housing. D) zone in transition.
15) Higher income people tend to live near the center of the city in all but which of the following regions? A) Latin America
B) North America C) South Asia D) Western Europe

16) The wide boulevards built in cities in less developed countries were most likely built during what era? A) pre-colonial
B) colonial C) independence D) all of the above equally

69

17) According to the multiple nuclei model, an airport is likely to attract nearby… A) industries. B) residences. C) shops.
D) universities.
18) The largest percentage of the U.S. population lives in…A) central cities. B) suburbs. C) non-metropolitan areas. D) all of the
above
19) In U.S. cities, the underclass is… A) clustered in inner-city neighborhoods. B) dispersed throughout the city. C) clustered in
suburbs. D) distributed uniformly in the city.

20) A process of converting a neighborhood from low-income to middle-class is…A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) gentrification.
D) redlining.
21) Higher social heterogeneity in urban settlements means that… A) the people with whom you relax are probably the same ones you
see at work. B) you play a specialized role in the urban economy. C) you compete for limited space. D) you may feel lonely and
isolated in a crowd.
22) The city plus its contiguous built-up suburbs is the… A) central city. B) urbanized area.
D) consolidated metropolitan statistical area

C) metropolitan statistical area.

23) The process whereby an increasing percentage of people live in an urban area is known as… A) demographic transition.
B) rank-size rule. C) urbanization. D) central place theory.
24) Of the ten largest urban areas in the world, how many are in More Developed Countries today? A) 1 B) 4 C) 7 D) 10 E) 2
25) Public housing is…A) conversion of low-income housing to middle-class housing. B) illegally established low-income housing.
C) housing that has changed from single-family owner occupancy to abandonment. D) low-income government-owned housing.
26) According to the concentric zone model, a city develops in a series of… A) corridors. B) nodes. C) rings. D) all of the above

70

27) Chicago is a good location in which to develop urban models because it is located… A) at the hub of the nation's transportation
system. B) in the center of the country. C) on a flat prairie. D) on the shore of Lake Michigan.
28) According to the sector model, the best housing is located in… A) a corridor from downtown to the edge of the city. B) an outer
ring surrounding the city. C) nodes near universities and parks. D) renovated inner-city neighborhoods.
29) The zone of transition in US cities generally contain…A) warehouses B) wealthy neighborhoods C) transportation hubs
D) universities and hospitals E) suburban homes
30) The attractions of shopping malls include all but which of the following? A) frequent concerts and exhibitions B) generous
parking lots C) place to meet friends D) walking distance from homes
The following questions are written at the high school level. You will find some questions from part one often rewritten
here. This is all designed to help you transition to the college/AP style of written questions. Any question preceded with ***
are questions that have been on the national exam before.
31. Most Latin American cities are focused on a…A) central plaza B) government housing project C) zone of heavy industry
D) skyscraper office building E) squatter settlement
32. The multiple-nuclei model of a city structure tends to be most applicable to…A) small cities B) traditional C) Latin American
cities D) newer, fast growing cities E) cities with homogeneous land use
33. ***Locational advantages important to the development of the earliest cities include…A) availability of good harbors for large
ships B) productive agricultural land and defensible sites C) temperate climate and proximity to coal mines D) good
connections by road and canal E) proximity to manufacturing areas

34. In cities, the CBD’s often show uniqueness while the suburbs usually show…A) a large hinterland. B) placelessness C) more
than one node. D) newer zones of transition.

71

35. Many LDC’s have tried to help a previously under-developed part of their country develop by moving their capital
city to that area. This new capital is known as a…A) forward capital B) new development zone C) enterprise zone
D) neocolonial city
36. Today the greatest number of urban dwellers is found in…A) North America
D) Europe E) Asia

B) South America C) Africa

37. ***All of the following have helped create ghettos in North American cities except…A)blockbusting and racial
steering B) redlining by financial institutions C) concentration of public housing and social services D) fixed school
districts E) Economic Enterprise Zones

38. Which of the following is NOT as reason for rapid suburbanization in the US after WW2? A) Mass production of
the automobile B) Reduction of long distance commuting C) Expansion of home construction D) Expansion of the
interstate highway system E) Availability of low down payment terms and long-term mortgages.
39. New cities which developed in the hinterland of large urban areas because of the automobile, are known as…
A) edge cities B) census tracts C) suburban sprawl D) squatter settlements. E) none of these
40. Gentrification refers to… A) moving the homeless into inner city shelters B) The “White Flight” from the urban city
C) losing tax revenue because of stores closing in downtown areas D) middle-class people moving into and renovating
inner city neighborhoods E) the creation of “beltway cities” around the city.

72

4
7
3

5

1
6

2

41-48 all use the sketch above.
41. The sketch in box A above represents which model of the inner structure of urban areas?
C) multiple nuclei model D) Burgess concentric zone model E) peripheral model
42. The models in boxes B and C represent A) Concentric zone and multiple nuclei
concentric zone D) peripheral and concentric zone E) Von Thunen and peripheral

A) Hoyt sector model B) VonThunen’s model

B) Multiple nuclei and Hoyt sector C) Hoyt sector and

43. In which ring (1, 2, etc.) of sketch A above would high-status households in North American cities likely live? A) 1 B) 2 C) 3 D) 4&5
44. In which ring (1, 2, etc.) of sketch A above would high status households in a European city likely live? A) 1

B) 2

C) 3

D) 4&5

45. In model B, zone # 2 is where it is likely because of: A) greenbelting B) squatter settling C) the culture of poverty D) transportation
E) no one knows
46. The model in sketch B is the; A) Hoyt sector model B) Burgess model C) multiple nuclei model D) peripheral model
47. The model in sketch C is the; A) Hoyt sector model B) Burgess model C) multiple nuclei model D) peripheral model
48. Which of these models best describes what has happened in US cities in the last 40 years? A)

B)

C)

73

49.*** In the U.S. a city plus its contiguous built-up suburbs is known as an…A) urbanized area B) zoned area
C) census tract D) Squatter settlement E) none of these
50. Done mostly in Europe, these are areas where land is kept as parks, farms or other kinds of open space and urban
sprawl is not allowed. A) Smart growth
B) zoning
C) filtering
D) census tracts E) greenbelts
51. Which statement best describes the relationship between urbanization and the Industrial Revolution?
A) Urbanization promoted the Industrial Revolution. B) The Industrial Revolution promoted urbanization.
C) Urbanization preceded the Industrial Revolution by thousands of years. D) Urbanization and the Industrial
Revolution are no longer related.
52. The process whereby an increasing percentage of people live in an urban area is known as…
A) Demographic transition. B) rank-size rule. C) Urbanization. D) Central place theory.
53. The city (if it has 50,000 or more people) plus its contiguous built-up suburbs AND the county it is in as well as any
other counties it influences, is known as the ...A) central city B) urbanized area
C) metropolitan statistical area
D) consolidated metropolitan area E) micropolitan statistical area
54. ***Higher social heterogeneity in urban settlements means that …A) the people with whom you relax are probably
the same ones you see at work. B) you play a specialized role in the urban economy. C) you compete for limited
space. D) you may feel lonely and isolated in a crowd.

55. The process of change in the use of a house, from single-family owner occupancy to smaller dwellings for the poor
and then sometimes to abandonment, is…A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining. E) none of
these

74

Free Response #1:
The Bid Rent theory says that the closer you get to the
CBD the higher the cost for land, yet in most American
cities you find the poorest people living near the
expensive CBD and the richest living further away.
Explain:
A. Why neighborhoods near the CBD are often poor and
run down?
B. Why are there few grocery and other retail stores in
these neighborhoods?
C. Why is this not really true in European and Latin
American countries?

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FR #2:
Think of the map of your school, explain the
layout of your school using the Multiple Nuclei
Model
The main office is the CBD.
Completely explain your answer using specific
buildings and/or land areas in your explanation
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76

Answer Key:
1. B

14. A

27. C

40. D

53. C

2. B

15. B

28. A

41. D

54. D

3. C

16. B

29. A

42. B

55. B

4. A

17. A

30. D

43. D

5. B

18. B

31. A

44. A

6. A

19. A

32. D

45. D

7. B

20. C

33. B

46. A

8. D

21. D

34. B

47. C

9. D

22. B

35. A

48. C

10. B

23. C

36. E

49. A

11. C

24. C

37. E

50. E

12. A

25. D

38. B

51. B

13. A

26. C

39. A

52. C
77

FR. #1: ( 15 pts. for each section…total of 45 pts.)
A. In the US the move of the wealthy and middle class to the suburbs has left the older houses and apartments near the CBD empty.
This has lowered their value to the point where the poor can afford these dwellings and have made these neighborhoods their
homes. The poor can not pay for upkeep of these dwellings, or to pay high taxes. The lack of upkeep and tax money to repair the
roads and schools, adds to the downward spiral of the neighborhood. With little spending money for shopping, the poor do not
spend much in the stores. This causes many stores to close and move to the suburbs where the spending customers and money
went. The closing of the stores adds to the poverty of the area by taking away some of the jobs that were in the neighborhood. This
becomes a vicious cycle of poverty and deterioration. (15 points)

B. There are few retail stores and groceries is the area because the poor do not have money to shop. The lack of spending forces
many stores out of business or forces them to move to better locations. There also can be higher crime in these areas and the
crime often takes place at the stores. This is another reason for the stores to move out of the neighborhood. (15 points)
C. Neighborhoods in European and Latin American cities are different from those of US cities. In Europe and Latin America, the
wealthy and middle class still live near or in the CBD. The higher tax base and more spending ability of the upper and middle
classes, keeps the CBD area flourishing with jobs and in constant repair and upkeep of the cities’ physical condition. (15 points)

FR #2: (10 total points.)
You will need to judge how effectively you displayed you school
in the Multiple Nuclei Model. Refer to the model itself to help you
determine your success and grade.
School’s main office
78

Calculating your grade on test 13.
Add how many you got correct on the multiple choice part (55 possible) to how many
points you scored on the FR portion (55 possible)…110 total.
The following scale will show the approximate score if this test were the real AP exam. Remember that this
is an approximation. While 65-74% is normally the range for a 3 on the test, it is not definite. Over the
years I have seen scores as low as 60% be the low portion of a 3 score.

Out of 110 possible points:
72-83 is most likely a 3
84-94 is most likely a 4

95-110 is most likely a 5

Now lets start our review for the national exam by
reviewing the 33 key models and theories of the
course…the next PowerPoint.


Slide 72

Key topic/chapter 13…Urban Patterns
Key terms:
Annexation
Concentric zone model
Density gradient
Edge cities
Filtering
Galactic city
Gentrification
Greenbelts
Megalopolis
MSA
Multiple nuclei model
Peripheral model

Public housing
Redlining
Renovated housing
Scattered site
Squatter settlement
Sector model
Smart growth
Sprawl
Underclass
Urban renewal
Zone in transition
Zoning
1

Chapter 13…Urban Areas.
How are Cities planned?
Why

are cities where they are?
How are they organized?
Why are some areas of a city
different from
other areas of the same city?
What is the future of cities?
2

Settlement


Settlement - permanent collections of buildings,
where people live, work, and obtain services

3

ORIGINS OF SETTLEMENTS


Religious - graves, churches, temples



Cultural - schools, libraries



Political/Military - leader’s house, walls



Economic - stores, food
4

TYPES OF SETTLEMENTS


Rural Settlements - agriculture as the
predominant occupation.



Urban settlements - principal industries are
secondary and tertiary.

5

RURAL SETTLEMENTS
Clustered rural settlements –grouped
settlements in rural areas to minimize travel

Dispersed rural Settlements - isolated farms
with enclosed continuous fields (Found only in
N. America and Britain).

6

Urban Geographers want to know the global distribution of urban
settlements. MDC’s have a high percentage of people living in urban
areas because of the shift from agriculture-manufacturing-services.
Geographers are also interested in where people and activities are
distributed within urban spaces. What are the differences between the
inner-city and suburban areas and why?
As we saw in the last chapter, many downtowns are unique and can
often be recognized in photos where the suburbs often look very
much alike (Placelessness). Why? Suburbs offer the chance to avoid
some of the city problems (crime, tight living area, expensive
land/rent, noise, age of buildings) while still keeping a connection with
the goods and services of the city: jobs, sports teams, culture, shops,
recreation, etc.
7

Where is this place?

8

Today’s cities are evolving and changing. Although different internal
situations characterize urban areas in the US and elsewhere, the
problems arising from current spatial trends are quite similar in all cities.
Where have urban areas grown: in the early 1800’s only 3% of the earth’s
people lived in cities and only Beijing China had more than 1 million
people. Today over ½ of the world’s people live in cities and we have over
400 cities of at least 1 million people.

Urbanization: is the process by which city population grows.
Cities population growth is measured in 2 dimensions;
1. An increase in the number of people living in the cities.
2. An increase in the percentage of people living in the cities.
This distinction is important because they happen for different reason and
have different global distributions.
9

Increasing Percentage of People in Cities: a large percentage of people living in urban
areas is a measure of a country’s level of development. In MDC’s about ¾ of the people
live in urban areas compared to about 2/5 of people in LDC’s. (Except in Latin America
where the level is closer to MDC’s.)
The higher percentage of people in urban areas comes from the changes that have
occurred in the last 200 years as we went from agriculture (primary jobs) to industrial
(secondary jobs) and now service jobs, all created by the Industrial Revolution of the
1800’s.
People moved to the cities for industrial jobs, but in MDC’s this process has largely
ended because nearly everyone interested in moving to the cities from farms has already
done so.
In LDC’s the percentage of people living in urban areas is growing as people are pushed
off of their farms and replaced by machines and as people move to cities looking/hoping
for industrial jobs.
10

Increasing Number of People in Cities: MDC’s have a higher percentage of
people living in urban settlements but LDC’s have more of the very large urban
settlements (Primate cities). (Rank-size rule, primate cities, chapter 12.)

This is interesting because typically the large cities are created from the
improvements brought by the Industrial Revolution. This is not the case with the
large LDC cities. Migration to the primate city in LDC’s is happening even though
job opportunities may not be available. Increasing the population growth in LDC
cities is the fact that medical services are better in these cities, thus the child
mortality rate is lower.
Defining Urban Settlements: defining where urban areas end and rural areas
begin is not easy. Geographers have formulated definitions that distinguish
between urban and rural areas in two ways: Social differences and Physical
differences.
11

Percent Urban Population

Percent of the population living in urban areas is usually higher in MDCs
than in LDCs.

12

The most populated cities in the world

Of the top
20, only
Moscow,
Tokyo and
New York
are in MDC’s

Shanghai China has 14,608,512 people
13

14

15

Social Differences Between Urban and Rural Settlements: it is fair to say that rural
people and urban people follow different ways of life. A city can be defined as having 3
characteristics:
1. Large size. People in rural settlements know most of the other people in the
settlement. Not true in big cities. Social relationships are often described as “colder” in
urban areas because you only see some people at work instead of growing up with
them in the settlement.
2. High Density. Having lots of people in a tiny area creates social consequences. A
high density of people living in a small area can only be supported if the people
specialize (they can’t all be farmers). People are encouraged to compete for jobs, room,
and survival in a tightly limited space. Social groups compete to occupy the same space
(ethnic/ race problems). Rural settlements have very little of this problem.
3. Social Heterogeneity. The larger the settlement, the greater the variety of people.
Being “unusual” in a large settlement is more likely to be accepted than in a small rural
one. But despite the freedom to be different that large urban settlements give you,
people living there often feel alone because so many people are different from them.
There is a stronger feeling of belonging together in small rural settlements.
16

These 3 differences do not fully answer the question of where urban settlements
begin and rural ones end because in today’s MDC’s most everyone has access to
cars, telephones, televisions, and “urban type” jobs which reduce the differences
between urban and rural lifestyles. “City folk” and “Country folk” are more alike
today than they are different. To help distinguish between urban and rural areas we
need to add the physical definition of rural and urban to the equation.
Physical Definitions of Urban Settlements: In ancient time, cities had defensive
walls for protection which clearly defined the physical boundaries of the city. Today
the walls are gone but we can still define the physical boundaries in 3 ways:
1. Legal boundary. These are the official boundaries of a city as recognized by
the government of the country or state. These “city limits” have been officially given
to the city and are physically marked on official maps. The local government of the
city has authority to make laws and protect the people inside the city boundaries.
17

2. Urbanized area. This is the city plus its suburbs or urbanized area that
surrounds the city. About 70 percent of US residents live in urbanized areas with
40% being in the suburbs and 30% inside the city limits. The suburbs may have
their own city governments but the huge central city dominates what happens in
the entire area.
3. Metropolitan Statistical Area. Cities have an even bigger influence on people
than just those living in their city limits and surrounding urbanized areas. People
from far away come to shop, use the services, support the sports teams, read
the newspapers and watch the television broadcasts of the city. Thus the city
has a “functional area” which is its total zone of influence. The US Bureau of
Census has created a method of measuring the functional area of the city.
Known as the Metropolitan statistical area (MSA) this area includes:
•An urbanized area with a population of at least 50,000
•The county within which the city is located.
•Adjacent counties with a high population density and a large percentage of
residents working in the central city’s county.
18

Metropolitan Area of Philadelphia

City of
Philadelphia

Urbanized
area
(suburbs)
Metropolitan
Statistical
Area

The metropolitan area of Philadelphia is
spread over several counties and four states.
It is also a diversified trade center, given its
position on the Delaware river.

19

20

21

Micropolitan Statistical Areas: Smaller areas with between
10,000 and 50,000 people, the county where it is found, and
adjacent counties tied to the city. This would be a small town and
the area dominated by it.
Overlapping Metropolitan Areas: Some adjacent MSA’s overlap.
A county between two central cities may send a large number of
commuters to jobs in both cities. In some areas the cities are so
close that they form one continuous urban complex. This is
known as a Megalopolis (great city).
In a megalopolis, the downtown CBD often has its own
distinctive look and the urban areas are visually separated by
parks, open spaces, and dairy/truck farms. But at the periphery
of the urban areas, the boundaries overlap.
22

Colorado Springs, population 431,000

Ocala, Florida, population 56,000

Florala, Alabama, population 1,900

23

Megalopolis, from northern Va. To Maine.
This Illustrates the
difference between
strict city proper
definitions and broader
urban agglomerations.
To define urbanized
areas, the U.S. Census
Bureau uses the term
Metropolitan Statistical
Area (MSA) or
Consolidated MSA
(CMSA) if two or more of
them overlap.
24

Where are People Distributed within Urban Areas? People are not
just distributed at random in urban areas. For the most part they
concentrate in particular neighborhoods depending on their social
characteristics. Geographers want to see where people with
particular characteristics are likely to live and why.

Three models which try to explain the growth of a city:

The Burgess Model

The Hoyt Sector Model

The Harris and Ullman
multiple Nuclei Model
25

Burgess Concentric Zone Model

In the concentric zone model, a city grows in a series of rings surrounding the CBD.

Burgess Concentric Zone Model: This is the first used to explain the
distributions of different social groups within urban areas. It says that a
city grows outward from a central place in a series of concentric rings.
The precise size and width of the rings vary from one city to another, but
some basic types of rings appear in all cities in the same order (see chart
above).
26

•Hoyt Sector Model: In this model the city develops in a
series of sectors not rings. Certain areas of the city are
more attractive for various activities, originally because
of an environmental factor (or even pure chance). As the
city grows, activities extend outward in a wedge shape.
For example, once a wealthy neighborhood is built the
next wealthy neighborhood will extend from the first
neighborhood further outward from the center. In this
way, the best housing is found in a corridor extending
outward from the center to the outer edge (see chart on
the next page).
27

The Hoyt Sector Model

In the sector model, a city grows in a series of
wedges or corridors extending out from the
CBD.
28

•Harris and Ullman’s Multiple Nuclei Model: According
to this model, a city is a complex structure that includes
more than one center around which activities revolve.
Examples of these nodes include a port, parks,
stadium, neighborhood business center, university, and
airport (see chart). This theory states that some
activities are attracted to particular nodes, whereas
others try to avoid them. A university node may attract
well educated people and bookstores while the port will
attract hotels and warehouses. Heavy industry and
expensive houses rarely are found together. This
model shows the effect of the automobile more than
any other model.
29

The Harris and Ullman Multiple Nuclei model

The multiple nuclei model views a city as a
collection of individual centers, around which
different people and activities cluster.

30

Applications of the Models: The three models help explain where and in some
cases, why people live where they do. None of the models by themselves fully
explains why and where different types of people live, but combined they give
you as good a look as possible at the “Why” of “Where.” Effective use of the
models depends on getting good data on the areas. Most countries take a
census every 10 years to help determine useful data about the people and
places of the country. In our country we divide the census data into areas
known as census tracts of about 5,000 people. Each census tract has the data
that summarizes the characteristics of the people living within that tract. This
information includes things like the race, income, age, and education of the
people living in that tract.
Social Area Analysis: The data from the census tracts can all be plotted onto
maps to show the characteristics of the people living in that tract. This map is
known as a social area analysis.
31

Using Census tract information…Seattle, Washington
Each lined area is a
census tract of about 5000
people in Seattle
Washington. These maps
show average household
income for 1990 and
2000…note the changes in
income in some areas
between 1990 and 2000.
Using this information, a
business can make
decisions about where
they want to locate a new
store or the future of
existing stores.
You can find census tract
information on many topics
such as; age, education
level, race, ethnicity, crime
rate, and land ownership.
Note the areas with
incomes over
$63,000.

All can be very valuable
information to people
looking to open
businesses.

32

Examine the changes
between 1990 and
2000.

Oakland, California’s Ethnic neighborhoods
The small bordered areas are census tracks of 5000 people.

33

Use of the Models Outside of North America: The 3 models will also work in other
places in the world; however social groups in other countries may not have the
same reasons for selecting particular neighborhoods as Americans do.
European Cities: As in the US, wealthier people in European cities cluster along a
sector extending outward from the CBD, however unlike the US, wealthy and
middle class Europeans still live in the inner rings of the neighborhoods near the
CBD not out in the suburbs. In the past, poorer people lived in the center of the
city. Before electricity, social segregation was vertical: richer people lived on the
first or second floor of a building while the poorer people lived in the basement or
upper floors. In the Industrial Revolution, housing for the poor was constructed
near the factories and away from the rich.
Today poorer Europeans are less likely to live in the inner-city. Poor quality
housing has been renovated for the rich or turned into office buildings. Poorer
Europeans tend to live in the outskirts of the city. Vast suburbs with dozens of high
rise apartments house the poor. They face long commutes to reach their jobs in
the city.
34

European cities generally do not have the “suburban
sprawl” that US cities have. European cities tend to be
more pedestrian friendly with more parks downtown as
Europeans tend to still live downtown.
US cities have taller buildings as European cities tend to
be older and more historic.

American cities have more ethnic neighborhoods than
European cities. Ethnic neighborhoods that do exist in
European cities tend to be in the suburbs. WHY?
Because the established richer neighborhoods tend to be
downtown in European cities.
35

Less Developed Countries: Like Europe, most LDC’s accommodate their poor in the
suburbs with their middle class and rich living near the center of the city. LDC’s have
passed through 3 periods of city building: before the Europeans arrived, during the
period of European colonialism, and since independence from European control.

Pre-colonial Cities: Before the Europeans arrived few cities existed in Africa, Asia, and
Latin America and most people lived in small rural settlements. Those cities that existed
were mostly laid out surrounding a religious center; with the rest of the city laid out in a
hieratical concentric pattern (like the Burgess model) from government buildings,
homes of the wealthy, and businesses related to the religion out to other businesses
and shops.
Colonial cities: When the Europeans took over these lands, they changed the cities by
adding services to help the Europeans control the conquered people. Often a new
European style city would be build next to the existing native one. The new European
cities contained wider streets, a public square, larger houses and a much lower density.
The Spanish used the “Law of the Indies” which was a city plan designed specifically to
build cities in a “Spanish” style. (Gridiron pattern for streets centered on a church and
central plaza, walls around individual houses and neighborhoods centered around
smaller plazas and more churches.)
36

Early Mexico city was laid out in a grid pattern of streets. This followed
the Spanish “Law of the Indies.”

37

Central Plaza in Mexico City 1920 photo. Typical Colonial City plan.

Part of downtown Mexico city today still shows the
building plan of the “Law of the Indies.”

38

Cities since Independence: Following independence, cities have become
the focal point of the development of most LDC’s. Millions of people have
migrated to the cities (Primate cities) looking for jobs and services. Some
capitals have been moved to isolated areas in an attempt to help develop
that area of the country (Brasília) This is know as a forward capital. Latin
American cities have developed their own unique style.
Squatter settlements: The LDC’s are unable to house the rapidly growing
number of poor who are flowing into the cities. Because of the housing
shortages, the poor have constructed their own settlements around the city.
These settlements have few services because neither the city nor the
residents can afford them. Squatters have two basic choices for housing.
1. Illegally move into empty real houses located in the city or,
2. Rent slum housing.
(85% of the population of Addis Ababa in Ethiopia lives in squatter
settlements, slums or other illegal housing.)
39

Squatter shacks in Manila, the Philippines

40

Squatter settlement in Ethiopia

41

Zimbabwe, Africa

42

Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

43

Latin American City Model:
In many Latin
American cities,
the wealthy live in
the inner city and
in a sector
extending along a
commercial spine.
In situ accretion- businesses
and homes constantly under
construction/repair.
Zone of maturity-2nd best
housing in the city.
The poor live in squatter settlements on the
periphery of the city.

Disamenity- unpleasant area
used by the poor to get to the
market.

44

The City Outline of Rio de Janeiro
The rich tourist areas and expensive condo apartments are along the coast
and beach while the poor live in squatter shacks in the hills.

45

City problems:
Inner-City Physical Problems: Most US inner cities were constructed before the 1950’s
(people began to move to the suburbs in the 1950’s so new construction moved out of
the city).
Process of Deterioration (how a city deteriorates): A city doesn’t suddenly become old
and full of slummy areas. It happens over time. When a group of low-income people
inhabit an area of a city, nearby neighborhoods will often look to move out. They sell or
rent to more low-income occupants thus expanding the low-income area. Two processes
cause/speed up the devaluation of areas:
1. Filtering, 2. Redlining.
Filtering: Large houses and buildings that once housed rich downtown workers (who
moved to the suburbs) are taken over by landlords who don’t live in that area (they
moved to the suburbs too). Rents are low so the landlord doesn’t take as good care of
the property as they should and the property becomes run down or abandoned. Stores
close, or move, due to lack of sales. 100 years ago these neighborhoods would be used
by immigrants and ethnic businesses would succeed in those areas. Now, with a decline
in immigration, these neighborhoods have shrunk and so have schools, businesses and
other services. Thousands of vacant houses and buildings stand empty in inner cities
across America.

46

Redlining: Some banks refuse to give loans in what they consider
risky neighborhoods. They draw a red line on a map around areas
where they will not give loans. Without loans, these neighborhoods
have a hard time rebuilding/remodeling. Though illegal, this still
happens. Bankers just don’t put these “no-loan” areas on a map.

Urban Renewal: This is the series of projects to improve European
and N. American cities by buying up the blighted neighborhoods,
moving the people to new government built housing projects, and
building new roads, and other projects to make the inner city
attractive for business again. National and State government grants
help pay for these projects.
47

Public housing: Housing for the poor, built with government funding as part of
urban renewal. In the US this is only about 2% of the housing while in some
countries it may be more (Britain is 30%). Public housing built in the 50’s & 60’s
were largely high rise apartments, but those are seen as being unsatisfactory.
Problems arise from cramming large numbers of poor people into one area.
Today most public housing projects are one to three story buildings with many of
them being scattered around different parts of the city rather than clustered into
one area.
Because urban renewal has been criticized for destroying the social cohesion of
older neighborhoods, many governments (like the US) have stopped funding
most projects since the 1970’s. What do we do instead?
Renovated Housing: An alternative often used since the 70’s is to renovate a
building instead of urban renewal. The process where middle-class people
move into inner-city neighborhoods and renovate them is called gentrification.
Gentrified inner-city neighborhoods also attract middle-class people who work
downtown. Living close to work saves the hassle of commuting and rejuvenates
run down inner-city neighborhoods
48

Gentrified building downtown Harlem, NY. Note the supermarket.

49

Inner-City Social Problems: Inner-city residents are often referred to as the
permanent underclass because they are trapped in an unending cycle of
economic and social problems. High unemployment, alcoholism, drug
addiction, literacy, juvenile delinquency, and crime all exist at a higher rate
among those who live in the inner-city. Lack of jobs means lack of tax dollars
to pay for police and fire protection as well as good schools. Lack of job skills
and homelessness are also tremendous problems.
Culture of Poverty: Inner-city residents are trapped in a permanent underclass
culture that reproduces itself. In the US, unwed mothers give birth to 2/3 of the
babies in the inner-city. 90% of these children live with only one parent and it
is real hard for one parent to keep a job and take care of children. Both suffer
and a shortage of care and daily attention by the parent contributes to the kids
not learning the skills necessary to do well in school which leads to poor jobs
for their futures. Poverty leads to more poverty. Many families on welfare have
only one parent because it is financially better if one parent is gone, that way
the single parent gets food stamps and other services from the government
that they would not get if it was a 2 family household.
50

Crime: Trapped in a hopeless environment, some inner-city
residents turn to drugs. Drug use is a problem in inner-city
areas and the suburbs, but rates of drug use in inner-cities
are the highest.
Ethnic and Racial Segregation: As seen in chapter 7, many
neighborhoods in the US are segregated by ethnicity with
African Americans and Hispanics concentrated in one or two
continuous areas and whites living in the suburbs. Even small
cities display a strong distinction among neighborhoods. A
frequent division is between the east and west or north and
south side of town, or the railroad tracks. A family seeking a
new residence will seek the areas where the characteristics
of the people meet their own.

51

The exodus
from the
American city.
This has
happened in
many American
cities since the
1960’s.

52

Changes in Cities in the U.S.
U.S. population has been moving out of the city centers to the suburbs:
suburbanization and counter urbanization

Developed Countries: suburbanization

 wealthy move to suburbs
 automobiles and roads; ‘American
Dream’ of the home in the suburbs.
 better services
 wealthy move to suburbs
Counter urbanization

idyllic settings
cost of land for retirement
slow pace, yet high tech
connections to services and markets
53

U.S. intraregional migration during 1990s.

Inner city economic problems: the concentration of low income
residents in inner cities has caused economic problems. These
people require public services but can pay very little in taxes to
support the services. They need stores and jobs but have little
money to spend in the store and few skills for jobs (so the stores
close). To try to fight these problems many local and state
governments use tax monies to try to renovate these areas, but this
shifts tax money needed for other areas to the inner city (votes on
election day).
Annexation: Many cities could help their tax problem by adding the
new suburbs to be part of their city (annexation). After all, many of
these suburban people use the city for its’ jobs etc., so why not add
them into the city? Today, most people in the suburbs do not want
to be annexed into the city and so they do not vote to be annexed.
54

The Peripheral Model: According to this model, an urban area
consists of an inner city surrounded by large suburban residential
and business areas (MSA) tied together by a beltway or highway
that circles the city. Around the beltway are nodes of consumer
and business services called edge cities (see diagram of multiple
nuclei model). These edge cities sprang up to provide services
and jobs to the people in the suburbs.
Density Gradient: As you travel outward from the center of the
city, the density of people declines. Inner city has big apartments
of 250 of more people per acre. Suburbs have fewer people per
acre (but lots of acres) and finally you leave the cities periphery
you find few people. The number of houses per unit of land
diminishes as distance from the center of the city increases.
55

The Edge cities (bedroom communities) of Houston

The central city is surrounded by a ring road, around which are
suburban areas and edge cities, shopping malls, office parks,
industrial areas, and service complexes.

Known as
bedroom
communities
because
people live
there but
mostly don’t
work there.
They drive
into the city
for work.
56

As you move from the center of the city outward, the density of the population
changes. This is know as the density gradient. Two big changes have occurred in
the density gradient of today’s cities:
1. The number of people living in the center has decreased.
2. The density difference between the inner city and the suburbs is declining
because the inner city density is dropping and the suburban density is growing
due to more large apartments being built in the suburbs.
Cost of Suburban or Urban Sprawl: Urban Sprawl is the progressive spread of
development over the landscape. As long as we Americans want single-family
detached houses, land on the fringe of urban areas will be converted from open
space to residential use. The cost of this growth is more than the loss of land, it is
also the cost of new roads, utilities, building stores and offices and the cost of
automobiles to move these people over even longer distances. Lots of these new
developments are built on what was once farmland. Wonderful productive soil now
under concrete.

Greenbelts: are areas where, by law, the open space can not be used for any
construction. This is mostly found in Europe.

57

Once farmland that is being converted to suburbs and cities.

58

Tyson’s Corner Virginia in 1940

59

Washington, DC. MSA.

Tyson’s Corner Virginia
today.
Washington D.C. is off
In the distance.

60

Suburban Segregation: The “new” segregation.
Suburban segregation takes two forms:
1. Residents are separated from commercial and manufacturing activities
which are confined someplace else. (The whole neighborhood is
nothing but houses because they drive for services.)
2. The price of the house eliminates some from being able to live there. This
creates a homogeneous suburb of the same economic class of people.
This never existed before in history. Where we once had vertical
segregation of the classes we now we have horizontal segregation.
3. But this may be reversing as new statistics show that people are beginning
to move back to the city. Why? Cost of transportation.
Zoning Ordinances: This idea developed in Europe and later America in the
early decades of the 20th century. This means that businesses are allowed only
in certain areas of the settlement. (No all night taco stands inside your single
family neighborhood.)
Motor vehicles: The wide use of the automobile is largely responsible for the
American movement to the suburbs. Not only did people move out but 1/4 of
the land inside all American cities are now roads, streets, and parking lots.

61

Public Transportation: Because few US workers live within walking distance
of their jobs, urban areas are characterized by extensive commuting and the
problems that come with it. As much as 40% of all trips made into or out from
a city during the day takes place within just 4 hours. (2 in the morning and 2 in
the late afternoon). RUSH HOUR!!! In large cities, public transportation, like
subways and busses, are better suited to move people but Americans still
prefer their own cars. Public transportation is cheaper, cleaner, and more
energy efficient than personal cars, yet in the US only 5% of city travel is
done using public transit systems. American’s love their personal car too
much.
Local Government Fragmentation: Because of the large number of local
governments in the US (look at the settlements in Pinellas County) it is
difficult to solve some of the regional problems like garbage disposal, water
management, traffic and public housing.
62

Metropolitan government: This idea tries to put many local governments into a
larger unit that can better handle the urban problems. The 2 ways to do this
are:
1. Federations in which the individual settlements have their own police,
firemen, and tax collection but they all agree to be part of a second
government which handles transportation, water, sewage, parks and
welfare for all the communities.
2. Consolidations: In this method, several cities and the county may form one
government. Jacksonville’s government runs not only the town but the
county too, this makes Jacksonville the largest city, in land size, in the US.
Smart growth: A new movement by many states to curb suburban sprawl by
limiting where new construction can take place. Smart growth laws require that
land near cities be used up before any land further out can be developed. So
far, this is only being done an a few parts of our country.
63

The new
US as
some
people
see it.

64

Quiz Yourself:
1. The process where middle-class people move into inner city neighborhoods and
renovate them is called ____________
2. ____________ happens when banks refuse to give loans in what they consider
risky neighborhoods.
3. Because of the housing shortages, the poor have constructed their own settlements
around the city known as __________ _________

4. Businesses are allowed only in certain areas of the settlement because of
____________ ____________
5. Areas known as _____ _______ are areas of about 5,000 people. The data from
that area is used to help define needed services for that area.
6. When cities are so close that they form one continuous band of development this is
known as a ____________
65

7. Social relationships are often described as “colder” in urban areas because…
8. In this model the city develops in a series of sectors not rings. _______

9. ______ (LDC’s or MDC’s) have a higher percentage of people living in urban
settlements but ________ (LDC’s or MDC’s) have more of the very large urban
settlements.
10. _____________ was the first model developed to explain the distributions
of different social groups within urban areas.
11. New cities which develop around the beltway are nodes of consumer and
business services known as ________ _________.

12. When the Europeans took over lands around the world, they changed the
cities by adding services to help the Europeans control the conquered people.
These European planned cities are known as __________ cities.
66

Answer Key:
1.

Gentrification

2.

Redlining

3.

Squatter Settlements

4.

Zoning ordinances

5.

Census tracks

6.

Megalopolis

7. There is a stronger feeling of belonging together in small rural settlements.
8. Hoyt sector model
9. MDC, LDC
10. Burgess Concentric Zone model
11. Edge cities
12. Colonial cities
67

Test Key topic/chapter 13:
These questions come from a combination of our slides, your text book, and common knowledge you should
have discussed in your AP classroom. They are very typical of what you will see on the National Exam.
1) The multiple nuclei theory best explains why different neighborhoods of a city attract people of different… A) ages.
B) ethnic origin C) income D) marital status.
2) Sprawl is the… A) change in density within an urban area from the center to the periphery B) development of new
housing sites not contiguous to the existing built-up area. C) land maintained as open space surrounding an urban area.
D) period in the morning and evening with the heaviest volumes of traffic.
3) People are attracted to suburbs in part because suburbs are characterized by…A) heavy traffic. B) lower opportunity
for home ownership. C) private land surrounding the house. D) row houses and apartments.
4) Megalopolis refers to… A) adjacent, overlapping Metropolitan Statistical Areas. B) central cities. C) consolidated
Metropolitan Statistical Areas. D) central cities plus urbanized areas.
5) Which statement best describes the relationship between urbanization and the Industrial Revolution? A) Urbanization
promoted the Industrial Revolution. B) The Industrial Revolution promoted urbanization. C) Urbanization preceded the
Industrial Revolution by thousands of years. D) Urbanization and the Industrial Revolution are no longer related.
6) The process of legally adding land area to a city in the United States is… A) annexation. B) accreditation. C) an
application of eminent domain. D) defined by urbanized area.

68

7) The process of change in the use of a house, from single-family owner occupancy to abandonment, is… A) blockbusting.
B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining.
8) A process by which banks designate an area within which they refuse to lend money for improvements is… A) blockbusting.
B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining.
9) A recent change in the density gradient has been… A) the elimination of the gap traditionally found in the center. B) an
increase in the extremes between the inner and outer areas. C) an increase in the number of people living in the center.
D) a reduction in the differences in densities found within an urban area.
10) U.S. central cities face fiscal problems because… A) federal and state funds are available. B) low-income people are
concentrated there. C) middle-class families are attracted there. D) redlining is no longer legal.
11) A legal form of segregation in U.S. cities is achieved through...A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) zoning. D) greenbelts.
12) Factories have moved to suburban locations in part because of… A) access to main highways. B) adequate space to build
vertical structures. C) availability of large tracts of high-priced land. D) good rail connections.
13) According to the sector model, the best housing is located in…A) a corridor from downtown to the edge of the city.
B) an outer ring surrounding the city. C) nodes near universities and parks. D) renovated inner-city neighborhoods.
14) Ramshackle houses on the periphery of cities in less developed countries are known as… A) squatter settlements. B) council
estates. C) public housing. D) zone in transition.
15) Higher income people tend to live near the center of the city in all but which of the following regions? A) Latin America
B) North America C) South Asia D) Western Europe

16) The wide boulevards built in cities in less developed countries were most likely built during what era? A) pre-colonial
B) colonial C) independence D) all of the above equally

69

17) According to the multiple nuclei model, an airport is likely to attract nearby… A) industries. B) residences. C) shops.
D) universities.
18) The largest percentage of the U.S. population lives in…A) central cities. B) suburbs. C) non-metropolitan areas. D) all of the
above
19) In U.S. cities, the underclass is… A) clustered in inner-city neighborhoods. B) dispersed throughout the city. C) clustered in
suburbs. D) distributed uniformly in the city.

20) A process of converting a neighborhood from low-income to middle-class is…A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) gentrification.
D) redlining.
21) Higher social heterogeneity in urban settlements means that… A) the people with whom you relax are probably the same ones you
see at work. B) you play a specialized role in the urban economy. C) you compete for limited space. D) you may feel lonely and
isolated in a crowd.
22) The city plus its contiguous built-up suburbs is the… A) central city. B) urbanized area.
D) consolidated metropolitan statistical area

C) metropolitan statistical area.

