Slide 1

AIR SPACE AND TRAFFIC
MANAGEMENT

Archie William League, widely acknowledged as the first U.S. air
traffic controller, was born in 1907 at Poplar Bluff, Missouri. He
passed away on October 1, 1986 at the age of 79 in Annandale,
Virginia. League retired from the F.A.A. in 1973, as the Assistant
Administrator for Appraisal, with his claim to the first air traffic
controller largely unchallenged. Air Traffic Control: Keeping
Track of Flights
By the end of the first decade of powered flight, people began to
realize that aircraft, like automobiles, would crash into each other
unless some means was developed to control and direct them. At
first, because aircraft could not fly very high, such control was
accomplished using simple hand signals. Later, control was
exercised through radio communication. By the end of World War
II, the invention of radar permitted visually displayed tracking of
several aircraft at once. When coupled with radio communication,
radar made it possible for the pilot to be warned when he was in
danger of colliding with another aircraft or when he was off
course. In 1956, two aircraft crashed over the Grand Canyon
while one was climbing and the other descending. The resulting
public outcry spurred the development of the modern radar-based
air traffic control system. Today, aircraft are continually tracked
from take-off to landing

• First Flight
• On December 17, 1903, Orville and Wilbur Wright capped four years
of research and design efforts with a 120-foot, 12-second flight at
Kitty Hawk, North Carolina - the first powered flight in a heavierthan-air machine. Prior to that, people had flown only in balloons and
gliders.
• The first person to fly as a passenger was Leon Delagrange, who rode
with French pilot Henri Farman from a meadow outside of Paris in
1908. Charles Furnas became the first American airplane passenger
when he flew with Orville Wright at Kitty Hawk later that year.
World War I
• These and other early flights were headline events, but commercial
aviation was very slow to catch on with the general public, most of
which was afraid to ride in the new flying machines. Improvements in
aircraft design also were slow. However, with the advent of World
War I, the military value of aircraft was quickly recognized and
production increased significantly to meet the soaring demand for
planes from governments on both sides of the Atlantic. Most
significant was the development of more powerful motors, enabling
aircraft to reach speeds of up to 130 mph, more than twice the speed
of pre-war aircraft. Increased power also made bigger aircraft
possible.

• Airmail
• By 1917, the U.S. government felt it had seen enough progress in the development
of planes to warrant something totally new - air mail. That year, Congress
appropriated $100,000 for an experimental airmail service that was to be conducted
jointly by the Army and the Post Office between Washington and New York, with an
intermediate stop in Philadelphia. The first flight left Belmont Park, Long Island, for
Philadelphia on May 14, 1918, and the next day continued on to Washington where
it was met by President Woodrow Wilson. Beacons
• In 1921, the Army deployed rotating beacons in a line between Columbus and
Dayton, Ohio, a distance of about 80 miles. The beacons, visible to pilots at 10second intervals, made it possible to fly the route at night.
• The Post Office took over the operation of the guidance system the following year,
and by the end of 1923 constructed similar beacons between Chicago and Cheyenne,
WY, a line later extended coast-to-coast at a cost of $550,000. Mail then could be
delivered across the continent in as little as 29 hours eastbound and 34 hours
westbound (prevailing winds from west to east accounted for the difference), which
was two to three days less than it took by train.

• Aircraft Innovations
• For the airlines to attract more passengers away from the
railroads, they needed both larger and faster airplanes.
They also needed safer airplanes. Accidents such as the
one in 1931 that killed Notre Dame football coach Knute
Rockne and six other men kept people away from flying
in droves.
• Aircraft manufacturers responded to the challenge. There
were so many improvements to aircraft in the 1930s that
many believe it was the most innovative period in
aviation history. Air-cooled engines replaced watercooled engines, reducing weight and making bigger and
faster planes possible. Cockpit instruments also
improved, with better turn indicators, altimeters, airspeed
indicators, rate of climb indicators, compasses, and the
"artificial horizon," which showed pilots the attitude of
the aircraft relative to the ground - important for flying
in reduced visibility.

• Radio
• Another development of enormous importance to aviation was
radio. Aviation and radio developed almost in lock step. Marconi
sent his first message across the Atlantic on the airways just two
years before the Wright Brothers' first flight at Kitty Hawk. By
World War I, some pilots were taking radios up in the air with them
so they could communicate with people on the ground. The airlines
followed suit after the war, using radio to transmit weather
information from the ground to their pilots so they could avoid
storms.
• Perhaps an even bigger development, however, was the realization
that radio could be used as an aid to navigation when visibility was
poor and visual navigation aids such as beacons were useless. Once
technical bugs were worked out, the Department of Commerce
constructed 83 radio beacons across the country. They became fully
operational in 1932, automatically transmitting directional beams, or
tracks, that pilots could follow to their destination. Marker beacons
came next, allowing pilots to locate airports in poor visibility. The
first air traffic control tower was established in 1935 at Newark
International Airport in New Jersey.

• The DC-3
• Called the plane that changed the world, the DC-3 was
the first aircraft to enable airlines to make money
carrying passengers. As a result, it quickly became the
dominant aircraft in the United States following its
debut in 1936 with American Airlines (which played a
key role in its design).
• The DC-3 had 50% greater passenger capacity than the
DC-2 (21 seats versus 14), yet cost only 10% more to
operate. It also was considered a safer plane, built of an
aluminum alloy 25% stronger than materials previously
used in aircraft construction. It has more powerful
engines (1,000 horsepower versus 710 horsepower for
the DC-2), and it could travel coast to coast in 16 hours a fast trip for that time.