23) The process whereby an increasing percentage of people live in an urban area is known as… A) demographic transition.
B) rank-size rule. C) urbanization. D) central place theory.
24) Of the ten largest urban areas in the world, how many are in More Developed Countries today? A) 1 B) 4 C) 7 D) 10 E) 2
25) Public housing is…A) conversion of low-income housing to middle-class housing. B) illegally established low-income housing.
C) housing that has changed from single-family owner occupancy to abandonment. D) low-income government-owned housing.
26) According to the concentric zone model, a city develops in a series of… A) corridors. B) nodes. C) rings. D) all of the above

70

27) Chicago is a good location in which to develop urban models because it is located… A) at the hub of the nation's transportation
system. B) in the center of the country. C) on a flat prairie. D) on the shore of Lake Michigan.
28) According to the sector model, the best housing is located in… A) a corridor from downtown to the edge of the city. B) an outer
ring surrounding the city. C) nodes near universities and parks. D) renovated inner-city neighborhoods.
29) The zone of transition in US cities generally contain…A) warehouses B) wealthy neighborhoods C) transportation hubs
D) universities and hospitals E) suburban homes
30) The attractions of shopping malls include all but which of the following? A) frequent concerts and exhibitions B) generous
parking lots C) place to meet friends D) walking distance from homes
The following questions are written at the high school level. You will find some questions from part one often rewritten
here. This is all designed to help you transition to the college/AP style of written questions. Any question preceded with ***
are questions that have been on the national exam before.
31. Most Latin American cities are focused on a…A) central plaza B) government housing project C) zone of heavy industry
D) skyscraper office building E) squatter settlement
32. The multiple-nuclei model of a city structure tends to be most applicable to…A) small cities B) traditional C) Latin American
cities D) newer, fast growing cities E) cities with homogeneous land use
33. ***Locational advantages important to the development of the earliest cities include…A) availability of good harbors for large
ships B) productive agricultural land and defensible sites C) temperate climate and proximity to coal mines D) good
connections by road and canal E) proximity to manufacturing areas

34. In cities, the CBD’s often show uniqueness while the suburbs usually show…A) a large hinterland. B) placelessness C) more
than one node. D) newer zones of transition.

71

35. Many LDC’s have tried to help a previously under-developed part of their country develop by moving their capital
city to that area. This new capital is known as a…A) forward capital B) new development zone C) enterprise zone
D) neocolonial city
36. Today the greatest number of urban dwellers is found in…A) North America
D) Europe E) Asia

B) South America C) Africa

37. ***All of the following have helped create ghettos in North American cities except…A)blockbusting and racial
steering B) redlining by financial institutions C) concentration of public housing and social services D) fixed school
districts E) Economic Enterprise Zones

38. Which of the following is NOT as reason for rapid suburbanization in the US after WW2? A) Mass production of
the automobile B) Reduction of long distance commuting C) Expansion of home construction D) Expansion of the
interstate highway system E) Availability of low down payment terms and long-term mortgages.
39. New cities which developed in the hinterland of large urban areas because of the automobile, are known as…
A) edge cities B) census tracts C) suburban sprawl D) squatter settlements. E) none of these
40. Gentrification refers to… A) moving the homeless into inner city shelters B) The “White Flight” from the urban city
C) losing tax revenue because of stores closing in downtown areas D) middle-class people moving into and renovating
inner city neighborhoods E) the creation of “beltway cities” around the city.

72

4
7
3

5

1
6

2

41-48 all use the sketch above.
41. The sketch in box A above represents which model of the inner structure of urban areas?
C) multiple nuclei model D) Burgess concentric zone model E) peripheral model
42. The models in boxes B and C represent A) Concentric zone and multiple nuclei
concentric zone D) peripheral and concentric zone E) Von Thunen and peripheral

A) Hoyt sector model B) VonThunen’s model

B) Multiple nuclei and Hoyt sector C) Hoyt sector and

43. In which ring (1, 2, etc.) of sketch A above would high-status households in North American cities likely live? A) 1 B) 2 C) 3 D) 4&5
44. In which ring (1, 2, etc.) of sketch A above would high status households in a European city likely live? A) 1

B) 2

C) 3

D) 4&5

45. In model B, zone # 2 is where it is likely because of: A) greenbelting B) squatter settling C) the culture of poverty D) transportation
E) no one knows
46. The model in sketch B is the; A) Hoyt sector model B) Burgess model C) multiple nuclei model D) peripheral model
47. The model in sketch C is the; A) Hoyt sector model B) Burgess model C) multiple nuclei model D) peripheral model
48. Which of these models best describes what has happened in US cities in the last 40 years? A)

B)

C)

73

49.*** In the U.S. a city plus its contiguous built-up suburbs is known as an…A) urbanized area B) zoned area
C) census tract D) Squatter settlement E) none of these
50. Done mostly in Europe, these are areas where land is kept as parks, farms or other kinds of open space and urban
sprawl is not allowed. A) Smart growth
B) zoning
C) filtering
D) census tracts E) greenbelts
51. Which statement best describes the relationship between urbanization and the Industrial Revolution?
A) Urbanization promoted the Industrial Revolution. B) The Industrial Revolution promoted urbanization.
C) Urbanization preceded the Industrial Revolution by thousands of years. D) Urbanization and the Industrial
Revolution are no longer related.
52. The process whereby an increasing percentage of people live in an urban area is known as…
A) Demographic transition. B) rank-size rule. C) Urbanization. D) Central place theory.
53. The city (if it has 50,000 or more people) plus its contiguous built-up suburbs AND the county it is in as well as any
other counties it influences, is known as the ...A) central city B) urbanized area
C) metropolitan statistical area
D) consolidated metropolitan area E) micropolitan statistical area
54. ***Higher social heterogeneity in urban settlements means that …A) the people with whom you relax are probably
the same ones you see at work. B) you play a specialized role in the urban economy. C) you compete for limited
space. D) you may feel lonely and isolated in a crowd.

55. The process of change in the use of a house, from single-family owner occupancy to smaller dwellings for the poor
and then sometimes to abandonment, is…A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining. E) none of
these

74

Free Response #1:
The Bid Rent theory says that the closer you get to the
CBD the higher the cost for land, yet in most American
cities you find the poorest people living near the
expensive CBD and the richest living further away.
Explain:
A. Why neighborhoods near the CBD are often poor and
run down?
B. Why are there few grocery and other retail stores in
these neighborhoods?
C. Why is this not really true in European and Latin
American countries?

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75

FR #2:
Think of the map of your school, explain the
layout of your school using the Multiple Nuclei
Model
The main office is the CBD.
Completely explain your answer using specific
buildings and/or land areas in your explanation
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76

Answer Key:
1. B

14. A

27. C

40. D

53. C

2. B

15. B

28. A

41. D

54. D

3. C

16. B

29. A

42. B

55. B

4. A

17. A

30. D

43. D

5. B

18. B

31. A

44. A

6. A

19. A

32. D

45. D

7. B

20. C

33. B

46. A

8. D

21. D

34. B

47. C

9. D

22. B

35. A

48. C

10. B

23. C

36. E

49. A

11. C

24. C

37. E

50. E

12. A

25. D

38. B

51. B

13. A

26. C

39. A

52. C
77

FR. #1: ( 15 pts. for each section…total of 45 pts.)
A. In the US the move of the wealthy and middle class to the suburbs has left the older houses and apartments near the CBD empty.
This has lowered their value to the point where the poor can afford these dwellings and have made these neighborhoods their
homes. The poor can not pay for upkeep of these dwellings, or to pay high taxes. The lack of upkeep and tax money to repair the
roads and schools, adds to the downward spiral of the neighborhood. With little spending money for shopping, the poor do not
spend much in the stores. This causes many stores to close and move to the suburbs where the spending customers and money
went. The closing of the stores adds to the poverty of the area by taking away some of the jobs that were in the neighborhood. This
becomes a vicious cycle of poverty and deterioration. (15 points)

B. There are few retail stores and groceries is the area because the poor do not have money to shop. The lack of spending forces
many stores out of business or forces them to move to better locations. There also can be higher crime in these areas and the
crime often takes place at the stores. This is another reason for the stores to move out of the neighborhood. (15 points)
C. Neighborhoods in European and Latin American cities are different from those of US cities. In Europe and Latin America, the
wealthy and middle class still live near or in the CBD. The higher tax base and more spending ability of the upper and middle
classes, keeps the CBD area flourishing with jobs and in constant repair and upkeep of the cities’ physical condition. (15 points)

FR #2: (10 total points.)
You will need to judge how effectively you displayed you school
in the Multiple Nuclei Model. Refer to the model itself to help you
determine your success and grade.
School’s main office
78

Calculating your grade on test 13.
Add how many you got correct on the multiple choice part (55 possible) to how many
points you scored on the FR portion (55 possible)…110 total.
The following scale will show the approximate score if this test were the real AP exam. Remember that this
is an approximation. While 65-74% is normally the range for a 3 on the test, it is not definite. Over the
years I have seen scores as low as 60% be the low portion of a 3 score.

Out of 110 possible points:
72-83 is most likely a 3
84-94 is most likely a 4

95-110 is most likely a 5

Now lets start our review for the national exam by
reviewing the 33 key models and theories of the
course…the next PowerPoint.


Slide 73

Key topic/chapter 13…Urban Patterns
Key terms:
Annexation
Concentric zone model
Density gradient
Edge cities
Filtering
Galactic city
Gentrification
Greenbelts
Megalopolis
MSA
Multiple nuclei model
Peripheral model

Public housing
Redlining
Renovated housing
Scattered site
Squatter settlement
Sector model
Smart growth
Sprawl
Underclass
Urban renewal
Zone in transition
Zoning
1

Chapter 13…Urban Areas.
How are Cities planned?
Why

are cities where they are?
How are they organized?
Why are some areas of a city
different from
other areas of the same city?
What is the future of cities?
2

Settlement


Settlement - permanent collections of buildings,
where people live, work, and obtain services

3

ORIGINS OF SETTLEMENTS


Religious - graves, churches, temples



Cultural - schools, libraries



Political/Military - leader’s house, walls



Economic - stores, food
4

TYPES OF SETTLEMENTS


Rural Settlements - agriculture as the
predominant occupation.



Urban settlements - principal industries are
secondary and tertiary.

5

RURAL SETTLEMENTS
Clustered rural settlements –grouped
settlements in rural areas to minimize travel

Dispersed rural Settlements - isolated farms
with enclosed continuous fields (Found only in
N. America and Britain).

6

Urban Geographers want to know the global distribution of urban
settlements. MDC’s have a high percentage of people living in urban
areas because of the shift from agriculture-manufacturing-services.
Geographers are also interested in where people and activities are
distributed within urban spaces. What are the differences between the
inner-city and suburban areas and why?
As we saw in the last chapter, many downtowns are unique and can
often be recognized in photos where the suburbs often look very
much alike (Placelessness). Why? Suburbs offer the chance to avoid
some of the city problems (crime, tight living area, expensive
land/rent, noise, age of buildings) while still keeping a connection with
the goods and services of the city: jobs, sports teams, culture, shops,
recreation, etc.
7

Where is this place?

8

Today’s cities are evolving and changing. Although different internal
situations characterize urban areas in the US and elsewhere, the
problems arising from current spatial trends are quite similar in all cities.
Where have urban areas grown: in the early 1800’s only 3% of the earth’s
people lived in cities and only Beijing China had more than 1 million
people. Today over ½ of the world’s people live in cities and we have over
400 cities of at least 1 million people.

Urbanization: is the process by which city population grows.
Cities population growth is measured in 2 dimensions;
1. An increase in the number of people living in the cities.
2. An increase in the percentage of people living in the cities.
This distinction is important because they happen for different reason and
have different global distributions.
9

Increasing Percentage of People in Cities: a large percentage of people living in urban
areas is a measure of a country’s level of development. In MDC’s about ¾ of the people
live in urban areas compared to about 2/5 of people in LDC’s. (Except in Latin America
where the level is closer to MDC’s.)
The higher percentage of people in urban areas comes from the changes that have
occurred in the last 200 years as we went from agriculture (primary jobs) to industrial
(secondary jobs) and now service jobs, all created by the Industrial Revolution of the
1800’s.
People moved to the cities for industrial jobs, but in MDC’s this process has largely
ended because nearly everyone interested in moving to the cities from farms has already
done so.
In LDC’s the percentage of people living in urban areas is growing as people are pushed
off of their farms and replaced by machines and as people move to cities looking/hoping
for industrial jobs.
10

Increasing Number of People in Cities: MDC’s have a higher percentage of
people living in urban settlements but LDC’s have more of the very large urban
settlements (Primate cities). (Rank-size rule, primate cities, chapter 12.)

This is interesting because typically the large cities are created from the
improvements brought by the Industrial Revolution. This is not the case with the
large LDC cities. Migration to the primate city in LDC’s is happening even though
job opportunities may not be available. Increasing the population growth in LDC
cities is the fact that medical services are better in these cities, thus the child
mortality rate is lower.
Defining Urban Settlements: defining where urban areas end and rural areas
begin is not easy. Geographers have formulated definitions that distinguish
between urban and rural areas in two ways: Social differences and Physical
differences.
11

Percent Urban Population

Percent of the population living in urban areas is usually higher in MDCs
than in LDCs.

12

The most populated cities in the world

Of the top
20, only
Moscow,
Tokyo and
New York
are in MDC’s

Shanghai China has 14,608,512 people
13

14

15

Social Differences Between Urban and Rural Settlements: it is fair to say that rural
people and urban people follow different ways of life. A city can be defined as having 3
characteristics:
1. Large size. People in rural settlements know most of the other people in the
settlement. Not true in big cities. Social relationships are often described as “colder” in
urban areas because you only see some people at work instead of growing up with
them in the settlement.
2. High Density. Having lots of people in a tiny area creates social consequences. A
high density of people living in a small area can only be supported if the people
specialize (they can’t all be farmers). People are encouraged to compete for jobs, room,
and survival in a tightly limited space. Social groups compete to occupy the same space
(ethnic/ race problems). Rural settlements have very little of this problem.
3. Social Heterogeneity. The larger the settlement, the greater the variety of people.
Being “unusual” in a large settlement is more likely to be accepted than in a small rural
one. But despite the freedom to be different that large urban settlements give you,
people living there often feel alone because so many people are different from them.
There is a stronger feeling of belonging together in small rural settlements.
16

These 3 differences do not fully answer the question of where urban settlements
begin and rural ones end because in today’s MDC’s most everyone has access to
cars, telephones, televisions, and “urban type” jobs which reduce the differences
between urban and rural lifestyles. “City folk” and “Country folk” are more alike
today than they are different. To help distinguish between urban and rural areas we
need to add the physical definition of rural and urban to the equation.
Physical Definitions of Urban Settlements: In ancient time, cities had defensive
walls for protection which clearly defined the physical boundaries of the city. Today
the walls are gone but we can still define the physical boundaries in 3 ways:
1. Legal boundary. These are the official boundaries of a city as recognized by
the government of the country or state. These “city limits” have been officially given
to the city and are physically marked on official maps. The local government of the
city has authority to make laws and protect the people inside the city boundaries.
17

2. Urbanized area. This is the city plus its suburbs or urbanized area that
surrounds the city. About 70 percent of US residents live in urbanized areas with
40% being in the suburbs and 30% inside the city limits. The suburbs may have
their own city governments but the huge central city dominates what happens in
the entire area.
3. Metropolitan Statistical Area. Cities have an even bigger influence on people
than just those living in their city limits and surrounding urbanized areas. People
from far away come to shop, use the services, support the sports teams, read
the newspapers and watch the television broadcasts of the city. Thus the city
has a “functional area” which is its total zone of influence. The US Bureau of
Census has created a method of measuring the functional area of the city.
Known as the Metropolitan statistical area (MSA) this area includes:
•An urbanized area with a population of at least 50,000
•The county within which the city is located.
•Adjacent counties with a high population density and a large percentage of
residents working in the central city’s county.
18

Metropolitan Area of Philadelphia

City of
Philadelphia

Urbanized
area
(suburbs)
Metropolitan
Statistical
Area

The metropolitan area of Philadelphia is
spread over several counties and four states.
It is also a diversified trade center, given its
position on the Delaware river.

19

20

21

Micropolitan Statistical Areas: Smaller areas with between
10,000 and 50,000 people, the county where it is found, and
adjacent counties tied to the city. This would be a small town and
the area dominated by it.
Overlapping Metropolitan Areas: Some adjacent MSA’s overlap.
A county between two central cities may send a large number of
commuters to jobs in both cities. In some areas the cities are so
close that they form one continuous urban complex. This is
known as a Megalopolis (great city).
In a megalopolis, the downtown CBD often has its own
distinctive look and the urban areas are visually separated by
parks, open spaces, and dairy/truck farms. But at the periphery
of the urban areas, the boundaries overlap.
22

Colorado Springs, population 431,000

Ocala, Florida, population 56,000

Florala, Alabama, population 1,900

23

Megalopolis, from northern Va. To Maine.
This Illustrates the
difference between
strict city proper
definitions and broader
urban agglomerations.
To define urbanized
areas, the U.S. Census
Bureau uses the term
Metropolitan Statistical
Area (MSA) or
Consolidated MSA
(CMSA) if two or more of
them overlap.
24

Where are People Distributed within Urban Areas? People are not
just distributed at random in urban areas. For the most part they
concentrate in particular neighborhoods depending on their social
characteristics. Geographers want to see where people with
particular characteristics are likely to live and why.

Three models which try to explain the growth of a city:

The Burgess Model

The Hoyt Sector Model

The Harris and Ullman
multiple Nuclei Model
25

Burgess Concentric Zone Model

In the concentric zone model, a city grows in a series of rings surrounding the CBD.

Burgess Concentric Zone Model: This is the first used to explain the
distributions of different social groups within urban areas. It says that a
city grows outward from a central place in a series of concentric rings.
The precise size and width of the rings vary from one city to another, but
some basic types of rings appear in all cities in the same order (see chart
above).
26

•Hoyt Sector Model: In this model the city develops in a
series of sectors not rings. Certain areas of the city are
more attractive for various activities, originally because
of an environmental factor (or even pure chance). As the
city grows, activities extend outward in a wedge shape.
For example, once a wealthy neighborhood is built the
next wealthy neighborhood will extend from the first
neighborhood further outward from the center. In this
way, the best housing is found in a corridor extending
outward from the center to the outer edge (see chart on
the next page).
27

The Hoyt Sector Model

In the sector model, a city grows in a series of
wedges or corridors extending out from the
CBD.
28

•Harris and Ullman’s Multiple Nuclei Model: According
to this model, a city is a complex structure that includes
more than one center around which activities revolve.
Examples of these nodes include a port, parks,
stadium, neighborhood business center, university, and
airport (see chart). This theory states that some
activities are attracted to particular nodes, whereas
others try to avoid them. A university node may attract
well educated people and bookstores while the port will
attract hotels and warehouses. Heavy industry and
expensive houses rarely are found together. This
model shows the effect of the automobile more than
any other model.
29

The Harris and Ullman Multiple Nuclei model

The multiple nuclei model views a city as a
collection of individual centers, around which
different people and activities cluster.

30

Applications of the Models: The three models help explain where and in some
cases, why people live where they do. None of the models by themselves fully
explains why and where different types of people live, but combined they give
you as good a look as possible at the “Why” of “Where.” Effective use of the
models depends on getting good data on the areas. Most countries take a
census every 10 years to help determine useful data about the people and
places of the country. In our country we divide the census data into areas
known as census tracts of about 5,000 people. Each census tract has the data
that summarizes the characteristics of the people living within that tract. This
information includes things like the race, income, age, and education of the
people living in that tract.
Social Area Analysis: The data from the census tracts can all be plotted onto
maps to show the characteristics of the people living in that tract. This map is
known as a social area analysis.
31

Using Census tract information…Seattle, Washington
Each lined area is a
census tract of about 5000
people in Seattle
Washington. These maps
show average household
income for 1990 and
2000…note the changes in
income in some areas
between 1990 and 2000.
Using this information, a
business can make
decisions about where
they want to locate a new
store or the future of
existing stores.
You can find census tract
information on many topics
such as; age, education
level, race, ethnicity, crime
rate, and land ownership.
Note the areas with
incomes over
$63,000.

All can be very valuable
information to people
looking to open
businesses.

32

Examine the changes
between 1990 and
2000.

Oakland, California’s Ethnic neighborhoods
The small bordered areas are census tracks of 5000 people.

33

Use of the Models Outside of North America: The 3 models will also work in other
places in the world; however social groups in other countries may not have the
same reasons for selecting particular neighborhoods as Americans do.
European Cities: As in the US, wealthier people in European cities cluster along a
sector extending outward from the CBD, however unlike the US, wealthy and
middle class Europeans still live in the inner rings of the neighborhoods near the
CBD not out in the suburbs. In the past, poorer people lived in the center of the
city. Before electricity, social segregation was vertical: richer people lived on the
first or second floor of a building while the poorer people lived in the basement or
upper floors. In the Industrial Revolution, housing for the poor was constructed
near the factories and away from the rich.
Today poorer Europeans are less likely to live in the inner-city. Poor quality
housing has been renovated for the rich or turned into office buildings. Poorer
Europeans tend to live in the outskirts of the city. Vast suburbs with dozens of high
rise apartments house the poor. They face long commutes to reach their jobs in
the city.
34

European cities generally do not have the “suburban
sprawl” that US cities have. European cities tend to be
more pedestrian friendly with more parks downtown as
Europeans tend to still live downtown.
US cities have taller buildings as European cities tend to
be older and more historic.

American cities have more ethnic neighborhoods than
European cities. Ethnic neighborhoods that do exist in
European cities tend to be in the suburbs. WHY?
Because the established richer neighborhoods tend to be
downtown in European cities.
35

Less Developed Countries: Like Europe, most LDC’s accommodate their poor in the
suburbs with their middle class and rich living near the center of the city. LDC’s have
passed through 3 periods of city building: before the Europeans arrived, during the
period of European colonialism, and since independence from European control.

Pre-colonial Cities: Before the Europeans arrived few cities existed in Africa, Asia, and
Latin America and most people lived in small rural settlements. Those cities that existed
were mostly laid out surrounding a religious center; with the rest of the city laid out in a
hieratical concentric pattern (like the Burgess model) from government buildings,
homes of the wealthy, and businesses related to the religion out to other businesses
and shops.
Colonial cities: When the Europeans took over these lands, they changed the cities by
adding services to help the Europeans control the conquered people. Often a new
European style city would be build next to the existing native one. The new European
cities contained wider streets, a public square, larger houses and a much lower density.
The Spanish used the “Law of the Indies” which was a city plan designed specifically to
build cities in a “Spanish” style. (Gridiron pattern for streets centered on a church and
central plaza, walls around individual houses and neighborhoods centered around
smaller plazas and more churches.)
36

Early Mexico city was laid out in a grid pattern of streets. This followed
the Spanish “Law of the Indies.”

37

Central Plaza in Mexico City 1920 photo. Typical Colonial City plan.

Part of downtown Mexico city today still shows the
building plan of the “Law of the Indies.”

38

Cities since Independence: Following independence, cities have become
the focal point of the development of most LDC’s. Millions of people have
migrated to the cities (Primate cities) looking for jobs and services. Some
capitals have been moved to isolated areas in an attempt to help develop
that area of the country (Brasília) This is know as a forward capital. Latin
American cities have developed their own unique style.
Squatter settlements: The LDC’s are unable to house the rapidly growing
number of poor who are flowing into the cities. Because of the housing
shortages, the poor have constructed their own settlements around the city.
These settlements have few services because neither the city nor the
residents can afford them. Squatters have two basic choices for housing.
1. Illegally move into empty real houses located in the city or,
2. Rent slum housing.
(85% of the population of Addis Ababa in Ethiopia lives in squatter
settlements, slums or other illegal housing.)
39

Squatter shacks in Manila, the Philippines

40

Squatter settlement in Ethiopia

41

Zimbabwe, Africa

42

Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

43

Latin American City Model:
In many Latin
American cities,
the wealthy live in
the inner city and
in a sector
extending along a
commercial spine.
In situ accretion- businesses
and homes constantly under
construction/repair.
Zone of maturity-2nd best
housing in the city.
The poor live in squatter settlements on the
periphery of the city.

Disamenity- unpleasant area
used by the poor to get to the
market.

44

The City Outline of Rio de Janeiro
The rich tourist areas and expensive condo apartments are along the coast
and beach while the poor live in squatter shacks in the hills.

45

City problems:
Inner-City Physical Problems: Most US inner cities were constructed before the 1950’s
(people began to move to the suburbs in the 1950’s so new construction moved out of
the city).
Process of Deterioration (how a city deteriorates): A city doesn’t suddenly become old
and full of slummy areas. It happens over time. When a group of low-income people
inhabit an area of a city, nearby neighborhoods will often look to move out. They sell or
rent to more low-income occupants thus expanding the low-income area. Two processes
cause/speed up the devaluation of areas:
1. Filtering, 2. Redlining.
Filtering: Large houses and buildings that once housed rich downtown workers (who
moved to the suburbs) are taken over by landlords who don’t live in that area (they
moved to the suburbs too). Rents are low so the landlord doesn’t take as good care of
the property as they should and the property becomes run down or abandoned. Stores
close, or move, due to lack of sales. 100 years ago these neighborhoods would be used
by immigrants and ethnic businesses would succeed in those areas. Now, with a decline
in immigration, these neighborhoods have shrunk and so have schools, businesses and
other services. Thousands of vacant houses and buildings stand empty in inner cities
across America.

46

Redlining: Some banks refuse to give loans in what they consider
risky neighborhoods. They draw a red line on a map around areas
where they will not give loans. Without loans, these neighborhoods
have a hard time rebuilding/remodeling. Though illegal, this still
happens. Bankers just don’t put these “no-loan” areas on a map.

Urban Renewal: This is the series of projects to improve European
and N. American cities by buying up the blighted neighborhoods,
moving the people to new government built housing projects, and
building new roads, and other projects to make the inner city
attractive for business again. National and State government grants
help pay for these projects.
47

Public housing: Housing for the poor, built with government funding as part of
urban renewal. In the US this is only about 2% of the housing while in some
countries it may be more (Britain is 30%). Public housing built in the 50’s & 60’s
were largely high rise apartments, but those are seen as being unsatisfactory.
Problems arise from cramming large numbers of poor people into one area.
Today most public housing projects are one to three story buildings with many of
them being scattered around different parts of the city rather than clustered into
one area.
Because urban renewal has been criticized for destroying the social cohesion of
older neighborhoods, many governments (like the US) have stopped funding
most projects since the 1970’s. What do we do instead?
Renovated Housing: An alternative often used since the 70’s is to renovate a
building instead of urban renewal. The process where middle-class people
move into inner-city neighborhoods and renovate them is called gentrification.
Gentrified inner-city neighborhoods also attract middle-class people who work
downtown. Living close to work saves the hassle of commuting and rejuvenates
run down inner-city neighborhoods
48

Gentrified building downtown Harlem, NY. Note the supermarket.

49

Inner-City Social Problems: Inner-city residents are often referred to as the
permanent underclass because they are trapped in an unending cycle of
economic and social problems. High unemployment, alcoholism, drug
addiction, literacy, juvenile delinquency, and crime all exist at a higher rate
among those who live in the inner-city. Lack of jobs means lack of tax dollars
to pay for police and fire protection as well as good schools. Lack of job skills
and homelessness are also tremendous problems.
Culture of Poverty: Inner-city residents are trapped in a permanent underclass
culture that reproduces itself. In the US, unwed mothers give birth to 2/3 of the
babies in the inner-city. 90% of these children live with only one parent and it
is real hard for one parent to keep a job and take care of children. Both suffer
and a shortage of care and daily attention by the parent contributes to the kids
not learning the skills necessary to do well in school which leads to poor jobs
for their futures. Poverty leads to more poverty. Many families on welfare have
only one parent because it is financially better if one parent is gone, that way
the single parent gets food stamps and other services from the government
that they would not get if it was a 2 family household.
50

Crime: Trapped in a hopeless environment, some inner-city
residents turn to drugs. Drug use is a problem in inner-city
areas and the suburbs, but rates of drug use in inner-cities
are the highest.
Ethnic and Racial Segregation: As seen in chapter 7, many
neighborhoods in the US are segregated by ethnicity with
African Americans and Hispanics concentrated in one or two
continuous areas and whites living in the suburbs. Even small
cities display a strong distinction among neighborhoods. A
frequent division is between the east and west or north and
south side of town, or the railroad tracks. A family seeking a
new residence will seek the areas where the characteristics
of the people meet their own.

51

The exodus
from the
American city.
This has
happened in
many American
cities since the
1960’s.

52

Changes in Cities in the U.S.
U.S. population has been moving out of the city centers to the suburbs:
suburbanization and counter urbanization

Developed Countries: suburbanization

 wealthy move to suburbs
 automobiles and roads; ‘American
Dream’ of the home in the suburbs.
 better services
 wealthy move to suburbs
Counter urbanization

idyllic settings
cost of land for retirement
slow pace, yet high tech
connections to services and markets
53

U.S. intraregional migration during 1990s.

Inner city economic problems: the concentration of low income
residents in inner cities has caused economic problems. These
people require public services but can pay very little in taxes to
support the services. They need stores and jobs but have little
money to spend in the store and few skills for jobs (so the stores
close). To try to fight these problems many local and state
governments use tax monies to try to renovate these areas, but this
shifts tax money needed for other areas to the inner city (votes on
election day).
Annexation: Many cities could help their tax problem by adding the
new suburbs to be part of their city (annexation). After all, many of
these suburban people use the city for its’ jobs etc., so why not add
them into the city? Today, most people in the suburbs do not want
to be annexed into the city and so they do not vote to be annexed.
54

The Peripheral Model: According to this model, an urban area
consists of an inner city surrounded by large suburban residential
and business areas (MSA) tied together by a beltway or highway
that circles the city. Around the beltway are nodes of consumer
and business services called edge cities (see diagram of multiple
nuclei model). These edge cities sprang up to provide services
and jobs to the people in the suburbs.
Density Gradient: As you travel outward from the center of the
city, the density of people declines. Inner city has big apartments
of 250 of more people per acre. Suburbs have fewer people per
acre (but lots of acres) and finally you leave the cities periphery
you find few people. The number of houses per unit of land
diminishes as distance from the center of the city increases.
55

The Edge cities (bedroom communities) of Houston

The central city is surrounded by a ring road, around which are
suburban areas and edge cities, shopping malls, office parks,
industrial areas, and service complexes.

Known as
bedroom
communities
because
people live
there but
mostly don’t
work there.
They drive
into the city
for work.
56

As you move from the center of the city outward, the density of the population
changes. This is know as the density gradient. Two big changes have occurred in
the density gradient of today’s cities:
1. The number of people living in the center has decreased.
2. The density difference between the inner city and the suburbs is declining
because the inner city density is dropping and the suburban density is growing
due to more large apartments being built in the suburbs.
Cost of Suburban or Urban Sprawl: Urban Sprawl is the progressive spread of
development over the landscape. As long as we Americans want single-family
detached houses, land on the fringe of urban areas will be converted from open
space to residential use. The cost of this growth is more than the loss of land, it is
also the cost of new roads, utilities, building stores and offices and the cost of
automobiles to move these people over even longer distances. Lots of these new
developments are built on what was once farmland. Wonderful productive soil now
under concrete.

Greenbelts: are areas where, by law, the open space can not be used for any
construction. This is mostly found in Europe.

57

Once farmland that is being converted to suburbs and cities.

58

Tyson’s Corner Virginia in 1940

59

Washington, DC. MSA.

Tyson’s Corner Virginia
today.
Washington D.C. is off
In the distance.

60

Suburban Segregation: The “new” segregation.
Suburban segregation takes two forms:
1. Residents are separated from commercial and manufacturing activities
which are confined someplace else. (The whole neighborhood is
nothing but houses because they drive for services.)
2. The price of the house eliminates some from being able to live there. This
creates a homogeneous suburb of the same economic class of people.
This never existed before in history. Where we once had vertical
segregation of the classes we now we have horizontal segregation.
3. But this may be reversing as new statistics show that people are beginning
to move back to the city. Why? Cost of transportation.
Zoning Ordinances: This idea developed in Europe and later America in the
early decades of the 20th century. This means that businesses are allowed only
in certain areas of the settlement. (No all night taco stands inside your single
family neighborhood.)
Motor vehicles: The wide use of the automobile is largely responsible for the
American movement to the suburbs. Not only did people move out but 1/4 of
the land inside all American cities are now roads, streets, and parking lots.

61

Public Transportation: Because few US workers live within walking distance
of their jobs, urban areas are characterized by extensive commuting and the
problems that come with it. As much as 40% of all trips made into or out from
a city during the day takes place within just 4 hours. (2 in the morning and 2 in
the late afternoon). RUSH HOUR!!! In large cities, public transportation, like
subways and busses, are better suited to move people but Americans still
prefer their own cars. Public transportation is cheaper, cleaner, and more
energy efficient than personal cars, yet in the US only 5% of city travel is
done using public transit systems. American’s love their personal car too
much.
Local Government Fragmentation: Because of the large number of local
governments in the US (look at the settlements in Pinellas County) it is
difficult to solve some of the regional problems like garbage disposal, water
management, traffic and public housing.
62

Metropolitan government: This idea tries to put many local governments into a
larger unit that can better handle the urban problems. The 2 ways to do this
are:
1. Federations in which the individual settlements have their own police,
firemen, and tax collection but they all agree to be part of a second
government which handles transportation, water, sewage, parks and
welfare for all the communities.
2. Consolidations: In this method, several cities and the county may form one
government. Jacksonville’s government runs not only the town but the
county too, this makes Jacksonville the largest city, in land size, in the US.
Smart growth: A new movement by many states to curb suburban sprawl by
limiting where new construction can take place. Smart growth laws require that
land near cities be used up before any land further out can be developed. So
far, this is only being done an a few parts of our country.
63

The new
US as
some
people
see it.

64

Quiz Yourself:
1. The process where middle-class people move into inner city neighborhoods and
renovate them is called ____________
2. ____________ happens when banks refuse to give loans in what they consider
risky neighborhoods.
3. Because of the housing shortages, the poor have constructed their own settlements
around the city known as __________ _________

4. Businesses are allowed only in certain areas of the settlement because of
____________ ____________
5. Areas known as _____ _______ are areas of about 5,000 people. The data from
that area is used to help define needed services for that area.
6. When cities are so close that they form one continuous band of development this is
known as a ____________
65

7. Social relationships are often described as “colder” in urban areas because…
8. In this model the city develops in a series of sectors not rings. _______

9. ______ (LDC’s or MDC’s) have a higher percentage of people living in urban
settlements but ________ (LDC’s or MDC’s) have more of the very large urban
settlements.
10. _____________ was the first model developed to explain the distributions
of different social groups within urban areas.
11. New cities which develop around the beltway are nodes of consumer and
business services known as ________ _________.

12. When the Europeans took over lands around the world, they changed the
cities by adding services to help the Europeans control the conquered people.
These European planned cities are known as __________ cities.
66

Answer Key:
1.

Gentrification

2.

Redlining

3.

Squatter Settlements

4.

Zoning ordinances

5.

Census tracks

6.

Megalopolis

7. There is a stronger feeling of belonging together in small rural settlements.
8. Hoyt sector model
9. MDC, LDC
10. Burgess Concentric Zone model
11. Edge cities
12. Colonial cities
67

Test Key topic/chapter 13:
These questions come from a combination of our slides, your text book, and common knowledge you should
have discussed in your AP classroom. They are very typical of what you will see on the National Exam.
1) The multiple nuclei theory best explains why different neighborhoods of a city attract people of different… A) ages.
B) ethnic origin C) income D) marital status.
2) Sprawl is the… A) change in density within an urban area from the center to the periphery B) development of new
housing sites not contiguous to the existing built-up area. C) land maintained as open space surrounding an urban area.
D) period in the morning and evening with the heaviest volumes of traffic.
3) People are attracted to suburbs in part because suburbs are characterized by…A) heavy traffic. B) lower opportunity
for home ownership. C) private land surrounding the house. D) row houses and apartments.
4) Megalopolis refers to… A) adjacent, overlapping Metropolitan Statistical Areas. B) central cities. C) consolidated
Metropolitan Statistical Areas. D) central cities plus urbanized areas.
5) Which statement best describes the relationship between urbanization and the Industrial Revolution? A) Urbanization
promoted the Industrial Revolution. B) The Industrial Revolution promoted urbanization. C) Urbanization preceded the
Industrial Revolution by thousands of years. D) Urbanization and the Industrial Revolution are no longer related.
6) The process of legally adding land area to a city in the United States is… A) annexation. B) accreditation. C) an
application of eminent domain. D) defined by urbanized area.

68

7) The process of change in the use of a house, from single-family owner occupancy to abandonment, is… A) blockbusting.
B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining.
8) A process by which banks designate an area within which they refuse to lend money for improvements is… A) blockbusting.
B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining.
9) A recent change in the density gradient has been… A) the elimination of the gap traditionally found in the center. B) an
increase in the extremes between the inner and outer areas. C) an increase in the number of people living in the center.
D) a reduction in the differences in densities found within an urban area.
10) U.S. central cities face fiscal problems because… A) federal and state funds are available. B) low-income people are
concentrated there. C) middle-class families are attracted there. D) redlining is no longer legal.
11) A legal form of segregation in U.S. cities is achieved through...A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) zoning. D) greenbelts.
12) Factories have moved to suburban locations in part because of… A) access to main highways. B) adequate space to build
vertical structures. C) availability of large tracts of high-priced land. D) good rail connections.
13) According to the sector model, the best housing is located in…A) a corridor from downtown to the edge of the city.
B) an outer ring surrounding the city. C) nodes near universities and parks. D) renovated inner-city neighborhoods.
14) Ramshackle houses on the periphery of cities in less developed countries are known as… A) squatter settlements. B) council
estates. C) public housing. D) zone in transition.
15) Higher income people tend to live near the center of the city in all but which of the following regions? A) Latin America
B) North America C) South Asia D) Western Europe

16) The wide boulevards built in cities in less developed countries were most likely built during what era? A) pre-colonial
B) colonial C) independence D) all of the above equally

69

17) According to the multiple nuclei model, an airport is likely to attract nearby… A) industries. B) residences. C) shops.
D) universities.
18) The largest percentage of the U.S. population lives in…A) central cities. B) suburbs. C) non-metropolitan areas. D) all of the
above
19) In U.S. cities, the underclass is… A) clustered in inner-city neighborhoods. B) dispersed throughout the city. C) clustered in
suburbs. D) distributed uniformly in the city.

20) A process of converting a neighborhood from low-income to middle-class is…A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) gentrification.
D) redlining.
21) Higher social heterogeneity in urban settlements means that… A) the people with whom you relax are probably the same ones you
see at work. B) you play a specialized role in the urban economy. C) you compete for limited space. D) you may feel lonely and
isolated in a crowd.
22) The city plus its contiguous built-up suburbs is the… A) central city. B) urbanized area.
D) consolidated metropolitan statistical area

C) metropolitan statistical area.

23) The process whereby an increasing percentage of people live in an urban area is known as… A) demographic transition.
B) rank-size rule. C) urbanization. D) central place theory.
24) Of the ten largest urban areas in the world, how many are in More Developed Countries today? A) 1 B) 4 C) 7 D) 10 E) 2
25) Public housing is…A) conversion of low-income housing to middle-class housing. B) illegally established low-income housing.
C) housing that has changed from single-family owner occupancy to abandonment. D) low-income government-owned housing.
26) According to the concentric zone model, a city develops in a series of… A) corridors. B) nodes. C) rings. D) all of the above

70

27) Chicago is a good location in which to develop urban models because it is located… A) at the hub of the nation's transportation
system. B) in the center of the country. C) on a flat prairie. D) on the shore of Lake Michigan.
28) According to the sector model, the best housing is located in… A) a corridor from downtown to the edge of the city. B) an outer
ring surrounding the city. C) nodes near universities and parks. D) renovated inner-city neighborhoods.
29) The zone of transition in US cities generally contain…A) warehouses B) wealthy neighborhoods C) transportation hubs
D) universities and hospitals E) suburban homes
30) The attractions of shopping malls include all but which of the following? A) frequent concerts and exhibitions B) generous
parking lots C) place to meet friends D) walking distance from homes
The following questions are written at the high school level. You will find some questions from part one often rewritten
here. This is all designed to help you transition to the college/AP style of written questions. Any question preceded with ***
are questions that have been on the national exam before.
31. Most Latin American cities are focused on a…A) central plaza B) government housing project C) zone of heavy industry
D) skyscraper office building E) squatter settlement
32. The multiple-nuclei model of a city structure tends to be most applicable to…A) small cities B) traditional C) Latin American
cities D) newer, fast growing cities E) cities with homogeneous land use
33. ***Locational advantages important to the development of the earliest cities include…A) availability of good harbors for large
ships B) productive agricultural land and defensible sites C) temperate climate and proximity to coal mines D) good
connections by road and canal E) proximity to manufacturing areas

34. In cities, the CBD’s often show uniqueness while the suburbs usually show…A) a large hinterland. B) placelessness C) more
than one node. D) newer zones of transition.

71

35. Many LDC’s have tried to help a previously under-developed part of their country develop by moving their capital
city to that area. This new capital is known as a…A) forward capital B) new development zone C) enterprise zone
D) neocolonial city
36. Today the greatest number of urban dwellers is found in…A) North America
D) Europe E) Asia

B) South America C) Africa

37. ***All of the following have helped create ghettos in North American cities except…A)blockbusting and racial
steering B) redlining by financial institutions C) concentration of public housing and social services D) fixed school
districts E) Economic Enterprise Zones

38. Which of the following is NOT as reason for rapid suburbanization in the US after WW2? A) Mass production of
the automobile B) Reduction of long distance commuting C) Expansion of home construction D) Expansion of the
interstate highway system E) Availability of low down payment terms and long-term mortgages.
39. New cities which developed in the hinterland of large urban areas because of the automobile, are known as…
A) edge cities B) census tracts C) suburban sprawl D) squatter settlements. E) none of these
40. Gentrification refers to… A) moving the homeless into inner city shelters B) The “White Flight” from the urban city
C) losing tax revenue because of stores closing in downtown areas D) middle-class people moving into and renovating
inner city neighborhoods E) the creation of “beltway cities” around the city.

72

4
7
3

5

1
6

2

41-48 all use the sketch above.
41. The sketch in box A above represents which model of the inner structure of urban areas?
C) multiple nuclei model D) Burgess concentric zone model E) peripheral model
42. The models in boxes B and C represent A) Concentric zone and multiple nuclei
concentric zone D) peripheral and concentric zone E) Von Thunen and peripheral

A) Hoyt sector model B) VonThunen’s model

B) Multiple nuclei and Hoyt sector C) Hoyt sector and

43. In which ring (1, 2, etc.) of sketch A above would high-status households in North American cities likely live? A) 1 B) 2 C) 3 D) 4&5
44. In which ring (1, 2, etc.) of sketch A above would high status households in a European city likely live? A) 1

B) 2

C) 3

D) 4&5

45. In model B, zone # 2 is where it is likely because of: A) greenbelting B) squatter settling C) the culture of poverty D) transportation
E) no one knows
46. The model in sketch B is the; A) Hoyt sector model B) Burgess model C) multiple nuclei model D) peripheral model
47. The model in sketch C is the; A) Hoyt sector model B) Burgess model C) multiple nuclei model D) peripheral model
48. Which of these models best describes what has happened in US cities in the last 40 years? A)

B)

C)

73

49.*** In the U.S. a city plus its contiguous built-up suburbs is known as an…A) urbanized area B) zoned area
C) census tract D) Squatter settlement E) none of these
50. Done mostly in Europe, these are areas where land is kept as parks, farms or other kinds of open space and urban
sprawl is not allowed. A) Smart growth
B) zoning
C) filtering
D) census tracts E) greenbelts
51. Which statement best describes the relationship between urbanization and the Industrial Revolution?
A) Urbanization promoted the Industrial Revolution. B) The Industrial Revolution promoted urbanization.
C) Urbanization preceded the Industrial Revolution by thousands of years. D) Urbanization and the Industrial
Revolution are no longer related.
52. The process whereby an increasing percentage of people live in an urban area is known as…
A) Demographic transition. B) rank-size rule. C) Urbanization. D) Central place theory.
53. The city (if it has 50,000 or more people) plus its contiguous built-up suburbs AND the county it is in as well as any
other counties it influences, is known as the ...A) central city B) urbanized area
C) metropolitan statistical area
D) consolidated metropolitan area E) micropolitan statistical area
54. ***Higher social heterogeneity in urban settlements means that …A) the people with whom you relax are probably
the same ones you see at work. B) you play a specialized role in the urban economy. C) you compete for limited
space. D) you may feel lonely and isolated in a crowd.

55. The process of change in the use of a house, from single-family owner occupancy to smaller dwellings for the poor
and then sometimes to abandonment, is…A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining. E) none of
these

74

Free Response #1:
The Bid Rent theory says that the closer you get to the
CBD the higher the cost for land, yet in most American
cities you find the poorest people living near the
expensive CBD and the richest living further away.
Explain:
A. Why neighborhoods near the CBD are often poor and
run down?
B. Why are there few grocery and other retail stores in
these neighborhoods?
C. Why is this not really true in European and Latin
American countries?

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75

FR #2:
Think of the map of your school, explain the
layout of your school using the Multiple Nuclei
Model
The main office is the CBD.
Completely explain your answer using specific
buildings and/or land areas in your explanation
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76

Answer Key:
1. B

14. A

27. C

40. D

53. C

2. B

15. B

28. A

41. D

54. D

3. C

16. B

29. A

42. B

55. B

4. A

17. A

30. D

43. D

5. B

18. B

31. A

44. A

6. A

19. A

32. D

45. D

7. B

20. C

33. B

46. A

8. D

21. D

34. B

47. C

9. D

22. B

35. A

48. C

10. B

23. C

36. E

49. A

11. C

24. C

37. E

50. E

12. A

25. D

38. B

51. B

13. A

26. C

39. A

52. C
77

FR. #1: ( 15 pts. for each section…total of 45 pts.)
A. In the US the move of the wealthy and middle class to the suburbs has left the older houses and apartments near the CBD empty.
This has lowered their value to the point where the poor can afford these dwellings and have made these neighborhoods their
homes. The poor can not pay for upkeep of these dwellings, or to pay high taxes. The lack of upkeep and tax money to repair the
roads and schools, adds to the downward spiral of the neighborhood. With little spending money for shopping, the poor do not
spend much in the stores. This causes many stores to close and move to the suburbs where the spending customers and money
went. The closing of the stores adds to the poverty of the area by taking away some of the jobs that were in the neighborhood. This
becomes a vicious cycle of poverty and deterioration. (15 points)

B. There are few retail stores and groceries is the area because the poor do not have money to shop. The lack of spending forces
many stores out of business or forces them to move to better locations. There also can be higher crime in these areas and the
crime often takes place at the stores. This is another reason for the stores to move out of the neighborhood. (15 points)
C. Neighborhoods in European and Latin American cities are different from those of US cities. In Europe and Latin America, the
wealthy and middle class still live near or in the CBD. The higher tax base and more spending ability of the upper and middle
classes, keeps the CBD area flourishing with jobs and in constant repair and upkeep of the cities’ physical condition. (15 points)

FR #2: (10 total points.)
You will need to judge how effectively you displayed you school
in the Multiple Nuclei Model. Refer to the model itself to help you
determine your success and grade.
School’s main office
78

Calculating your grade on test 13.
Add how many you got correct on the multiple choice part (55 possible) to how many
points you scored on the FR portion (55 possible)…110 total.
The following scale will show the approximate score if this test were the real AP exam. Remember that this
is an approximation. While 65-74% is normally the range for a 3 on the test, it is not definite. Over the
years I have seen scores as low as 60% be the low portion of a 3 score.

Out of 110 possible points:
72-83 is most likely a 3
84-94 is most likely a 4

95-110 is most likely a 5

Now lets start our review for the national exam by
reviewing the 33 key models and theories of the
course…the next PowerPoint.


Slide 74

Key topic/chapter 13…Urban Patterns
Key terms:
Annexation
Concentric zone model
Density gradient
Edge cities
Filtering
Galactic city
Gentrification
Greenbelts
Megalopolis
MSA
Multiple nuclei model
Peripheral model

Public housing
Redlining
Renovated housing
Scattered site
Squatter settlement
Sector model
Smart growth
Sprawl
Underclass
Urban renewal
Zone in transition
Zoning
1

Chapter 13…Urban Areas.
How are Cities planned?
Why

are cities where they are?
How are they organized?
Why are some areas of a city
different from
other areas of the same city?
What is the future of cities?
2

Settlement


Settlement - permanent collections of buildings,
where people live, work, and obtain services

3

ORIGINS OF SETTLEMENTS


Religious - graves, churches, temples



Cultural - schools, libraries



Political/Military - leader’s house, walls



Economic - stores, food
4

TYPES OF SETTLEMENTS


Rural Settlements - agriculture as the
predominant occupation.



Urban settlements - principal industries are
secondary and tertiary.

5

RURAL SETTLEMENTS
Clustered rural settlements –grouped
settlements in rural areas to minimize travel

Dispersed rural Settlements - isolated farms
with enclosed continuous fields (Found only in
N. America and Britain).

6

Urban Geographers want to know the global distribution of urban
settlements. MDC’s have a high percentage of people living in urban
areas because of the shift from agriculture-manufacturing-services.
Geographers are also interested in where people and activities are
distributed within urban spaces. What are the differences between the
inner-city and suburban areas and why?
As we saw in the last chapter, many downtowns are unique and can
often be recognized in photos where the suburbs often look very
much alike (Placelessness). Why? Suburbs offer the chance to avoid
some of the city problems (crime, tight living area, expensive
land/rent, noise, age of buildings) while still keeping a connection with
the goods and services of the city: jobs, sports teams, culture, shops,
recreation, etc.
7

Where is this place?

8

Today’s cities are evolving and changing. Although different internal
situations characterize urban areas in the US and elsewhere, the
problems arising from current spatial trends are quite similar in all cities.
Where have urban areas grown: in the early 1800’s only 3% of the earth’s
people lived in cities and only Beijing China had more than 1 million
people. Today over ½ of the world’s people live in cities and we have over
400 cities of at least 1 million people.

Urbanization: is the process by which city population grows.
Cities population growth is measured in 2 dimensions;
1. An increase in the number of people living in the cities.
2. An increase in the percentage of people living in the cities.
This distinction is important because they happen for different reason and
have different global distributions.
9

Increasing Percentage of People in Cities: a large percentage of people living in urban
areas is a measure of a country’s level of development. In MDC’s about ¾ of the people
live in urban areas compared to about 2/5 of people in LDC’s. (Except in Latin America
where the level is closer to MDC’s.)
The higher percentage of people in urban areas comes from the changes that have
occurred in the last 200 years as we went from agriculture (primary jobs) to industrial
(secondary jobs) and now service jobs, all created by the Industrial Revolution of the
1800’s.
People moved to the cities for industrial jobs, but in MDC’s this process has largely
ended because nearly everyone interested in moving to the cities from farms has already
done so.
In LDC’s the percentage of people living in urban areas is growing as people are pushed
off of their farms and replaced by machines and as people move to cities looking/hoping
for industrial jobs.
10

Increasing Number of People in Cities: MDC’s have a higher percentage of
people living in urban settlements but LDC’s have more of the very large urban
settlements (Primate cities). (Rank-size rule, primate cities, chapter 12.)

This is interesting because typically the large cities are created from the
improvements brought by the Industrial Revolution. This is not the case with the
large LDC cities. Migration to the primate city in LDC’s is happening even though
job opportunities may not be available. Increasing the population growth in LDC
cities is the fact that medical services are better in these cities, thus the child
mortality rate is lower.
Defining Urban Settlements: defining where urban areas end and rural areas
begin is not easy. Geographers have formulated definitions that distinguish
between urban and rural areas in two ways: Social differences and Physical
differences.
11

Percent Urban Population

Percent of the population living in urban areas is usually higher in MDCs
than in LDCs.

12

The most populated cities in the world

Of the top
20, only
Moscow,
Tokyo and
New York
are in MDC’s

Shanghai China has 14,608,512 people
13

14

15

Social Differences Between Urban and Rural Settlements: it is fair to say that rural
people and urban people follow different ways of life. A city can be defined as having 3
characteristics:
1. Large size. People in rural settlements know most of the other people in the
settlement. Not true in big cities. Social relationships are often described as “colder” in
urban areas because you only see some people at work instead of growing up with
them in the settlement.
2. High Density. Having lots of people in a tiny area creates social consequences. A
high density of people living in a small area can only be supported if the people
specialize (they can’t all be farmers). People are encouraged to compete for jobs, room,
and survival in a tightly limited space. Social groups compete to occupy the same space
(ethnic/ race problems). Rural settlements have very little of this problem.
3. Social Heterogeneity. The larger the settlement, the greater the variety of people.
Being “unusual” in a large settlement is more likely to be accepted than in a small rural
one. But despite the freedom to be different that large urban settlements give you,
people living there often feel alone because so many people are different from them.
There is a stronger feeling of belonging together in small rural settlements.
16

These 3 differences do not fully answer the question of where urban settlements
begin and rural ones end because in today’s MDC’s most everyone has access to
cars, telephones, televisions, and “urban type” jobs which reduce the differences
between urban and rural lifestyles. “City folk” and “Country folk” are more alike
today than they are different. To help distinguish between urban and rural areas we
need to add the physical definition of rural and urban to the equation.
Physical Definitions of Urban Settlements: In ancient time, cities had defensive
walls for protection which clearly defined the physical boundaries of the city. Today
the walls are gone but we can still define the physical boundaries in 3 ways:
1. Legal boundary. These are the official boundaries of a city as recognized by
the government of the country or state. These “city limits” have been officially given
to the city and are physically marked on official maps. The local government of the
city has authority to make laws and protect the people inside the city boundaries.
17

2. Urbanized area. This is the city plus its suburbs or urbanized area that
surrounds the city. About 70 percent of US residents live in urbanized areas with
40% being in the suburbs and 30% inside the city limits. The suburbs may have
their own city governments but the huge central city dominates what happens in
the entire area.
3. Metropolitan Statistical Area. Cities have an even bigger influence on people
than just those living in their city limits and surrounding urbanized areas. People
from far away come to shop, use the services, support the sports teams, read
the newspapers and watch the television broadcasts of the city. Thus the city
has a “functional area” which is its total zone of influence. The US Bureau of
Census has created a method of measuring the functional area of the city.
Known as the Metropolitan statistical area (MSA) this area includes:
•An urbanized area with a population of at least 50,000
•The county within which the city is located.
•Adjacent counties with a high population density and a large percentage of
residents working in the central city’s county.
18

Metropolitan Area of Philadelphia

City of
Philadelphia

Urbanized
area
(suburbs)
Metropolitan
Statistical
Area

The metropolitan area of Philadelphia is
spread over several counties and four states.
It is also a diversified trade center, given its
position on the Delaware river.

19

20

21

Micropolitan Statistical Areas: Smaller areas with between
10,000 and 50,000 people, the county where it is found, and
adjacent counties tied to the city. This would be a small town and
the area dominated by it.
Overlapping Metropolitan Areas: Some adjacent MSA’s overlap.
A county between two central cities may send a large number of
commuters to jobs in both cities. In some areas the cities are so
close that they form one continuous urban complex. This is
known as a Megalopolis (great city).
In a megalopolis, the downtown CBD often has its own
distinctive look and the urban areas are visually separated by
parks, open spaces, and dairy/truck farms. But at the periphery
of the urban areas, the boundaries overlap.
22

Colorado Springs, population 431,000

Ocala, Florida, population 56,000

Florala, Alabama, population 1,900

23

Megalopolis, from northern Va. To Maine.
This Illustrates the
difference between
strict city proper
definitions and broader
urban agglomerations.
To define urbanized
areas, the U.S. Census
Bureau uses the term
Metropolitan Statistical
Area (MSA) or
Consolidated MSA
(CMSA) if two or more of
them overlap.
24

Where are People Distributed within Urban Areas? People are not
just distributed at random in urban areas. For the most part they
concentrate in particular neighborhoods depending on their social
characteristics. Geographers want to see where people with
particular characteristics are likely to live and why.

Three models which try to explain the growth of a city:

The Burgess Model

The Hoyt Sector Model

The Harris and Ullman
multiple Nuclei Model
25

Burgess Concentric Zone Model

In the concentric zone model, a city grows in a series of rings surrounding the CBD.

Burgess Concentric Zone Model: This is the first used to explain the
distributions of different social groups within urban areas. It says that a
city grows outward from a central place in a series of concentric rings.
The precise size and width of the rings vary from one city to another, but
some basic types of rings appear in all cities in the same order (see chart
above).
26

•Hoyt Sector Model: In this model the city develops in a
series of sectors not rings. Certain areas of the city are
more attractive for various activities, originally because
of an environmental factor (or even pure chance). As the
city grows, activities extend outward in a wedge shape.
For example, once a wealthy neighborhood is built the
next wealthy neighborhood will extend from the first
neighborhood further outward from the center. In this
way, the best housing is found in a corridor extending
outward from the center to the outer edge (see chart on
the next page).
27

The Hoyt Sector Model

In the sector model, a city grows in a series of
wedges or corridors extending out from the
CBD.
28

•Harris and Ullman’s Multiple Nuclei Model: According
to this model, a city is a complex structure that includes
more than one center around which activities revolve.
Examples of these nodes include a port, parks,
stadium, neighborhood business center, university, and
airport (see chart). This theory states that some
activities are attracted to particular nodes, whereas
others try to avoid them. A university node may attract
well educated people and bookstores while the port will
attract hotels and warehouses. Heavy industry and
expensive houses rarely are found together. This
model shows the effect of the automobile more than
any other model.
29

The Harris and Ullman Multiple Nuclei model

The multiple nuclei model views a city as a
collection of individual centers, around which
different people and activities cluster.

30

Applications of the Models: The three models help explain where and in some
cases, why people live where they do. None of the models by themselves fully
explains why and where different types of people live, but combined they give
you as good a look as possible at the “Why” of “Where.” Effective use of the
models depends on getting good data on the areas. Most countries take a
census every 10 years to help determine useful data about the people and
places of the country. In our country we divide the census data into areas
known as census tracts of about 5,000 people. Each census tract has the data
that summarizes the characteristics of the people living within that tract. This
information includes things like the race, income, age, and education of the
people living in that tract.
Social Area Analysis: The data from the census tracts can all be plotted onto
maps to show the characteristics of the people living in that tract. This map is
known as a social area analysis.
31

Using Census tract information…Seattle, Washington
Each lined area is a
census tract of about 5000
people in Seattle
Washington. These maps
show average household
income for 1990 and
2000…note the changes in
income in some areas
between 1990 and 2000.
Using this information, a
business can make
decisions about where
they want to locate a new
store or the future of
existing stores.
You can find census tract
information on many topics
such as; age, education
level, race, ethnicity, crime
rate, and land ownership.
Note the areas with
incomes over
$63,000.

All can be very valuable
information to people
looking to open
businesses.

32

Examine the changes
between 1990 and
2000.

Oakland, California’s Ethnic neighborhoods
The small bordered areas are census tracks of 5000 people.

33

Use of the Models Outside of North America: The 3 models will also work in other
places in the world; however social groups in other countries may not have the
same reasons for selecting particular neighborhoods as Americans do.
European Cities: As in the US, wealthier people in European cities cluster along a
sector extending outward from the CBD, however unlike the US, wealthy and
middle class Europeans still live in the inner rings of the neighborhoods near the
CBD not out in the suburbs. In the past, poorer people lived in the center of the
city. Before electricity, social segregation was vertical: richer people lived on the
first or second floor of a building while the poorer people lived in the basement or
upper floors. In the Industrial Revolution, housing for the poor was constructed
near the factories and away from the rich.
Today poorer Europeans are less likely to live in the inner-city. Poor quality
housing has been renovated for the rich or turned into office buildings. Poorer
Europeans tend to live in the outskirts of the city. Vast suburbs with dozens of high
rise apartments house the poor. They face long commutes to reach their jobs in
the city.
34

European cities generally do not have the “suburban
sprawl” that US cities have. European cities tend to be
more pedestrian friendly with more parks downtown as
Europeans tend to still live downtown.
US cities have taller buildings as European cities tend to
be older and more historic.

American cities have more ethnic neighborhoods than
European cities. Ethnic neighborhoods that do exist in
European cities tend to be in the suburbs. WHY?
Because the established richer neighborhoods tend to be
downtown in European cities.
35

Less Developed Countries: Like Europe, most LDC’s accommodate their poor in the
suburbs with their middle class and rich living near the center of the city. LDC’s have
passed through 3 periods of city building: before the Europeans arrived, during the
period of European colonialism, and since independence from European control.

Pre-colonial Cities: Before the Europeans arrived few cities existed in Africa, Asia, and
Latin America and most people lived in small rural settlements. Those cities that existed
were mostly laid out surrounding a religious center; with the rest of the city laid out in a
hieratical concentric pattern (like the Burgess model) from government buildings,
homes of the wealthy, and businesses related to the religion out to other businesses
and shops.
Colonial cities: When the Europeans took over these lands, they changed the cities by
adding services to help the Europeans control the conquered people. Often a new
European style city would be build next to the existing native one. The new European
cities contained wider streets, a public square, larger houses and a much lower density.
The Spanish used the “Law of the Indies” which was a city plan designed specifically to
build cities in a “Spanish” style. (Gridiron pattern for streets centered on a church and
central plaza, walls around individual houses and neighborhoods centered around
smaller plazas and more churches.)
36

Early Mexico city was laid out in a grid pattern of streets. This followed
the Spanish “Law of the Indies.”

37

Central Plaza in Mexico City 1920 photo. Typical Colonial City plan.

Part of downtown Mexico city today still shows the
building plan of the “Law of the Indies.”

38

Cities since Independence: Following independence, cities have become
the focal point of the development of most LDC’s. Millions of people have
migrated to the cities (Primate cities) looking for jobs and services. Some
capitals have been moved to isolated areas in an attempt to help develop
that area of the country (Brasília) This is know as a forward capital. Latin
American cities have developed their own unique style.
Squatter settlements: The LDC’s are unable to house the rapidly growing
number of poor who are flowing into the cities. Because of the housing
shortages, the poor have constructed their own settlements around the city.
These settlements have few services because neither the city nor the
residents can afford them. Squatters have two basic choices for housing.
1. Illegally move into empty real houses located in the city or,
2. Rent slum housing.
(85% of the population of Addis Ababa in Ethiopia lives in squatter
settlements, slums or other illegal housing.)
39

Squatter shacks in Manila, the Philippines

40

Squatter settlement in Ethiopia

41

Zimbabwe, Africa

42

Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

43

Latin American City Model:
In many Latin
American cities,
the wealthy live in
the inner city and
in a sector
extending along a
commercial spine.
In situ accretion- businesses
and homes constantly under
construction/repair.
Zone of maturity-2nd best
housing in the city.
The poor live in squatter settlements on the
periphery of the city.

Disamenity- unpleasant area
used by the poor to get to the
market.

44

The City Outline of Rio de Janeiro
The rich tourist areas and expensive condo apartments are along the coast
and beach while the poor live in squatter shacks in the hills.

45

City problems:
Inner-City Physical Problems: Most US inner cities were constructed before the 1950’s
(people began to move to the suburbs in the 1950’s so new construction moved out of
the city).
Process of Deterioration (how a city deteriorates): A city doesn’t suddenly become old
and full of slummy areas. It happens over time. When a group of low-income people
inhabit an area of a city, nearby neighborhoods will often look to move out. They sell or
rent to more low-income occupants thus expanding the low-income area. Two processes
cause/speed up the devaluation of areas:
1. Filtering, 2. Redlining.
Filtering: Large houses and buildings that once housed rich downtown workers (who
moved to the suburbs) are taken over by landlords who don’t live in that area (they
moved to the suburbs too). Rents are low so the landlord doesn’t take as good care of
the property as they should and the property becomes run down or abandoned. Stores
close, or move, due to lack of sales. 100 years ago these neighborhoods would be used
by immigrants and ethnic businesses would succeed in those areas. Now, with a decline
in immigration, these neighborhoods have shrunk and so have schools, businesses and
other services. Thousands of vacant houses and buildings stand empty in inner cities
across America.

46

Redlining: Some banks refuse to give loans in what they consider
risky neighborhoods. They draw a red line on a map around areas
where they will not give loans. Without loans, these neighborhoods
have a hard time rebuilding/remodeling. Though illegal, this still
happens. Bankers just don’t put these “no-loan” areas on a map.

Urban Renewal: This is the series of projects to improve European
and N. American cities by buying up the blighted neighborhoods,
moving the people to new government built housing projects, and
building new roads, and other projects to make the inner city
attractive for business again. National and State government grants
help pay for these projects.
47

Public housing: Housing for the poor, built with government funding as part of
urban renewal. In the US this is only about 2% of the housing while in some
countries it may be more (Britain is 30%). Public housing built in the 50’s & 60’s
were largely high rise apartments, but those are seen as being unsatisfactory.
Problems arise from cramming large numbers of poor people into one area.
Today most public housing projects are one to three story buildings with many of
them being scattered around different parts of the city rather than clustered into
one area.
Because urban renewal has been criticized for destroying the social cohesion of
older neighborhoods, many governments (like the US) have stopped funding
most projects since the 1970’s. What do we do instead?
Renovated Housing: An alternative often used since the 70’s is to renovate a
building instead of urban renewal. The process where middle-class people
move into inner-city neighborhoods and renovate them is called gentrification.
Gentrified inner-city neighborhoods also attract middle-class people who work
downtown. Living close to work saves the hassle of commuting and rejuvenates
run down inner-city neighborhoods
48

Gentrified building downtown Harlem, NY. Note the supermarket.

49

Inner-City Social Problems: Inner-city residents are often referred to as the
permanent underclass because they are trapped in an unending cycle of
economic and social problems. High unemployment, alcoholism, drug
addiction, literacy, juvenile delinquency, and crime all exist at a higher rate
among those who live in the inner-city. Lack of jobs means lack of tax dollars
to pay for police and fire protection as well as good schools. Lack of job skills
and homelessness are also tremendous problems.
Culture of Poverty: Inner-city residents are trapped in a permanent underclass
culture that reproduces itself. In the US, unwed mothers give birth to 2/3 of the
babies in the inner-city. 90% of these children live with only one parent and it
is real hard for one parent to keep a job and take care of children. Both suffer
and a shortage of care and daily attention by the parent contributes to the kids
not learning the skills necessary to do well in school which leads to poor jobs
for their futures. Poverty leads to more poverty. Many families on welfare have
only one parent because it is financially better if one parent is gone, that way
the single parent gets food stamps and other services from the government
that they would not get if it was a 2 family household.
50

Crime: Trapped in a hopeless environment, some inner-city
residents turn to drugs. Drug use is a problem in inner-city
areas and the suburbs, but rates of drug use in inner-cities
are the highest.
Ethnic and Racial Segregation: As seen in chapter 7, many
neighborhoods in the US are segregated by ethnicity with
African Americans and Hispanics concentrated in one or two
continuous areas and whites living in the suburbs. Even small
cities display a strong distinction among neighborhoods. A
frequent division is between the east and west or north and
south side of town, or the railroad tracks. A family seeking a
new residence will seek the areas where the characteristics
of the people meet their own.

51

The exodus
from the
American city.
This has
happened in
many American
cities since the
1960’s.

52

Changes in Cities in the U.S.
U.S. population has been moving out of the city centers to the suburbs:
suburbanization and counter urbanization

Developed Countries: suburbanization

 wealthy move to suburbs
 automobiles and roads; ‘American
Dream’ of the home in the suburbs.
 better services
 wealthy move to suburbs
Counter urbanization

idyllic settings
cost of land for retirement
slow pace, yet high tech
connections to services and markets
53

U.S. intraregional migration during 1990s.

Inner city economic problems: the concentration of low income
residents in inner cities has caused economic problems. These
people require public services but can pay very little in taxes to
support the services. They need stores and jobs but have little
money to spend in the store and few skills for jobs (so the stores
close). To try to fight these problems many local and state
governments use tax monies to try to renovate these areas, but this
shifts tax money needed for other areas to the inner city (votes on
election day).
Annexation: Many cities could help their tax problem by adding the
new suburbs to be part of their city (annexation). After all, many of
these suburban people use the city for its’ jobs etc., so why not add
them into the city? Today, most people in the suburbs do not want
to be annexed into the city and so they do not vote to be annexed.
54

The Peripheral Model: According to this model, an urban area
consists of an inner city surrounded by large suburban residential
and business areas (MSA) tied together by a beltway or highway
that circles the city. Around the beltway are nodes of consumer
and business services called edge cities (see diagram of multiple
nuclei model). These edge cities sprang up to provide services
and jobs to the people in the suburbs.
Density Gradient: As you travel outward from the center of the
city, the density of people declines. Inner city has big apartments
of 250 of more people per acre. Suburbs have fewer people per
acre (but lots of acres) and finally you leave the cities periphery
you find few people. The number of houses per unit of land
diminishes as distance from the center of the city increases.
55

The Edge cities (bedroom communities) of Houston

The central city is surrounded by a ring road, around which are
suburban areas and edge cities, shopping malls, office parks,
industrial areas, and service complexes.

Known as
bedroom
communities
because
people live
there but
mostly don’t
work there.
They drive
into the city
for work.
56

As you move from the center of the city outward, the density of the population
changes. This is know as the density gradient. Two big changes have occurred in
the density gradient of today’s cities:
1. The number of people living in the center has decreased.
2. The density difference between the inner city and the suburbs is declining
because the inner city density is dropping and the suburban density is growing
due to more large apartments being built in the suburbs.
Cost of Suburban or Urban Sprawl: Urban Sprawl is the progressive spread of
development over the landscape. As long as we Americans want single-family
detached houses, land on the fringe of urban areas will be converted from open
space to residential use. The cost of this growth is more than the loss of land, it is
also the cost of new roads, utilities, building stores and offices and the cost of
automobiles to move these people over even longer distances. Lots of these new
developments are built on what was once farmland. Wonderful productive soil now
under concrete.

Greenbelts: are areas where, by law, the open space can not be used for any
construction. This is mostly found in Europe.

57

Once farmland that is being converted to suburbs and cities.

58

Tyson’s Corner Virginia in 1940

59

Washington, DC. MSA.

Tyson’s Corner Virginia
today.
Washington D.C. is off
In the distance.

60

Suburban Segregation: The “new” segregation.
Suburban segregation takes two forms:
1. Residents are separated from commercial and manufacturing activities
which are confined someplace else. (The whole neighborhood is
nothing but houses because they drive for services.)
2. The price of the house eliminates some from being able to live there. This
creates a homogeneous suburb of the same economic class of people.
This never existed before in history. Where we once had vertical
segregation of the classes we now we have horizontal segregation.
3. But this may be reversing as new statistics show that people are beginning
to move back to the city. Why? Cost of transportation.
Zoning Ordinances: This idea developed in Europe and later America in the
early decades of the 20th century. This means that businesses are allowed only
in certain areas of the settlement. (No all night taco stands inside your single
family neighborhood.)
Motor vehicles: The wide use of the automobile is largely responsible for the
American movement to the suburbs. Not only did people move out but 1/4 of
the land inside all American cities are now roads, streets, and parking lots.

61

Public Transportation: Because few US workers live within walking distance
of their jobs, urban areas are characterized by extensive commuting and the
problems that come with it. As much as 40% of all trips made into or out from
a city during the day takes place within just 4 hours. (2 in the morning and 2 in
the late afternoon). RUSH HOUR!!! In large cities, public transportation, like
subways and busses, are better suited to move people but Americans still
prefer their own cars. Public transportation is cheaper, cleaner, and more
energy efficient than personal cars, yet in the US only 5% of city travel is
done using public transit systems. American’s love their personal car too
much.
Local Government Fragmentation: Because of the large number of local
governments in the US (look at the settlements in Pinellas County) it is
difficult to solve some of the regional problems like garbage disposal, water
management, traffic and public housing.
62

Metropolitan government: This idea tries to put many local governments into a
larger unit that can better handle the urban problems. The 2 ways to do this
are:
1. Federations in which the individual settlements have their own police,
firemen, and tax collection but they all agree to be part of a second
government which handles transportation, water, sewage, parks and
welfare for all the communities.
2. Consolidations: In this method, several cities and the county may form one
government. Jacksonville’s government runs not only the town but the
county too, this makes Jacksonville the largest city, in land size, in the US.
Smart growth: A new movement by many states to curb suburban sprawl by
limiting where new construction can take place. Smart growth laws require that
land near cities be used up before any land further out can be developed. So
far, this is only being done an a few parts of our country.
63

The new
US as
some
people
see it.

64

Quiz Yourself:
1. The process where middle-class people move into inner city neighborhoods and
renovate them is called ____________
2. ____________ happens when banks refuse to give loans in what they consider
risky neighborhoods.
3. Because of the housing shortages, the poor have constructed their own settlements
around the city known as __________ _________

4. Businesses are allowed only in certain areas of the settlement because of
____________ ____________
5. Areas known as _____ _______ are areas of about 5,000 people. The data from
that area is used to help define needed services for that area.
6. When cities are so close that they form one continuous band of development this is
known as a ____________
65

7. Social relationships are often described as “colder” in urban areas because…
8. In this model the city develops in a series of sectors not rings. _______

9. ______ (LDC’s or MDC’s) have a higher percentage of people living in urban
settlements but ________ (LDC’s or MDC’s) have more of the very large urban
settlements.
10. _____________ was the first model developed to explain the distributions
of different social groups within urban areas.
11. New cities which develop around the beltway are nodes of consumer and
business services known as ________ _________.

12. When the Europeans took over lands around the world, they changed the
cities by adding services to help the Europeans control the conquered people.
These European planned cities are known as __________ cities.
66

Answer Key:
1.

Gentrification

2.

Redlining

3.

Squatter Settlements

4.

Zoning ordinances

5.

Census tracks

6.

Megalopolis

7. There is a stronger feeling of belonging together in small rural settlements.
8. Hoyt sector model
9. MDC, LDC
10. Burgess Concentric Zone model
11. Edge cities
12. Colonial cities
67

Test Key topic/chapter 13:
These questions come from a combination of our slides, your text book, and common knowledge you should
have discussed in your AP classroom. They are very typical of what you will see on the National Exam.
1) The multiple nuclei theory best explains why different neighborhoods of a city attract people of different… A) ages.
B) ethnic origin C) income D) marital status.
2) Sprawl is the… A) change in density within an urban area from the center to the periphery B) development of new
housing sites not contiguous to the existing built-up area. C) land maintained as open space surrounding an urban area.
D) period in the morning and evening with the heaviest volumes of traffic.
3) People are attracted to suburbs in part because suburbs are characterized by…A) heavy traffic. B) lower opportunity
for home ownership. C) private land surrounding the house. D) row houses and apartments.
4) Megalopolis refers to… A) adjacent, overlapping Metropolitan Statistical Areas. B) central cities. C) consolidated
Metropolitan Statistical Areas. D) central cities plus urbanized areas.
5) Which statement best describes the relationship between urbanization and the Industrial Revolution? A) Urbanization
promoted the Industrial Revolution. B) The Industrial Revolution promoted urbanization. C) Urbanization preceded the
Industrial Revolution by thousands of years. D) Urbanization and the Industrial Revolution are no longer related.
6) The process of legally adding land area to a city in the United States is… A) annexation. B) accreditation. C) an
application of eminent domain. D) defined by urbanized area.

68

7) The process of change in the use of a house, from single-family owner occupancy to abandonment, is… A) blockbusting.
B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining.
8) A process by which banks designate an area within which they refuse to lend money for improvements is… A) blockbusting.
B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining.
9) A recent change in the density gradient has been… A) the elimination of the gap traditionally found in the center. B) an
increase in the extremes between the inner and outer areas. C) an increase in the number of people living in the center.
D) a reduction in the differences in densities found within an urban area.
10) U.S. central cities face fiscal problems because… A) federal and state funds are available. B) low-income people are
concentrated there. C) middle-class families are attracted there. D) redlining is no longer legal.
11) A legal form of segregation in U.S. cities is achieved through...A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) zoning. D) greenbelts.
12) Factories have moved to suburban locations in part because of… A) access to main highways. B) adequate space to build
vertical structures. C) availability of large tracts of high-priced land. D) good rail connections.
13) According to the sector model, the best housing is located in…A) a corridor from downtown to the edge of the city.
B) an outer ring surrounding the city. C) nodes near universities and parks. D) renovated inner-city neighborhoods.
14) Ramshackle houses on the periphery of cities in less developed countries are known as… A) squatter settlements. B) council
estates. C) public housing. D) zone in transition.
15) Higher income people tend to live near the center of the city in all but which of the following regions? A) Latin America
B) North America C) South Asia D) Western Europe

16) The wide boulevards built in cities in less developed countries were most likely built during what era? A) pre-colonial
B) colonial C) independence D) all of the above equally

69

17) According to the multiple nuclei model, an airport is likely to attract nearby… A) industries. B) residences. C) shops.
D) universities.
18) The largest percentage of the U.S. population lives in…A) central cities. B) suburbs. C) non-metropolitan areas. D) all of the
above
19) In U.S. cities, the underclass is… A) clustered in inner-city neighborhoods. B) dispersed throughout the city. C) clustered in
suburbs. D) distributed uniformly in the city.

20) A process of converting a neighborhood from low-income to middle-class is…A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) gentrification.
D) redlining.
21) Higher social heterogeneity in urban settlements means that… A) the people with whom you relax are probably the same ones you
see at work. B) you play a specialized role in the urban economy. C) you compete for limited space. D) you may feel lonely and
isolated in a crowd.
22) The city plus its contiguous built-up suburbs is the… A) central city. B) urbanized area.
D) consolidated metropolitan statistical area

C) metropolitan statistical area.

23) The process whereby an increasing percentage of people live in an urban area is known as… A) demographic transition.
B) rank-size rule. C) urbanization. D) central place theory.
24) Of the ten largest urban areas in the world, how many are in More Developed Countries today? A) 1 B) 4 C) 7 D) 10 E) 2
25) Public housing is…A) conversion of low-income housing to middle-class housing. B) illegally established low-income housing.
C) housing that has changed from single-family owner occupancy to abandonment. D) low-income government-owned housing.
26) According to the concentric zone model, a city develops in a series of… A) corridors. B) nodes. C) rings. D) all of the above

70

27) Chicago is a good location in which to develop urban models because it is located… A) at the hub of the nation's transportation
system. B) in the center of the country. C) on a flat prairie. D) on the shore of Lake Michigan.
28) According to the sector model, the best housing is located in… A) a corridor from downtown to the edge of the city. B) an outer
ring surrounding the city. C) nodes near universities and parks. D) renovated inner-city neighborhoods.
29) The zone of transition in US cities generally contain…A) warehouses B) wealthy neighborhoods C) transportation hubs
D) universities and hospitals E) suburban homes
30) The attractions of shopping malls include all but which of the following? A) frequent concerts and exhibitions B) generous
parking lots C) place to meet friends D) walking distance from homes
The following questions are written at the high school level. You will find some questions from part one often rewritten
here. This is all designed to help you transition to the college/AP style of written questions. Any question preceded with ***
are questions that have been on the national exam before.
31. Most Latin American cities are focused on a…A) central plaza B) government housing project C) zone of heavy industry
D) skyscraper office building E) squatter settlement
32. The multiple-nuclei model of a city structure tends to be most applicable to…A) small cities B) traditional C) Latin American
cities D) newer, fast growing cities E) cities with homogeneous land use
33. ***Locational advantages important to the development of the earliest cities include…A) availability of good harbors for large
ships B) productive agricultural land and defensible sites C) temperate climate and proximity to coal mines D) good
connections by road and canal E) proximity to manufacturing areas

34. In cities, the CBD’s often show uniqueness while the suburbs usually show…A) a large hinterland. B) placelessness C) more
than one node. D) newer zones of transition.