• Pressurized Cabins
• Although planes such as the Boeing 247 and the DC-3
represented significant advances in aircraft design, they had
a major drawback. They could fly no higher than 10,000
feet because people became dizzy and even fainted due to
the reduced levels of oxygen at higher altitudes.
• The airlines wanted to fly higher to get above the air
turbulence and storms common at lower altitudes. Motion
sickness was a problem for many airline passengers, and an
inhibiting factor to the industry's growth.
• The breakthrough came at Boeing with the Stratoliner, a
derivation of the B-17 bomber introduced in 1940 and first
flown by TWA. It was the first pressurized aircraft, meaning
that air was pumped into the aircraft as it gained altitude to
maintain an atmosphere inside the cabin similar to the
atmosphere that occurs naturally at lower altitudes. With its
regulated air compressor, the 33-seat Stratoliner could fly as
high as 20,000 feet and reach speeds of 200 miles per hour.

• World War II
• Aviation had an enormous impact on the course of World War II and
the war had just as big of an impact on aviation. There were fewer
than 300 air transports in the United States when Hitler marched into
Poland in 1939. By the end of the war, U.S. aircraft manufacturers
were producing 50,000 planes a year!
• Most of the planes, of course, were fighters and bombers, but the
importance of air transports to the war effort quickly became apparent
as well. Throughout the war, the airlines provided much needed airlift
to keep people and supplies moving to the front and throughout the
production chain back home. For the first time in their history, the
airlines had far more business - for passengers as well as freight - than
they could handle. Many of them also had opportunities to pioneer
new routes, gaining an exposure that would give them a decidedly
broader outlook at war's end.
• While there were numerous advances in U.S. aircraft design during
the war that enabled planes to go faster, higher, and further than ever
before, mass production was the chief goal of the United States. The
major innovations of the wartime period - radar and jet engines occurred in Europe.

• Radar
• A technological development with a much greater impact on
the war's outcome (and later on commercial aviation) was
radar. British scientists had been working on a device that
could give them early warning of approaching enemy
aircraft even before the war began, and by 1940 Britain had
a line of radar transceivers along its east coast that could
detect German aircraft the moment they took off from the
Continent.
• British scientists also perfected the cathode ray oscilloscope,
which produced map-type outlines of surrounding
countryside and showed aircraft as a pulsing light.
Americans, meanwhile, found a way to distinguish between
enemy aircraft and Allied aircraft by installing transponders
aboard the later that signaled their identity to radar
operators.

• The present Air Navigation System (ANS)
provides international Air Traffic Services (ATS)
• for civil aviation. The provision of these services is
based on the availability of Communication,
Navigation, Surveillance (CNS) systems and
automated Air Traffic Control (ATC) systems with
various levels of capabilities.
• International air traffic is channelled along specified
air routes and each air route is part of a network of
• generally fixed air routes within a Flight
Information Region (FIR)

• Air Traffic Services (ATS)
• ATS= Air Traffic Management + Flight Information Service + Alerting Service
• ATM= Air Traffic Control + Air Space Management + Air Traffic Flow
Management
• · ATC: Maintain a safe distance between aircraft and obstacles within a confined
airspace and also
• on the airport surface
• · ASM: Maximize, within a given airspace structure, the utilization of available
airspace by
• dynamic time sharing and segregation of airspace among competing categories of
users based
• on short-term needs
• · ATFM: ensure an optimum flow of air traffic through areas during times when
demands (is expected to) exceed the available capacity of ATC service
• · FIS: Collect, handle and disseminate flight-related information to assist the pilot to
conduct his flight in a safe and efficient manner (ex ATIS)
• · AL: initiate an early search and rescue activity for aircraft in distress
• ATIS A service of an airport for traffic in its TMA or CTR
• ATIS is a repeated message (VHF) containing information about· Weather

• ATIS A service of an airport for traffic in its TMA or
CTR
• ATIS is a repeated message (VHF) containing
information about weather
• · The QNH
• · Transition level, transition altitude
• · Operational issues

• Airspace Organisation
• · Control zone (CTR): local ATC (TWR) usually
circular area around airport
• · Terminal Control Area (TMA): local ATC (APP),
incoming and outgoing flights between CTR and
• CTA
• · Control Area (CTA): General ATC (ACC) within
FIR, below certain flight level (lower airspace)
• · Upper Control Area (UTA): General ATC, across
FIRs (upper airspace; ex Eurocontrol)

• SIDs and STARs
• Standard Instrumental Departure
• Defines the route flown between aircraft departure and an ATS route
(‘highway in the sky’) (connects CTR with CTA, through TMA)
• Standard Terminal Arrival Route
• Defines the route flown between an ATS route and an approach fix
(Connects CTA with CTR through TMA)
• ACAS Airborne Collision Avoidance System
• FANS: Future Air Navigation System
• Current operating ANS is not expected to be able to accommodate
foreseen growth in air traffic (in 2008) Shortcomings of existing CNS
and ATS will become more apparent over time
• Summary of general shortcomings
• Lack of real time information
• Short and long term intent of aircraft on certain parts of existing airroutes
• Procedurals of ATC do not provide most efficient flight profiles
Planned through intermediate waypoints Capabilities of modern
airborne systems cannot be fully exploited

• Communication

• · SSR mode S regional VHF data link (VDL) regional Satellite data
link (AMSS)
• Global Navigation
• · Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) GPS + GLONASS +
GALILEO
• Surveillance
• · SSR mode S regional
• · Automatic Dependent Surveillance (ADS) global
• · Airborne Separation Avoidance System (ASAS) global
• ADS
• An on-board avionics function that automatically transmits via a
digital data link real time surveillance information allows surveillance
in oceanic and other areas which are beyond coverage of radar or LOS
communication · Surveillance is dependent in ADS because its
operation and quality depend upon the performance of the aircraft’s
navigation system.