71

35. Many LDC’s have tried to help a previously under-developed part of their country develop by moving their capital
city to that area. This new capital is known as a…A) forward capital B) new development zone C) enterprise zone
D) neocolonial city
36. Today the greatest number of urban dwellers is found in…A) North America
D) Europe E) Asia

B) South America C) Africa

37. ***All of the following have helped create ghettos in North American cities except…A)blockbusting and racial
steering B) redlining by financial institutions C) concentration of public housing and social services D) fixed school
districts E) Economic Enterprise Zones

38. Which of the following is NOT as reason for rapid suburbanization in the US after WW2? A) Mass production of
the automobile B) Reduction of long distance commuting C) Expansion of home construction D) Expansion of the
interstate highway system E) Availability of low down payment terms and long-term mortgages.
39. New cities which developed in the hinterland of large urban areas because of the automobile, are known as…
A) edge cities B) census tracts C) suburban sprawl D) squatter settlements. E) none of these
40. Gentrification refers to… A) moving the homeless into inner city shelters B) The “White Flight” from the urban city
C) losing tax revenue because of stores closing in downtown areas D) middle-class people moving into and renovating
inner city neighborhoods E) the creation of “beltway cities” around the city.

72

4
7
3

5

1
6

2

41-48 all use the sketch above.
41. The sketch in box A above represents which model of the inner structure of urban areas?
C) multiple nuclei model D) Burgess concentric zone model E) peripheral model
42. The models in boxes B and C represent A) Concentric zone and multiple nuclei
concentric zone D) peripheral and concentric zone E) Von Thunen and peripheral

A) Hoyt sector model B) VonThunen’s model

B) Multiple nuclei and Hoyt sector C) Hoyt sector and

43. In which ring (1, 2, etc.) of sketch A above would high-status households in North American cities likely live? A) 1 B) 2 C) 3 D) 4&5
44. In which ring (1, 2, etc.) of sketch A above would high status households in a European city likely live? A) 1

B) 2

C) 3

D) 4&5

45. In model B, zone # 2 is where it is likely because of: A) greenbelting B) squatter settling C) the culture of poverty D) transportation
E) no one knows
46. The model in sketch B is the; A) Hoyt sector model B) Burgess model C) multiple nuclei model D) peripheral model
47. The model in sketch C is the; A) Hoyt sector model B) Burgess model C) multiple nuclei model D) peripheral model
48. Which of these models best describes what has happened in US cities in the last 40 years? A)

B)

C)

73

49.*** In the U.S. a city plus its contiguous built-up suburbs is known as an…A) urbanized area B) zoned area
C) census tract D) Squatter settlement E) none of these
50. Done mostly in Europe, these are areas where land is kept as parks, farms or other kinds of open space and urban
sprawl is not allowed. A) Smart growth
B) zoning
C) filtering
D) census tracts E) greenbelts
51. Which statement best describes the relationship between urbanization and the Industrial Revolution?
A) Urbanization promoted the Industrial Revolution. B) The Industrial Revolution promoted urbanization.
C) Urbanization preceded the Industrial Revolution by thousands of years. D) Urbanization and the Industrial
Revolution are no longer related.
52. The process whereby an increasing percentage of people live in an urban area is known as…
A) Demographic transition. B) rank-size rule. C) Urbanization. D) Central place theory.
53. The city (if it has 50,000 or more people) plus its contiguous built-up suburbs AND the county it is in as well as any
other counties it influences, is known as the ...A) central city B) urbanized area
C) metropolitan statistical area
D) consolidated metropolitan area E) micropolitan statistical area
54. ***Higher social heterogeneity in urban settlements means that …A) the people with whom you relax are probably
the same ones you see at work. B) you play a specialized role in the urban economy. C) you compete for limited
space. D) you may feel lonely and isolated in a crowd.

55. The process of change in the use of a house, from single-family owner occupancy to smaller dwellings for the poor
and then sometimes to abandonment, is…A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining. E) none of
these

74

Free Response #1:
The Bid Rent theory says that the closer you get to the
CBD the higher the cost for land, yet in most American
cities you find the poorest people living near the
expensive CBD and the richest living further away.
Explain:
A. Why neighborhoods near the CBD are often poor and
run down?
B. Why are there few grocery and other retail stores in
these neighborhoods?
C. Why is this not really true in European and Latin
American countries?

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75

FR #2:
Think of the map of your school, explain the
layout of your school using the Multiple Nuclei
Model
The main office is the CBD.
Completely explain your answer using specific
buildings and/or land areas in your explanation
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76

Answer Key:
1. B

14. A

27. C

40. D

53. C

2. B

15. B

28. A

41. D

54. D

3. C

16. B

29. A

42. B

55. B

4. A

17. A

30. D

43. D

5. B

18. B

31. A

44. A

6. A

19. A

32. D

45. D

7. B

20. C

33. B

46. A

8. D

21. D

34. B

47. C

9. D

22. B

35. A

48. C

10. B

23. C

36. E

49. A

11. C

24. C

37. E

50. E

12. A

25. D

38. B

51. B

13. A

26. C

39. A

52. C
77

FR. #1: ( 15 pts. for each section…total of 45 pts.)
A. In the US the move of the wealthy and middle class to the suburbs has left the older houses and apartments near the CBD empty.
This has lowered their value to the point where the poor can afford these dwellings and have made these neighborhoods their
homes. The poor can not pay for upkeep of these dwellings, or to pay high taxes. The lack of upkeep and tax money to repair the
roads and schools, adds to the downward spiral of the neighborhood. With little spending money for shopping, the poor do not
spend much in the stores. This causes many stores to close and move to the suburbs where the spending customers and money
went. The closing of the stores adds to the poverty of the area by taking away some of the jobs that were in the neighborhood. This
becomes a vicious cycle of poverty and deterioration. (15 points)

B. There are few retail stores and groceries is the area because the poor do not have money to shop. The lack of spending forces
many stores out of business or forces them to move to better locations. There also can be higher crime in these areas and the
crime often takes place at the stores. This is another reason for the stores to move out of the neighborhood. (15 points)
C. Neighborhoods in European and Latin American cities are different from those of US cities. In Europe and Latin America, the
wealthy and middle class still live near or in the CBD. The higher tax base and more spending ability of the upper and middle
classes, keeps the CBD area flourishing with jobs and in constant repair and upkeep of the cities’ physical condition. (15 points)

FR #2: (10 total points.)
You will need to judge how effectively you displayed you school
in the Multiple Nuclei Model. Refer to the model itself to help you
determine your success and grade.
School’s main office
78

Calculating your grade on test 13.
Add how many you got correct on the multiple choice part (55 possible) to how many
points you scored on the FR portion (55 possible)…110 total.
The following scale will show the approximate score if this test were the real AP exam. Remember that this
is an approximation. While 65-74% is normally the range for a 3 on the test, it is not definite. Over the
years I have seen scores as low as 60% be the low portion of a 3 score.

Out of 110 possible points:
72-83 is most likely a 3
84-94 is most likely a 4

95-110 is most likely a 5

Now lets start our review for the national exam by
reviewing the 33 key models and theories of the
course…the next PowerPoint.


Slide 75

Key topic/chapter 13…Urban Patterns
Key terms:
Annexation
Concentric zone model
Density gradient
Edge cities
Filtering
Galactic city
Gentrification
Greenbelts
Megalopolis
MSA
Multiple nuclei model
Peripheral model

Public housing
Redlining
Renovated housing
Scattered site
Squatter settlement
Sector model
Smart growth
Sprawl
Underclass
Urban renewal
Zone in transition
Zoning
1

Chapter 13…Urban Areas.
How are Cities planned?
Why

are cities where they are?
How are they organized?
Why are some areas of a city
different from
other areas of the same city?
What is the future of cities?
2

Settlement


Settlement - permanent collections of buildings,
where people live, work, and obtain services

3

ORIGINS OF SETTLEMENTS


Religious - graves, churches, temples



Cultural - schools, libraries



Political/Military - leader’s house, walls



Economic - stores, food
4

TYPES OF SETTLEMENTS


Rural Settlements - agriculture as the
predominant occupation.



Urban settlements - principal industries are
secondary and tertiary.

5

RURAL SETTLEMENTS
Clustered rural settlements –grouped
settlements in rural areas to minimize travel

Dispersed rural Settlements - isolated farms
with enclosed continuous fields (Found only in
N. America and Britain).

6

Urban Geographers want to know the global distribution of urban
settlements. MDC’s have a high percentage of people living in urban
areas because of the shift from agriculture-manufacturing-services.
Geographers are also interested in where people and activities are
distributed within urban spaces. What are the differences between the
inner-city and suburban areas and why?
As we saw in the last chapter, many downtowns are unique and can
often be recognized in photos where the suburbs often look very
much alike (Placelessness). Why? Suburbs offer the chance to avoid
some of the city problems (crime, tight living area, expensive
land/rent, noise, age of buildings) while still keeping a connection with
the goods and services of the city: jobs, sports teams, culture, shops,
recreation, etc.
7

Where is this place?

8

Today’s cities are evolving and changing. Although different internal
situations characterize urban areas in the US and elsewhere, the
problems arising from current spatial trends are quite similar in all cities.
Where have urban areas grown: in the early 1800’s only 3% of the earth’s
people lived in cities and only Beijing China had more than 1 million
people. Today over ½ of the world’s people live in cities and we have over
400 cities of at least 1 million people.

Urbanization: is the process by which city population grows.
Cities population growth is measured in 2 dimensions;
1. An increase in the number of people living in the cities.
2. An increase in the percentage of people living in the cities.
This distinction is important because they happen for different reason and
have different global distributions.
9

Increasing Percentage of People in Cities: a large percentage of people living in urban
areas is a measure of a country’s level of development. In MDC’s about ¾ of the people
live in urban areas compared to about 2/5 of people in LDC’s. (Except in Latin America
where the level is closer to MDC’s.)
The higher percentage of people in urban areas comes from the changes that have
occurred in the last 200 years as we went from agriculture (primary jobs) to industrial
(secondary jobs) and now service jobs, all created by the Industrial Revolution of the
1800’s.
People moved to the cities for industrial jobs, but in MDC’s this process has largely
ended because nearly everyone interested in moving to the cities from farms has already
done so.
In LDC’s the percentage of people living in urban areas is growing as people are pushed
off of their farms and replaced by machines and as people move to cities looking/hoping
for industrial jobs.
10

Increasing Number of People in Cities: MDC’s have a higher percentage of
people living in urban settlements but LDC’s have more of the very large urban
settlements (Primate cities). (Rank-size rule, primate cities, chapter 12.)

This is interesting because typically the large cities are created from the
improvements brought by the Industrial Revolution. This is not the case with the
large LDC cities. Migration to the primate city in LDC’s is happening even though
job opportunities may not be available. Increasing the population growth in LDC
cities is the fact that medical services are better in these cities, thus the child
mortality rate is lower.
Defining Urban Settlements: defining where urban areas end and rural areas
begin is not easy. Geographers have formulated definitions that distinguish
between urban and rural areas in two ways: Social differences and Physical
differences.
11

Percent Urban Population

Percent of the population living in urban areas is usually higher in MDCs
than in LDCs.

12

The most populated cities in the world

Of the top
20, only
Moscow,
Tokyo and
New York
are in MDC’s

Shanghai China has 14,608,512 people
13

14

15

Social Differences Between Urban and Rural Settlements: it is fair to say that rural
people and urban people follow different ways of life. A city can be defined as having 3
characteristics:
1. Large size. People in rural settlements know most of the other people in the
settlement. Not true in big cities. Social relationships are often described as “colder” in
urban areas because you only see some people at work instead of growing up with
them in the settlement.
2. High Density. Having lots of people in a tiny area creates social consequences. A
high density of people living in a small area can only be supported if the people
specialize (they can’t all be farmers). People are encouraged to compete for jobs, room,
and survival in a tightly limited space. Social groups compete to occupy the same space
(ethnic/ race problems). Rural settlements have very little of this problem.
3. Social Heterogeneity. The larger the settlement, the greater the variety of people.
Being “unusual” in a large settlement is more likely to be accepted than in a small rural
one. But despite the freedom to be different that large urban settlements give you,
people living there often feel alone because so many people are different from them.
There is a stronger feeling of belonging together in small rural settlements.
16

These 3 differences do not fully answer the question of where urban settlements
begin and rural ones end because in today’s MDC’s most everyone has access to
cars, telephones, televisions, and “urban type” jobs which reduce the differences
between urban and rural lifestyles. “City folk” and “Country folk” are more alike
today than they are different. To help distinguish between urban and rural areas we
need to add the physical definition of rural and urban to the equation.
Physical Definitions of Urban Settlements: In ancient time, cities had defensive
walls for protection which clearly defined the physical boundaries of the city. Today
the walls are gone but we can still define the physical boundaries in 3 ways:
1. Legal boundary. These are the official boundaries of a city as recognized by
the government of the country or state. These “city limits” have been officially given
to the city and are physically marked on official maps. The local government of the
city has authority to make laws and protect the people inside the city boundaries.
17

2. Urbanized area. This is the city plus its suburbs or urbanized area that
surrounds the city. About 70 percent of US residents live in urbanized areas with
40% being in the suburbs and 30% inside the city limits. The suburbs may have
their own city governments but the huge central city dominates what happens in
the entire area.
3. Metropolitan Statistical Area. Cities have an even bigger influence on people
than just those living in their city limits and surrounding urbanized areas. People
from far away come to shop, use the services, support the sports teams, read
the newspapers and watch the television broadcasts of the city. Thus the city
has a “functional area” which is its total zone of influence. The US Bureau of
Census has created a method of measuring the functional area of the city.
Known as the Metropolitan statistical area (MSA) this area includes:
•An urbanized area with a population of at least 50,000
•The county within which the city is located.
•Adjacent counties with a high population density and a large percentage of
residents working in the central city’s county.
18

Metropolitan Area of Philadelphia

City of
Philadelphia

Urbanized
area
(suburbs)
Metropolitan
Statistical
Area

The metropolitan area of Philadelphia is
spread over several counties and four states.
It is also a diversified trade center, given its
position on the Delaware river.

19

20

21

Micropolitan Statistical Areas: Smaller areas with between
10,000 and 50,000 people, the county where it is found, and
adjacent counties tied to the city. This would be a small town and
the area dominated by it.
Overlapping Metropolitan Areas: Some adjacent MSA’s overlap.
A county between two central cities may send a large number of
commuters to jobs in both cities. In some areas the cities are so
close that they form one continuous urban complex. This is
known as a Megalopolis (great city).
In a megalopolis, the downtown CBD often has its own
distinctive look and the urban areas are visually separated by
parks, open spaces, and dairy/truck farms. But at the periphery
of the urban areas, the boundaries overlap.
22

Colorado Springs, population 431,000

Ocala, Florida, population 56,000

Florala, Alabama, population 1,900

23

Megalopolis, from northern Va. To Maine.
This Illustrates the
difference between
strict city proper
definitions and broader
urban agglomerations.
To define urbanized
areas, the U.S. Census
Bureau uses the term
Metropolitan Statistical
Area (MSA) or
Consolidated MSA
(CMSA) if two or more of
them overlap.
24

Where are People Distributed within Urban Areas? People are not
just distributed at random in urban areas. For the most part they
concentrate in particular neighborhoods depending on their social
characteristics. Geographers want to see where people with
particular characteristics are likely to live and why.

Three models which try to explain the growth of a city:

The Burgess Model

The Hoyt Sector Model

The Harris and Ullman
multiple Nuclei Model
25

Burgess Concentric Zone Model

In the concentric zone model, a city grows in a series of rings surrounding the CBD.

Burgess Concentric Zone Model: This is the first used to explain the
distributions of different social groups within urban areas. It says that a
city grows outward from a central place in a series of concentric rings.
The precise size and width of the rings vary from one city to another, but
some basic types of rings appear in all cities in the same order (see chart
above).
26

•Hoyt Sector Model: In this model the city develops in a
series of sectors not rings. Certain areas of the city are
more attractive for various activities, originally because
of an environmental factor (or even pure chance). As the
city grows, activities extend outward in a wedge shape.
For example, once a wealthy neighborhood is built the
next wealthy neighborhood will extend from the first
neighborhood further outward from the center. In this
way, the best housing is found in a corridor extending
outward from the center to the outer edge (see chart on
the next page).
27

The Hoyt Sector Model

In the sector model, a city grows in a series of
wedges or corridors extending out from the
CBD.
28

•Harris and Ullman’s Multiple Nuclei Model: According
to this model, a city is a complex structure that includes
more than one center around which activities revolve.
Examples of these nodes include a port, parks,
stadium, neighborhood business center, university, and
airport (see chart). This theory states that some
activities are attracted to particular nodes, whereas
others try to avoid them. A university node may attract
well educated people and bookstores while the port will
attract hotels and warehouses. Heavy industry and
expensive houses rarely are found together. This
model shows the effect of the automobile more than
any other model.
29

The Harris and Ullman Multiple Nuclei model

The multiple nuclei model views a city as a
collection of individual centers, around which
different people and activities cluster.

30

Applications of the Models: The three models help explain where and in some
cases, why people live where they do. None of the models by themselves fully
explains why and where different types of people live, but combined they give
you as good a look as possible at the “Why” of “Where.” Effective use of the
models depends on getting good data on the areas. Most countries take a
census every 10 years to help determine useful data about the people and
places of the country. In our country we divide the census data into areas
known as census tracts of about 5,000 people. Each census tract has the data
that summarizes the characteristics of the people living within that tract. This
information includes things like the race, income, age, and education of the
people living in that tract.
Social Area Analysis: The data from the census tracts can all be plotted onto
maps to show the characteristics of the people living in that tract. This map is
known as a social area analysis.
31

Using Census tract information…Seattle, Washington
Each lined area is a
census tract of about 5000
people in Seattle
Washington. These maps
show average household
income for 1990 and
2000…note the changes in
income in some areas
between 1990 and 2000.
Using this information, a
business can make
decisions about where
they want to locate a new
store or the future of
existing stores.
You can find census tract
information on many topics
such as; age, education
level, race, ethnicity, crime
rate, and land ownership.
Note the areas with
incomes over
$63,000.

All can be very valuable
information to people
looking to open
businesses.

32

Examine the changes
between 1990 and
2000.

Oakland, California’s Ethnic neighborhoods
The small bordered areas are census tracks of 5000 people.

33

Use of the Models Outside of North America: The 3 models will also work in other
places in the world; however social groups in other countries may not have the
same reasons for selecting particular neighborhoods as Americans do.
European Cities: As in the US, wealthier people in European cities cluster along a
sector extending outward from the CBD, however unlike the US, wealthy and
middle class Europeans still live in the inner rings of the neighborhoods near the
CBD not out in the suburbs. In the past, poorer people lived in the center of the
city. Before electricity, social segregation was vertical: richer people lived on the
first or second floor of a building while the poorer people lived in the basement or
upper floors. In the Industrial Revolution, housing for the poor was constructed
near the factories and away from the rich.
Today poorer Europeans are less likely to live in the inner-city. Poor quality
housing has been renovated for the rich or turned into office buildings. Poorer
Europeans tend to live in the outskirts of the city. Vast suburbs with dozens of high
rise apartments house the poor. They face long commutes to reach their jobs in
the city.
34

European cities generally do not have the “suburban
sprawl” that US cities have. European cities tend to be
more pedestrian friendly with more parks downtown as
Europeans tend to still live downtown.
US cities have taller buildings as European cities tend to
be older and more historic.

American cities have more ethnic neighborhoods than
European cities. Ethnic neighborhoods that do exist in
European cities tend to be in the suburbs. WHY?
Because the established richer neighborhoods tend to be
downtown in European cities.
35

Less Developed Countries: Like Europe, most LDC’s accommodate their poor in the
suburbs with their middle class and rich living near the center of the city. LDC’s have
passed through 3 periods of city building: before the Europeans arrived, during the
period of European colonialism, and since independence from European control.

Pre-colonial Cities: Before the Europeans arrived few cities existed in Africa, Asia, and
Latin America and most people lived in small rural settlements. Those cities that existed
were mostly laid out surrounding a religious center; with the rest of the city laid out in a
hieratical concentric pattern (like the Burgess model) from government buildings,
homes of the wealthy, and businesses related to the religion out to other businesses
and shops.
Colonial cities: When the Europeans took over these lands, they changed the cities by
adding services to help the Europeans control the conquered people. Often a new
European style city would be build next to the existing native one. The new European
cities contained wider streets, a public square, larger houses and a much lower density.
The Spanish used the “Law of the Indies” which was a city plan designed specifically to
build cities in a “Spanish” style. (Gridiron pattern for streets centered on a church and
central plaza, walls around individual houses and neighborhoods centered around
smaller plazas and more churches.)
36

Early Mexico city was laid out in a grid pattern of streets. This followed
the Spanish “Law of the Indies.”

37

Central Plaza in Mexico City 1920 photo. Typical Colonial City plan.

Part of downtown Mexico city today still shows the
building plan of the “Law of the Indies.”

38

Cities since Independence: Following independence, cities have become
the focal point of the development of most LDC’s. Millions of people have
migrated to the cities (Primate cities) looking for jobs and services. Some
capitals have been moved to isolated areas in an attempt to help develop
that area of the country (Brasília) This is know as a forward capital. Latin
American cities have developed their own unique style.
Squatter settlements: The LDC’s are unable to house the rapidly growing
number of poor who are flowing into the cities. Because of the housing
shortages, the poor have constructed their own settlements around the city.
These settlements have few services because neither the city nor the
residents can afford them. Squatters have two basic choices for housing.
1. Illegally move into empty real houses located in the city or,
2. Rent slum housing.
(85% of the population of Addis Ababa in Ethiopia lives in squatter
settlements, slums or other illegal housing.)
39

Squatter shacks in Manila, the Philippines

40

Squatter settlement in Ethiopia

41

Zimbabwe, Africa

42

Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

43

Latin American City Model:
In many Latin
American cities,
the wealthy live in
the inner city and
in a sector
extending along a
commercial spine.
In situ accretion- businesses
and homes constantly under
construction/repair.
Zone of maturity-2nd best
housing in the city.
The poor live in squatter settlements on the
periphery of the city.

Disamenity- unpleasant area
used by the poor to get to the
market.

44

The City Outline of Rio de Janeiro
The rich tourist areas and expensive condo apartments are along the coast
and beach while the poor live in squatter shacks in the hills.

45

City problems:
Inner-City Physical Problems: Most US inner cities were constructed before the 1950’s
(people began to move to the suburbs in the 1950’s so new construction moved out of
the city).
Process of Deterioration (how a city deteriorates): A city doesn’t suddenly become old
and full of slummy areas. It happens over time. When a group of low-income people
inhabit an area of a city, nearby neighborhoods will often look to move out. They sell or
rent to more low-income occupants thus expanding the low-income area. Two processes
cause/speed up the devaluation of areas:
1. Filtering, 2. Redlining.
Filtering: Large houses and buildings that once housed rich downtown workers (who
moved to the suburbs) are taken over by landlords who don’t live in that area (they
moved to the suburbs too). Rents are low so the landlord doesn’t take as good care of
the property as they should and the property becomes run down or abandoned. Stores
close, or move, due to lack of sales. 100 years ago these neighborhoods would be used
by immigrants and ethnic businesses would succeed in those areas. Now, with a decline
in immigration, these neighborhoods have shrunk and so have schools, businesses and
other services. Thousands of vacant houses and buildings stand empty in inner cities
across America.

46

Redlining: Some banks refuse to give loans in what they consider
risky neighborhoods. They draw a red line on a map around areas
where they will not give loans. Without loans, these neighborhoods
have a hard time rebuilding/remodeling. Though illegal, this still
happens. Bankers just don’t put these “no-loan” areas on a map.

Urban Renewal: This is the series of projects to improve European
and N. American cities by buying up the blighted neighborhoods,
moving the people to new government built housing projects, and
building new roads, and other projects to make the inner city
attractive for business again. National and State government grants
help pay for these projects.
47

Public housing: Housing for the poor, built with government funding as part of
urban renewal. In the US this is only about 2% of the housing while in some
countries it may be more (Britain is 30%). Public housing built in the 50’s & 60’s
were largely high rise apartments, but those are seen as being unsatisfactory.
Problems arise from cramming large numbers of poor people into one area.
Today most public housing projects are one to three story buildings with many of
them being scattered around different parts of the city rather than clustered into
one area.
Because urban renewal has been criticized for destroying the social cohesion of
older neighborhoods, many governments (like the US) have stopped funding
most projects since the 1970’s. What do we do instead?
Renovated Housing: An alternative often used since the 70’s is to renovate a
building instead of urban renewal. The process where middle-class people
move into inner-city neighborhoods and renovate them is called gentrification.
Gentrified inner-city neighborhoods also attract middle-class people who work
downtown. Living close to work saves the hassle of commuting and rejuvenates
run down inner-city neighborhoods
48

Gentrified building downtown Harlem, NY. Note the supermarket.

49

Inner-City Social Problems: Inner-city residents are often referred to as the
permanent underclass because they are trapped in an unending cycle of
economic and social problems. High unemployment, alcoholism, drug
addiction, literacy, juvenile delinquency, and crime all exist at a higher rate
among those who live in the inner-city. Lack of jobs means lack of tax dollars
to pay for police and fire protection as well as good schools. Lack of job skills
and homelessness are also tremendous problems.
Culture of Poverty: Inner-city residents are trapped in a permanent underclass
culture that reproduces itself. In the US, unwed mothers give birth to 2/3 of the
babies in the inner-city. 90% of these children live with only one parent and it
is real hard for one parent to keep a job and take care of children. Both suffer
and a shortage of care and daily attention by the parent contributes to the kids
not learning the skills necessary to do well in school which leads to poor jobs
for their futures. Poverty leads to more poverty. Many families on welfare have
only one parent because it is financially better if one parent is gone, that way
the single parent gets food stamps and other services from the government
that they would not get if it was a 2 family household.
50

Crime: Trapped in a hopeless environment, some inner-city
residents turn to drugs. Drug use is a problem in inner-city
areas and the suburbs, but rates of drug use in inner-cities
are the highest.
Ethnic and Racial Segregation: As seen in chapter 7, many
neighborhoods in the US are segregated by ethnicity with
African Americans and Hispanics concentrated in one or two
continuous areas and whites living in the suburbs. Even small
cities display a strong distinction among neighborhoods. A
frequent division is between the east and west or north and
south side of town, or the railroad tracks. A family seeking a
new residence will seek the areas where the characteristics
of the people meet their own.

51

The exodus
from the
American city.
This has
happened in
many American
cities since the
1960’s.

52

Changes in Cities in the U.S.
U.S. population has been moving out of the city centers to the suburbs:
suburbanization and counter urbanization

Developed Countries: suburbanization

 wealthy move to suburbs
 automobiles and roads; ‘American
Dream’ of the home in the suburbs.
 better services
 wealthy move to suburbs
Counter urbanization

idyllic settings
cost of land for retirement
slow pace, yet high tech
connections to services and markets
53

U.S. intraregional migration during 1990s.

Inner city economic problems: the concentration of low income
residents in inner cities has caused economic problems. These
people require public services but can pay very little in taxes to
support the services. They need stores and jobs but have little
money to spend in the store and few skills for jobs (so the stores
close). To try to fight these problems many local and state
governments use tax monies to try to renovate these areas, but this
shifts tax money needed for other areas to the inner city (votes on
election day).
Annexation: Many cities could help their tax problem by adding the
new suburbs to be part of their city (annexation). After all, many of
these suburban people use the city for its’ jobs etc., so why not add
them into the city? Today, most people in the suburbs do not want
to be annexed into the city and so they do not vote to be annexed.
54

The Peripheral Model: According to this model, an urban area
consists of an inner city surrounded by large suburban residential
and business areas (MSA) tied together by a beltway or highway
that circles the city. Around the beltway are nodes of consumer
and business services called edge cities (see diagram of multiple
nuclei model). These edge cities sprang up to provide services
and jobs to the people in the suburbs.
Density Gradient: As you travel outward from the center of the
city, the density of people declines. Inner city has big apartments
of 250 of more people per acre. Suburbs have fewer people per
acre (but lots of acres) and finally you leave the cities periphery
you find few people. The number of houses per unit of land
diminishes as distance from the center of the city increases.
55

The Edge cities (bedroom communities) of Houston

The central city is surrounded by a ring road, around which are
suburban areas and edge cities, shopping malls, office parks,
industrial areas, and service complexes.

Known as
bedroom
communities
because
people live
there but
mostly don’t
work there.
They drive
into the city
for work.
56

As you move from the center of the city outward, the density of the population
changes. This is know as the density gradient. Two big changes have occurred in
the density gradient of today’s cities:
1. The number of people living in the center has decreased.
2. The density difference between the inner city and the suburbs is declining
because the inner city density is dropping and the suburban density is growing
due to more large apartments being built in the suburbs.
Cost of Suburban or Urban Sprawl: Urban Sprawl is the progressive spread of
development over the landscape. As long as we Americans want single-family
detached houses, land on the fringe of urban areas will be converted from open
space to residential use. The cost of this growth is more than the loss of land, it is
also the cost of new roads, utilities, building stores and offices and the cost of
automobiles to move these people over even longer distances. Lots of these new
developments are built on what was once farmland. Wonderful productive soil now
under concrete.

Greenbelts: are areas where, by law, the open space can not be used for any
construction. This is mostly found in Europe.

57

Once farmland that is being converted to suburbs and cities.

58

Tyson’s Corner Virginia in 1940

59

Washington, DC. MSA.

Tyson’s Corner Virginia
today.
Washington D.C. is off
In the distance.

60

Suburban Segregation: The “new” segregation.
Suburban segregation takes two forms:
1. Residents are separated from commercial and manufacturing activities
which are confined someplace else. (The whole neighborhood is
nothing but houses because they drive for services.)
2. The price of the house eliminates some from being able to live there. This
creates a homogeneous suburb of the same economic class of people.
This never existed before in history. Where we once had vertical
segregation of the classes we now we have horizontal segregation.
3. But this may be reversing as new statistics show that people are beginning
to move back to the city. Why? Cost of transportation.
Zoning Ordinances: This idea developed in Europe and later America in the
early decades of the 20th century. This means that businesses are allowed only
in certain areas of the settlement. (No all night taco stands inside your single
family neighborhood.)
Motor vehicles: The wide use of the automobile is largely responsible for the
American movement to the suburbs. Not only did people move out but 1/4 of
the land inside all American cities are now roads, streets, and parking lots.

61

Public Transportation: Because few US workers live within walking distance
of their jobs, urban areas are characterized by extensive commuting and the
problems that come with it. As much as 40% of all trips made into or out from
a city during the day takes place within just 4 hours. (2 in the morning and 2 in
the late afternoon). RUSH HOUR!!! In large cities, public transportation, like
subways and busses, are better suited to move people but Americans still
prefer their own cars. Public transportation is cheaper, cleaner, and more
energy efficient than personal cars, yet in the US only 5% of city travel is
done using public transit systems. American’s love their personal car too
much.
Local Government Fragmentation: Because of the large number of local
governments in the US (look at the settlements in Pinellas County) it is
difficult to solve some of the regional problems like garbage disposal, water
management, traffic and public housing.
62

Metropolitan government: This idea tries to put many local governments into a
larger unit that can better handle the urban problems. The 2 ways to do this
are:
1. Federations in which the individual settlements have their own police,
firemen, and tax collection but they all agree to be part of a second
government which handles transportation, water, sewage, parks and
welfare for all the communities.
2. Consolidations: In this method, several cities and the county may form one
government. Jacksonville’s government runs not only the town but the
county too, this makes Jacksonville the largest city, in land size, in the US.
Smart growth: A new movement by many states to curb suburban sprawl by
limiting where new construction can take place. Smart growth laws require that
land near cities be used up before any land further out can be developed. So
far, this is only being done an a few parts of our country.
63

The new
US as
some
people
see it.

64

Quiz Yourself:
1. The process where middle-class people move into inner city neighborhoods and
renovate them is called ____________
2. ____________ happens when banks refuse to give loans in what they consider
risky neighborhoods.
3. Because of the housing shortages, the poor have constructed their own settlements
around the city known as __________ _________

4. Businesses are allowed only in certain areas of the settlement because of
____________ ____________
5. Areas known as _____ _______ are areas of about 5,000 people. The data from
that area is used to help define needed services for that area.
6. When cities are so close that they form one continuous band of development this is
known as a ____________
65

7. Social relationships are often described as “colder” in urban areas because…
8. In this model the city develops in a series of sectors not rings. _______

9. ______ (LDC’s or MDC’s) have a higher percentage of people living in urban
settlements but ________ (LDC’s or MDC’s) have more of the very large urban
settlements.
10. _____________ was the first model developed to explain the distributions
of different social groups within urban areas.
11. New cities which develop around the beltway are nodes of consumer and
business services known as ________ _________.

12. When the Europeans took over lands around the world, they changed the
cities by adding services to help the Europeans control the conquered people.
These European planned cities are known as __________ cities.
66

Answer Key:
1.

Gentrification

2.

Redlining

3.

Squatter Settlements

4.

Zoning ordinances

5.

Census tracks

6.

Megalopolis

7. There is a stronger feeling of belonging together in small rural settlements.
8. Hoyt sector model
9. MDC, LDC
10. Burgess Concentric Zone model
11. Edge cities
12. Colonial cities
67

Test Key topic/chapter 13:
These questions come from a combination of our slides, your text book, and common knowledge you should
have discussed in your AP classroom. They are very typical of what you will see on the National Exam.
1) The multiple nuclei theory best explains why different neighborhoods of a city attract people of different… A) ages.
B) ethnic origin C) income D) marital status.
2) Sprawl is the… A) change in density within an urban area from the center to the periphery B) development of new
housing sites not contiguous to the existing built-up area. C) land maintained as open space surrounding an urban area.
D) period in the morning and evening with the heaviest volumes of traffic.
3) People are attracted to suburbs in part because suburbs are characterized by…A) heavy traffic. B) lower opportunity
for home ownership. C) private land surrounding the house. D) row houses and apartments.
4) Megalopolis refers to… A) adjacent, overlapping Metropolitan Statistical Areas. B) central cities. C) consolidated
Metropolitan Statistical Areas. D) central cities plus urbanized areas.
5) Which statement best describes the relationship between urbanization and the Industrial Revolution? A) Urbanization
promoted the Industrial Revolution. B) The Industrial Revolution promoted urbanization. C) Urbanization preceded the
Industrial Revolution by thousands of years. D) Urbanization and the Industrial Revolution are no longer related.
6) The process of legally adding land area to a city in the United States is… A) annexation. B) accreditation. C) an
application of eminent domain. D) defined by urbanized area.

68

7) The process of change in the use of a house, from single-family owner occupancy to abandonment, is… A) blockbusting.
B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining.
8) A process by which banks designate an area within which they refuse to lend money for improvements is… A) blockbusting.
B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining.
9) A recent change in the density gradient has been… A) the elimination of the gap traditionally found in the center. B) an
increase in the extremes between the inner and outer areas. C) an increase in the number of people living in the center.
D) a reduction in the differences in densities found within an urban area.
10) U.S. central cities face fiscal problems because… A) federal and state funds are available. B) low-income people are
concentrated there. C) middle-class families are attracted there. D) redlining is no longer legal.
11) A legal form of segregation in U.S. cities is achieved through...A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) zoning. D) greenbelts.
12) Factories have moved to suburban locations in part because of… A) access to main highways. B) adequate space to build
vertical structures. C) availability of large tracts of high-priced land. D) good rail connections.
13) According to the sector model, the best housing is located in…A) a corridor from downtown to the edge of the city.
B) an outer ring surrounding the city. C) nodes near universities and parks. D) renovated inner-city neighborhoods.
14) Ramshackle houses on the periphery of cities in less developed countries are known as… A) squatter settlements. B) council
estates. C) public housing. D) zone in transition.
15) Higher income people tend to live near the center of the city in all but which of the following regions? A) Latin America
B) North America C) South Asia D) Western Europe

16) The wide boulevards built in cities in less developed countries were most likely built during what era? A) pre-colonial
B) colonial C) independence D) all of the above equally

69

17) According to the multiple nuclei model, an airport is likely to attract nearby… A) industries. B) residences. C) shops.
D) universities.
18) The largest percentage of the U.S. population lives in…A) central cities. B) suburbs. C) non-metropolitan areas. D) all of the
above
19) In U.S. cities, the underclass is… A) clustered in inner-city neighborhoods. B) dispersed throughout the city. C) clustered in
suburbs. D) distributed uniformly in the city.

20) A process of converting a neighborhood from low-income to middle-class is…A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) gentrification.
D) redlining.
21) Higher social heterogeneity in urban settlements means that… A) the people with whom you relax are probably the same ones you
see at work. B) you play a specialized role in the urban economy. C) you compete for limited space. D) you may feel lonely and
isolated in a crowd.
22) The city plus its contiguous built-up suburbs is the… A) central city. B) urbanized area.
D) consolidated metropolitan statistical area

C) metropolitan statistical area.

23) The process whereby an increasing percentage of people live in an urban area is known as… A) demographic transition.
B) rank-size rule. C) urbanization. D) central place theory.
24) Of the ten largest urban areas in the world, how many are in More Developed Countries today? A) 1 B) 4 C) 7 D) 10 E) 2
25) Public housing is…A) conversion of low-income housing to middle-class housing. B) illegally established low-income housing.
C) housing that has changed from single-family owner occupancy to abandonment. D) low-income government-owned housing.
26) According to the concentric zone model, a city develops in a series of… A) corridors. B) nodes. C) rings. D) all of the above

70

27) Chicago is a good location in which to develop urban models because it is located… A) at the hub of the nation's transportation
system. B) in the center of the country. C) on a flat prairie. D) on the shore of Lake Michigan.
28) According to the sector model, the best housing is located in… A) a corridor from downtown to the edge of the city. B) an outer
ring surrounding the city. C) nodes near universities and parks. D) renovated inner-city neighborhoods.
29) The zone of transition in US cities generally contain…A) warehouses B) wealthy neighborhoods C) transportation hubs
D) universities and hospitals E) suburban homes
30) The attractions of shopping malls include all but which of the following? A) frequent concerts and exhibitions B) generous
parking lots C) place to meet friends D) walking distance from homes
The following questions are written at the high school level. You will find some questions from part one often rewritten
here. This is all designed to help you transition to the college/AP style of written questions. Any question preceded with ***
are questions that have been on the national exam before.
31. Most Latin American cities are focused on a…A) central plaza B) government housing project C) zone of heavy industry
D) skyscraper office building E) squatter settlement
32. The multiple-nuclei model of a city structure tends to be most applicable to…A) small cities B) traditional C) Latin American
cities D) newer, fast growing cities E) cities with homogeneous land use
33. ***Locational advantages important to the development of the earliest cities include…A) availability of good harbors for large
ships B) productive agricultural land and defensible sites C) temperate climate and proximity to coal mines D) good
connections by road and canal E) proximity to manufacturing areas

34. In cities, the CBD’s often show uniqueness while the suburbs usually show…A) a large hinterland. B) placelessness C) more
than one node. D) newer zones of transition.

71

35. Many LDC’s have tried to help a previously under-developed part of their country develop by moving their capital
city to that area. This new capital is known as a…A) forward capital B) new development zone C) enterprise zone
D) neocolonial city
36. Today the greatest number of urban dwellers is found in…A) North America
D) Europe E) Asia

B) South America C) Africa

37. ***All of the following have helped create ghettos in North American cities except…A)blockbusting and racial
steering B) redlining by financial institutions C) concentration of public housing and social services D) fixed school
districts E) Economic Enterprise Zones

38. Which of the following is NOT as reason for rapid suburbanization in the US after WW2? A) Mass production of
the automobile B) Reduction of long distance commuting C) Expansion of home construction D) Expansion of the
interstate highway system E) Availability of low down payment terms and long-term mortgages.
39. New cities which developed in the hinterland of large urban areas because of the automobile, are known as…
A) edge cities B) census tracts C) suburban sprawl D) squatter settlements. E) none of these
40. Gentrification refers to… A) moving the homeless into inner city shelters B) The “White Flight” from the urban city
C) losing tax revenue because of stores closing in downtown areas D) middle-class people moving into and renovating
inner city neighborhoods E) the creation of “beltway cities” around the city.