•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•

Data blocks
Basic
· Time of day
· Aircraft identification
· Three dimensional position
Additional can include
· Aircraft velocity and heading (4D)
· Aircraft intent (waypoints stored in FMS)
· Meteorological data
ADS-B
· Each ADS-B equipped aircraft periodically broadcasts its
position, altitude and vector information
• · Any user could receive and process the information
• · Everyone in the system would have real time access to
precisely the same data

• The world's busiest airports by passenger traffic are
measured by number of total passengers (data provided by
Airports Council International). One passenger is
described as someone who arrives in, departs from, or
transfers through the airport on a given day. HartsfieldJackson International Airport in Atlanta has been the
world's busiest airport every year since 2000, although
with all airports combined London has the world's busiest
city airport system in terms of passenger traffic.
• [hide] 1.
• 1-Hartsfield–Jackson Atlanta International AirportAtlanta,
Georgia, United StatesATL/KATL Passenger - 92,365,860
• 2-Beijing Capital International Airport Chaoyang, Beijing,
ChinaPEK/ZBAA77,403,668
• London Heathrow Airport Hillingdon, London, United
KingdomLHR/EGLL-69,433,565


Slide 2

AIR SPACE AND TRAFFIC
MANAGEMENT

Archie William League, widely acknowledged as the first U.S. air
traffic controller, was born in 1907 at Poplar Bluff, Missouri. He
passed away on October 1, 1986 at the age of 79 in Annandale,
Virginia. League retired from the F.A.A. in 1973, as the Assistant
Administrator for Appraisal, with his claim to the first air traffic
controller largely unchallenged. Air Traffic Control: Keeping
Track of Flights
By the end of the first decade of powered flight, people began to
realize that aircraft, like automobiles, would crash into each other
unless some means was developed to control and direct them. At
first, because aircraft could not fly very high, such control was
accomplished using simple hand signals. Later, control was
exercised through radio communication. By the end of World War
II, the invention of radar permitted visually displayed tracking of
several aircraft at once. When coupled with radio communication,
radar made it possible for the pilot to be warned when he was in
danger of colliding with another aircraft or when he was off
course. In 1956, two aircraft crashed over the Grand Canyon
while one was climbing and the other descending. The resulting
public outcry spurred the development of the modern radar-based
air traffic control system. Today, aircraft are continually tracked
from take-off to landing

• First Flight
• On December 17, 1903, Orville and Wilbur Wright capped four years
of research and design efforts with a 120-foot, 12-second flight at
Kitty Hawk, North Carolina - the first powered flight in a heavierthan-air machine. Prior to that, people had flown only in balloons and
gliders.
• The first person to fly as a passenger was Leon Delagrange, who rode
with French pilot Henri Farman from a meadow outside of Paris in
1908. Charles Furnas became the first American airplane passenger
when he flew with Orville Wright at Kitty Hawk later that year.
World War I
• These and other early flights were headline events, but commercial
aviation was very slow to catch on with the general public, most of
which was afraid to ride in the new flying machines. Improvements in
aircraft design also were slow. However, with the advent of World
War I, the military value of aircraft was quickly recognized and
production increased significantly to meet the soaring demand for
planes from governments on both sides of the Atlantic. Most
significant was the development of more powerful motors, enabling
aircraft to reach speeds of up to 130 mph, more than twice the speed
of pre-war aircraft. Increased power also made bigger aircraft
possible.

• Airmail
• By 1917, the U.S. government felt it had seen enough progress in the development
of planes to warrant something totally new - air mail. That year, Congress
appropriated $100,000 for an experimental airmail service that was to be conducted
jointly by the Army and the Post Office between Washington and New York, with an
intermediate stop in Philadelphia. The first flight left Belmont Park, Long Island, for
Philadelphia on May 14, 1918, and the next day continued on to Washington where
it was met by President Woodrow Wilson. Beacons
• In 1921, the Army deployed rotating beacons in a line between Columbus and
Dayton, Ohio, a distance of about 80 miles. The beacons, visible to pilots at 10second intervals, made it possible to fly the route at night.
• The Post Office took over the operation of the guidance system the following year,
and by the end of 1923 constructed similar beacons between Chicago and Cheyenne,
WY, a line later extended coast-to-coast at a cost of $550,000. Mail then could be
delivered across the continent in as little as 29 hours eastbound and 34 hours
westbound (prevailing winds from west to east accounted for the difference), which
was two to three days less than it took by train.

• Aircraft Innovations
• For the airlines to attract more passengers away from the
railroads, they needed both larger and faster airplanes.
They also needed safer airplanes. Accidents such as the
one in 1931 that killed Notre Dame football coach Knute
Rockne and six other men kept people away from flying
in droves.
• Aircraft manufacturers responded to the challenge. There
were so many improvements to aircraft in the 1930s that
many believe it was the most innovative period in
aviation history. Air-cooled engines replaced watercooled engines, reducing weight and making bigger and
faster planes possible. Cockpit instruments also
improved, with better turn indicators, altimeters, airspeed
indicators, rate of climb indicators, compasses, and the
"artificial horizon," which showed pilots the attitude of
the aircraft relative to the ground - important for flying
in reduced visibility.

• Radio
• Another development of enormous importance to aviation was
radio. Aviation and radio developed almost in lock step. Marconi
sent his first message across the Atlantic on the airways just two
years before the Wright Brothers' first flight at Kitty Hawk. By
World War I, some pilots were taking radios up in the air with them
so they could communicate with people on the ground. The airlines
followed suit after the war, using radio to transmit weather
information from the ground to their pilots so they could avoid
storms.
• Perhaps an even bigger development, however, was the realization
that radio could be used as an aid to navigation when visibility was
poor and visual navigation aids such as beacons were useless. Once
technical bugs were worked out, the Department of Commerce
constructed 83 radio beacons across the country. They became fully
operational in 1932, automatically transmitting directional beams, or
tracks, that pilots could follow to their destination. Marker beacons
came next, allowing pilots to locate airports in poor visibility. The
first air traffic control tower was established in 1935 at Newark
International Airport in New Jersey.

• The DC-3
• Called the plane that changed the world, the DC-3 was
the first aircraft to enable airlines to make money
carrying passengers. As a result, it quickly became the
dominant aircraft in the United States following its
debut in 1936 with American Airlines (which played a
key role in its design).
• The DC-3 had 50% greater passenger capacity than the
DC-2 (21 seats versus 14), yet cost only 10% more to
operate. It also was considered a safer plane, built of an
aluminum alloy 25% stronger than materials previously
used in aircraft construction. It has more powerful
engines (1,000 horsepower versus 710 horsepower for
the DC-2), and it could travel coast to coast in 16 hours a fast trip for that time.

• Pressurized Cabins
• Although planes such as the Boeing 247 and the DC-3
represented significant advances in aircraft design, they had
a major drawback. They could fly no higher than 10,000
feet because people became dizzy and even fainted due to
the reduced levels of oxygen at higher altitudes.
• The airlines wanted to fly higher to get above the air
turbulence and storms common at lower altitudes. Motion
sickness was a problem for many airline passengers, and an
inhibiting factor to the industry's growth.
• The breakthrough came at Boeing with the Stratoliner, a
derivation of the B-17 bomber introduced in 1940 and first
flown by TWA. It was the first pressurized aircraft, meaning
that air was pumped into the aircraft as it gained altitude to
maintain an atmosphere inside the cabin similar to the
atmosphere that occurs naturally at lower altitudes. With its
regulated air compressor, the 33-seat Stratoliner could fly as
high as 20,000 feet and reach speeds of 200 miles per hour.

• World War II
• Aviation had an enormous impact on the course of World War II and
the war had just as big of an impact on aviation. There were fewer
than 300 air transports in the United States when Hitler marched into
Poland in 1939. By the end of the war, U.S. aircraft manufacturers
were producing 50,000 planes a year!
• Most of the planes, of course, were fighters and bombers, but the
importance of air transports to the war effort quickly became apparent
as well. Throughout the war, the airlines provided much needed airlift
to keep people and supplies moving to the front and throughout the
production chain back home. For the first time in their history, the
airlines had far more business - for passengers as well as freight - than
they could handle. Many of them also had opportunities to pioneer
new routes, gaining an exposure that would give them a decidedly
broader outlook at war's end.
• While there were numerous advances in U.S. aircraft design during
the war that enabled planes to go faster, higher, and further than ever
before, mass production was the chief goal of the United States. The
major innovations of the wartime period - radar and jet engines occurred in Europe.

• Radar
• A technological development with a much greater impact on
the war's outcome (and later on commercial aviation) was
radar. British scientists had been working on a device that
could give them early warning of approaching enemy
aircraft even before the war began, and by 1940 Britain had
a line of radar transceivers along its east coast that could
detect German aircraft the moment they took off from the
Continent.
• British scientists also perfected the cathode ray oscilloscope,
which produced map-type outlines of surrounding
countryside and showed aircraft as a pulsing light.
Americans, meanwhile, found a way to distinguish between
enemy aircraft and Allied aircraft by installing transponders
aboard the later that signaled their identity to radar
operators.

• The present Air Navigation System (ANS)
provides international Air Traffic Services (ATS)
• for civil aviation. The provision of these services is
based on the availability of Communication,
Navigation, Surveillance (CNS) systems and
automated Air Traffic Control (ATC) systems with
various levels of capabilities.
• International air traffic is channelled along specified
air routes and each air route is part of a network of
• generally fixed air routes within a Flight
Information Region (FIR)