72

4
7
3

5

1
6

2

41-48 all use the sketch above.
41. The sketch in box A above represents which model of the inner structure of urban areas?
C) multiple nuclei model D) Burgess concentric zone model E) peripheral model
42. The models in boxes B and C represent A) Concentric zone and multiple nuclei
concentric zone D) peripheral and concentric zone E) Von Thunen and peripheral

A) Hoyt sector model B) VonThunen’s model

B) Multiple nuclei and Hoyt sector C) Hoyt sector and

43. In which ring (1, 2, etc.) of sketch A above would high-status households in North American cities likely live? A) 1 B) 2 C) 3 D) 4&5
44. In which ring (1, 2, etc.) of sketch A above would high status households in a European city likely live? A) 1

B) 2

C) 3

D) 4&5

45. In model B, zone # 2 is where it is likely because of: A) greenbelting B) squatter settling C) the culture of poverty D) transportation
E) no one knows
46. The model in sketch B is the; A) Hoyt sector model B) Burgess model C) multiple nuclei model D) peripheral model
47. The model in sketch C is the; A) Hoyt sector model B) Burgess model C) multiple nuclei model D) peripheral model
48. Which of these models best describes what has happened in US cities in the last 40 years? A)

B)

C)

73

49.*** In the U.S. a city plus its contiguous built-up suburbs is known as an…A) urbanized area B) zoned area
C) census tract D) Squatter settlement E) none of these
50. Done mostly in Europe, these are areas where land is kept as parks, farms or other kinds of open space and urban
sprawl is not allowed. A) Smart growth
B) zoning
C) filtering
D) census tracts E) greenbelts
51. Which statement best describes the relationship between urbanization and the Industrial Revolution?
A) Urbanization promoted the Industrial Revolution. B) The Industrial Revolution promoted urbanization.
C) Urbanization preceded the Industrial Revolution by thousands of years. D) Urbanization and the Industrial
Revolution are no longer related.
52. The process whereby an increasing percentage of people live in an urban area is known as…
A) Demographic transition. B) rank-size rule. C) Urbanization. D) Central place theory.
53. The city (if it has 50,000 or more people) plus its contiguous built-up suburbs AND the county it is in as well as any
other counties it influences, is known as the ...A) central city B) urbanized area
C) metropolitan statistical area
D) consolidated metropolitan area E) micropolitan statistical area
54. ***Higher social heterogeneity in urban settlements means that …A) the people with whom you relax are probably
the same ones you see at work. B) you play a specialized role in the urban economy. C) you compete for limited
space. D) you may feel lonely and isolated in a crowd.

55. The process of change in the use of a house, from single-family owner occupancy to smaller dwellings for the poor
and then sometimes to abandonment, is…A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining. E) none of
these

74

Free Response #1:
The Bid Rent theory says that the closer you get to the
CBD the higher the cost for land, yet in most American
cities you find the poorest people living near the
expensive CBD and the richest living further away.
Explain:
A. Why neighborhoods near the CBD are often poor and
run down?
B. Why are there few grocery and other retail stores in
these neighborhoods?
C. Why is this not really true in European and Latin
American countries?

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75

FR #2:
Think of the map of your school, explain the
layout of your school using the Multiple Nuclei
Model
The main office is the CBD.
Completely explain your answer using specific
buildings and/or land areas in your explanation
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76

Answer Key:
1. B

14. A

27. C

40. D

53. C

2. B

15. B

28. A

41. D

54. D

3. C

16. B

29. A

42. B

55. B

4. A

17. A

30. D

43. D

5. B

18. B

31. A

44. A

6. A

19. A

32. D

45. D

7. B

20. C

33. B

46. A

8. D

21. D

34. B

47. C

9. D

22. B

35. A

48. C

10. B

23. C

36. E

49. A

11. C

24. C

37. E

50. E

12. A

25. D

38. B

51. B

13. A

26. C

39. A

52. C
77

FR. #1: ( 15 pts. for each section…total of 45 pts.)
A. In the US the move of the wealthy and middle class to the suburbs has left the older houses and apartments near the CBD empty.
This has lowered their value to the point where the poor can afford these dwellings and have made these neighborhoods their
homes. The poor can not pay for upkeep of these dwellings, or to pay high taxes. The lack of upkeep and tax money to repair the
roads and schools, adds to the downward spiral of the neighborhood. With little spending money for shopping, the poor do not
spend much in the stores. This causes many stores to close and move to the suburbs where the spending customers and money
went. The closing of the stores adds to the poverty of the area by taking away some of the jobs that were in the neighborhood. This
becomes a vicious cycle of poverty and deterioration. (15 points)

B. There are few retail stores and groceries is the area because the poor do not have money to shop. The lack of spending forces
many stores out of business or forces them to move to better locations. There also can be higher crime in these areas and the
crime often takes place at the stores. This is another reason for the stores to move out of the neighborhood. (15 points)
C. Neighborhoods in European and Latin American cities are different from those of US cities. In Europe and Latin America, the
wealthy and middle class still live near or in the CBD. The higher tax base and more spending ability of the upper and middle
classes, keeps the CBD area flourishing with jobs and in constant repair and upkeep of the cities’ physical condition. (15 points)

FR #2: (10 total points.)
You will need to judge how effectively you displayed you school
in the Multiple Nuclei Model. Refer to the model itself to help you
determine your success and grade.
School’s main office
78

Calculating your grade on test 13.
Add how many you got correct on the multiple choice part (55 possible) to how many
points you scored on the FR portion (55 possible)…110 total.
The following scale will show the approximate score if this test were the real AP exam. Remember that this
is an approximation. While 65-74% is normally the range for a 3 on the test, it is not definite. Over the
years I have seen scores as low as 60% be the low portion of a 3 score.

Out of 110 possible points:
72-83 is most likely a 3
84-94 is most likely a 4

95-110 is most likely a 5

Now lets start our review for the national exam by
reviewing the 33 key models and theories of the
course…the next PowerPoint.


Slide 76

Key topic/chapter 13…Urban Patterns
Key terms:
Annexation
Concentric zone model
Density gradient
Edge cities
Filtering
Galactic city
Gentrification
Greenbelts
Megalopolis
MSA
Multiple nuclei model
Peripheral model

Public housing
Redlining
Renovated housing
Scattered site
Squatter settlement
Sector model
Smart growth
Sprawl
Underclass
Urban renewal
Zone in transition
Zoning
1

Chapter 13…Urban Areas.
How are Cities planned?
Why

are cities where they are?
How are they organized?
Why are some areas of a city
different from
other areas of the same city?
What is the future of cities?
2

Settlement


Settlement - permanent collections of buildings,
where people live, work, and obtain services

3

ORIGINS OF SETTLEMENTS


Religious - graves, churches, temples



Cultural - schools, libraries



Political/Military - leader’s house, walls



Economic - stores, food
4

TYPES OF SETTLEMENTS


Rural Settlements - agriculture as the
predominant occupation.



Urban settlements - principal industries are
secondary and tertiary.

5

RURAL SETTLEMENTS
Clustered rural settlements –grouped
settlements in rural areas to minimize travel

Dispersed rural Settlements - isolated farms
with enclosed continuous fields (Found only in
N. America and Britain).

6

Urban Geographers want to know the global distribution of urban
settlements. MDC’s have a high percentage of people living in urban
areas because of the shift from agriculture-manufacturing-services.
Geographers are also interested in where people and activities are
distributed within urban spaces. What are the differences between the
inner-city and suburban areas and why?
As we saw in the last chapter, many downtowns are unique and can
often be recognized in photos where the suburbs often look very
much alike (Placelessness). Why? Suburbs offer the chance to avoid
some of the city problems (crime, tight living area, expensive
land/rent, noise, age of buildings) while still keeping a connection with
the goods and services of the city: jobs, sports teams, culture, shops,
recreation, etc.
7

Where is this place?

8

Today’s cities are evolving and changing. Although different internal
situations characterize urban areas in the US and elsewhere, the
problems arising from current spatial trends are quite similar in all cities.
Where have urban areas grown: in the early 1800’s only 3% of the earth’s
people lived in cities and only Beijing China had more than 1 million
people. Today over ½ of the world’s people live in cities and we have over
400 cities of at least 1 million people.

Urbanization: is the process by which city population grows.
Cities population growth is measured in 2 dimensions;
1. An increase in the number of people living in the cities.
2. An increase in the percentage of people living in the cities.
This distinction is important because they happen for different reason and
have different global distributions.
9

Increasing Percentage of People in Cities: a large percentage of people living in urban
areas is a measure of a country’s level of development. In MDC’s about ¾ of the people
live in urban areas compared to about 2/5 of people in LDC’s. (Except in Latin America
where the level is closer to MDC’s.)
The higher percentage of people in urban areas comes from the changes that have
occurred in the last 200 years as we went from agriculture (primary jobs) to industrial
(secondary jobs) and now service jobs, all created by the Industrial Revolution of the
1800’s.
People moved to the cities for industrial jobs, but in MDC’s this process has largely
ended because nearly everyone interested in moving to the cities from farms has already
done so.
In LDC’s the percentage of people living in urban areas is growing as people are pushed
off of their farms and replaced by machines and as people move to cities looking/hoping
for industrial jobs.
10

Increasing Number of People in Cities: MDC’s have a higher percentage of
people living in urban settlements but LDC’s have more of the very large urban
settlements (Primate cities). (Rank-size rule, primate cities, chapter 12.)

This is interesting because typically the large cities are created from the
improvements brought by the Industrial Revolution. This is not the case with the
large LDC cities. Migration to the primate city in LDC’s is happening even though
job opportunities may not be available. Increasing the population growth in LDC
cities is the fact that medical services are better in these cities, thus the child
mortality rate is lower.
Defining Urban Settlements: defining where urban areas end and rural areas
begin is not easy. Geographers have formulated definitions that distinguish
between urban and rural areas in two ways: Social differences and Physical
differences.
11

Percent Urban Population

Percent of the population living in urban areas is usually higher in MDCs
than in LDCs.

12

The most populated cities in the world

Of the top
20, only
Moscow,
Tokyo and
New York
are in MDC’s

Shanghai China has 14,608,512 people
13

14

15

Social Differences Between Urban and Rural Settlements: it is fair to say that rural
people and urban people follow different ways of life. A city can be defined as having 3
characteristics:
1. Large size. People in rural settlements know most of the other people in the
settlement. Not true in big cities. Social relationships are often described as “colder” in
urban areas because you only see some people at work instead of growing up with
them in the settlement.
2. High Density. Having lots of people in a tiny area creates social consequences. A
high density of people living in a small area can only be supported if the people
specialize (they can’t all be farmers). People are encouraged to compete for jobs, room,
and survival in a tightly limited space. Social groups compete to occupy the same space
(ethnic/ race problems). Rural settlements have very little of this problem.
3. Social Heterogeneity. The larger the settlement, the greater the variety of people.
Being “unusual” in a large settlement is more likely to be accepted than in a small rural
one. But despite the freedom to be different that large urban settlements give you,
people living there often feel alone because so many people are different from them.
There is a stronger feeling of belonging together in small rural settlements.
16

These 3 differences do not fully answer the question of where urban settlements
begin and rural ones end because in today’s MDC’s most everyone has access to
cars, telephones, televisions, and “urban type” jobs which reduce the differences
between urban and rural lifestyles. “City folk” and “Country folk” are more alike
today than they are different. To help distinguish between urban and rural areas we
need to add the physical definition of rural and urban to the equation.
Physical Definitions of Urban Settlements: In ancient time, cities had defensive
walls for protection which clearly defined the physical boundaries of the city. Today
the walls are gone but we can still define the physical boundaries in 3 ways:
1. Legal boundary. These are the official boundaries of a city as recognized by
the government of the country or state. These “city limits” have been officially given
to the city and are physically marked on official maps. The local government of the
city has authority to make laws and protect the people inside the city boundaries.
17

2. Urbanized area. This is the city plus its suburbs or urbanized area that
surrounds the city. About 70 percent of US residents live in urbanized areas with
40% being in the suburbs and 30% inside the city limits. The suburbs may have
their own city governments but the huge central city dominates what happens in
the entire area.
3. Metropolitan Statistical Area. Cities have an even bigger influence on people
than just those living in their city limits and surrounding urbanized areas. People
from far away come to shop, use the services, support the sports teams, read
the newspapers and watch the television broadcasts of the city. Thus the city
has a “functional area” which is its total zone of influence. The US Bureau of
Census has created a method of measuring the functional area of the city.
Known as the Metropolitan statistical area (MSA) this area includes:
•An urbanized area with a population of at least 50,000
•The county within which the city is located.
•Adjacent counties with a high population density and a large percentage of
residents working in the central city’s county.
18

Metropolitan Area of Philadelphia

City of
Philadelphia

Urbanized
area
(suburbs)
Metropolitan
Statistical
Area

The metropolitan area of Philadelphia is
spread over several counties and four states.
It is also a diversified trade center, given its
position on the Delaware river.

19

20

21

Micropolitan Statistical Areas: Smaller areas with between
10,000 and 50,000 people, the county where it is found, and
adjacent counties tied to the city. This would be a small town and
the area dominated by it.
Overlapping Metropolitan Areas: Some adjacent MSA’s overlap.
A county between two central cities may send a large number of
commuters to jobs in both cities. In some areas the cities are so
close that they form one continuous urban complex. This is
known as a Megalopolis (great city).
In a megalopolis, the downtown CBD often has its own
distinctive look and the urban areas are visually separated by
parks, open spaces, and dairy/truck farms. But at the periphery
of the urban areas, the boundaries overlap.
22

Colorado Springs, population 431,000

Ocala, Florida, population 56,000

Florala, Alabama, population 1,900

23

Megalopolis, from northern Va. To Maine.
This Illustrates the
difference between
strict city proper
definitions and broader
urban agglomerations.
To define urbanized
areas, the U.S. Census
Bureau uses the term
Metropolitan Statistical
Area (MSA) or
Consolidated MSA
(CMSA) if two or more of
them overlap.
24

Where are People Distributed within Urban Areas? People are not
just distributed at random in urban areas. For the most part they
concentrate in particular neighborhoods depending on their social
characteristics. Geographers want to see where people with
particular characteristics are likely to live and why.

Three models which try to explain the growth of a city:

The Burgess Model

The Hoyt Sector Model

The Harris and Ullman
multiple Nuclei Model
25

Burgess Concentric Zone Model

In the concentric zone model, a city grows in a series of rings surrounding the CBD.

Burgess Concentric Zone Model: This is the first used to explain the
distributions of different social groups within urban areas. It says that a
city grows outward from a central place in a series of concentric rings.
The precise size and width of the rings vary from one city to another, but
some basic types of rings appear in all cities in the same order (see chart
above).
26

•Hoyt Sector Model: In this model the city develops in a
series of sectors not rings. Certain areas of the city are
more attractive for various activities, originally because
of an environmental factor (or even pure chance). As the
city grows, activities extend outward in a wedge shape.
For example, once a wealthy neighborhood is built the
next wealthy neighborhood will extend from the first
neighborhood further outward from the center. In this
way, the best housing is found in a corridor extending
outward from the center to the outer edge (see chart on
the next page).
27

The Hoyt Sector Model

In the sector model, a city grows in a series of
wedges or corridors extending out from the
CBD.
28

•Harris and Ullman’s Multiple Nuclei Model: According
to this model, a city is a complex structure that includes
more than one center around which activities revolve.
Examples of these nodes include a port, parks,
stadium, neighborhood business center, university, and
airport (see chart). This theory states that some
activities are attracted to particular nodes, whereas
others try to avoid them. A university node may attract
well educated people and bookstores while the port will
attract hotels and warehouses. Heavy industry and
expensive houses rarely are found together. This
model shows the effect of the automobile more than
any other model.
29

The Harris and Ullman Multiple Nuclei model

The multiple nuclei model views a city as a
collection of individual centers, around which
different people and activities cluster.

30

Applications of the Models: The three models help explain where and in some
cases, why people live where they do. None of the models by themselves fully
explains why and where different types of people live, but combined they give
you as good a look as possible at the “Why” of “Where.” Effective use of the
models depends on getting good data on the areas. Most countries take a
census every 10 years to help determine useful data about the people and
places of the country. In our country we divide the census data into areas
known as census tracts of about 5,000 people. Each census tract has the data
that summarizes the characteristics of the people living within that tract. This
information includes things like the race, income, age, and education of the
people living in that tract.
Social Area Analysis: The data from the census tracts can all be plotted onto
maps to show the characteristics of the people living in that tract. This map is
known as a social area analysis.
31

Using Census tract information…Seattle, Washington
Each lined area is a
census tract of about 5000
people in Seattle
Washington. These maps
show average household
income for 1990 and
2000…note the changes in
income in some areas
between 1990 and 2000.
Using this information, a
business can make
decisions about where
they want to locate a new
store or the future of
existing stores.
You can find census tract
information on many topics
such as; age, education
level, race, ethnicity, crime
rate, and land ownership.
Note the areas with
incomes over
$63,000.

All can be very valuable
information to people
looking to open
businesses.

32

Examine the changes
between 1990 and
2000.

Oakland, California’s Ethnic neighborhoods
The small bordered areas are census tracks of 5000 people.

33

Use of the Models Outside of North America: The 3 models will also work in other
places in the world; however social groups in other countries may not have the
same reasons for selecting particular neighborhoods as Americans do.
European Cities: As in the US, wealthier people in European cities cluster along a
sector extending outward from the CBD, however unlike the US, wealthy and
middle class Europeans still live in the inner rings of the neighborhoods near the
CBD not out in the suburbs. In the past, poorer people lived in the center of the
city. Before electricity, social segregation was vertical: richer people lived on the
first or second floor of a building while the poorer people lived in the basement or
upper floors. In the Industrial Revolution, housing for the poor was constructed
near the factories and away from the rich.
Today poorer Europeans are less likely to live in the inner-city. Poor quality
housing has been renovated for the rich or turned into office buildings. Poorer
Europeans tend to live in the outskirts of the city. Vast suburbs with dozens of high
rise apartments house the poor. They face long commutes to reach their jobs in
the city.
34

European cities generally do not have the “suburban
sprawl” that US cities have. European cities tend to be
more pedestrian friendly with more parks downtown as
Europeans tend to still live downtown.
US cities have taller buildings as European cities tend to
be older and more historic.

American cities have more ethnic neighborhoods than
European cities. Ethnic neighborhoods that do exist in
European cities tend to be in the suburbs. WHY?
Because the established richer neighborhoods tend to be
downtown in European cities.
35

Less Developed Countries: Like Europe, most LDC’s accommodate their poor in the
suburbs with their middle class and rich living near the center of the city. LDC’s have
passed through 3 periods of city building: before the Europeans arrived, during the
period of European colonialism, and since independence from European control.

Pre-colonial Cities: Before the Europeans arrived few cities existed in Africa, Asia, and
Latin America and most people lived in small rural settlements. Those cities that existed
were mostly laid out surrounding a religious center; with the rest of the city laid out in a
hieratical concentric pattern (like the Burgess model) from government buildings,
homes of the wealthy, and businesses related to the religion out to other businesses
and shops.
Colonial cities: When the Europeans took over these lands, they changed the cities by
adding services to help the Europeans control the conquered people. Often a new
European style city would be build next to the existing native one. The new European
cities contained wider streets, a public square, larger houses and a much lower density.
The Spanish used the “Law of the Indies” which was a city plan designed specifically to
build cities in a “Spanish” style. (Gridiron pattern for streets centered on a church and
central plaza, walls around individual houses and neighborhoods centered around
smaller plazas and more churches.)
36

Early Mexico city was laid out in a grid pattern of streets. This followed
the Spanish “Law of the Indies.”

37

Central Plaza in Mexico City 1920 photo. Typical Colonial City plan.

Part of downtown Mexico city today still shows the
building plan of the “Law of the Indies.”

38

Cities since Independence: Following independence, cities have become
the focal point of the development of most LDC’s. Millions of people have
migrated to the cities (Primate cities) looking for jobs and services. Some
capitals have been moved to isolated areas in an attempt to help develop
that area of the country (Brasília) This is know as a forward capital. Latin
American cities have developed their own unique style.
Squatter settlements: The LDC’s are unable to house the rapidly growing
number of poor who are flowing into the cities. Because of the housing
shortages, the poor have constructed their own settlements around the city.
These settlements have few services because neither the city nor the
residents can afford them. Squatters have two basic choices for housing.
1. Illegally move into empty real houses located in the city or,
2. Rent slum housing.
(85% of the population of Addis Ababa in Ethiopia lives in squatter
settlements, slums or other illegal housing.)
39

Squatter shacks in Manila, the Philippines

40

Squatter settlement in Ethiopia

41

Zimbabwe, Africa

42

Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

43

Latin American City Model:
In many Latin
American cities,
the wealthy live in
the inner city and
in a sector
extending along a
commercial spine.
In situ accretion- businesses
and homes constantly under
construction/repair.
Zone of maturity-2nd best
housing in the city.
The poor live in squatter settlements on the
periphery of the city.

Disamenity- unpleasant area
used by the poor to get to the
market.

44

The City Outline of Rio de Janeiro
The rich tourist areas and expensive condo apartments are along the coast
and beach while the poor live in squatter shacks in the hills.

45

City problems:
Inner-City Physical Problems: Most US inner cities were constructed before the 1950’s
(people began to move to the suburbs in the 1950’s so new construction moved out of
the city).
Process of Deterioration (how a city deteriorates): A city doesn’t suddenly become old
and full of slummy areas. It happens over time. When a group of low-income people
inhabit an area of a city, nearby neighborhoods will often look to move out. They sell or
rent to more low-income occupants thus expanding the low-income area. Two processes
cause/speed up the devaluation of areas:
1. Filtering, 2. Redlining.
Filtering: Large houses and buildings that once housed rich downtown workers (who
moved to the suburbs) are taken over by landlords who don’t live in that area (they
moved to the suburbs too). Rents are low so the landlord doesn’t take as good care of
the property as they should and the property becomes run down or abandoned. Stores
close, or move, due to lack of sales. 100 years ago these neighborhoods would be used
by immigrants and ethnic businesses would succeed in those areas. Now, with a decline
in immigration, these neighborhoods have shrunk and so have schools, businesses and
other services. Thousands of vacant houses and buildings stand empty in inner cities
across America.

46

Redlining: Some banks refuse to give loans in what they consider
risky neighborhoods. They draw a red line on a map around areas
where they will not give loans. Without loans, these neighborhoods
have a hard time rebuilding/remodeling. Though illegal, this still
happens. Bankers just don’t put these “no-loan” areas on a map.

Urban Renewal: This is the series of projects to improve European
and N. American cities by buying up the blighted neighborhoods,
moving the people to new government built housing projects, and
building new roads, and other projects to make the inner city
attractive for business again. National and State government grants
help pay for these projects.
47

Public housing: Housing for the poor, built with government funding as part of
urban renewal. In the US this is only about 2% of the housing while in some
countries it may be more (Britain is 30%). Public housing built in the 50’s & 60’s
were largely high rise apartments, but those are seen as being unsatisfactory.
Problems arise from cramming large numbers of poor people into one area.
Today most public housing projects are one to three story buildings with many of
them being scattered around different parts of the city rather than clustered into
one area.
Because urban renewal has been criticized for destroying the social cohesion of
older neighborhoods, many governments (like the US) have stopped funding
most projects since the 1970’s. What do we do instead?
Renovated Housing: An alternative often used since the 70’s is to renovate a
building instead of urban renewal. The process where middle-class people
move into inner-city neighborhoods and renovate them is called gentrification.
Gentrified inner-city neighborhoods also attract middle-class people who work
downtown. Living close to work saves the hassle of commuting and rejuvenates
run down inner-city neighborhoods
48

Gentrified building downtown Harlem, NY. Note the supermarket.

49

Inner-City Social Problems: Inner-city residents are often referred to as the
permanent underclass because they are trapped in an unending cycle of
economic and social problems. High unemployment, alcoholism, drug
addiction, literacy, juvenile delinquency, and crime all exist at a higher rate
among those who live in the inner-city. Lack of jobs means lack of tax dollars
to pay for police and fire protection as well as good schools. Lack of job skills
and homelessness are also tremendous problems.
Culture of Poverty: Inner-city residents are trapped in a permanent underclass
culture that reproduces itself. In the US, unwed mothers give birth to 2/3 of the
babies in the inner-city. 90% of these children live with only one parent and it
is real hard for one parent to keep a job and take care of children. Both suffer
and a shortage of care and daily attention by the parent contributes to the kids
not learning the skills necessary to do well in school which leads to poor jobs
for their futures. Poverty leads to more poverty. Many families on welfare have
only one parent because it is financially better if one parent is gone, that way
the single parent gets food stamps and other services from the government
that they would not get if it was a 2 family household.
50

Crime: Trapped in a hopeless environment, some inner-city
residents turn to drugs. Drug use is a problem in inner-city
areas and the suburbs, but rates of drug use in inner-cities
are the highest.
Ethnic and Racial Segregation: As seen in chapter 7, many
neighborhoods in the US are segregated by ethnicity with
African Americans and Hispanics concentrated in one or two
continuous areas and whites living in the suburbs. Even small
cities display a strong distinction among neighborhoods. A
frequent division is between the east and west or north and
south side of town, or the railroad tracks. A family seeking a
new residence will seek the areas where the characteristics
of the people meet their own.

51

The exodus
from the
American city.
This has
happened in
many American
cities since the
1960’s.

52

Changes in Cities in the U.S.
U.S. population has been moving out of the city centers to the suburbs:
suburbanization and counter urbanization

Developed Countries: suburbanization

 wealthy move to suburbs
 automobiles and roads; ‘American
Dream’ of the home in the suburbs.
 better services
 wealthy move to suburbs
Counter urbanization

idyllic settings
cost of land for retirement
slow pace, yet high tech
connections to services and markets
53

U.S. intraregional migration during 1990s.

Inner city economic problems: the concentration of low income
residents in inner cities has caused economic problems. These
people require public services but can pay very little in taxes to
support the services. They need stores and jobs but have little
money to spend in the store and few skills for jobs (so the stores
close). To try to fight these problems many local and state
governments use tax monies to try to renovate these areas, but this
shifts tax money needed for other areas to the inner city (votes on
election day).
Annexation: Many cities could help their tax problem by adding the
new suburbs to be part of their city (annexation). After all, many of
these suburban people use the city for its’ jobs etc., so why not add
them into the city? Today, most people in the suburbs do not want
to be annexed into the city and so they do not vote to be annexed.
54

The Peripheral Model: According to this model, an urban area
consists of an inner city surrounded by large suburban residential
and business areas (MSA) tied together by a beltway or highway
that circles the city. Around the beltway are nodes of consumer
and business services called edge cities (see diagram of multiple
nuclei model). These edge cities sprang up to provide services
and jobs to the people in the suburbs.
Density Gradient: As you travel outward from the center of the
city, the density of people declines. Inner city has big apartments
of 250 of more people per acre. Suburbs have fewer people per
acre (but lots of acres) and finally you leave the cities periphery
you find few people. The number of houses per unit of land
diminishes as distance from the center of the city increases.
55

The Edge cities (bedroom communities) of Houston

The central city is surrounded by a ring road, around which are
suburban areas and edge cities, shopping malls, office parks,
industrial areas, and service complexes.

Known as
bedroom
communities
because
people live
there but
mostly don’t
work there.
They drive
into the city
for work.
56

As you move from the center of the city outward, the density of the population
changes. This is know as the density gradient. Two big changes have occurred in
the density gradient of today’s cities:
1. The number of people living in the center has decreased.
2. The density difference between the inner city and the suburbs is declining
because the inner city density is dropping and the suburban density is growing
due to more large apartments being built in the suburbs.
Cost of Suburban or Urban Sprawl: Urban Sprawl is the progressive spread of
development over the landscape. As long as we Americans want single-family
detached houses, land on the fringe of urban areas will be converted from open
space to residential use. The cost of this growth is more than the loss of land, it is
also the cost of new roads, utilities, building stores and offices and the cost of
automobiles to move these people over even longer distances. Lots of these new
developments are built on what was once farmland. Wonderful productive soil now
under concrete.

Greenbelts: are areas where, by law, the open space can not be used for any
construction. This is mostly found in Europe.

57

Once farmland that is being converted to suburbs and cities.

58

Tyson’s Corner Virginia in 1940

59

Washington, DC. MSA.

Tyson’s Corner Virginia
today.
Washington D.C. is off
In the distance.

60

Suburban Segregation: The “new” segregation.
Suburban segregation takes two forms:
1. Residents are separated from commercial and manufacturing activities
which are confined someplace else. (The whole neighborhood is
nothing but houses because they drive for services.)
2. The price of the house eliminates some from being able to live there. This
creates a homogeneous suburb of the same economic class of people.
This never existed before in history. Where we once had vertical
segregation of the classes we now we have horizontal segregation.
3. But this may be reversing as new statistics show that people are beginning
to move back to the city. Why? Cost of transportation.
Zoning Ordinances: This idea developed in Europe and later America in the
early decades of the 20th century. This means that businesses are allowed only
in certain areas of the settlement. (No all night taco stands inside your single
family neighborhood.)
Motor vehicles: The wide use of the automobile is largely responsible for the
American movement to the suburbs. Not only did people move out but 1/4 of
the land inside all American cities are now roads, streets, and parking lots.

61

Public Transportation: Because few US workers live within walking distance
of their jobs, urban areas are characterized by extensive commuting and the
problems that come with it. As much as 40% of all trips made into or out from
a city during the day takes place within just 4 hours. (2 in the morning and 2 in
the late afternoon). RUSH HOUR!!! In large cities, public transportation, like
subways and busses, are better suited to move people but Americans still
prefer their own cars. Public transportation is cheaper, cleaner, and more
energy efficient than personal cars, yet in the US only 5% of city travel is
done using public transit systems. American’s love their personal car too
much.
Local Government Fragmentation: Because of the large number of local
governments in the US (look at the settlements in Pinellas County) it is
difficult to solve some of the regional problems like garbage disposal, water
management, traffic and public housing.
62

Metropolitan government: This idea tries to put many local governments into a
larger unit that can better handle the urban problems. The 2 ways to do this
are:
1. Federations in which the individual settlements have their own police,
firemen, and tax collection but they all agree to be part of a second
government which handles transportation, water, sewage, parks and
welfare for all the communities.
2. Consolidations: In this method, several cities and the county may form one
government. Jacksonville’s government runs not only the town but the
county too, this makes Jacksonville the largest city, in land size, in the US.
Smart growth: A new movement by many states to curb suburban sprawl by
limiting where new construction can take place. Smart growth laws require that
land near cities be used up before any land further out can be developed. So
far, this is only being done an a few parts of our country.
63

The new
US as
some
people
see it.

64

Quiz Yourself:
1. The process where middle-class people move into inner city neighborhoods and
renovate them is called ____________
2. ____________ happens when banks refuse to give loans in what they consider
risky neighborhoods.
3. Because of the housing shortages, the poor have constructed their own settlements
around the city known as __________ _________

4. Businesses are allowed only in certain areas of the settlement because of
____________ ____________
5. Areas known as _____ _______ are areas of about 5,000 people. The data from
that area is used to help define needed services for that area.
6. When cities are so close that they form one continuous band of development this is
known as a ____________
65

7. Social relationships are often described as “colder” in urban areas because…
8. In this model the city develops in a series of sectors not rings. _______

9. ______ (LDC’s or MDC’s) have a higher percentage of people living in urban
settlements but ________ (LDC’s or MDC’s) have more of the very large urban
settlements.
10. _____________ was the first model developed to explain the distributions
of different social groups within urban areas.
11. New cities which develop around the beltway are nodes of consumer and
business services known as ________ _________.

12. When the Europeans took over lands around the world, they changed the
cities by adding services to help the Europeans control the conquered people.
These European planned cities are known as __________ cities.
66

Answer Key:
1.

Gentrification

2.

Redlining

3.

Squatter Settlements

4.

Zoning ordinances

5.

Census tracks

6.

Megalopolis

7. There is a stronger feeling of belonging together in small rural settlements.
8. Hoyt sector model
9. MDC, LDC
10. Burgess Concentric Zone model
11. Edge cities
12. Colonial cities
67

Test Key topic/chapter 13:
These questions come from a combination of our slides, your text book, and common knowledge you should
have discussed in your AP classroom. They are very typical of what you will see on the National Exam.
1) The multiple nuclei theory best explains why different neighborhoods of a city attract people of different… A) ages.
B) ethnic origin C) income D) marital status.
2) Sprawl is the… A) change in density within an urban area from the center to the periphery B) development of new
housing sites not contiguous to the existing built-up area. C) land maintained as open space surrounding an urban area.
D) period in the morning and evening with the heaviest volumes of traffic.
3) People are attracted to suburbs in part because suburbs are characterized by…A) heavy traffic. B) lower opportunity
for home ownership. C) private land surrounding the house. D) row houses and apartments.
4) Megalopolis refers to… A) adjacent, overlapping Metropolitan Statistical Areas. B) central cities. C) consolidated
Metropolitan Statistical Areas. D) central cities plus urbanized areas.
5) Which statement best describes the relationship between urbanization and the Industrial Revolution? A) Urbanization
promoted the Industrial Revolution. B) The Industrial Revolution promoted urbanization. C) Urbanization preceded the
Industrial Revolution by thousands of years. D) Urbanization and the Industrial Revolution are no longer related.
6) The process of legally adding land area to a city in the United States is… A) annexation. B) accreditation. C) an
application of eminent domain. D) defined by urbanized area.

68

7) The process of change in the use of a house, from single-family owner occupancy to abandonment, is… A) blockbusting.
B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining.
8) A process by which banks designate an area within which they refuse to lend money for improvements is… A) blockbusting.
B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining.
9) A recent change in the density gradient has been… A) the elimination of the gap traditionally found in the center. B) an
increase in the extremes between the inner and outer areas. C) an increase in the number of people living in the center.
D) a reduction in the differences in densities found within an urban area.
10) U.S. central cities face fiscal problems because… A) federal and state funds are available. B) low-income people are
concentrated there. C) middle-class families are attracted there. D) redlining is no longer legal.
11) A legal form of segregation in U.S. cities is achieved through...A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) zoning. D) greenbelts.
12) Factories have moved to suburban locations in part because of… A) access to main highways. B) adequate space to build
vertical structures. C) availability of large tracts of high-priced land. D) good rail connections.
13) According to the sector model, the best housing is located in…A) a corridor from downtown to the edge of the city.
B) an outer ring surrounding the city. C) nodes near universities and parks. D) renovated inner-city neighborhoods.
14) Ramshackle houses on the periphery of cities in less developed countries are known as… A) squatter settlements. B) council
estates. C) public housing. D) zone in transition.
15) Higher income people tend to live near the center of the city in all but which of the following regions? A) Latin America
B) North America C) South Asia D) Western Europe

16) The wide boulevards built in cities in less developed countries were most likely built during what era? A) pre-colonial
B) colonial C) independence D) all of the above equally

69

17) According to the multiple nuclei model, an airport is likely to attract nearby… A) industries. B) residences. C) shops.
D) universities.
18) The largest percentage of the U.S. population lives in…A) central cities. B) suburbs. C) non-metropolitan areas. D) all of the
above
19) In U.S. cities, the underclass is… A) clustered in inner-city neighborhoods. B) dispersed throughout the city. C) clustered in
suburbs. D) distributed uniformly in the city.

20) A process of converting a neighborhood from low-income to middle-class is…A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) gentrification.
D) redlining.
21) Higher social heterogeneity in urban settlements means that… A) the people with whom you relax are probably the same ones you
see at work. B) you play a specialized role in the urban economy. C) you compete for limited space. D) you may feel lonely and
isolated in a crowd.
22) The city plus its contiguous built-up suburbs is the… A) central city. B) urbanized area.
D) consolidated metropolitan statistical area

C) metropolitan statistical area.

23) The process whereby an increasing percentage of people live in an urban area is known as… A) demographic transition.
B) rank-size rule. C) urbanization. D) central place theory.
24) Of the ten largest urban areas in the world, how many are in More Developed Countries today? A) 1 B) 4 C) 7 D) 10 E) 2
25) Public housing is…A) conversion of low-income housing to middle-class housing. B) illegally established low-income housing.
C) housing that has changed from single-family owner occupancy to abandonment. D) low-income government-owned housing.
26) According to the concentric zone model, a city develops in a series of… A) corridors. B) nodes. C) rings. D) all of the above

70

27) Chicago is a good location in which to develop urban models because it is located… A) at the hub of the nation's transportation
system. B) in the center of the country. C) on a flat prairie. D) on the shore of Lake Michigan.
28) According to the sector model, the best housing is located in… A) a corridor from downtown to the edge of the city. B) an outer
ring surrounding the city. C) nodes near universities and parks. D) renovated inner-city neighborhoods.
29) The zone of transition in US cities generally contain…A) warehouses B) wealthy neighborhoods C) transportation hubs
D) universities and hospitals E) suburban homes
30) The attractions of shopping malls include all but which of the following? A) frequent concerts and exhibitions B) generous
parking lots C) place to meet friends D) walking distance from homes
The following questions are written at the high school level. You will find some questions from part one often rewritten
here. This is all designed to help you transition to the college/AP style of written questions. Any question preceded with ***
are questions that have been on the national exam before.
31. Most Latin American cities are focused on a…A) central plaza B) government housing project C) zone of heavy industry
D) skyscraper office building E) squatter settlement
32. The multiple-nuclei model of a city structure tends to be most applicable to…A) small cities B) traditional C) Latin American
cities D) newer, fast growing cities E) cities with homogeneous land use
33. ***Locational advantages important to the development of the earliest cities include…A) availability of good harbors for large
ships B) productive agricultural land and defensible sites C) temperate climate and proximity to coal mines D) good
connections by road and canal E) proximity to manufacturing areas

34. In cities, the CBD’s often show uniqueness while the suburbs usually show…A) a large hinterland. B) placelessness C) more
than one node. D) newer zones of transition.

71

35. Many LDC’s have tried to help a previously under-developed part of their country develop by moving their capital
city to that area. This new capital is known as a…A) forward capital B) new development zone C) enterprise zone
D) neocolonial city
36. Today the greatest number of urban dwellers is found in…A) North America
D) Europe E) Asia

B) South America C) Africa

37. ***All of the following have helped create ghettos in North American cities except…A)blockbusting and racial
steering B) redlining by financial institutions C) concentration of public housing and social services D) fixed school
districts E) Economic Enterprise Zones

38. Which of the following is NOT as reason for rapid suburbanization in the US after WW2? A) Mass production of
the automobile B) Reduction of long distance commuting C) Expansion of home construction D) Expansion of the
interstate highway system E) Availability of low down payment terms and long-term mortgages.
39. New cities which developed in the hinterland of large urban areas because of the automobile, are known as…
A) edge cities B) census tracts C) suburban sprawl D) squatter settlements. E) none of these
40. Gentrification refers to… A) moving the homeless into inner city shelters B) The “White Flight” from the urban city
C) losing tax revenue because of stores closing in downtown areas D) middle-class people moving into and renovating
inner city neighborhoods E) the creation of “beltway cities” around the city.

72

4
7
3

5

1
6

2

41-48 all use the sketch above.
41. The sketch in box A above represents which model of the inner structure of urban areas?
C) multiple nuclei model D) Burgess concentric zone model E) peripheral model
42. The models in boxes B and C represent A) Concentric zone and multiple nuclei
concentric zone D) peripheral and concentric zone E) Von Thunen and peripheral

A) Hoyt sector model B) VonThunen’s model

B) Multiple nuclei and Hoyt sector C) Hoyt sector and

43. In which ring (1, 2, etc.) of sketch A above would high-status households in North American cities likely live? A) 1 B) 2 C) 3 D) 4&5
44. In which ring (1, 2, etc.) of sketch A above would high status households in a European city likely live? A) 1

B) 2

C) 3

D) 4&5

45. In model B, zone # 2 is where it is likely because of: A) greenbelting B) squatter settling C) the culture of poverty D) transportation
E) no one knows
46. The model in sketch B is the; A) Hoyt sector model B) Burgess model C) multiple nuclei model D) peripheral model
47. The model in sketch C is the; A) Hoyt sector model B) Burgess model C) multiple nuclei model D) peripheral model
48. Which of these models best describes what has happened in US cities in the last 40 years? A)

B)

C)

73

49.*** In the U.S. a city plus its contiguous built-up suburbs is known as an…A) urbanized area B) zoned area
C) census tract D) Squatter settlement E) none of these
50. Done mostly in Europe, these are areas where land is kept as parks, farms or other kinds of open space and urban
sprawl is not allowed. A) Smart growth
B) zoning
C) filtering
D) census tracts E) greenbelts
51. Which statement best describes the relationship between urbanization and the Industrial Revolution?
A) Urbanization promoted the Industrial Revolution. B) The Industrial Revolution promoted urbanization.
C) Urbanization preceded the Industrial Revolution by thousands of years. D) Urbanization and the Industrial
Revolution are no longer related.
52. The process whereby an increasing percentage of people live in an urban area is known as…
A) Demographic transition. B) rank-size rule. C) Urbanization. D) Central place theory.
53. The city (if it has 50,000 or more people) plus its contiguous built-up suburbs AND the county it is in as well as any
other counties it influences, is known as the ...A) central city B) urbanized area
C) metropolitan statistical area
D) consolidated metropolitan area E) micropolitan statistical area
54. ***Higher social heterogeneity in urban settlements means that …A) the people with whom you relax are probably
the same ones you see at work. B) you play a specialized role in the urban economy. C) you compete for limited
space. D) you may feel lonely and isolated in a crowd.