• Air Traffic Services (ATS)
• ATS= Air Traffic Management + Flight Information Service + Alerting Service
• ATM= Air Traffic Control + Air Space Management + Air Traffic Flow
Management
• · ATC: Maintain a safe distance between aircraft and obstacles within a confined
airspace and also
• on the airport surface
• · ASM: Maximize, within a given airspace structure, the utilization of available
airspace by
• dynamic time sharing and segregation of airspace among competing categories of
users based
• on short-term needs
• · ATFM: ensure an optimum flow of air traffic through areas during times when
demands (is expected to) exceed the available capacity of ATC service
• · FIS: Collect, handle and disseminate flight-related information to assist the pilot to
conduct his flight in a safe and efficient manner (ex ATIS)
• · AL: initiate an early search and rescue activity for aircraft in distress
• ATIS A service of an airport for traffic in its TMA or CTR
• ATIS is a repeated message (VHF) containing information about· Weather

• ATIS A service of an airport for traffic in its TMA or
CTR
• ATIS is a repeated message (VHF) containing
information about weather
• · The QNH
• · Transition level, transition altitude
• · Operational issues

• Airspace Organisation
• · Control zone (CTR): local ATC (TWR) usually
circular area around airport
• · Terminal Control Area (TMA): local ATC (APP),
incoming and outgoing flights between CTR and
• CTA
• · Control Area (CTA): General ATC (ACC) within
FIR, below certain flight level (lower airspace)
• · Upper Control Area (UTA): General ATC, across
FIRs (upper airspace; ex Eurocontrol)

• SIDs and STARs
• Standard Instrumental Departure
• Defines the route flown between aircraft departure and an ATS route
(‘highway in the sky’) (connects CTR with CTA, through TMA)
• Standard Terminal Arrival Route
• Defines the route flown between an ATS route and an approach fix
(Connects CTA with CTR through TMA)
• ACAS Airborne Collision Avoidance System
• FANS: Future Air Navigation System
• Current operating ANS is not expected to be able to accommodate
foreseen growth in air traffic (in 2008) Shortcomings of existing CNS
and ATS will become more apparent over time
• Summary of general shortcomings
• Lack of real time information
• Short and long term intent of aircraft on certain parts of existing airroutes
• Procedurals of ATC do not provide most efficient flight profiles
Planned through intermediate waypoints Capabilities of modern
airborne systems cannot be fully exploited

• Communication

• · SSR mode S regional VHF data link (VDL) regional Satellite data
link (AMSS)
• Global Navigation
• · Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) GPS + GLONASS +
GALILEO
• Surveillance
• · SSR mode S regional
• · Automatic Dependent Surveillance (ADS) global
• · Airborne Separation Avoidance System (ASAS) global
• ADS
• An on-board avionics function that automatically transmits via a
digital data link real time surveillance information allows surveillance
in oceanic and other areas which are beyond coverage of radar or LOS
communication · Surveillance is dependent in ADS because its
operation and quality depend upon the performance of the aircraft’s
navigation system.

•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•

Data blocks
Basic
· Time of day
· Aircraft identification
· Three dimensional position
Additional can include
· Aircraft velocity and heading (4D)
· Aircraft intent (waypoints stored in FMS)
· Meteorological data
ADS-B
· Each ADS-B equipped aircraft periodically broadcasts its
position, altitude and vector information
• · Any user could receive and process the information
• · Everyone in the system would have real time access to
precisely the same data

• The world's busiest airports by passenger traffic are
measured by number of total passengers (data provided by
Airports Council International). One passenger is
described as someone who arrives in, departs from, or
transfers through the airport on a given day. HartsfieldJackson International Airport in Atlanta has been the
world's busiest airport every year since 2000, although
with all airports combined London has the world's busiest
city airport system in terms of passenger traffic.
• [hide] 1.
• 1-Hartsfield–Jackson Atlanta International AirportAtlanta,
Georgia, United StatesATL/KATL Passenger - 92,365,860
• 2-Beijing Capital International Airport Chaoyang, Beijing,
ChinaPEK/ZBAA77,403,668
• London Heathrow Airport Hillingdon, London, United
KingdomLHR/EGLL-69,433,565


Slide 3

AIR SPACE AND TRAFFIC
MANAGEMENT

Archie William League, widely acknowledged as the first U.S. air
traffic controller, was born in 1907 at Poplar Bluff, Missouri. He
passed away on October 1, 1986 at the age of 79 in Annandale,
Virginia. League retired from the F.A.A. in 1973, as the Assistant
Administrator for Appraisal, with his claim to the first air traffic
controller largely unchallenged. Air Traffic Control: Keeping
Track of Flights
By the end of the first decade of powered flight, people began to
realize that aircraft, like automobiles, would crash into each other
unless some means was developed to control and direct them. At
first, because aircraft could not fly very high, such control was
accomplished using simple hand signals. Later, control was
exercised through radio communication. By the end of World War
II, the invention of radar permitted visually displayed tracking of
several aircraft at once. When coupled with radio communication,
radar made it possible for the pilot to be warned when he was in
danger of colliding with another aircraft or when he was off
course. In 1956, two aircraft crashed over the Grand Canyon
while one was climbing and the other descending. The resulting
public outcry spurred the development of the modern radar-based
air traffic control system. Today, aircraft are continually tracked
from take-off to landing

• First Flight
• On December 17, 1903, Orville and Wilbur Wright capped four years
of research and design efforts with a 120-foot, 12-second flight at
Kitty Hawk, North Carolina - the first powered flight in a heavierthan-air machine. Prior to that, people had flown only in balloons and
gliders.
• The first person to fly as a passenger was Leon Delagrange, who rode
with French pilot Henri Farman from a meadow outside of Paris in
1908. Charles Furnas became the first American airplane passenger
when he flew with Orville Wright at Kitty Hawk later that year.
World War I
• These and other early flights were headline events, but commercial
aviation was very slow to catch on with the general public, most of
which was afraid to ride in the new flying machines. Improvements in
aircraft design also were slow. However, with the advent of World
War I, the military value of aircraft was quickly recognized and
production increased significantly to meet the soaring demand for
planes from governments on both sides of the Atlantic. Most
significant was the development of more powerful motors, enabling
aircraft to reach speeds of up to 130 mph, more than twice the speed
of pre-war aircraft. Increased power also made bigger aircraft
possible.

• Airmail
• By 1917, the U.S. government felt it had seen enough progress in the development
of planes to warrant something totally new - air mail. That year, Congress
appropriated $100,000 for an experimental airmail service that was to be conducted
jointly by the Army and the Post Office between Washington and New York, with an
intermediate stop in Philadelphia. The first flight left Belmont Park, Long Island, for
Philadelphia on May 14, 1918, and the next day continued on to Washington where
it was met by President Woodrow Wilson. Beacons
• In 1921, the Army deployed rotating beacons in a line between Columbus and
Dayton, Ohio, a distance of about 80 miles. The beacons, visible to pilots at 10second intervals, made it possible to fly the route at night.
• The Post Office took over the operation of the guidance system the following year,
and by the end of 1923 constructed similar beacons between Chicago and Cheyenne,
WY, a line later extended coast-to-coast at a cost of $550,000. Mail then could be
delivered across the continent in as little as 29 hours eastbound and 34 hours
westbound (prevailing winds from west to east accounted for the difference), which
was two to three days less than it took by train.

• Aircraft Innovations
• For the airlines to attract more passengers away from the
railroads, they needed both larger and faster airplanes.
They also needed safer airplanes. Accidents such as the
one in 1931 that killed Notre Dame football coach Knute
Rockne and six other men kept people away from flying
in droves.
• Aircraft manufacturers responded to the challenge. There
were so many improvements to aircraft in the 1930s that
many believe it was the most innovative period in
aviation history. Air-cooled engines replaced watercooled engines, reducing weight and making bigger and
faster planes possible. Cockpit instruments also
improved, with better turn indicators, altimeters, airspeed
indicators, rate of climb indicators, compasses, and the
"artificial horizon," which showed pilots the attitude of
the aircraft relative to the ground - important for flying
in reduced visibility.

• Radio
• Another development of enormous importance to aviation was
radio. Aviation and radio developed almost in lock step. Marconi
sent his first message across the Atlantic on the airways just two
years before the Wright Brothers' first flight at Kitty Hawk. By
World War I, some pilots were taking radios up in the air with them
so they could communicate with people on the ground. The airlines
followed suit after the war, using radio to transmit weather
information from the ground to their pilots so they could avoid
storms.
• Perhaps an even bigger development, however, was the realization
that radio could be used as an aid to navigation when visibility was
poor and visual navigation aids such as beacons were useless. Once
technical bugs were worked out, the Department of Commerce
constructed 83 radio beacons across the country. They became fully
operational in 1932, automatically transmitting directional beams, or
tracks, that pilots could follow to their destination. Marker beacons
came next, allowing pilots to locate airports in poor visibility. The
first air traffic control tower was established in 1935 at Newark
International Airport in New Jersey.

• The DC-3
• Called the plane that changed the world, the DC-3 was
the first aircraft to enable airlines to make money
carrying passengers. As a result, it quickly became the
dominant aircraft in the United States following its
debut in 1936 with American Airlines (which played a
key role in its design).
• The DC-3 had 50% greater passenger capacity than the
DC-2 (21 seats versus 14), yet cost only 10% more to
operate. It also was considered a safer plane, built of an
aluminum alloy 25% stronger than materials previously
used in aircraft construction. It has more powerful
engines (1,000 horsepower versus 710 horsepower for
the DC-2), and it could travel coast to coast in 16 hours a fast trip for that time.

• Pressurized Cabins
• Although planes such as the Boeing 247 and the DC-3
represented significant advances in aircraft design, they had
a major drawback. They could fly no higher than 10,000
feet because people became dizzy and even fainted due to
the reduced levels of oxygen at higher altitudes.
• The airlines wanted to fly higher to get above the air
turbulence and storms common at lower altitudes. Motion
sickness was a problem for many airline passengers, and an
inhibiting factor to the industry's growth.
• The breakthrough came at Boeing with the Stratoliner, a
derivation of the B-17 bomber introduced in 1940 and first
flown by TWA. It was the first pressurized aircraft, meaning
that air was pumped into the aircraft as it gained altitude to
maintain an atmosphere inside the cabin similar to the
atmosphere that occurs naturally at lower altitudes. With its
regulated air compressor, the 33-seat Stratoliner could fly as
high as 20,000 feet and reach speeds of 200 miles per hour.

• World War II
• Aviation had an enormous impact on the course of World War II and
the war had just as big of an impact on aviation. There were fewer
than 300 air transports in the United States when Hitler marched into
Poland in 1939. By the end of the war, U.S. aircraft manufacturers
were producing 50,000 planes a year!
• Most of the planes, of course, were fighters and bombers, but the
importance of air transports to the war effort quickly became apparent
as well. Throughout the war, the airlines provided much needed airlift
to keep people and supplies moving to the front and throughout the
production chain back home. For the first time in their history, the
airlines had far more business - for passengers as well as freight - than
they could handle. Many of them also had opportunities to pioneer
new routes, gaining an exposure that would give them a decidedly
broader outlook at war's end.
• While there were numerous advances in U.S. aircraft design during
the war that enabled planes to go faster, higher, and further than ever
before, mass production was the chief goal of the United States. The
major innovations of the wartime period - radar and jet engines occurred in Europe.