55. The process of change in the use of a house, from single-family owner occupancy to smaller dwellings for the poor
and then sometimes to abandonment, is…A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining. E) none of
these

74

Free Response #1:
The Bid Rent theory says that the closer you get to the
CBD the higher the cost for land, yet in most American
cities you find the poorest people living near the
expensive CBD and the richest living further away.
Explain:
A. Why neighborhoods near the CBD are often poor and
run down?
B. Why are there few grocery and other retail stores in
these neighborhoods?
C. Why is this not really true in European and Latin
American countries?

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FR #2:
Think of the map of your school, explain the
layout of your school using the Multiple Nuclei
Model
The main office is the CBD.
Completely explain your answer using specific
buildings and/or land areas in your explanation
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Answer Key:
1. B

14. A

27. C

40. D

53. C

2. B

15. B

28. A

41. D

54. D

3. C

16. B

29. A

42. B

55. B

4. A

17. A

30. D

43. D

5. B

18. B

31. A

44. A

6. A

19. A

32. D

45. D

7. B

20. C

33. B

46. A

8. D

21. D

34. B

47. C

9. D

22. B

35. A

48. C

10. B

23. C

36. E

49. A

11. C

24. C

37. E

50. E

12. A

25. D

38. B

51. B

13. A

26. C

39. A

52. C
77

FR. #1: ( 15 pts. for each section…total of 45 pts.)
A. In the US the move of the wealthy and middle class to the suburbs has left the older houses and apartments near the CBD empty.
This has lowered their value to the point where the poor can afford these dwellings and have made these neighborhoods their
homes. The poor can not pay for upkeep of these dwellings, or to pay high taxes. The lack of upkeep and tax money to repair the
roads and schools, adds to the downward spiral of the neighborhood. With little spending money for shopping, the poor do not
spend much in the stores. This causes many stores to close and move to the suburbs where the spending customers and money
went. The closing of the stores adds to the poverty of the area by taking away some of the jobs that were in the neighborhood. This
becomes a vicious cycle of poverty and deterioration. (15 points)

B. There are few retail stores and groceries is the area because the poor do not have money to shop. The lack of spending forces
many stores out of business or forces them to move to better locations. There also can be higher crime in these areas and the
crime often takes place at the stores. This is another reason for the stores to move out of the neighborhood. (15 points)
C. Neighborhoods in European and Latin American cities are different from those of US cities. In Europe and Latin America, the
wealthy and middle class still live near or in the CBD. The higher tax base and more spending ability of the upper and middle
classes, keeps the CBD area flourishing with jobs and in constant repair and upkeep of the cities’ physical condition. (15 points)

FR #2: (10 total points.)
You will need to judge how effectively you displayed you school
in the Multiple Nuclei Model. Refer to the model itself to help you
determine your success and grade.
School’s main office
78

Calculating your grade on test 13.
Add how many you got correct on the multiple choice part (55 possible) to how many
points you scored on the FR portion (55 possible)…110 total.
The following scale will show the approximate score if this test were the real AP exam. Remember that this
is an approximation. While 65-74% is normally the range for a 3 on the test, it is not definite. Over the
years I have seen scores as low as 60% be the low portion of a 3 score.

Out of 110 possible points:
72-83 is most likely a 3
84-94 is most likely a 4

95-110 is most likely a 5

Now lets start our review for the national exam by
reviewing the 33 key models and theories of the
course…the next PowerPoint.


Slide 77

Key topic/chapter 13…Urban Patterns
Key terms:
Annexation
Concentric zone model
Density gradient
Edge cities
Filtering
Galactic city
Gentrification
Greenbelts
Megalopolis
MSA
Multiple nuclei model
Peripheral model

Public housing
Redlining
Renovated housing
Scattered site
Squatter settlement
Sector model
Smart growth
Sprawl
Underclass
Urban renewal
Zone in transition
Zoning
1

Chapter 13…Urban Areas.
How are Cities planned?
Why

are cities where they are?
How are they organized?
Why are some areas of a city
different from
other areas of the same city?
What is the future of cities?
2

Settlement


Settlement - permanent collections of buildings,
where people live, work, and obtain services

3

ORIGINS OF SETTLEMENTS


Religious - graves, churches, temples



Cultural - schools, libraries



Political/Military - leader’s house, walls



Economic - stores, food
4

TYPES OF SETTLEMENTS


Rural Settlements - agriculture as the
predominant occupation.



Urban settlements - principal industries are
secondary and tertiary.

5

RURAL SETTLEMENTS
Clustered rural settlements –grouped
settlements in rural areas to minimize travel

Dispersed rural Settlements - isolated farms
with enclosed continuous fields (Found only in
N. America and Britain).

6

Urban Geographers want to know the global distribution of urban
settlements. MDC’s have a high percentage of people living in urban
areas because of the shift from agriculture-manufacturing-services.
Geographers are also interested in where people and activities are
distributed within urban spaces. What are the differences between the
inner-city and suburban areas and why?
As we saw in the last chapter, many downtowns are unique and can
often be recognized in photos where the suburbs often look very
much alike (Placelessness). Why? Suburbs offer the chance to avoid
some of the city problems (crime, tight living area, expensive
land/rent, noise, age of buildings) while still keeping a connection with
the goods and services of the city: jobs, sports teams, culture, shops,
recreation, etc.
7

Where is this place?

8

Today’s cities are evolving and changing. Although different internal
situations characterize urban areas in the US and elsewhere, the
problems arising from current spatial trends are quite similar in all cities.
Where have urban areas grown: in the early 1800’s only 3% of the earth’s
people lived in cities and only Beijing China had more than 1 million
people. Today over ½ of the world’s people live in cities and we have over
400 cities of at least 1 million people.

Urbanization: is the process by which city population grows.
Cities population growth is measured in 2 dimensions;
1. An increase in the number of people living in the cities.
2. An increase in the percentage of people living in the cities.
This distinction is important because they happen for different reason and
have different global distributions.
9

Increasing Percentage of People in Cities: a large percentage of people living in urban
areas is a measure of a country’s level of development. In MDC’s about ¾ of the people
live in urban areas compared to about 2/5 of people in LDC’s. (Except in Latin America
where the level is closer to MDC’s.)
The higher percentage of people in urban areas comes from the changes that have
occurred in the last 200 years as we went from agriculture (primary jobs) to industrial
(secondary jobs) and now service jobs, all created by the Industrial Revolution of the
1800’s.
People moved to the cities for industrial jobs, but in MDC’s this process has largely
ended because nearly everyone interested in moving to the cities from farms has already
done so.
In LDC’s the percentage of people living in urban areas is growing as people are pushed
off of their farms and replaced by machines and as people move to cities looking/hoping
for industrial jobs.
10

Increasing Number of People in Cities: MDC’s have a higher percentage of
people living in urban settlements but LDC’s have more of the very large urban
settlements (Primate cities). (Rank-size rule, primate cities, chapter 12.)

This is interesting because typically the large cities are created from the
improvements brought by the Industrial Revolution. This is not the case with the
large LDC cities. Migration to the primate city in LDC’s is happening even though
job opportunities may not be available. Increasing the population growth in LDC
cities is the fact that medical services are better in these cities, thus the child
mortality rate is lower.
Defining Urban Settlements: defining where urban areas end and rural areas
begin is not easy. Geographers have formulated definitions that distinguish
between urban and rural areas in two ways: Social differences and Physical
differences.
11

Percent Urban Population

Percent of the population living in urban areas is usually higher in MDCs
than in LDCs.

12

The most populated cities in the world

Of the top
20, only
Moscow,
Tokyo and
New York
are in MDC’s

Shanghai China has 14,608,512 people
13

14

15

Social Differences Between Urban and Rural Settlements: it is fair to say that rural
people and urban people follow different ways of life. A city can be defined as having 3
characteristics:
1. Large size. People in rural settlements know most of the other people in the
settlement. Not true in big cities. Social relationships are often described as “colder” in
urban areas because you only see some people at work instead of growing up with
them in the settlement.
2. High Density. Having lots of people in a tiny area creates social consequences. A
high density of people living in a small area can only be supported if the people
specialize (they can’t all be farmers). People are encouraged to compete for jobs, room,
and survival in a tightly limited space. Social groups compete to occupy the same space
(ethnic/ race problems). Rural settlements have very little of this problem.
3. Social Heterogeneity. The larger the settlement, the greater the variety of people.
Being “unusual” in a large settlement is more likely to be accepted than in a small rural
one. But despite the freedom to be different that large urban settlements give you,
people living there often feel alone because so many people are different from them.
There is a stronger feeling of belonging together in small rural settlements.
16

These 3 differences do not fully answer the question of where urban settlements
begin and rural ones end because in today’s MDC’s most everyone has access to
cars, telephones, televisions, and “urban type” jobs which reduce the differences
between urban and rural lifestyles. “City folk” and “Country folk” are more alike
today than they are different. To help distinguish between urban and rural areas we
need to add the physical definition of rural and urban to the equation.
Physical Definitions of Urban Settlements: In ancient time, cities had defensive
walls for protection which clearly defined the physical boundaries of the city. Today
the walls are gone but we can still define the physical boundaries in 3 ways:
1. Legal boundary. These are the official boundaries of a city as recognized by
the government of the country or state. These “city limits” have been officially given
to the city and are physically marked on official maps. The local government of the
city has authority to make laws and protect the people inside the city boundaries.
17

2. Urbanized area. This is the city plus its suburbs or urbanized area that
surrounds the city. About 70 percent of US residents live in urbanized areas with
40% being in the suburbs and 30% inside the city limits. The suburbs may have
their own city governments but the huge central city dominates what happens in
the entire area.
3. Metropolitan Statistical Area. Cities have an even bigger influence on people
than just those living in their city limits and surrounding urbanized areas. People
from far away come to shop, use the services, support the sports teams, read
the newspapers and watch the television broadcasts of the city. Thus the city
has a “functional area” which is its total zone of influence. The US Bureau of
Census has created a method of measuring the functional area of the city.
Known as the Metropolitan statistical area (MSA) this area includes:
•An urbanized area with a population of at least 50,000
•The county within which the city is located.
•Adjacent counties with a high population density and a large percentage of
residents working in the central city’s county.
18

Metropolitan Area of Philadelphia

City of
Philadelphia

Urbanized
area
(suburbs)
Metropolitan
Statistical
Area

The metropolitan area of Philadelphia is
spread over several counties and four states.
It is also a diversified trade center, given its
position on the Delaware river.

19

20

21

Micropolitan Statistical Areas: Smaller areas with between
10,000 and 50,000 people, the county where it is found, and
adjacent counties tied to the city. This would be a small town and
the area dominated by it.
Overlapping Metropolitan Areas: Some adjacent MSA’s overlap.
A county between two central cities may send a large number of
commuters to jobs in both cities. In some areas the cities are so
close that they form one continuous urban complex. This is
known as a Megalopolis (great city).
In a megalopolis, the downtown CBD often has its own
distinctive look and the urban areas are visually separated by
parks, open spaces, and dairy/truck farms. But at the periphery
of the urban areas, the boundaries overlap.
22

Colorado Springs, population 431,000

Ocala, Florida, population 56,000

Florala, Alabama, population 1,900

23

Megalopolis, from northern Va. To Maine.
This Illustrates the
difference between
strict city proper
definitions and broader
urban agglomerations.
To define urbanized
areas, the U.S. Census
Bureau uses the term
Metropolitan Statistical
Area (MSA) or
Consolidated MSA
(CMSA) if two or more of
them overlap.
24

Where are People Distributed within Urban Areas? People are not
just distributed at random in urban areas. For the most part they
concentrate in particular neighborhoods depending on their social
characteristics. Geographers want to see where people with
particular characteristics are likely to live and why.

Three models which try to explain the growth of a city:

The Burgess Model

The Hoyt Sector Model

The Harris and Ullman
multiple Nuclei Model
25

Burgess Concentric Zone Model

In the concentric zone model, a city grows in a series of rings surrounding the CBD.

Burgess Concentric Zone Model: This is the first used to explain the
distributions of different social groups within urban areas. It says that a
city grows outward from a central place in a series of concentric rings.
The precise size and width of the rings vary from one city to another, but
some basic types of rings appear in all cities in the same order (see chart
above).
26

•Hoyt Sector Model: In this model the city develops in a
series of sectors not rings. Certain areas of the city are
more attractive for various activities, originally because
of an environmental factor (or even pure chance). As the
city grows, activities extend outward in a wedge shape.
For example, once a wealthy neighborhood is built the
next wealthy neighborhood will extend from the first
neighborhood further outward from the center. In this
way, the best housing is found in a corridor extending
outward from the center to the outer edge (see chart on
the next page).
27

The Hoyt Sector Model

In the sector model, a city grows in a series of
wedges or corridors extending out from the
CBD.
28

•Harris and Ullman’s Multiple Nuclei Model: According
to this model, a city is a complex structure that includes
more than one center around which activities revolve.
Examples of these nodes include a port, parks,
stadium, neighborhood business center, university, and
airport (see chart). This theory states that some
activities are attracted to particular nodes, whereas
others try to avoid them. A university node may attract
well educated people and bookstores while the port will
attract hotels and warehouses. Heavy industry and
expensive houses rarely are found together. This
model shows the effect of the automobile more than
any other model.
29

The Harris and Ullman Multiple Nuclei model

The multiple nuclei model views a city as a
collection of individual centers, around which
different people and activities cluster.

30

Applications of the Models: The three models help explain where and in some
cases, why people live where they do. None of the models by themselves fully
explains why and where different types of people live, but combined they give
you as good a look as possible at the “Why” of “Where.” Effective use of the
models depends on getting good data on the areas. Most countries take a
census every 10 years to help determine useful data about the people and
places of the country. In our country we divide the census data into areas
known as census tracts of about 5,000 people. Each census tract has the data
that summarizes the characteristics of the people living within that tract. This
information includes things like the race, income, age, and education of the
people living in that tract.
Social Area Analysis: The data from the census tracts can all be plotted onto
maps to show the characteristics of the people living in that tract. This map is
known as a social area analysis.
31

Using Census tract information…Seattle, Washington
Each lined area is a
census tract of about 5000
people in Seattle
Washington. These maps
show average household
income for 1990 and
2000…note the changes in
income in some areas
between 1990 and 2000.
Using this information, a
business can make
decisions about where
they want to locate a new
store or the future of
existing stores.
You can find census tract
information on many topics
such as; age, education
level, race, ethnicity, crime
rate, and land ownership.
Note the areas with
incomes over
$63,000.

All can be very valuable
information to people
looking to open
businesses.

32

Examine the changes
between 1990 and
2000.

Oakland, California’s Ethnic neighborhoods
The small bordered areas are census tracks of 5000 people.

33

Use of the Models Outside of North America: The 3 models will also work in other
places in the world; however social groups in other countries may not have the
same reasons for selecting particular neighborhoods as Americans do.
European Cities: As in the US, wealthier people in European cities cluster along a
sector extending outward from the CBD, however unlike the US, wealthy and
middle class Europeans still live in the inner rings of the neighborhoods near the
CBD not out in the suburbs. In the past, poorer people lived in the center of the
city. Before electricity, social segregation was vertical: richer people lived on the
first or second floor of a building while the poorer people lived in the basement or
upper floors. In the Industrial Revolution, housing for the poor was constructed
near the factories and away from the rich.
Today poorer Europeans are less likely to live in the inner-city. Poor quality
housing has been renovated for the rich or turned into office buildings. Poorer
Europeans tend to live in the outskirts of the city. Vast suburbs with dozens of high
rise apartments house the poor. They face long commutes to reach their jobs in
the city.
34

European cities generally do not have the “suburban
sprawl” that US cities have. European cities tend to be
more pedestrian friendly with more parks downtown as
Europeans tend to still live downtown.
US cities have taller buildings as European cities tend to
be older and more historic.

American cities have more ethnic neighborhoods than
European cities. Ethnic neighborhoods that do exist in
European cities tend to be in the suburbs. WHY?
Because the established richer neighborhoods tend to be
downtown in European cities.
35

Less Developed Countries: Like Europe, most LDC’s accommodate their poor in the
suburbs with their middle class and rich living near the center of the city. LDC’s have
passed through 3 periods of city building: before the Europeans arrived, during the
period of European colonialism, and since independence from European control.

Pre-colonial Cities: Before the Europeans arrived few cities existed in Africa, Asia, and
Latin America and most people lived in small rural settlements. Those cities that existed
were mostly laid out surrounding a religious center; with the rest of the city laid out in a
hieratical concentric pattern (like the Burgess model) from government buildings,
homes of the wealthy, and businesses related to the religion out to other businesses
and shops.
Colonial cities: When the Europeans took over these lands, they changed the cities by
adding services to help the Europeans control the conquered people. Often a new
European style city would be build next to the existing native one. The new European
cities contained wider streets, a public square, larger houses and a much lower density.
The Spanish used the “Law of the Indies” which was a city plan designed specifically to
build cities in a “Spanish” style. (Gridiron pattern for streets centered on a church and
central plaza, walls around individual houses and neighborhoods centered around
smaller plazas and more churches.)
36

Early Mexico city was laid out in a grid pattern of streets. This followed
the Spanish “Law of the Indies.”

37

Central Plaza in Mexico City 1920 photo. Typical Colonial City plan.

Part of downtown Mexico city today still shows the
building plan of the “Law of the Indies.”

38

Cities since Independence: Following independence, cities have become
the focal point of the development of most LDC’s. Millions of people have
migrated to the cities (Primate cities) looking for jobs and services. Some
capitals have been moved to isolated areas in an attempt to help develop
that area of the country (Brasília) This is know as a forward capital. Latin
American cities have developed their own unique style.
Squatter settlements: The LDC’s are unable to house the rapidly growing
number of poor who are flowing into the cities. Because of the housing
shortages, the poor have constructed their own settlements around the city.
These settlements have few services because neither the city nor the
residents can afford them. Squatters have two basic choices for housing.
1. Illegally move into empty real houses located in the city or,
2. Rent slum housing.
(85% of the population of Addis Ababa in Ethiopia lives in squatter
settlements, slums or other illegal housing.)
39

Squatter shacks in Manila, the Philippines

40

Squatter settlement in Ethiopia

41

Zimbabwe, Africa

42

Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

43

Latin American City Model:
In many Latin
American cities,
the wealthy live in
the inner city and
in a sector
extending along a
commercial spine.
In situ accretion- businesses
and homes constantly under
construction/repair.
Zone of maturity-2nd best
housing in the city.
The poor live in squatter settlements on the
periphery of the city.

Disamenity- unpleasant area
used by the poor to get to the
market.

44

The City Outline of Rio de Janeiro
The rich tourist areas and expensive condo apartments are along the coast
and beach while the poor live in squatter shacks in the hills.

45

City problems:
Inner-City Physical Problems: Most US inner cities were constructed before the 1950’s
(people began to move to the suburbs in the 1950’s so new construction moved out of
the city).
Process of Deterioration (how a city deteriorates): A city doesn’t suddenly become old
and full of slummy areas. It happens over time. When a group of low-income people
inhabit an area of a city, nearby neighborhoods will often look to move out. They sell or
rent to more low-income occupants thus expanding the low-income area. Two processes
cause/speed up the devaluation of areas:
1. Filtering, 2. Redlining.
Filtering: Large houses and buildings that once housed rich downtown workers (who
moved to the suburbs) are taken over by landlords who don’t live in that area (they
moved to the suburbs too). Rents are low so the landlord doesn’t take as good care of
the property as they should and the property becomes run down or abandoned. Stores
close, or move, due to lack of sales. 100 years ago these neighborhoods would be used
by immigrants and ethnic businesses would succeed in those areas. Now, with a decline
in immigration, these neighborhoods have shrunk and so have schools, businesses and
other services. Thousands of vacant houses and buildings stand empty in inner cities
across America.

46

Redlining: Some banks refuse to give loans in what they consider
risky neighborhoods. They draw a red line on a map around areas
where they will not give loans. Without loans, these neighborhoods
have a hard time rebuilding/remodeling. Though illegal, this still
happens. Bankers just don’t put these “no-loan” areas on a map.

Urban Renewal: This is the series of projects to improve European
and N. American cities by buying up the blighted neighborhoods,
moving the people to new government built housing projects, and
building new roads, and other projects to make the inner city
attractive for business again. National and State government grants
help pay for these projects.
47

Public housing: Housing for the poor, built with government funding as part of
urban renewal. In the US this is only about 2% of the housing while in some
countries it may be more (Britain is 30%). Public housing built in the 50’s & 60’s
were largely high rise apartments, but those are seen as being unsatisfactory.
Problems arise from cramming large numbers of poor people into one area.
Today most public housing projects are one to three story buildings with many of
them being scattered around different parts of the city rather than clustered into
one area.
Because urban renewal has been criticized for destroying the social cohesion of
older neighborhoods, many governments (like the US) have stopped funding
most projects since the 1970’s. What do we do instead?
Renovated Housing: An alternative often used since the 70’s is to renovate a
building instead of urban renewal. The process where middle-class people
move into inner-city neighborhoods and renovate them is called gentrification.
Gentrified inner-city neighborhoods also attract middle-class people who work
downtown. Living close to work saves the hassle of commuting and rejuvenates
run down inner-city neighborhoods
48

Gentrified building downtown Harlem, NY. Note the supermarket.

49

Inner-City Social Problems: Inner-city residents are often referred to as the
permanent underclass because they are trapped in an unending cycle of
economic and social problems. High unemployment, alcoholism, drug
addiction, literacy, juvenile delinquency, and crime all exist at a higher rate
among those who live in the inner-city. Lack of jobs means lack of tax dollars
to pay for police and fire protection as well as good schools. Lack of job skills
and homelessness are also tremendous problems.
Culture of Poverty: Inner-city residents are trapped in a permanent underclass
culture that reproduces itself. In the US, unwed mothers give birth to 2/3 of the
babies in the inner-city. 90% of these children live with only one parent and it
is real hard for one parent to keep a job and take care of children. Both suffer
and a shortage of care and daily attention by the parent contributes to the kids
not learning the skills necessary to do well in school which leads to poor jobs
for their futures. Poverty leads to more poverty. Many families on welfare have
only one parent because it is financially better if one parent is gone, that way
the single parent gets food stamps and other services from the government
that they would not get if it was a 2 family household.
50

Crime: Trapped in a hopeless environment, some inner-city
residents turn to drugs. Drug use is a problem in inner-city
areas and the suburbs, but rates of drug use in inner-cities
are the highest.
Ethnic and Racial Segregation: As seen in chapter 7, many
neighborhoods in the US are segregated by ethnicity with
African Americans and Hispanics concentrated in one or two
continuous areas and whites living in the suburbs. Even small
cities display a strong distinction among neighborhoods. A
frequent division is between the east and west or north and
south side of town, or the railroad tracks. A family seeking a
new residence will seek the areas where the characteristics
of the people meet their own.

51

The exodus
from the
American city.
This has
happened in
many American
cities since the
1960’s.

52

Changes in Cities in the U.S.
U.S. population has been moving out of the city centers to the suburbs:
suburbanization and counter urbanization

Developed Countries: suburbanization

 wealthy move to suburbs
 automobiles and roads; ‘American
Dream’ of the home in the suburbs.
 better services
 wealthy move to suburbs
Counter urbanization

idyllic settings
cost of land for retirement
slow pace, yet high tech
connections to services and markets
53

U.S. intraregional migration during 1990s.

Inner city economic problems: the concentration of low income
residents in inner cities has caused economic problems. These
people require public services but can pay very little in taxes to
support the services. They need stores and jobs but have little
money to spend in the store and few skills for jobs (so the stores
close). To try to fight these problems many local and state
governments use tax monies to try to renovate these areas, but this
shifts tax money needed for other areas to the inner city (votes on
election day).
Annexation: Many cities could help their tax problem by adding the
new suburbs to be part of their city (annexation). After all, many of
these suburban people use the city for its’ jobs etc., so why not add
them into the city? Today, most people in the suburbs do not want
to be annexed into the city and so they do not vote to be annexed.
54

The Peripheral Model: According to this model, an urban area
consists of an inner city surrounded by large suburban residential
and business areas (MSA) tied together by a beltway or highway
that circles the city. Around the beltway are nodes of consumer
and business services called edge cities (see diagram of multiple
nuclei model). These edge cities sprang up to provide services
and jobs to the people in the suburbs.
Density Gradient: As you travel outward from the center of the
city, the density of people declines. Inner city has big apartments
of 250 of more people per acre. Suburbs have fewer people per
acre (but lots of acres) and finally you leave the cities periphery
you find few people. The number of houses per unit of land
diminishes as distance from the center of the city increases.
55

The Edge cities (bedroom communities) of Houston

The central city is surrounded by a ring road, around which are
suburban areas and edge cities, shopping malls, office parks,
industrial areas, and service complexes.

Known as
bedroom
communities
because
people live
there but
mostly don’t
work there.
They drive
into the city
for work.
56

As you move from the center of the city outward, the density of the population
changes. This is know as the density gradient. Two big changes have occurred in
the density gradient of today’s cities:
1. The number of people living in the center has decreased.
2. The density difference between the inner city and the suburbs is declining
because the inner city density is dropping and the suburban density is growing
due to more large apartments being built in the suburbs.
Cost of Suburban or Urban Sprawl: Urban Sprawl is the progressive spread of
development over the landscape. As long as we Americans want single-family
detached houses, land on the fringe of urban areas will be converted from open
space to residential use. The cost of this growth is more than the loss of land, it is
also the cost of new roads, utilities, building stores and offices and the cost of
automobiles to move these people over even longer distances. Lots of these new
developments are built on what was once farmland. Wonderful productive soil now
under concrete.

Greenbelts: are areas where, by law, the open space can not be used for any
construction. This is mostly found in Europe.

57

Once farmland that is being converted to suburbs and cities.

58

Tyson’s Corner Virginia in 1940

59

Washington, DC. MSA.

Tyson’s Corner Virginia
today.
Washington D.C. is off
In the distance.

60

Suburban Segregation: The “new” segregation.
Suburban segregation takes two forms:
1. Residents are separated from commercial and manufacturing activities
which are confined someplace else. (The whole neighborhood is
nothing but houses because they drive for services.)
2. The price of the house eliminates some from being able to live there. This
creates a homogeneous suburb of the same economic class of people.
This never existed before in history. Where we once had vertical
segregation of the classes we now we have horizontal segregation.
3. But this may be reversing as new statistics show that people are beginning
to move back to the city. Why? Cost of transportation.
Zoning Ordinances: This idea developed in Europe and later America in the
early decades of the 20th century. This means that businesses are allowed only
in certain areas of the settlement. (No all night taco stands inside your single
family neighborhood.)
Motor vehicles: The wide use of the automobile is largely responsible for the
American movement to the suburbs. Not only did people move out but 1/4 of
the land inside all American cities are now roads, streets, and parking lots.

61

Public Transportation: Because few US workers live within walking distance
of their jobs, urban areas are characterized by extensive commuting and the
problems that come with it. As much as 40% of all trips made into or out from
a city during the day takes place within just 4 hours. (2 in the morning and 2 in
the late afternoon). RUSH HOUR!!! In large cities, public transportation, like
subways and busses, are better suited to move people but Americans still
prefer their own cars. Public transportation is cheaper, cleaner, and more
energy efficient than personal cars, yet in the US only 5% of city travel is
done using public transit systems. American’s love their personal car too
much.
Local Government Fragmentation: Because of the large number of local
governments in the US (look at the settlements in Pinellas County) it is
difficult to solve some of the regional problems like garbage disposal, water
management, traffic and public housing.
62

Metropolitan government: This idea tries to put many local governments into a
larger unit that can better handle the urban problems. The 2 ways to do this
are:
1. Federations in which the individual settlements have their own police,
firemen, and tax collection but they all agree to be part of a second
government which handles transportation, water, sewage, parks and
welfare for all the communities.
2. Consolidations: In this method, several cities and the county may form one
government. Jacksonville’s government runs not only the town but the
county too, this makes Jacksonville the largest city, in land size, in the US.
Smart growth: A new movement by many states to curb suburban sprawl by
limiting where new construction can take place. Smart growth laws require that
land near cities be used up before any land further out can be developed. So
far, this is only being done an a few parts of our country.
63

The new
US as
some
people
see it.

64

Quiz Yourself:
1. The process where middle-class people move into inner city neighborhoods and
renovate them is called ____________
2. ____________ happens when banks refuse to give loans in what they consider
risky neighborhoods.
3. Because of the housing shortages, the poor have constructed their own settlements
around the city known as __________ _________

4. Businesses are allowed only in certain areas of the settlement because of
____________ ____________
5. Areas known as _____ _______ are areas of about 5,000 people. The data from
that area is used to help define needed services for that area.
6. When cities are so close that they form one continuous band of development this is
known as a ____________
65

7. Social relationships are often described as “colder” in urban areas because…
8. In this model the city develops in a series of sectors not rings. _______

9. ______ (LDC’s or MDC’s) have a higher percentage of people living in urban
settlements but ________ (LDC’s or MDC’s) have more of the very large urban
settlements.
10. _____________ was the first model developed to explain the distributions
of different social groups within urban areas.
11. New cities which develop around the beltway are nodes of consumer and
business services known as ________ _________.

12. When the Europeans took over lands around the world, they changed the
cities by adding services to help the Europeans control the conquered people.
These European planned cities are known as __________ cities.
66

Answer Key:
1.

Gentrification

2.

Redlining

3.

Squatter Settlements

4.

Zoning ordinances

5.

Census tracks

6.

Megalopolis

7. There is a stronger feeling of belonging together in small rural settlements.
8. Hoyt sector model
9. MDC, LDC
10. Burgess Concentric Zone model
11. Edge cities
12. Colonial cities
67

Test Key topic/chapter 13:
These questions come from a combination of our slides, your text book, and common knowledge you should
have discussed in your AP classroom. They are very typical of what you will see on the National Exam.
1) The multiple nuclei theory best explains why different neighborhoods of a city attract people of different… A) ages.
B) ethnic origin C) income D) marital status.
2) Sprawl is the… A) change in density within an urban area from the center to the periphery B) development of new
housing sites not contiguous to the existing built-up area. C) land maintained as open space surrounding an urban area.
D) period in the morning and evening with the heaviest volumes of traffic.
3) People are attracted to suburbs in part because suburbs are characterized by…A) heavy traffic. B) lower opportunity
for home ownership. C) private land surrounding the house. D) row houses and apartments.
4) Megalopolis refers to… A) adjacent, overlapping Metropolitan Statistical Areas. B) central cities. C) consolidated
Metropolitan Statistical Areas. D) central cities plus urbanized areas.
5) Which statement best describes the relationship between urbanization and the Industrial Revolution? A) Urbanization
promoted the Industrial Revolution. B) The Industrial Revolution promoted urbanization. C) Urbanization preceded the
Industrial Revolution by thousands of years. D) Urbanization and the Industrial Revolution are no longer related.
6) The process of legally adding land area to a city in the United States is… A) annexation. B) accreditation. C) an
application of eminent domain. D) defined by urbanized area.

68

7) The process of change in the use of a house, from single-family owner occupancy to abandonment, is… A) blockbusting.
B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining.
8) A process by which banks designate an area within which they refuse to lend money for improvements is… A) blockbusting.
B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining.
9) A recent change in the density gradient has been… A) the elimination of the gap traditionally found in the center. B) an
increase in the extremes between the inner and outer areas. C) an increase in the number of people living in the center.
D) a reduction in the differences in densities found within an urban area.
10) U.S. central cities face fiscal problems because… A) federal and state funds are available. B) low-income people are
concentrated there. C) middle-class families are attracted there. D) redlining is no longer legal.
11) A legal form of segregation in U.S. cities is achieved through...A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) zoning. D) greenbelts.
12) Factories have moved to suburban locations in part because of… A) access to main highways. B) adequate space to build
vertical structures. C) availability of large tracts of high-priced land. D) good rail connections.
13) According to the sector model, the best housing is located in…A) a corridor from downtown to the edge of the city.
B) an outer ring surrounding the city. C) nodes near universities and parks. D) renovated inner-city neighborhoods.
14) Ramshackle houses on the periphery of cities in less developed countries are known as… A) squatter settlements. B) council
estates. C) public housing. D) zone in transition.
15) Higher income people tend to live near the center of the city in all but which of the following regions? A) Latin America
B) North America C) South Asia D) Western Europe

16) The wide boulevards built in cities in less developed countries were most likely built during what era? A) pre-colonial
B) colonial C) independence D) all of the above equally

69

17) According to the multiple nuclei model, an airport is likely to attract nearby… A) industries. B) residences. C) shops.
D) universities.
18) The largest percentage of the U.S. population lives in…A) central cities. B) suburbs. C) non-metropolitan areas. D) all of the
above
19) In U.S. cities, the underclass is… A) clustered in inner-city neighborhoods. B) dispersed throughout the city. C) clustered in
suburbs. D) distributed uniformly in the city.

20) A process of converting a neighborhood from low-income to middle-class is…A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) gentrification.
D) redlining.
21) Higher social heterogeneity in urban settlements means that… A) the people with whom you relax are probably the same ones you
see at work. B) you play a specialized role in the urban economy. C) you compete for limited space. D) you may feel lonely and
isolated in a crowd.
22) The city plus its contiguous built-up suburbs is the… A) central city. B) urbanized area.
D) consolidated metropolitan statistical area

C) metropolitan statistical area.

23) The process whereby an increasing percentage of people live in an urban area is known as… A) demographic transition.
B) rank-size rule. C) urbanization. D) central place theory.
24) Of the ten largest urban areas in the world, how many are in More Developed Countries today? A) 1 B) 4 C) 7 D) 10 E) 2
25) Public housing is…A) conversion of low-income housing to middle-class housing. B) illegally established low-income housing.
C) housing that has changed from single-family owner occupancy to abandonment. D) low-income government-owned housing.
26) According to the concentric zone model, a city develops in a series of… A) corridors. B) nodes. C) rings. D) all of the above

70

27) Chicago is a good location in which to develop urban models because it is located… A) at the hub of the nation's transportation
system. B) in the center of the country. C) on a flat prairie. D) on the shore of Lake Michigan.
28) According to the sector model, the best housing is located in… A) a corridor from downtown to the edge of the city. B) an outer
ring surrounding the city. C) nodes near universities and parks. D) renovated inner-city neighborhoods.
29) The zone of transition in US cities generally contain…A) warehouses B) wealthy neighborhoods C) transportation hubs
D) universities and hospitals E) suburban homes
30) The attractions of shopping malls include all but which of the following? A) frequent concerts and exhibitions B) generous
parking lots C) place to meet friends D) walking distance from homes
The following questions are written at the high school level. You will find some questions from part one often rewritten
here. This is all designed to help you transition to the college/AP style of written questions. Any question preceded with ***
are questions that have been on the national exam before.
31. Most Latin American cities are focused on a…A) central plaza B) government housing project C) zone of heavy industry
D) skyscraper office building E) squatter settlement
32. The multiple-nuclei model of a city structure tends to be most applicable to…A) small cities B) traditional C) Latin American
cities D) newer, fast growing cities E) cities with homogeneous land use
33. ***Locational advantages important to the development of the earliest cities include…A) availability of good harbors for large
ships B) productive agricultural land and defensible sites C) temperate climate and proximity to coal mines D) good
connections by road and canal E) proximity to manufacturing areas

34. In cities, the CBD’s often show uniqueness while the suburbs usually show…A) a large hinterland. B) placelessness C) more
than one node. D) newer zones of transition.

71

35. Many LDC’s have tried to help a previously under-developed part of their country develop by moving their capital
city to that area. This new capital is known as a…A) forward capital B) new development zone C) enterprise zone
D) neocolonial city
36. Today the greatest number of urban dwellers is found in…A) North America
D) Europe E) Asia

B) South America C) Africa

37. ***All of the following have helped create ghettos in North American cities except…A)blockbusting and racial
steering B) redlining by financial institutions C) concentration of public housing and social services D) fixed school
districts E) Economic Enterprise Zones

38. Which of the following is NOT as reason for rapid suburbanization in the US after WW2? A) Mass production of
the automobile B) Reduction of long distance commuting C) Expansion of home construction D) Expansion of the
interstate highway system E) Availability of low down payment terms and long-term mortgages.
39. New cities which developed in the hinterland of large urban areas because of the automobile, are known as…
A) edge cities B) census tracts C) suburban sprawl D) squatter settlements. E) none of these
40. Gentrification refers to… A) moving the homeless into inner city shelters B) The “White Flight” from the urban city
C) losing tax revenue because of stores closing in downtown areas D) middle-class people moving into and renovating
inner city neighborhoods E) the creation of “beltway cities” around the city.

72

4
7
3

5

1
6

2

41-48 all use the sketch above.
41. The sketch in box A above represents which model of the inner structure of urban areas?
C) multiple nuclei model D) Burgess concentric zone model E) peripheral model
42. The models in boxes B and C represent A) Concentric zone and multiple nuclei
concentric zone D) peripheral and concentric zone E) Von Thunen and peripheral

A) Hoyt sector model B) VonThunen’s model

B) Multiple nuclei and Hoyt sector C) Hoyt sector and

43. In which ring (1, 2, etc.) of sketch A above would high-status households in North American cities likely live? A) 1 B) 2 C) 3 D) 4&5
44. In which ring (1, 2, etc.) of sketch A above would high status households in a European city likely live? A) 1

B) 2

C) 3

D) 4&5

45. In model B, zone # 2 is where it is likely because of: A) greenbelting B) squatter settling C) the culture of poverty D) transportation
E) no one knows
46. The model in sketch B is the; A) Hoyt sector model B) Burgess model C) multiple nuclei model D) peripheral model
47. The model in sketch C is the; A) Hoyt sector model B) Burgess model C) multiple nuclei model D) peripheral model
48. Which of these models best describes what has happened in US cities in the last 40 years? A)

B)

C)

73

49.*** In the U.S. a city plus its contiguous built-up suburbs is known as an…A) urbanized area B) zoned area
C) census tract D) Squatter settlement E) none of these
50. Done mostly in Europe, these are areas where land is kept as parks, farms or other kinds of open space and urban
sprawl is not allowed. A) Smart growth
B) zoning
C) filtering
D) census tracts E) greenbelts
51. Which statement best describes the relationship between urbanization and the Industrial Revolution?
A) Urbanization promoted the Industrial Revolution. B) The Industrial Revolution promoted urbanization.
C) Urbanization preceded the Industrial Revolution by thousands of years. D) Urbanization and the Industrial
Revolution are no longer related.
52. The process whereby an increasing percentage of people live in an urban area is known as…
A) Demographic transition. B) rank-size rule. C) Urbanization. D) Central place theory.
53. The city (if it has 50,000 or more people) plus its contiguous built-up suburbs AND the county it is in as well as any
other counties it influences, is known as the ...A) central city B) urbanized area
C) metropolitan statistical area
D) consolidated metropolitan area E) micropolitan statistical area
54. ***Higher social heterogeneity in urban settlements means that …A) the people with whom you relax are probably
the same ones you see at work. B) you play a specialized role in the urban economy. C) you compete for limited
space. D) you may feel lonely and isolated in a crowd.

55. The process of change in the use of a house, from single-family owner occupancy to smaller dwellings for the poor
and then sometimes to abandonment, is…A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining. E) none of
these

74

Free Response #1:
The Bid Rent theory says that the closer you get to the
CBD the higher the cost for land, yet in most American
cities you find the poorest people living near the
expensive CBD and the richest living further away.
Explain:
A. Why neighborhoods near the CBD are often poor and
run down?
B. Why are there few grocery and other retail stores in
these neighborhoods?
C. Why is this not really true in European and Latin
American countries?

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75

FR #2:
Think of the map of your school, explain the
layout of your school using the Multiple Nuclei
Model
The main office is the CBD.
Completely explain your answer using specific
buildings and/or land areas in your explanation
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76

Answer Key:
1. B

14. A

27. C

40. D

53. C

2. B

15. B

28. A

41. D

54. D

3. C

16. B

29. A

42. B

55. B

4. A

17. A

30. D

43. D

5. B

18. B

31. A

44. A

6. A

19. A

32. D

45. D

7. B

20. C

33. B

46. A

8. D

21. D

34. B

47. C

9. D

22. B

35. A

48. C

10. B

23. C

36. E

49. A

11. C

24. C

37. E

50. E

12. A

25. D

38. B

51. B

13. A

26. C

39. A

52. C
77

FR. #1: ( 15 pts. for each section…total of 45 pts.)
A. In the US the move of the wealthy and middle class to the suburbs has left the older houses and apartments near the CBD empty.
This has lowered their value to the point where the poor can afford these dwellings and have made these neighborhoods their
homes. The poor can not pay for upkeep of these dwellings, or to pay high taxes. The lack of upkeep and tax money to repair the
roads and schools, adds to the downward spiral of the neighborhood. With little spending money for shopping, the poor do not
spend much in the stores. This causes many stores to close and move to the suburbs where the spending customers and money
went. The closing of the stores adds to the poverty of the area by taking away some of the jobs that were in the neighborhood. This
becomes a vicious cycle of poverty and deterioration. (15 points)

B. There are few retail stores and groceries is the area because the poor do not have money to shop. The lack of spending forces
many stores out of business or forces them to move to better locations. There also can be higher crime in these areas and the
crime often takes place at the stores. This is another reason for the stores to move out of the neighborhood. (15 points)
C. Neighborhoods in European and Latin American cities are different from those of US cities. In Europe and Latin America, the
wealthy and middle class still live near or in the CBD. The higher tax base and more spending ability of the upper and middle
classes, keeps the CBD area flourishing with jobs and in constant repair and upkeep of the cities’ physical condition. (15 points)

FR #2: (10 total points.)
You will need to judge how effectively you displayed you school
in the Multiple Nuclei Model. Refer to the model itself to help you
determine your success and grade.
School’s main office
78

Calculating your grade on test 13.
Add how many you got correct on the multiple choice part (55 possible) to how many
points you scored on the FR portion (55 possible)…110 total.
The following scale will show the approximate score if this test were the real AP exam. Remember that this
is an approximation. While 65-74% is normally the range for a 3 on the test, it is not definite. Over the
years I have seen scores as low as 60% be the low portion of a 3 score.

Out of 110 possible points:
72-83 is most likely a 3
84-94 is most likely a 4

95-110 is most likely a 5

Now lets start our review for the national exam by
reviewing the 33 key models and theories of the
course…the next PowerPoint.


Slide 78

Key topic/chapter 13…Urban Patterns
Key terms:
Annexation
Concentric zone model
Density gradient
Edge cities
Filtering
Galactic city
Gentrification
Greenbelts
Megalopolis
MSA
Multiple nuclei model
Peripheral model

Public housing
Redlining
Renovated housing
Scattered site
Squatter settlement
Sector model
Smart growth
Sprawl
Underclass
Urban renewal
Zone in transition
Zoning
1

Chapter 13…Urban Areas.
How are Cities planned?
Why

are cities where they are?
How are they organized?
Why are some areas of a city
different from
other areas of the same city?
What is the future of cities?
2

Settlement


Settlement - permanent collections of buildings,
where people live, work, and obtain services

3

ORIGINS OF SETTLEMENTS


Religious - graves, churches, temples



Cultural - schools, libraries



Political/Military - leader’s house, walls



Economic - stores, food
4

TYPES OF SETTLEMENTS


Rural Settlements - agriculture as the
predominant occupation.



Urban settlements - principal industries are
secondary and tertiary.

5

RURAL SETTLEMENTS
Clustered rural settlements –grouped
settlements in rural areas to minimize travel

Dispersed rural Settlements - isolated farms
with enclosed continuous fields (Found only in
N. America and Britain).

6

Urban Geographers want to know the global distribution of urban
settlements. MDC’s have a high percentage of people living in urban
areas because of the shift from agriculture-manufacturing-services.
Geographers are also interested in where people and activities are
distributed within urban spaces. What are the differences between the
inner-city and suburban areas and why?
As we saw in the last chapter, many downtowns are unique and can
often be recognized in photos where the suburbs often look very
much alike (Placelessness). Why? Suburbs offer the chance to avoid
some of the city problems (crime, tight living area, expensive
land/rent, noise, age of buildings) while still keeping a connection with
the goods and services of the city: jobs, sports teams, culture, shops,
recreation, etc.
7

Where is this place?

8

Today’s cities are evolving and changing. Although different internal
situations characterize urban areas in the US and elsewhere, the
problems arising from current spatial trends are quite similar in all cities.
Where have urban areas grown: in the early 1800’s only 3% of the earth’s
people lived in cities and only Beijing China had more than 1 million
people. Today over ½ of the world’s people live in cities and we have over
400 cities of at least 1 million people.

Urbanization: is the process by which city population grows.
Cities population growth is measured in 2 dimensions;
1. An increase in the number of people living in the cities.
2. An increase in the percentage of people living in the cities.
This distinction is important because they happen for different reason and
have different global distributions.
9

Increasing Percentage of People in Cities: a large percentage of people living in urban
areas is a measure of a country’s level of development. In MDC’s about ¾ of the people
live in urban areas compared to about 2/5 of people in LDC’s. (Except in Latin America
where the level is closer to MDC’s.)
The higher percentage of people in urban areas comes from the changes that have
occurred in the last 200 years as we went from agriculture (primary jobs) to industrial
(secondary jobs) and now service jobs, all created by the Industrial Revolution of the
1800’s.
People moved to the cities for industrial jobs, but in MDC’s this process has largely
ended because nearly everyone interested in moving to the cities from farms has already
done so.
In LDC’s the percentage of people living in urban areas is growing as people are pushed
off of their farms and replaced by machines and as people move to cities looking/hoping
for industrial jobs.
10

Increasing Number of People in Cities: MDC’s have a higher percentage of
people living in urban settlements but LDC’s have more of the very large urban
settlements (Primate cities). (Rank-size rule, primate cities, chapter 12.)

This is interesting because typically the large cities are created from the
improvements brought by the Industrial Revolution. This is not the case with the
large LDC cities. Migration to the primate city in LDC’s is happening even though
job opportunities may not be available. Increasing the population growth in LDC
cities is the fact that medical services are better in these cities, thus the child
mortality rate is lower.
Defining Urban Settlements: defining where urban areas end and rural areas
begin is not easy. Geographers have formulated definitions that distinguish
between urban and rural areas in two ways: Social differences and Physical
differences.
11

Percent Urban Population

Percent of the population living in urban areas is usually higher in MDCs
than in LDCs.

12

The most populated cities in the world

Of the top
20, only
Moscow,
Tokyo and
New York
are in MDC’s

Shanghai China has 14,608,512 people
13

14

15

Social Differences Between Urban and Rural Settlements: it is fair to say that rural
people and urban people follow different ways of life. A city can be defined as having 3
characteristics:
1. Large size. People in rural settlements know most of the other people in the
settlement. Not true in big cities. Social relationships are often described as “colder” in
urban areas because you only see some people at work instead of growing up with
them in the settlement.
2. High Density. Having lots of people in a tiny area creates social consequences. A
high density of people living in a small area can only be supported if the people
specialize (they can’t all be farmers). People are encouraged to compete for jobs, room,
and survival in a tightly limited space. Social groups compete to occupy the same space
(ethnic/ race problems). Rural settlements have very little of this problem.
3. Social Heterogeneity. The larger the settlement, the greater the variety of people.
Being “unusual” in a large settlement is more likely to be accepted than in a small rural
one. But despite the freedom to be different that large urban settlements give you,
people living there often feel alone because so many people are different from them.
There is a stronger feeling of belonging together in small rural settlements.
16

These 3 differences do not fully answer the question of where urban settlements
begin and rural ones end because in today’s MDC’s most everyone has access to
cars, telephones, televisions, and “urban type” jobs which reduce the differences
between urban and rural lifestyles. “City folk” and “Country folk” are more alike
today than they are different. To help distinguish between urban and rural areas we
need to add the physical definition of rural and urban to the equation.
Physical Definitions of Urban Settlements: In ancient time, cities had defensive
walls for protection which clearly defined the physical boundaries of the city. Today
the walls are gone but we can still define the physical boundaries in 3 ways:
1. Legal boundary. These are the official boundaries of a city as recognized by
the government of the country or state. These “city limits” have been officially given
to the city and are physically marked on official maps. The local government of the
city has authority to make laws and protect the people inside the city boundaries.
17

2. Urbanized area. This is the city plus its suburbs or urbanized area that
surrounds the city. About 70 percent of US residents live in urbanized areas with
40% being in the suburbs and 30% inside the city limits. The suburbs may have
their own city governments but the huge central city dominates what happens in
the entire area.
3. Metropolitan Statistical Area. Cities have an even bigger influence on people
than just those living in their city limits and surrounding urbanized areas. People
from far away come to shop, use the services, support the sports teams, read
the newspapers and watch the television broadcasts of the city. Thus the city
has a “functional area” which is its total zone of influence. The US Bureau of
Census has created a method of measuring the functional area of the city.
Known as the Metropolitan statistical area (MSA) this area includes:
•An urbanized area with a population of at least 50,000
•The county within which the city is located.
•Adjacent counties with a high population density and a large percentage of
residents working in the central city’s county.
18

Metropolitan Area of Philadelphia

City of
Philadelphia

Urbanized
area
(suburbs)
Metropolitan
Statistical
Area

The metropolitan area of Philadelphia is
spread over several counties and four states.
It is also a diversified trade center, given its
position on the Delaware river.

19

20

21

Micropolitan Statistical Areas: Smaller areas with between
10,000 and 50,000 people, the county where it is found, and
adjacent counties tied to the city. This would be a small town and
the area dominated by it.
Overlapping Metropolitan Areas: Some adjacent MSA’s overlap.
A county between two central cities may send a large number of
commuters to jobs in both cities. In some areas the cities are so
close that they form one continuous urban complex. This is
known as a Megalopolis (great city).
In a megalopolis, the downtown CBD often has its own
distinctive look and the urban areas are visually separated by
parks, open spaces, and dairy/truck farms. But at the periphery
of the urban areas, the boundaries overlap.
22

Colorado Springs, population 431,000

Ocala, Florida, population 56,000

Florala, Alabama, population 1,900

23

Megalopolis, from northern Va. To Maine.
This Illustrates the
difference between
strict city proper
definitions and broader
urban agglomerations.
To define urbanized
areas, the U.S. Census
Bureau uses the term
Metropolitan Statistical
Area (MSA) or
Consolidated MSA
(CMSA) if two or more of
them overlap.
24

Where are People Distributed within Urban Areas? People are not
just distributed at random in urban areas. For the most part they
concentrate in particular neighborhoods depending on their social
characteristics. Geographers want to see where people with
particular characteristics are likely to live and why.

Three models which try to explain the growth of a city:

The Burgess Model

The Hoyt Sector Model

The Harris and Ullman
multiple Nuclei Model
25

Burgess Concentric Zone Model

In the concentric zone model, a city grows in a series of rings surrounding the CBD.

Burgess Concentric Zone Model: This is the first used to explain the
distributions of different social groups within urban areas. It says that a
city grows outward from a central place in a series of concentric rings.
The precise size and width of the rings vary from one city to another, but
some basic types of rings appear in all cities in the same order (see chart
above).
26

•Hoyt Sector Model: In this model the city develops in a
series of sectors not rings. Certain areas of the city are
more attractive for various activities, originally because
of an environmental factor (or even pure chance). As the
city grows, activities extend outward in a wedge shape.
For example, once a wealthy neighborhood is built the
next wealthy neighborhood will extend from the first
neighborhood further outward from the center. In this
way, the best housing is found in a corridor extending
outward from the center to the outer edge (see chart on
the next page).
27

The Hoyt Sector Model

In the sector model, a city grows in a series of
wedges or corridors extending out from the
CBD.
28

•Harris and Ullman’s Multiple Nuclei Model: According
to this model, a city is a complex structure that includes
more than one center around which activities revolve.
Examples of these nodes include a port, parks,
stadium, neighborhood business center, university, and
airport (see chart). This theory states that some
activities are attracted to particular nodes, whereas
others try to avoid them. A university node may attract
well educated people and bookstores while the port will
attract hotels and warehouses. Heavy industry and
expensive houses rarely are found together. This
model shows the effect of the automobile more than
any other model.
29

The Harris and Ullman Multiple Nuclei model

The multiple nuclei model views a city as a
collection of individual centers, around which
different people and activities cluster.

30

Applications of the Models: The three models help explain where and in some
cases, why people live where they do. None of the models by themselves fully
explains why and where different types of people live, but combined they give
you as good a look as possible at the “Why” of “Where.” Effective use of the
models depends on getting good data on the areas. Most countries take a
census every 10 years to help determine useful data about the people and
places of the country. In our country we divide the census data into areas
known as census tracts of about 5,000 people. Each census tract has the data
that summarizes the characteristics of the people living within that tract. This
information includes things like the race, income, age, and education of the
people living in that tract.
Social Area Analysis: The data from the census tracts can all be plotted onto
maps to show the characteristics of the people living in that tract. This map is
known as a social area analysis.
31

Using Census tract information…Seattle, Washington
Each lined area is a
census tract of about 5000
people in Seattle
Washington. These maps
show average household
income for 1990 and
2000…note the changes in
income in some areas
between 1990 and 2000.
Using this information, a
business can make
decisions about where
they want to locate a new
store or the future of
existing stores.
You can find census tract
information on many topics
such as; age, education
level, race, ethnicity, crime
rate, and land ownership.
Note the areas with
incomes over
$63,000.

All can be very valuable
information to people
looking to open
businesses.

32

Examine the changes
between 1990 and
2000.

Oakland, California’s Ethnic neighborhoods
The small bordered areas are census tracks of 5000 people.

33

Use of the Models Outside of North America: The 3 models will also work in other
places in the world; however social groups in other countries may not have the
same reasons for selecting particular neighborhoods as Americans do.
European Cities: As in the US, wealthier people in European cities cluster along a
sector extending outward from the CBD, however unlike the US, wealthy and
middle class Europeans still live in the inner rings of the neighborhoods near the
CBD not out in the suburbs. In the past, poorer people lived in the center of the
city. Before electricity, social segregation was vertical: richer people lived on the
first or second floor of a building while the poorer people lived in the basement or
upper floors. In the Industrial Revolution, housing for the poor was constructed
near the factories and away from the rich.
Today poorer Europeans are less likely to live in the inner-city. Poor quality
housing has been renovated for the rich or turned into office buildings. Poorer
Europeans tend to live in the outskirts of the city. Vast suburbs with dozens of high
rise apartments house the poor. They face long commutes to reach their jobs in
the city.
34

European cities generally do not have the “suburban
sprawl” that US cities have. European cities tend to be
more pedestrian friendly with more parks downtown as
Europeans tend to still live downtown.
US cities have taller buildings as European cities tend to
be older and more historic.

American cities have more ethnic neighborhoods than
European cities. Ethnic neighborhoods that do exist in
European cities tend to be in the suburbs. WHY?
Because the established richer neighborhoods tend to be
downtown in European cities.
35

Less Developed Countries: Like Europe, most LDC’s accommodate their poor in the
suburbs with their middle class and rich living near the center of the city. LDC’s have
passed through 3 periods of city building: before the Europeans arrived, during the
period of European colonialism, and since independence from European control.

Pre-colonial Cities: Before the Europeans arrived few cities existed in Africa, Asia, and
Latin America and most people lived in small rural settlements. Those cities that existed
were mostly laid out surrounding a religious center; with the rest of the city laid out in a
hieratical concentric pattern (like the Burgess model) from government buildings,
homes of the wealthy, and businesses related to the religion out to other businesses
and shops.
Colonial cities: When the Europeans took over these lands, they changed the cities by
adding services to help the Europeans control the conquered people. Often a new
European style city would be build next to the existing native one. The new European
cities contained wider streets, a public square, larger houses and a much lower density.
The Spanish used the “Law of the Indies” which was a city plan designed specifically to
build cities in a “Spanish” style. (Gridiron pattern for streets centered on a church and
central plaza, walls around individual houses and neighborhoods centered around
smaller plazas and more churches.)
36

Early Mexico city was laid out in a grid pattern of streets. This followed
the Spanish “Law of the Indies.”

37

Central Plaza in Mexico City 1920 photo. Typical Colonial City plan.

Part of downtown Mexico city today still shows the
building plan of the “Law of the Indies.”

38

Cities since Independence: Following independence, cities have become
the focal point of the development of most LDC’s. Millions of people have
migrated to the cities (Primate cities) looking for jobs and services. Some
capitals have been moved to isolated areas in an attempt to help develop
that area of the country (Brasília) This is know as a forward capital. Latin
American cities have developed their own unique style.
Squatter settlements: The LDC’s are unable to house the rapidly growing
number of poor who are flowing into the cities. Because of the housing
shortages, the poor have constructed their own settlements around the city.
These settlements have few services because neither the city nor the
residents can afford them. Squatters have two basic choices for housing.
1. Illegally move into empty real houses located in the city or,
2. Rent slum housing.
(85% of the population of Addis Ababa in Ethiopia lives in squatter
settlements, slums or other illegal housing.)
39

Squatter shacks in Manila, the Philippines

40

Squatter settlement in Ethiopia

41

Zimbabwe, Africa

42

Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

43

Latin American City Model:
In many Latin
American cities,
the wealthy live in
the inner city and
in a sector
extending along a
commercial spine.
In situ accretion- businesses
and homes constantly under
construction/repair.
Zone of maturity-2nd best
housing in the city.
The poor live in squatter settlements on the
periphery of the city.

Disamenity- unpleasant area
used by the poor to get to the
market.

44

The City Outline of Rio de Janeiro
The rich tourist areas and expensive condo apartments are along the coast
and beach while the poor live in squatter shacks in the hills.

45

City problems:
Inner-City Physical Problems: Most US inner cities were constructed before the 1950’s
(people began to move to the suburbs in the 1950’s so new construction moved out of
the city).
Process of Deterioration (how a city deteriorates): A city doesn’t suddenly become old
and full of slummy areas. It happens over time. When a group of low-income people
inhabit an area of a city, nearby neighborhoods will often look to move out. They sell or
rent to more low-income occupants thus expanding the low-income area. Two processes
cause/speed up the devaluation of areas:
1. Filtering, 2. Redlining.
Filtering: Large houses and buildings that once housed rich downtown workers (who
moved to the suburbs) are taken over by landlords who don’t live in that area (they
moved to the suburbs too). Rents are low so the landlord doesn’t take as good care of
the property as they should and the property becomes run down or abandoned. Stores
close, or move, due to lack of sales. 100 years ago these neighborhoods would be used
by immigrants and ethnic businesses would succeed in those areas. Now, with a decline
in immigration, these neighborhoods have shrunk and so have schools, businesses and
other services. Thousands of vacant houses and buildings stand empty in inner cities
across America.

46

Redlining: Some banks refuse to give loans in what they consider
risky neighborhoods. They draw a red line on a map around areas
where they will not give loans. Without loans, these neighborhoods
have a hard time rebuilding/remodeling. Though illegal, this still
happens. Bankers just don’t put these “no-loan” areas on a map.

Urban Renewal: This is the series of projects to improve European
and N. American cities by buying up the blighted neighborhoods,
moving the people to new government built housing projects, and
building new roads, and other projects to make the inner city
attractive for business again. National and State government grants
help pay for these projects.
47

Public housing: Housing for the poor, built with government funding as part of
urban renewal. In the US this is only about 2% of the housing while in some
countries it may be more (Britain is 30%). Public housing built in the 50’s & 60’s
were largely high rise apartments, but those are seen as being unsatisfactory.
Problems arise from cramming large numbers of poor people into one area.
Today most public housing projects are one to three story buildings with many of
them being scattered around different parts of the city rather than clustered into
one area.
Because urban renewal has been criticized for destroying the social cohesion of
older neighborhoods, many governments (like the US) have stopped funding
most projects since the 1970’s. What do we do instead?
Renovated Housing: An alternative often used since the 70’s is to renovate a
building instead of urban renewal. The process where middle-class people
move into inner-city neighborhoods and renovate them is called gentrification.
Gentrified inner-city neighborhoods also attract middle-class people who work
downtown. Living close to work saves the hassle of commuting and rejuvenates
run down inner-city neighborhoods
48

Gentrified building downtown Harlem, NY. Note the supermarket.

49

Inner-City Social Problems: Inner-city residents are often referred to as the
permanent underclass because they are trapped in an unending cycle of
economic and social problems. High unemployment, alcoholism, drug
addiction, literacy, juvenile delinquency, and crime all exist at a higher rate
among those who live in the inner-city. Lack of jobs means lack of tax dollars
to pay for police and fire protection as well as good schools. Lack of job skills
and homelessness are also tremendous problems.
Culture of Poverty: Inner-city residents are trapped in a permanent underclass
culture that reproduces itself. In the US, unwed mothers give birth to 2/3 of the
babies in the inner-city. 90% of these children live with only one parent and it
is real hard for one parent to keep a job and take care of children. Both suffer
and a shortage of care and daily attention by the parent contributes to the kids
not learning the skills necessary to do well in school which leads to poor jobs
for their futures. Poverty leads to more poverty. Many families on welfare have
only one parent because it is financially better if one parent is gone, that way
the single parent gets food stamps and other services from the government
that they would not get if it was a 2 family household.
50

Crime: Trapped in a hopeless environment, some inner-city
residents turn to drugs. Drug use is a problem in inner-city
areas and the suburbs, but rates of drug use in inner-cities
are the highest.
Ethnic and Racial Segregation: As seen in chapter 7, many
neighborhoods in the US are segregated by ethnicity with
African Americans and Hispanics concentrated in one or two
continuous areas and whites living in the suburbs. Even small
cities display a strong distinction among neighborhoods. A
frequent division is between the east and west or north and
south side of town, or the railroad tracks. A family seeking a
new residence will seek the areas where the characteristics
of the people meet their own.

51

The exodus
from the
American city.
This has
happened in
many American
cities since the
1960’s.

52

Changes in Cities in the U.S.
U.S. population has been moving out of the city centers to the suburbs:
suburbanization and counter urbanization

Developed Countries: suburbanization

 wealthy move to suburbs
 automobiles and roads; ‘American
Dream’ of the home in the suburbs.
 better services
 wealthy move to suburbs
Counter urbanization

idyllic settings
cost of land for retirement
slow pace, yet high tech
connections to services and markets
53

U.S. intraregional migration during 1990s.

Inner city economic problems: the concentration of low income
residents in inner cities has caused economic problems. These
people require public services but can pay very little in taxes to
support the services. They need stores and jobs but have little
money to spend in the store and few skills for jobs (so the stores
close). To try to fight these problems many local and state
governments use tax monies to try to renovate these areas, but this
shifts tax money needed for other areas to the inner city (votes on
election day).
Annexation: Many cities could help their tax problem by adding the
new suburbs to be part of their city (annexation). After all, many of
these suburban people use the city for its’ jobs etc., so why not add
them into the city? Today, most people in the suburbs do not want
to be annexed into the city and so they do not vote to be annexed.
54

The Peripheral Model: According to this model, an urban area
consists of an inner city surrounded by large suburban residential
and business areas (MSA) tied together by a beltway or highway
that circles the city. Around the beltway are nodes of consumer
and business services called edge cities (see diagram of multiple
nuclei model). These edge cities sprang up to provide services
and jobs to the people in the suburbs.
Density Gradient: As you travel outward from the center of the
city, the density of people declines. Inner city has big apartments
of 250 of more people per acre. Suburbs have fewer people per
acre (but lots of acres) and finally you leave the cities periphery
you find few people. The number of houses per unit of land
diminishes as distance from the center of the city increases.
55

The Edge cities (bedroom communities) of Houston

The central city is surrounded by a ring road, around which are
suburban areas and edge cities, shopping malls, office parks,
industrial areas, and service complexes.

Known as
bedroom
communities
because
people live
there but
mostly don’t
work there.
They drive
into the city
for work.
56

As you move from the center of the city outward, the density of the population
changes. This is know as the density gradient. Two big changes have occurred in
the density gradient of today’s cities:
1. The number of people living in the center has decreased.
2. The density difference between the inner city and the suburbs is declining
because the inner city density is dropping and the suburban density is growing
due to more large apartments being built in the suburbs.
Cost of Suburban or Urban Sprawl: Urban Sprawl is the progressive spread of
development over the landscape. As long as we Americans want single-family
detached houses, land on the fringe of urban areas will be converted from open
space to residential use. The cost of this growth is more than the loss of land, it is
also the cost of new roads, utilities, building stores and offices and the cost of
automobiles to move these people over even longer distances. Lots of these new
developments are built on what was once farmland. Wonderful productive soil now
under concrete.

Greenbelts: are areas where, by law, the open space can not be used for any
construction. This is mostly found in Europe.

57

Once farmland that is being converted to suburbs and cities.

58

Tyson’s Corner Virginia in 1940

59

Washington, DC. MSA.

Tyson’s Corner Virginia
today.
Washington D.C. is off
In the distance.

60

Suburban Segregation: The “new” segregation.
Suburban segregation takes two forms:
1. Residents are separated from commercial and manufacturing activities
which are confined someplace else. (The whole neighborhood is
nothing but houses because they drive for services.)
2. The price of the house eliminates some from being able to live there. This
creates a homogeneous suburb of the same economic class of people.
This never existed before in history. Where we once had vertical
segregation of the classes we now we have horizontal segregation.
3. But this may be reversing as new statistics show that people are beginning
to move back to the city. Why? Cost of transportation.
Zoning Ordinances: This idea developed in Europe and later America in the
early decades of the 20th century. This means that businesses are allowed only
in certain areas of the settlement. (No all night taco stands inside your single
family neighborhood.)
Motor vehicles: The wide use of the automobile is largely responsible for the
American movement to the suburbs. Not only did people move out but 1/4 of
the land inside all American cities are now roads, streets, and parking lots.

61

Public Transportation: Because few US workers live within walking distance
of their jobs, urban areas are characterized by extensive commuting and the
problems that come with it. As much as 40% of all trips made into or out from
a city during the day takes place within just 4 hours. (2 in the morning and 2 in
the late afternoon). RUSH HOUR!!! In large cities, public transportation, like
subways and busses, are better suited to move people but Americans still
prefer their own cars. Public transportation is cheaper, cleaner, and more
energy efficient than personal cars, yet in the US only 5% of city travel is
done using public transit systems. American’s love their personal car too
much.
Local Government Fragmentation: Because of the large number of local
governments in the US (look at the settlements in Pinellas County) it is
difficult to solve some of the regional problems like garbage disposal, water
management, traffic and public housing.
62

Metropolitan government: This idea tries to put many local governments into a
larger unit that can better handle the urban problems. The 2 ways to do this
are:
1. Federations in which the individual settlements have their own police,
firemen, and tax collection but they all agree to be part of a second
government which handles transportation, water, sewage, parks and
welfare for all the communities.
2. Consolidations: In this method, several cities and the county may form one
government. Jacksonville’s government runs not only the town but the
county too, this makes Jacksonville the largest city, in land size, in the US.
Smart growth: A new movement by many states to curb suburban sprawl by
limiting where new construction can take place. Smart growth laws require that
land near cities be used up before any land further out can be developed. So
far, this is only being done an a few parts of our country.
63

The new
US as
some
people
see it.

64

Quiz Yourself:
1. The process where middle-class people move into inner city neighborhoods and
renovate them is called ____________
2. ____________ happens when banks refuse to give loans in what they consider
risky neighborhoods.
3. Because of the housing shortages, the poor have constructed their own settlements
around the city known as __________ _________

4. Businesses are allowed only in certain areas of the settlement because of
____________ ____________
5. Areas known as _____ _______ are areas of about 5,000 people. The data from
that area is used to help define needed services for that area.
6. When cities are so close that they form one continuous band of development this is
known as a ____________
65

7. Social relationships are often described as “colder” in urban areas because…
8. In this model the city develops in a series of sectors not rings. _______

9. ______ (LDC’s or MDC’s) have a higher percentage of people living in urban
settlements but ________ (LDC’s or MDC’s) have more of the very large urban
settlements.
10. _____________ was the first model developed to explain the distributions
of different social groups within urban areas.
11. New cities which develop around the beltway are nodes of consumer and
business services known as ________ _________.

12. When the Europeans took over lands around the world, they changed the
cities by adding services to help the Europeans control the conquered people.
These European planned cities are known as __________ cities.
66

Answer Key:
1.

Gentrification

2.

Redlining

3.

Squatter Settlements

4.

Zoning ordinances

5.

Census tracks

6.

Megalopolis

7. There is a stronger feeling of belonging together in small rural settlements.
8. Hoyt sector model
9. MDC, LDC
10. Burgess Concentric Zone model
11. Edge cities
12. Colonial cities
67

Test Key topic/chapter 13:
These questions come from a combination of our slides, your text book, and common knowledge you should
have discussed in your AP classroom. They are very typical of what you will see on the National Exam.
1) The multiple nuclei theory best explains why different neighborhoods of a city attract people of different… A) ages.
B) ethnic origin C) income D) marital status.
2) Sprawl is the… A) change in density within an urban area from the center to the periphery B) development of new
housing sites not contiguous to the existing built-up area. C) land maintained as open space surrounding an urban area.
D) period in the morning and evening with the heaviest volumes of traffic.
3) People are attracted to suburbs in part because suburbs are characterized by…A) heavy traffic. B) lower opportunity
for home ownership. C) private land surrounding the house. D) row houses and apartments.
4) Megalopolis refers to… A) adjacent, overlapping Metropolitan Statistical Areas. B) central cities. C) consolidated
Metropolitan Statistical Areas. D) central cities plus urbanized areas.
5) Which statement best describes the relationship between urbanization and the Industrial Revolution? A) Urbanization
promoted the Industrial Revolution. B) The Industrial Revolution promoted urbanization. C) Urbanization preceded the
Industrial Revolution by thousands of years. D) Urbanization and the Industrial Revolution are no longer related.
6) The process of legally adding land area to a city in the United States is… A) annexation. B) accreditation. C) an
application of eminent domain. D) defined by urbanized area.

68

7) The process of change in the use of a house, from single-family owner occupancy to abandonment, is… A) blockbusting.
B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining.
8) A process by which banks designate an area within which they refuse to lend money for improvements is… A) blockbusting.
B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining.
9) A recent change in the density gradient has been… A) the elimination of the gap traditionally found in the center. B) an
increase in the extremes between the inner and outer areas. C) an increase in the number of people living in the center.
D) a reduction in the differences in densities found within an urban area.
10) U.S. central cities face fiscal problems because… A) federal and state funds are available. B) low-income people are
concentrated there. C) middle-class families are attracted there. D) redlining is no longer legal.
11) A legal form of segregation in U.S. cities is achieved through...A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) zoning. D) greenbelts.
12) Factories have moved to suburban locations in part because of… A) access to main highways. B) adequate space to build
vertical structures. C) availability of large tracts of high-priced land. D) good rail connections.
13) According to the sector model, the best housing is located in…A) a corridor from downtown to the edge of the city.
B) an outer ring surrounding the city. C) nodes near universities and parks. D) renovated inner-city neighborhoods.
14) Ramshackle houses on the periphery of cities in less developed countries are known as… A) squatter settlements. B) council
estates. C) public housing. D) zone in transition.
15) Higher income people tend to live near the center of the city in all but which of the following regions? A) Latin America
B) North America C) South Asia D) Western Europe

16) The wide boulevards built in cities in less developed countries were most likely built during what era? A) pre-colonial
B) colonial C) independence D) all of the above equally

69

17) According to the multiple nuclei model, an airport is likely to attract nearby… A) industries. B) residences. C) shops.
D) universities.
18) The largest percentage of the U.S. population lives in…A) central cities. B) suburbs. C) non-metropolitan areas. D) all of the
above
19) In U.S. cities, the underclass is… A) clustered in inner-city neighborhoods. B) dispersed throughout the city. C) clustered in
suburbs. D) distributed uniformly in the city.

20) A process of converting a neighborhood from low-income to middle-class is…A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) gentrification.
D) redlining.
21) Higher social heterogeneity in urban settlements means that… A) the people with whom you relax are probably the same ones you
see at work. B) you play a specialized role in the urban economy. C) you compete for limited space. D) you may feel lonely and
isolated in a crowd.
22) The city plus its contiguous built-up suburbs is the… A) central city. B) urbanized area.
D) consolidated metropolitan statistical area

C) metropolitan statistical area.

23) The process whereby an increasing percentage of people live in an urban area is known as… A) demographic transition.
B) rank-size rule. C) urbanization. D) central place theory.
24) Of the ten largest urban areas in the world, how many are in More Developed Countries today? A) 1 B) 4 C) 7 D) 10 E) 2
25) Public housing is…A) conversion of low-income housing to middle-class housing. B) illegally established low-income housing.
C) housing that has changed from single-family owner occupancy to abandonment. D) low-income government-owned housing.
26) According to the concentric zone model, a city develops in a series of… A) corridors. B) nodes. C) rings. D) all of the above

70

27) Chicago is a good location in which to develop urban models because it is located… A) at the hub of the nation's transportation
system. B) in the center of the country. C) on a flat prairie. D) on the shore of Lake Michigan.
28) According to the sector model, the best housing is located in… A) a corridor from downtown to the edge of the city. B) an outer
ring surrounding the city. C) nodes near universities and parks. D) renovated inner-city neighborhoods.
29) The zone of transition in US cities generally contain…A) warehouses B) wealthy neighborhoods C) transportation hubs
D) universities and hospitals E) suburban homes
30) The attractions of shopping malls include all but which of the following? A) frequent concerts and exhibitions B) generous
parking lots C) place to meet friends D) walking distance from homes
The following questions are written at the high school level. You will find some questions from part one often rewritten
here. This is all designed to help you transition to the college/AP style of written questions. Any question preceded with ***
are questions that have been on the national exam before.
31. Most Latin American cities are focused on a…A) central plaza B) government housing project C) zone of heavy industry
D) skyscraper office building E) squatter settlement
32. The multiple-nuclei model of a city structure tends to be most applicable to…A) small cities B) traditional C) Latin American
cities D) newer, fast growing cities E) cities with homogeneous land use
33. ***Locational advantages important to the development of the earliest cities include…A) availability of good harbors for large
ships B) productive agricultural land and defensible sites C) temperate climate and proximity to coal mines D) good
connections by road and canal E) proximity to manufacturing areas

34. In cities, the CBD’s often show uniqueness while the suburbs usually show…A) a large hinterland. B) placelessness C) more
than one node. D) newer zones of transition.

71

35. Many LDC’s have tried to help a previously under-developed part of their country develop by moving their capital
city to that area. This new capital is known as a…A) forward capital B) new development zone C) enterprise zone
D) neocolonial city
36. Today the greatest number of urban dwellers is found in…A) North America
D) Europe E) Asia

B) South America C) Africa

37. ***All of the following have helped create ghettos in North American cities except…A)blockbusting and racial
steering B) redlining by financial institutions C) concentration of public housing and social services D) fixed school
districts E) Economic Enterprise Zones

38. Which of the following is NOT as reason for rapid suburbanization in the US after WW2? A) Mass production of
the automobile B) Reduction of long distance commuting C) Expansion of home construction D) Expansion of the
interstate highway system E) Availability of low down payment terms and long-term mortgages.
39. New cities which developed in the hinterland of large urban areas because of the automobile, are known as…
A) edge cities B) census tracts C) suburban sprawl D) squatter settlements. E) none of these
40. Gentrification refers to… A) moving the homeless into inner city shelters B) The “White Flight” from the urban city
C) losing tax revenue because of stores closing in downtown areas D) middle-class people moving into and renovating
inner city neighborhoods E) the creation of “beltway cities” around the city.

72

4
7
3

5

1
6

2

41-48 all use the sketch above.
41. The sketch in box A above represents which model of the inner structure of urban areas?
C) multiple nuclei model D) Burgess concentric zone model E) peripheral model
42. The models in boxes B and C represent A) Concentric zone and multiple nuclei
concentric zone D) peripheral and concentric zone E) Von Thunen and peripheral

A) Hoyt sector model B) VonThunen’s model

B) Multiple nuclei and Hoyt sector C) Hoyt sector and

43. In which ring (1, 2, etc.) of sketch A above would high-status households in North American cities likely live? A) 1 B) 2 C) 3 D) 4&5
44. In which ring (1, 2, etc.) of sketch A above would high status households in a European city likely live? A) 1

B) 2

C) 3

D) 4&5

45. In model B, zone # 2 is where it is likely because of: A) greenbelting B) squatter settling C) the culture of poverty D) transportation
E) no one knows
46. The model in sketch B is the; A) Hoyt sector model B) Burgess model C) multiple nuclei model D) peripheral model
47. The model in sketch C is the; A) Hoyt sector model B) Burgess model C) multiple nuclei model D) peripheral model
48. Which of these models best describes what has happened in US cities in the last 40 years? A)

B)

C)

73

49.*** In the U.S. a city plus its contiguous built-up suburbs is known as an…A) urbanized area B) zoned area
C) census tract D) Squatter settlement E) none of these
50. Done mostly in Europe, these are areas where land is kept as parks, farms or other kinds of open space and urban
sprawl is not allowed. A) Smart growth
B) zoning
C) filtering
D) census tracts E) greenbelts
51. Which statement best describes the relationship between urbanization and the Industrial Revolution?
A) Urbanization promoted the Industrial Revolution. B) The Industrial Revolution promoted urbanization.
C) Urbanization preceded the Industrial Revolution by thousands of years. D) Urbanization and the Industrial
Revolution are no longer related.
52. The process whereby an increasing percentage of people live in an urban area is known as…
A) Demographic transition. B) rank-size rule. C) Urbanization. D) Central place theory.
53. The city (if it has 50,000 or more people) plus its contiguous built-up suburbs AND the county it is in as well as any
other counties it influences, is known as the ...A) central city B) urbanized area
C) metropolitan statistical area
D) consolidated metropolitan area E) micropolitan statistical area
54. ***Higher social heterogeneity in urban settlements means that …A) the people with whom you relax are probably
the same ones you see at work. B) you play a specialized role in the urban economy. C) you compete for limited
space. D) you may feel lonely and isolated in a crowd.

55. The process of change in the use of a house, from single-family owner occupancy to smaller dwellings for the poor
and then sometimes to abandonment, is…A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining. E) none of
these

74

Free Response #1:
The Bid Rent theory says that the closer you get to the
CBD the higher the cost for land, yet in most American
cities you find the poorest people living near the
expensive CBD and the richest living further away.
Explain:
A. Why neighborhoods near the CBD are often poor and
run down?
B. Why are there few grocery and other retail stores in
these neighborhoods?
C. Why is this not really true in European and Latin
American countries?

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75

FR #2:
Think of the map of your school, explain the
layout of your school using the Multiple Nuclei
Model
The main office is the CBD.
Completely explain your answer using specific
buildings and/or land areas in your explanation
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76

Answer Key:
1. B

14. A

27. C

40. D

53. C

2. B

15. B

28. A

41. D

54. D

3. C

16. B

29. A

42. B

55. B

4. A

17. A

30. D

43. D

5. B

18. B

31. A

44. A

6. A

19. A

32. D

45. D

7. B

20. C

33. B

46. A

8. D

21. D

34. B

47. C

9. D

22. B

35. A

48. C

10. B

23. C

36. E

49. A

11. C

24. C

37. E

50. E

12. A

25. D

38. B

51. B

13. A

26. C

39. A

52. C
77

FR. #1: ( 15 pts. for each section…total of 45 pts.)
A. In the US the move of the wealthy and middle class to the suburbs has left the older houses and apartments near the CBD empty.
This has lowered their value to the point where the poor can afford these dwellings and have made these neighborhoods their
homes. The poor can not pay for upkeep of these dwellings, or to pay high taxes. The lack of upkeep and tax money to repair the
roads and schools, adds to the downward spiral of the neighborhood. With little spending money for shopping, the poor do not
spend much in the stores. This causes many stores to close and move to the suburbs where the spending customers and money
went. The closing of the stores adds to the poverty of the area by taking away some of the jobs that were in the neighborhood. This
becomes a vicious cycle of poverty and deterioration. (15 points)

B. There are few retail stores and groceries is the area because the poor do not have money to shop. The lack of spending forces
many stores out of business or forces them to move to better locations. There also can be higher crime in these areas and the
crime often takes place at the stores. This is another reason for the stores to move out of the neighborhood. (15 points)
C. Neighborhoods in European and Latin American cities are different from those of US cities. In Europe and Latin America, the
wealthy and middle class still live near or in the CBD. The higher tax base and more spending ability of the upper and middle
classes, keeps the CBD area flourishing with jobs and in constant repair and upkeep of the cities’ physical condition. (15 points)

FR #2: (10 total points.)
You will need to judge how effectively you displayed you school
in the Multiple Nuclei Model. Refer to the model itself to help you
determine your success and grade.
School’s main office
78

Calculating your grade on test 13.
Add how many you got correct on the multiple choice part (55 possible) to how many
points you scored on the FR portion (55 possible)…110 total.
The following scale will show the approximate score if this test were the real AP exam. Remember that this
is an approximation. While 65-74% is normally the range for a 3 on the test, it is not definite. Over the
years I have seen scores as low as 60% be the low portion of a 3 score.