• Radar
• A technological development with a much greater impact on
the war's outcome (and later on commercial aviation) was
radar. British scientists had been working on a device that
could give them early warning of approaching enemy
aircraft even before the war began, and by 1940 Britain had
a line of radar transceivers along its east coast that could
detect German aircraft the moment they took off from the
Continent.
• British scientists also perfected the cathode ray oscilloscope,
which produced map-type outlines of surrounding
countryside and showed aircraft as a pulsing light.
Americans, meanwhile, found a way to distinguish between
enemy aircraft and Allied aircraft by installing transponders
aboard the later that signaled their identity to radar
operators.

• The present Air Navigation System (ANS)
provides international Air Traffic Services (ATS)
• for civil aviation. The provision of these services is
based on the availability of Communication,
Navigation, Surveillance (CNS) systems and
automated Air Traffic Control (ATC) systems with
various levels of capabilities.
• International air traffic is channelled along specified
air routes and each air route is part of a network of
• generally fixed air routes within a Flight
Information Region (FIR)

• Air Traffic Services (ATS)
• ATS= Air Traffic Management + Flight Information Service + Alerting Service
• ATM= Air Traffic Control + Air Space Management + Air Traffic Flow
Management
• · ATC: Maintain a safe distance between aircraft and obstacles within a confined
airspace and also
• on the airport surface
• · ASM: Maximize, within a given airspace structure, the utilization of available
airspace by
• dynamic time sharing and segregation of airspace among competing categories of
users based
• on short-term needs
• · ATFM: ensure an optimum flow of air traffic through areas during times when
demands (is expected to) exceed the available capacity of ATC service
• · FIS: Collect, handle and disseminate flight-related information to assist the pilot to
conduct his flight in a safe and efficient manner (ex ATIS)
• · AL: initiate an early search and rescue activity for aircraft in distress
• ATIS A service of an airport for traffic in its TMA or CTR
• ATIS is a repeated message (VHF) containing information about· Weather

• ATIS A service of an airport for traffic in its TMA or
CTR
• ATIS is a repeated message (VHF) containing
information about weather
• · The QNH
• · Transition level, transition altitude
• · Operational issues

• Airspace Organisation
• · Control zone (CTR): local ATC (TWR) usually
circular area around airport
• · Terminal Control Area (TMA): local ATC (APP),
incoming and outgoing flights between CTR and
• CTA
• · Control Area (CTA): General ATC (ACC) within
FIR, below certain flight level (lower airspace)
• · Upper Control Area (UTA): General ATC, across
FIRs (upper airspace; ex Eurocontrol)

• SIDs and STARs
• Standard Instrumental Departure
• Defines the route flown between aircraft departure and an ATS route
(‘highway in the sky’) (connects CTR with CTA, through TMA)
• Standard Terminal Arrival Route
• Defines the route flown between an ATS route and an approach fix
(Connects CTA with CTR through TMA)
• ACAS Airborne Collision Avoidance System
• FANS: Future Air Navigation System
• Current operating ANS is not expected to be able to accommodate
foreseen growth in air traffic (in 2008) Shortcomings of existing CNS
and ATS will become more apparent over time
• Summary of general shortcomings
• Lack of real time information
• Short and long term intent of aircraft on certain parts of existing airroutes
• Procedurals of ATC do not provide most efficient flight profiles
Planned through intermediate waypoints Capabilities of modern
airborne systems cannot be fully exploited

• Communication

• · SSR mode S regional VHF data link (VDL) regional Satellite data
link (AMSS)
• Global Navigation
• · Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) GPS + GLONASS +
GALILEO
• Surveillance
• · SSR mode S regional
• · Automatic Dependent Surveillance (ADS) global
• · Airborne Separation Avoidance System (ASAS) global
• ADS
• An on-board avionics function that automatically transmits via a
digital data link real time surveillance information allows surveillance
in oceanic and other areas which are beyond coverage of radar or LOS
communication · Surveillance is dependent in ADS because its
operation and quality depend upon the performance of the aircraft’s
navigation system.

•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•

Data blocks
Basic
· Time of day
· Aircraft identification
· Three dimensional position
Additional can include
· Aircraft velocity and heading (4D)
· Aircraft intent (waypoints stored in FMS)
· Meteorological data
ADS-B
· Each ADS-B equipped aircraft periodically broadcasts its
position, altitude and vector information
• · Any user could receive and process the information
• · Everyone in the system would have real time access to
precisely the same data

• The world's busiest airports by passenger traffic are
measured by number of total passengers (data provided by
Airports Council International). One passenger is
described as someone who arrives in, departs from, or
transfers through the airport on a given day. HartsfieldJackson International Airport in Atlanta has been the
world's busiest airport every year since 2000, although
with all airports combined London has the world's busiest
city airport system in terms of passenger traffic.
• [hide] 1.
• 1-Hartsfield–Jackson Atlanta International AirportAtlanta,
Georgia, United StatesATL/KATL Passenger - 92,365,860
• 2-Beijing Capital International Airport Chaoyang, Beijing,
ChinaPEK/ZBAA77,403,668
• London Heathrow Airport Hillingdon, London, United
KingdomLHR/EGLL-69,433,565