Out of 110 possible points:
72-83 is most likely a 3
84-94 is most likely a 4

95-110 is most likely a 5

Now lets start our review for the national exam by
reviewing the 33 key models and theories of the
course…the next PowerPoint.


Slide 79

Key topic/chapter 13…Urban Patterns
Key terms:
Annexation
Concentric zone model
Density gradient
Edge cities
Filtering
Galactic city
Gentrification
Greenbelts
Megalopolis
MSA
Multiple nuclei model
Peripheral model

Public housing
Redlining
Renovated housing
Scattered site
Squatter settlement
Sector model
Smart growth
Sprawl
Underclass
Urban renewal
Zone in transition
Zoning
1

Chapter 13…Urban Areas.
How are Cities planned?
Why

are cities where they are?
How are they organized?
Why are some areas of a city
different from
other areas of the same city?
What is the future of cities?
2

Settlement


Settlement - permanent collections of buildings,
where people live, work, and obtain services

3

ORIGINS OF SETTLEMENTS


Religious - graves, churches, temples



Cultural - schools, libraries



Political/Military - leader’s house, walls



Economic - stores, food
4

TYPES OF SETTLEMENTS


Rural Settlements - agriculture as the
predominant occupation.



Urban settlements - principal industries are
secondary and tertiary.

5

RURAL SETTLEMENTS
Clustered rural settlements –grouped
settlements in rural areas to minimize travel

Dispersed rural Settlements - isolated farms
with enclosed continuous fields (Found only in
N. America and Britain).

6

Urban Geographers want to know the global distribution of urban
settlements. MDC’s have a high percentage of people living in urban
areas because of the shift from agriculture-manufacturing-services.
Geographers are also interested in where people and activities are
distributed within urban spaces. What are the differences between the
inner-city and suburban areas and why?
As we saw in the last chapter, many downtowns are unique and can
often be recognized in photos where the suburbs often look very
much alike (Placelessness). Why? Suburbs offer the chance to avoid
some of the city problems (crime, tight living area, expensive
land/rent, noise, age of buildings) while still keeping a connection with
the goods and services of the city: jobs, sports teams, culture, shops,
recreation, etc.
7

Where is this place?

8

Today’s cities are evolving and changing. Although different internal
situations characterize urban areas in the US and elsewhere, the
problems arising from current spatial trends are quite similar in all cities.
Where have urban areas grown: in the early 1800’s only 3% of the earth’s
people lived in cities and only Beijing China had more than 1 million
people. Today over ½ of the world’s people live in cities and we have over
400 cities of at least 1 million people.

Urbanization: is the process by which city population grows.
Cities population growth is measured in 2 dimensions;
1. An increase in the number of people living in the cities.
2. An increase in the percentage of people living in the cities.
This distinction is important because they happen for different reason and
have different global distributions.
9

Increasing Percentage of People in Cities: a large percentage of people living in urban
areas is a measure of a country’s level of development. In MDC’s about ¾ of the people
live in urban areas compared to about 2/5 of people in LDC’s. (Except in Latin America
where the level is closer to MDC’s.)
The higher percentage of people in urban areas comes from the changes that have
occurred in the last 200 years as we went from agriculture (primary jobs) to industrial
(secondary jobs) and now service jobs, all created by the Industrial Revolution of the
1800’s.
People moved to the cities for industrial jobs, but in MDC’s this process has largely
ended because nearly everyone interested in moving to the cities from farms has already
done so.
In LDC’s the percentage of people living in urban areas is growing as people are pushed
off of their farms and replaced by machines and as people move to cities looking/hoping
for industrial jobs.
10

Increasing Number of People in Cities: MDC’s have a higher percentage of
people living in urban settlements but LDC’s have more of the very large urban
settlements (Primate cities). (Rank-size rule, primate cities, chapter 12.)

This is interesting because typically the large cities are created from the
improvements brought by the Industrial Revolution. This is not the case with the
large LDC cities. Migration to the primate city in LDC’s is happening even though
job opportunities may not be available. Increasing the population growth in LDC
cities is the fact that medical services are better in these cities, thus the child
mortality rate is lower.
Defining Urban Settlements: defining where urban areas end and rural areas
begin is not easy. Geographers have formulated definitions that distinguish
between urban and rural areas in two ways: Social differences and Physical
differences.
11

Percent Urban Population

Percent of the population living in urban areas is usually higher in MDCs
than in LDCs.

12

The most populated cities in the world

Of the top
20, only
Moscow,
Tokyo and
New York
are in MDC’s

Shanghai China has 14,608,512 people
13

14

15

Social Differences Between Urban and Rural Settlements: it is fair to say that rural
people and urban people follow different ways of life. A city can be defined as having 3
characteristics:
1. Large size. People in rural settlements know most of the other people in the
settlement. Not true in big cities. Social relationships are often described as “colder” in
urban areas because you only see some people at work instead of growing up with
them in the settlement.
2. High Density. Having lots of people in a tiny area creates social consequences. A
high density of people living in a small area can only be supported if the people
specialize (they can’t all be farmers). People are encouraged to compete for jobs, room,
and survival in a tightly limited space. Social groups compete to occupy the same space
(ethnic/ race problems). Rural settlements have very little of this problem.
3. Social Heterogeneity. The larger the settlement, the greater the variety of people.
Being “unusual” in a large settlement is more likely to be accepted than in a small rural
one. But despite the freedom to be different that large urban settlements give you,
people living there often feel alone because so many people are different from them.
There is a stronger feeling of belonging together in small rural settlements.
16

These 3 differences do not fully answer the question of where urban settlements
begin and rural ones end because in today’s MDC’s most everyone has access to
cars, telephones, televisions, and “urban type” jobs which reduce the differences
between urban and rural lifestyles. “City folk” and “Country folk” are more alike
today than they are different. To help distinguish between urban and rural areas we
need to add the physical definition of rural and urban to the equation.
Physical Definitions of Urban Settlements: In ancient time, cities had defensive
walls for protection which clearly defined the physical boundaries of the city. Today
the walls are gone but we can still define the physical boundaries in 3 ways:
1. Legal boundary. These are the official boundaries of a city as recognized by
the government of the country or state. These “city limits” have been officially given
to the city and are physically marked on official maps. The local government of the
city has authority to make laws and protect the people inside the city boundaries.
17

2. Urbanized area. This is the city plus its suburbs or urbanized area that
surrounds the city. About 70 percent of US residents live in urbanized areas with
40% being in the suburbs and 30% inside the city limits. The suburbs may have
their own city governments but the huge central city dominates what happens in
the entire area.
3. Metropolitan Statistical Area. Cities have an even bigger influence on people
than just those living in their city limits and surrounding urbanized areas. People
from far away come to shop, use the services, support the sports teams, read
the newspapers and watch the television broadcasts of the city. Thus the city
has a “functional area” which is its total zone of influence. The US Bureau of
Census has created a method of measuring the functional area of the city.
Known as the Metropolitan statistical area (MSA) this area includes:
•An urbanized area with a population of at least 50,000
•The county within which the city is located.
•Adjacent counties with a high population density and a large percentage of
residents working in the central city’s county.
18

Metropolitan Area of Philadelphia

City of
Philadelphia

Urbanized
area
(suburbs)
Metropolitan
Statistical
Area

The metropolitan area of Philadelphia is
spread over several counties and four states.
It is also a diversified trade center, given its
position on the Delaware river.

19

20

21

Micropolitan Statistical Areas: Smaller areas with between
10,000 and 50,000 people, the county where it is found, and
adjacent counties tied to the city. This would be a small town and
the area dominated by it.
Overlapping Metropolitan Areas: Some adjacent MSA’s overlap.
A county between two central cities may send a large number of
commuters to jobs in both cities. In some areas the cities are so
close that they form one continuous urban complex. This is
known as a Megalopolis (great city).
In a megalopolis, the downtown CBD often has its own
distinctive look and the urban areas are visually separated by
parks, open spaces, and dairy/truck farms. But at the periphery
of the urban areas, the boundaries overlap.
22

Colorado Springs, population 431,000

Ocala, Florida, population 56,000

Florala, Alabama, population 1,900

23

Megalopolis, from northern Va. To Maine.
This Illustrates the
difference between
strict city proper
definitions and broader
urban agglomerations.
To define urbanized
areas, the U.S. Census
Bureau uses the term
Metropolitan Statistical
Area (MSA) or
Consolidated MSA
(CMSA) if two or more of
them overlap.
24

Where are People Distributed within Urban Areas? People are not
just distributed at random in urban areas. For the most part they
concentrate in particular neighborhoods depending on their social
characteristics. Geographers want to see where people with
particular characteristics are likely to live and why.

Three models which try to explain the growth of a city:

The Burgess Model

The Hoyt Sector Model

The Harris and Ullman
multiple Nuclei Model
25

Burgess Concentric Zone Model

In the concentric zone model, a city grows in a series of rings surrounding the CBD.

Burgess Concentric Zone Model: This is the first used to explain the
distributions of different social groups within urban areas. It says that a
city grows outward from a central place in a series of concentric rings.
The precise size and width of the rings vary from one city to another, but
some basic types of rings appear in all cities in the same order (see chart
above).
26

•Hoyt Sector Model: In this model the city develops in a
series of sectors not rings. Certain areas of the city are
more attractive for various activities, originally because
of an environmental factor (or even pure chance). As the
city grows, activities extend outward in a wedge shape.
For example, once a wealthy neighborhood is built the
next wealthy neighborhood will extend from the first
neighborhood further outward from the center. In this
way, the best housing is found in a corridor extending
outward from the center to the outer edge (see chart on
the next page).
27

The Hoyt Sector Model

In the sector model, a city grows in a series of
wedges or corridors extending out from the
CBD.
28

•Harris and Ullman’s Multiple Nuclei Model: According
to this model, a city is a complex structure that includes
more than one center around which activities revolve.
Examples of these nodes include a port, parks,
stadium, neighborhood business center, university, and
airport (see chart). This theory states that some
activities are attracted to particular nodes, whereas
others try to avoid them. A university node may attract
well educated people and bookstores while the port will
attract hotels and warehouses. Heavy industry and
expensive houses rarely are found together. This
model shows the effect of the automobile more than
any other model.
29

The Harris and Ullman Multiple Nuclei model

The multiple nuclei model views a city as a
collection of individual centers, around which
different people and activities cluster.

30

Applications of the Models: The three models help explain where and in some
cases, why people live where they do. None of the models by themselves fully
explains why and where different types of people live, but combined they give
you as good a look as possible at the “Why” of “Where.” Effective use of the
models depends on getting good data on the areas. Most countries take a
census every 10 years to help determine useful data about the people and
places of the country. In our country we divide the census data into areas
known as census tracts of about 5,000 people. Each census tract has the data
that summarizes the characteristics of the people living within that tract. This
information includes things like the race, income, age, and education of the
people living in that tract.
Social Area Analysis: The data from the census tracts can all be plotted onto
maps to show the characteristics of the people living in that tract. This map is
known as a social area analysis.
31

Using Census tract information…Seattle, Washington
Each lined area is a
census tract of about 5000
people in Seattle
Washington. These maps
show average household
income for 1990 and
2000…note the changes in
income in some areas
between 1990 and 2000.
Using this information, a
business can make
decisions about where
they want to locate a new
store or the future of
existing stores.
You can find census tract
information on many topics
such as; age, education
level, race, ethnicity, crime
rate, and land ownership.
Note the areas with
incomes over
$63,000.

All can be very valuable
information to people
looking to open
businesses.

32

Examine the changes
between 1990 and
2000.

Oakland, California’s Ethnic neighborhoods
The small bordered areas are census tracks of 5000 people.

33

Use of the Models Outside of North America: The 3 models will also work in other
places in the world; however social groups in other countries may not have the
same reasons for selecting particular neighborhoods as Americans do.
European Cities: As in the US, wealthier people in European cities cluster along a
sector extending outward from the CBD, however unlike the US, wealthy and
middle class Europeans still live in the inner rings of the neighborhoods near the
CBD not out in the suburbs. In the past, poorer people lived in the center of the
city. Before electricity, social segregation was vertical: richer people lived on the
first or second floor of a building while the poorer people lived in the basement or
upper floors. In the Industrial Revolution, housing for the poor was constructed
near the factories and away from the rich.
Today poorer Europeans are less likely to live in the inner-city. Poor quality
housing has been renovated for the rich or turned into office buildings. Poorer
Europeans tend to live in the outskirts of the city. Vast suburbs with dozens of high
rise apartments house the poor. They face long commutes to reach their jobs in
the city.
34

European cities generally do not have the “suburban
sprawl” that US cities have. European cities tend to be
more pedestrian friendly with more parks downtown as
Europeans tend to still live downtown.
US cities have taller buildings as European cities tend to
be older and more historic.

American cities have more ethnic neighborhoods than
European cities. Ethnic neighborhoods that do exist in
European cities tend to be in the suburbs. WHY?
Because the established richer neighborhoods tend to be
downtown in European cities.
35

Less Developed Countries: Like Europe, most LDC’s accommodate their poor in the
suburbs with their middle class and rich living near the center of the city. LDC’s have
passed through 3 periods of city building: before the Europeans arrived, during the
period of European colonialism, and since independence from European control.

Pre-colonial Cities: Before the Europeans arrived few cities existed in Africa, Asia, and
Latin America and most people lived in small rural settlements. Those cities that existed
were mostly laid out surrounding a religious center; with the rest of the city laid out in a
hieratical concentric pattern (like the Burgess model) from government buildings,
homes of the wealthy, and businesses related to the religion out to other businesses
and shops.
Colonial cities: When the Europeans took over these lands, they changed the cities by
adding services to help the Europeans control the conquered people. Often a new
European style city would be build next to the existing native one. The new European
cities contained wider streets, a public square, larger houses and a much lower density.
The Spanish used the “Law of the Indies” which was a city plan designed specifically to
build cities in a “Spanish” style. (Gridiron pattern for streets centered on a church and
central plaza, walls around individual houses and neighborhoods centered around
smaller plazas and more churches.)
36

Early Mexico city was laid out in a grid pattern of streets. This followed
the Spanish “Law of the Indies.”

37

Central Plaza in Mexico City 1920 photo. Typical Colonial City plan.

Part of downtown Mexico city today still shows the
building plan of the “Law of the Indies.”

38

Cities since Independence: Following independence, cities have become
the focal point of the development of most LDC’s. Millions of people have
migrated to the cities (Primate cities) looking for jobs and services. Some
capitals have been moved to isolated areas in an attempt to help develop
that area of the country (Brasília) This is know as a forward capital. Latin
American cities have developed their own unique style.
Squatter settlements: The LDC’s are unable to house the rapidly growing
number of poor who are flowing into the cities. Because of the housing
shortages, the poor have constructed their own settlements around the city.
These settlements have few services because neither the city nor the
residents can afford them. Squatters have two basic choices for housing.
1. Illegally move into empty real houses located in the city or,
2. Rent slum housing.
(85% of the population of Addis Ababa in Ethiopia lives in squatter
settlements, slums or other illegal housing.)
39

Squatter shacks in Manila, the Philippines

40

Squatter settlement in Ethiopia

41

Zimbabwe, Africa

42

Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

43

Latin American City Model:
In many Latin
American cities,
the wealthy live in
the inner city and
in a sector
extending along a
commercial spine.
In situ accretion- businesses
and homes constantly under
construction/repair.
Zone of maturity-2nd best
housing in the city.
The poor live in squatter settlements on the
periphery of the city.

Disamenity- unpleasant area
used by the poor to get to the
market.

44

The City Outline of Rio de Janeiro
The rich tourist areas and expensive condo apartments are along the coast
and beach while the poor live in squatter shacks in the hills.

45

City problems:
Inner-City Physical Problems: Most US inner cities were constructed before the 1950’s
(people began to move to the suburbs in the 1950’s so new construction moved out of
the city).
Process of Deterioration (how a city deteriorates): A city doesn’t suddenly become old
and full of slummy areas. It happens over time. When a group of low-income people
inhabit an area of a city, nearby neighborhoods will often look to move out. They sell or
rent to more low-income occupants thus expanding the low-income area. Two processes
cause/speed up the devaluation of areas:
1. Filtering, 2. Redlining.
Filtering: Large houses and buildings that once housed rich downtown workers (who
moved to the suburbs) are taken over by landlords who don’t live in that area (they
moved to the suburbs too). Rents are low so the landlord doesn’t take as good care of
the property as they should and the property becomes run down or abandoned. Stores
close, or move, due to lack of sales. 100 years ago these neighborhoods would be used
by immigrants and ethnic businesses would succeed in those areas. Now, with a decline
in immigration, these neighborhoods have shrunk and so have schools, businesses and
other services. Thousands of vacant houses and buildings stand empty in inner cities
across America.

46

Redlining: Some banks refuse to give loans in what they consider
risky neighborhoods. They draw a red line on a map around areas
where they will not give loans. Without loans, these neighborhoods
have a hard time rebuilding/remodeling. Though illegal, this still
happens. Bankers just don’t put these “no-loan” areas on a map.

Urban Renewal: This is the series of projects to improve European
and N. American cities by buying up the blighted neighborhoods,
moving the people to new government built housing projects, and
building new roads, and other projects to make the inner city
attractive for business again. National and State government grants
help pay for these projects.
47

Public housing: Housing for the poor, built with government funding as part of
urban renewal. In the US this is only about 2% of the housing while in some
countries it may be more (Britain is 30%). Public housing built in the 50’s & 60’s
were largely high rise apartments, but those are seen as being unsatisfactory.
Problems arise from cramming large numbers of poor people into one area.
Today most public housing projects are one to three story buildings with many of
them being scattered around different parts of the city rather than clustered into
one area.
Because urban renewal has been criticized for destroying the social cohesion of
older neighborhoods, many governments (like the US) have stopped funding
most projects since the 1970’s. What do we do instead?
Renovated Housing: An alternative often used since the 70’s is to renovate a
building instead of urban renewal. The process where middle-class people
move into inner-city neighborhoods and renovate them is called gentrification.
Gentrified inner-city neighborhoods also attract middle-class people who work
downtown. Living close to work saves the hassle of commuting and rejuvenates
run down inner-city neighborhoods
48

Gentrified building downtown Harlem, NY. Note the supermarket.

49

Inner-City Social Problems: Inner-city residents are often referred to as the
permanent underclass because they are trapped in an unending cycle of
economic and social problems. High unemployment, alcoholism, drug
addiction, literacy, juvenile delinquency, and crime all exist at a higher rate
among those who live in the inner-city. Lack of jobs means lack of tax dollars
to pay for police and fire protection as well as good schools. Lack of job skills
and homelessness are also tremendous problems.
Culture of Poverty: Inner-city residents are trapped in a permanent underclass
culture that reproduces itself. In the US, unwed mothers give birth to 2/3 of the
babies in the inner-city. 90% of these children live with only one parent and it
is real hard for one parent to keep a job and take care of children. Both suffer
and a shortage of care and daily attention by the parent contributes to the kids
not learning the skills necessary to do well in school which leads to poor jobs
for their futures. Poverty leads to more poverty. Many families on welfare have
only one parent because it is financially better if one parent is gone, that way
the single parent gets food stamps and other services from the government
that they would not get if it was a 2 family household.
50

Crime: Trapped in a hopeless environment, some inner-city
residents turn to drugs. Drug use is a problem in inner-city
areas and the suburbs, but rates of drug use in inner-cities
are the highest.
Ethnic and Racial Segregation: As seen in chapter 7, many
neighborhoods in the US are segregated by ethnicity with
African Americans and Hispanics concentrated in one or two
continuous areas and whites living in the suburbs. Even small
cities display a strong distinction among neighborhoods. A
frequent division is between the east and west or north and
south side of town, or the railroad tracks. A family seeking a
new residence will seek the areas where the characteristics
of the people meet their own.

51

The exodus
from the
American city.
This has
happened in
many American
cities since the
1960’s.

52

Changes in Cities in the U.S.
U.S. population has been moving out of the city centers to the suburbs:
suburbanization and counter urbanization

Developed Countries: suburbanization

 wealthy move to suburbs
 automobiles and roads; ‘American
Dream’ of the home in the suburbs.
 better services
 wealthy move to suburbs
Counter urbanization

idyllic settings
cost of land for retirement
slow pace, yet high tech
connections to services and markets
53

U.S. intraregional migration during 1990s.

Inner city economic problems: the concentration of low income
residents in inner cities has caused economic problems. These
people require public services but can pay very little in taxes to
support the services. They need stores and jobs but have little
money to spend in the store and few skills for jobs (so the stores
close). To try to fight these problems many local and state
governments use tax monies to try to renovate these areas, but this
shifts tax money needed for other areas to the inner city (votes on
election day).
Annexation: Many cities could help their tax problem by adding the
new suburbs to be part of their city (annexation). After all, many of
these suburban people use the city for its’ jobs etc., so why not add
them into the city? Today, most people in the suburbs do not want
to be annexed into the city and so they do not vote to be annexed.
54

The Peripheral Model: According to this model, an urban area
consists of an inner city surrounded by large suburban residential
and business areas (MSA) tied together by a beltway or highway
that circles the city. Around the beltway are nodes of consumer
and business services called edge cities (see diagram of multiple
nuclei model). These edge cities sprang up to provide services
and jobs to the people in the suburbs.
Density Gradient: As you travel outward from the center of the
city, the density of people declines. Inner city has big apartments
of 250 of more people per acre. Suburbs have fewer people per
acre (but lots of acres) and finally you leave the cities periphery
you find few people. The number of houses per unit of land
diminishes as distance from the center of the city increases.
55

The Edge cities (bedroom communities) of Houston

The central city is surrounded by a ring road, around which are
suburban areas and edge cities, shopping malls, office parks,
industrial areas, and service complexes.

Known as
bedroom
communities
because
people live
there but
mostly don’t
work there.
They drive
into the city
for work.
56

As you move from the center of the city outward, the density of the population
changes. This is know as the density gradient. Two big changes have occurred in
the density gradient of today’s cities:
1. The number of people living in the center has decreased.
2. The density difference between the inner city and the suburbs is declining
because the inner city density is dropping and the suburban density is growing
due to more large apartments being built in the suburbs.
Cost of Suburban or Urban Sprawl: Urban Sprawl is the progressive spread of
development over the landscape. As long as we Americans want single-family
detached houses, land on the fringe of urban areas will be converted from open
space to residential use. The cost of this growth is more than the loss of land, it is
also the cost of new roads, utilities, building stores and offices and the cost of
automobiles to move these people over even longer distances. Lots of these new
developments are built on what was once farmland. Wonderful productive soil now
under concrete.

Greenbelts: are areas where, by law, the open space can not be used for any
construction. This is mostly found in Europe.

57

Once farmland that is being converted to suburbs and cities.

58

Tyson’s Corner Virginia in 1940

59

Washington, DC. MSA.

Tyson’s Corner Virginia
today.
Washington D.C. is off
In the distance.

60

Suburban Segregation: The “new” segregation.
Suburban segregation takes two forms:
1. Residents are separated from commercial and manufacturing activities
which are confined someplace else. (The whole neighborhood is
nothing but houses because they drive for services.)
2. The price of the house eliminates some from being able to live there. This
creates a homogeneous suburb of the same economic class of people.
This never existed before in history. Where we once had vertical
segregation of the classes we now we have horizontal segregation.
3. But this may be reversing as new statistics show that people are beginning
to move back to the city. Why? Cost of transportation.
Zoning Ordinances: This idea developed in Europe and later America in the
early decades of the 20th century. This means that businesses are allowed only
in certain areas of the settlement. (No all night taco stands inside your single
family neighborhood.)
Motor vehicles: The wide use of the automobile is largely responsible for the
American movement to the suburbs. Not only did people move out but 1/4 of
the land inside all American cities are now roads, streets, and parking lots.

61

Public Transportation: Because few US workers live within walking distance
of their jobs, urban areas are characterized by extensive commuting and the
problems that come with it. As much as 40% of all trips made into or out from
a city during the day takes place within just 4 hours. (2 in the morning and 2 in
the late afternoon). RUSH HOUR!!! In large cities, public transportation, like
subways and busses, are better suited to move people but Americans still
prefer their own cars. Public transportation is cheaper, cleaner, and more
energy efficient than personal cars, yet in the US only 5% of city travel is
done using public transit systems. American’s love their personal car too
much.
Local Government Fragmentation: Because of the large number of local
governments in the US (look at the settlements in Pinellas County) it is
difficult to solve some of the regional problems like garbage disposal, water
management, traffic and public housing.
62

Metropolitan government: This idea tries to put many local governments into a
larger unit that can better handle the urban problems. The 2 ways to do this
are:
1. Federations in which the individual settlements have their own police,
firemen, and tax collection but they all agree to be part of a second
government which handles transportation, water, sewage, parks and
welfare for all the communities.
2. Consolidations: In this method, several cities and the county may form one
government. Jacksonville’s government runs not only the town but the
county too, this makes Jacksonville the largest city, in land size, in the US.
Smart growth: A new movement by many states to curb suburban sprawl by
limiting where new construction can take place. Smart growth laws require that
land near cities be used up before any land further out can be developed. So
far, this is only being done an a few parts of our country.
63

The new
US as
some
people
see it.

64

Quiz Yourself:
1. The process where middle-class people move into inner city neighborhoods and
renovate them is called ____________
2. ____________ happens when banks refuse to give loans in what they consider
risky neighborhoods.
3. Because of the housing shortages, the poor have constructed their own settlements
around the city known as __________ _________

4. Businesses are allowed only in certain areas of the settlement because of
____________ ____________
5. Areas known as _____ _______ are areas of about 5,000 people. The data from
that area is used to help define needed services for that area.
6. When cities are so close that they form one continuous band of development this is
known as a ____________
65

7. Social relationships are often described as “colder” in urban areas because…
8. In this model the city develops in a series of sectors not rings. _______

9. ______ (LDC’s or MDC’s) have a higher percentage of people living in urban
settlements but ________ (LDC’s or MDC’s) have more of the very large urban
settlements.
10. _____________ was the first model developed to explain the distributions
of different social groups within urban areas.
11. New cities which develop around the beltway are nodes of consumer and
business services known as ________ _________.

12. When the Europeans took over lands around the world, they changed the
cities by adding services to help the Europeans control the conquered people.
These European planned cities are known as __________ cities.
66

Answer Key:
1.

Gentrification

2.

Redlining

3.

Squatter Settlements

4.

Zoning ordinances

5.

Census tracks

6.

Megalopolis

7. There is a stronger feeling of belonging together in small rural settlements.
8. Hoyt sector model
9. MDC, LDC
10. Burgess Concentric Zone model
11. Edge cities
12. Colonial cities
67

Test Key topic/chapter 13:
These questions come from a combination of our slides, your text book, and common knowledge you should
have discussed in your AP classroom. They are very typical of what you will see on the National Exam.
1) The multiple nuclei theory best explains why different neighborhoods of a city attract people of different… A) ages.
B) ethnic origin C) income D) marital status.
2) Sprawl is the… A) change in density within an urban area from the center to the periphery B) development of new
housing sites not contiguous to the existing built-up area. C) land maintained as open space surrounding an urban area.
D) period in the morning and evening with the heaviest volumes of traffic.
3) People are attracted to suburbs in part because suburbs are characterized by…A) heavy traffic. B) lower opportunity
for home ownership. C) private land surrounding the house. D) row houses and apartments.
4) Megalopolis refers to… A) adjacent, overlapping Metropolitan Statistical Areas. B) central cities. C) consolidated
Metropolitan Statistical Areas. D) central cities plus urbanized areas.
5) Which statement best describes the relationship between urbanization and the Industrial Revolution? A) Urbanization
promoted the Industrial Revolution. B) The Industrial Revolution promoted urbanization. C) Urbanization preceded the
Industrial Revolution by thousands of years. D) Urbanization and the Industrial Revolution are no longer related.
6) The process of legally adding land area to a city in the United States is… A) annexation. B) accreditation. C) an
application of eminent domain. D) defined by urbanized area.

68

7) The process of change in the use of a house, from single-family owner occupancy to abandonment, is… A) blockbusting.
B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining.
8) A process by which banks designate an area within which they refuse to lend money for improvements is… A) blockbusting.
B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining.
9) A recent change in the density gradient has been… A) the elimination of the gap traditionally found in the center. B) an
increase in the extremes between the inner and outer areas. C) an increase in the number of people living in the center.
D) a reduction in the differences in densities found within an urban area.
10) U.S. central cities face fiscal problems because… A) federal and state funds are available. B) low-income people are
concentrated there. C) middle-class families are attracted there. D) redlining is no longer legal.
11) A legal form of segregation in U.S. cities is achieved through...A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) zoning. D) greenbelts.
12) Factories have moved to suburban locations in part because of… A) access to main highways. B) adequate space to build
vertical structures. C) availability of large tracts of high-priced land. D) good rail connections.
13) According to the sector model, the best housing is located in…A) a corridor from downtown to the edge of the city.
B) an outer ring surrounding the city. C) nodes near universities and parks. D) renovated inner-city neighborhoods.
14) Ramshackle houses on the periphery of cities in less developed countries are known as… A) squatter settlements. B) council
estates. C) public housing. D) zone in transition.
15) Higher income people tend to live near the center of the city in all but which of the following regions? A) Latin America
B) North America C) South Asia D) Western Europe

16) The wide boulevards built in cities in less developed countries were most likely built during what era? A) pre-colonial
B) colonial C) independence D) all of the above equally

69

17) According to the multiple nuclei model, an airport is likely to attract nearby… A) industries. B) residences. C) shops.
D) universities.
18) The largest percentage of the U.S. population lives in…A) central cities. B) suburbs. C) non-metropolitan areas. D) all of the
above
19) In U.S. cities, the underclass is… A) clustered in inner-city neighborhoods. B) dispersed throughout the city. C) clustered in
suburbs. D) distributed uniformly in the city.

20) A process of converting a neighborhood from low-income to middle-class is…A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) gentrification.
D) redlining.
21) Higher social heterogeneity in urban settlements means that… A) the people with whom you relax are probably the same ones you
see at work. B) you play a specialized role in the urban economy. C) you compete for limited space. D) you may feel lonely and
isolated in a crowd.
22) The city plus its contiguous built-up suburbs is the… A) central city. B) urbanized area.
D) consolidated metropolitan statistical area

C) metropolitan statistical area.

23) The process whereby an increasing percentage of people live in an urban area is known as… A) demographic transition.
B) rank-size rule. C) urbanization. D) central place theory.
24) Of the ten largest urban areas in the world, how many are in More Developed Countries today? A) 1 B) 4 C) 7 D) 10 E) 2
25) Public housing is…A) conversion of low-income housing to middle-class housing. B) illegally established low-income housing.
C) housing that has changed from single-family owner occupancy to abandonment. D) low-income government-owned housing.
26) According to the concentric zone model, a city develops in a series of… A) corridors. B) nodes. C) rings. D) all of the above

70

27) Chicago is a good location in which to develop urban models because it is located… A) at the hub of the nation's transportation
system. B) in the center of the country. C) on a flat prairie. D) on the shore of Lake Michigan.
28) According to the sector model, the best housing is located in… A) a corridor from downtown to the edge of the city. B) an outer
ring surrounding the city. C) nodes near universities and parks. D) renovated inner-city neighborhoods.
29) The zone of transition in US cities generally contain…A) warehouses B) wealthy neighborhoods C) transportation hubs
D) universities and hospitals E) suburban homes
30) The attractions of shopping malls include all but which of the following? A) frequent concerts and exhibitions B) generous
parking lots C) place to meet friends D) walking distance from homes
The following questions are written at the high school level. You will find some questions from part one often rewritten
here. This is all designed to help you transition to the college/AP style of written questions. Any question preceded with ***
are questions that have been on the national exam before.
31. Most Latin American cities are focused on a…A) central plaza B) government housing project C) zone of heavy industry
D) skyscraper office building E) squatter settlement
32. The multiple-nuclei model of a city structure tends to be most applicable to…A) small cities B) traditional C) Latin American
cities D) newer, fast growing cities E) cities with homogeneous land use
33. ***Locational advantages important to the development of the earliest cities include…A) availability of good harbors for large
ships B) productive agricultural land and defensible sites C) temperate climate and proximity to coal mines D) good
connections by road and canal E) proximity to manufacturing areas

34. In cities, the CBD’s often show uniqueness while the suburbs usually show…A) a large hinterland. B) placelessness C) more
than one node. D) newer zones of transition.

71

35. Many LDC’s have tried to help a previously under-developed part of their country develop by moving their capital
city to that area. This new capital is known as a…A) forward capital B) new development zone C) enterprise zone
D) neocolonial city
36. Today the greatest number of urban dwellers is found in…A) North America
D) Europe E) Asia

B) South America C) Africa

37. ***All of the following have helped create ghettos in North American cities except…A)blockbusting and racial
steering B) redlining by financial institutions C) concentration of public housing and social services D) fixed school
districts E) Economic Enterprise Zones

38. Which of the following is NOT as reason for rapid suburbanization in the US after WW2? A) Mass production of
the automobile B) Reduction of long distance commuting C) Expansion of home construction D) Expansion of the
interstate highway system E) Availability of low down payment terms and long-term mortgages.
39. New cities which developed in the hinterland of large urban areas because of the automobile, are known as…
A) edge cities B) census tracts C) suburban sprawl D) squatter settlements. E) none of these
40. Gentrification refers to… A) moving the homeless into inner city shelters B) The “White Flight” from the urban city
C) losing tax revenue because of stores closing in downtown areas D) middle-class people moving into and renovating
inner city neighborhoods E) the creation of “beltway cities” around the city.

72

4
7
3

5

1
6

2

41-48 all use the sketch above.
41. The sketch in box A above represents which model of the inner structure of urban areas?
C) multiple nuclei model D) Burgess concentric zone model E) peripheral model
42. The models in boxes B and C represent A) Concentric zone and multiple nuclei
concentric zone D) peripheral and concentric zone E) Von Thunen and peripheral

A) Hoyt sector model B) VonThunen’s model

B) Multiple nuclei and Hoyt sector C) Hoyt sector and

43. In which ring (1, 2, etc.) of sketch A above would high-status households in North American cities likely live? A) 1 B) 2 C) 3 D) 4&5
44. In which ring (1, 2, etc.) of sketch A above would high status households in a European city likely live? A) 1

B) 2

C) 3

D) 4&5

45. In model B, zone # 2 is where it is likely because of: A) greenbelting B) squatter settling C) the culture of poverty D) transportation
E) no one knows
46. The model in sketch B is the; A) Hoyt sector model B) Burgess model C) multiple nuclei model D) peripheral model
47. The model in sketch C is the; A) Hoyt sector model B) Burgess model C) multiple nuclei model D) peripheral model
48. Which of these models best describes what has happened in US cities in the last 40 years? A)

B)

C)

73

49.*** In the U.S. a city plus its contiguous built-up suburbs is known as an…A) urbanized area B) zoned area
C) census tract D) Squatter settlement E) none of these
50. Done mostly in Europe, these are areas where land is kept as parks, farms or other kinds of open space and urban
sprawl is not allowed. A) Smart growth
B) zoning
C) filtering
D) census tracts E) greenbelts
51. Which statement best describes the relationship between urbanization and the Industrial Revolution?
A) Urbanization promoted the Industrial Revolution. B) The Industrial Revolution promoted urbanization.
C) Urbanization preceded the Industrial Revolution by thousands of years. D) Urbanization and the Industrial
Revolution are no longer related.
52. The process whereby an increasing percentage of people live in an urban area is known as…
A) Demographic transition. B) rank-size rule. C) Urbanization. D) Central place theory.
53. The city (if it has 50,000 or more people) plus its contiguous built-up suburbs AND the county it is in as well as any
other counties it influences, is known as the ...A) central city B) urbanized area
C) metropolitan statistical area
D) consolidated metropolitan area E) micropolitan statistical area
54. ***Higher social heterogeneity in urban settlements means that …A) the people with whom you relax are probably
the same ones you see at work. B) you play a specialized role in the urban economy. C) you compete for limited
space. D) you may feel lonely and isolated in a crowd.

55. The process of change in the use of a house, from single-family owner occupancy to smaller dwellings for the poor
and then sometimes to abandonment, is…A) blockbusting. B) filtering. C) gentrification. D) redlining. E) none of
these

74

Free Response #1:
The Bid Rent theory says that the closer you get to the
CBD the higher the cost for land, yet in most American
cities you find the poorest people living near the
expensive CBD and the richest living further away.
Explain:
A. Why neighborhoods near the CBD are often poor and
run down?
B. Why are there few grocery and other retail stores in
these neighborhoods?
C. Why is this not really true in European and Latin
American countries?

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FR #2:
Think of the map of your school, explain the
layout of your school using the Multiple Nuclei
Model
The main office is the CBD.
Completely explain your answer using specific
buildings and/or land areas in your explanation
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76

Answer Key:
1. B

14. A

27. C

40. D

53. C

2. B

15. B

28. A

41. D

54. D

3. C

16. B

29. A

42. B

55. B

4. A

17. A

30. D

43. D

5. B

18. B

31. A

44. A

6. A

19. A

32. D

45. D

7. B

20. C

33. B

46. A

8. D

21. D

34. B

47. C

9. D

22. B

35. A

48. C

10. B

23. C

36. E

49. A

11. C

24. C

37. E

50. E

12. A

25. D

38. B

51. B

13. A

26. C

39. A

52. C
77

FR. #1: ( 15 pts. for each section…total of 45 pts.)
A. In the US the move of the wealthy and middle class to the suburbs has left the older houses and apartments near the CBD empty.
This has lowered their value to the point where the poor can afford these dwellings and have made these neighborhoods their
homes. The poor can not pay for upkeep of these dwellings, or to pay high taxes. The lack of upkeep and tax money to repair the
roads and schools, adds to the downward spiral of the neighborhood. With little spending money for shopping, the poor do not
spend much in the stores. This causes many stores to close and move to the suburbs where the spending customers and money
went. The closing of the stores adds to the poverty of the area by taking away some of the jobs that were in the neighborhood. This
becomes a vicious cycle of poverty and deterioration. (15 points)

B. There are few retail stores and groceries is the area because the poor do not have money to shop. The lack of spending forces
many stores out of business or forces them to move to better locations. There also can be higher crime in these areas and the
crime often takes place at the stores. This is another reason for the stores to move out of the neighborhood. (15 points)
C. Neighborhoods in European and Latin American cities are different from those of US cities. In Europe and Latin America, the
wealthy and middle class still live near or in the CBD. The higher tax base and more spending ability of the upper and middle
classes, keeps the CBD area flourishing with jobs and in constant repair and upkeep of the cities’ physical condition. (15 points)

FR #2: (10 total points.)
You will need to judge how effectively you displayed you school
in the Multiple Nuclei Model. Refer to the model itself to help you
determine your success and grade.
School’s main office
78

Calculating your grade on test 13.
Add how many you got correct on the multiple choice part (55 possible) to how many
points you scored on the FR portion (55 possible)…110 total.
The following scale will show the approximate score if this test were the real AP exam. Remember that this
is an approximation. While 65-74% is normally the range for a 3 on the test, it is not definite. Over the
years I have seen scores as low as 60% be the low portion of a 3 score.

Out of 110 possible points:
72-83 is most likely a 3
84-94 is most likely a 4

95-110 is most likely a 5

Now lets start our review for the national exam by
reviewing the 33 key models and theories of the
course…the next PowerPoint.