Slide 4

AIR SPACE AND TRAFFIC
MANAGEMENT

Archie William League, widely acknowledged as the first U.S. air
traffic controller, was born in 1907 at Poplar Bluff, Missouri. He
passed away on October 1, 1986 at the age of 79 in Annandale,
Virginia. League retired from the F.A.A. in 1973, as the Assistant
Administrator for Appraisal, with his claim to the first air traffic
controller largely unchallenged. Air Traffic Control: Keeping
Track of Flights
By the end of the first decade of powered flight, people began to
realize that aircraft, like automobiles, would crash into each other
unless some means was developed to control and direct them. At
first, because aircraft could not fly very high, such control was
accomplished using simple hand signals. Later, control was
exercised through radio communication. By the end of World War
II, the invention of radar permitted visually displayed tracking of
several aircraft at once. When coupled with radio communication,
radar made it possible for the pilot to be warned when he was in
danger of colliding with another aircraft or when he was off
course. In 1956, two aircraft crashed over the Grand Canyon
while one was climbing and the other descending. The resulting
public outcry spurred the development of the modern radar-based
air traffic control system. Today, aircraft are continually tracked
from take-off to landing

• First Flight
• On December 17, 1903, Orville and Wilbur Wright capped four years
of research and design efforts with a 120-foot, 12-second flight at
Kitty Hawk, North Carolina - the first powered flight in a heavierthan-air machine. Prior to that, people had flown only in balloons and
gliders.
• The first person to fly as a passenger was Leon Delagrange, who rode
with French pilot Henri Farman from a meadow outside of Paris in
1908. Charles Furnas became the first American airplane passenger
when he flew with Orville Wright at Kitty Hawk later that year.
World War I
• These and other early flights were headline events, but commercial
aviation was very slow to catch on with the general public, most of
which was afraid to ride in the new flying machines. Improvements in
aircraft design also were slow. However, with the advent of World
War I, the military value of aircraft was quickly recognized and
production increased significantly to meet the soaring demand for
planes from governments on both sides of the Atlantic. Most
significant was the development of more powerful motors, enabling
aircraft to reach speeds of up to 130 mph, more than twice the speed
of pre-war aircraft. Increased power also made bigger aircraft
possible.

• Airmail
• By 1917, the U.S. government felt it had seen enough progress in the development
of planes to warrant something totally new - air mail. That year, Congress
appropriated $100,000 for an experimental airmail service that was to be conducted
jointly by the Army and the Post Office between Washington and New York, with an
intermediate stop in Philadelphia. The first flight left Belmont Park, Long Island, for
Philadelphia on May 14, 1918, and the next day continued on to Washington where
it was met by President Woodrow Wilson. Beacons
• In 1921, the Army deployed rotating beacons in a line between Columbus and
Dayton, Ohio, a distance of about 80 miles. The beacons, visible to pilots at 10second intervals, made it possible to fly the route at night.
• The Post Office took over the operation of the guidance system the following year,
and by the end of 1923 constructed similar beacons between Chicago and Cheyenne,
WY, a line later extended coast-to-coast at a cost of $550,000. Mail then could be
delivered across the continent in as little as 29 hours eastbound and 34 hours
westbound (prevailing winds from west to east accounted for the difference), which
was two to three days less than it took by train.

• Aircraft Innovations
• For the airlines to attract more passengers away from the
railroads, they needed both larger and faster airplanes.
They also needed safer airplanes. Accidents such as the
one in 1931 that killed Notre Dame football coach Knute
Rockne and six other men kept people away from flying
in droves.
• Aircraft manufacturers responded to the challenge. There
were so many improvements to aircraft in the 1930s that
many believe it was the most innovative period in
aviation history. Air-cooled engines replaced watercooled engines, reducing weight and making bigger and
faster planes possible. Cockpit instruments also
improved, with better turn indicators, altimeters, airspeed
indicators, rate of climb indicators, compasses, and the
"artificial horizon," which showed pilots the attitude of
the aircraft relative to the ground - important for flying
in reduced visibility.

• Radio
• Another development of enormous importance to aviation was
radio. Aviation and radio developed almost in lock step. Marconi
sent his first message across the Atlantic on the airways just two
years before the Wright Brothers' first flight at Kitty Hawk. By
World War I, some pilots were taking radios up in the air with them
so they could communicate with people on the ground. The airlines
followed suit after the war, using radio to transmit weather
information from the ground to their pilots so they could avoid
storms.
• Perhaps an even bigger development, however, was the realization
that radio could be used as an aid to navigation when visibility was
poor and visual navigation aids such as beacons were useless. Once
technical bugs were worked out, the Department of Commerce
constructed 83 radio beacons across the country. They became fully
operational in 1932, automatically transmitting directional beams, or
tracks, that pilots could follow to their destination. Marker beacons
came next, allowing pilots to locate airports in poor visibility. The
first air traffic control tower was established in 1935 at Newark
International Airport in New Jersey.

• The DC-3
• Called the plane that changed the world, the DC-3 was
the first aircraft to enable airlines to make money
carrying passengers. As a result, it quickly became the
dominant aircraft in the United States following its
debut in 1936 with American Airlines (which played a
key role in its design).
• The DC-3 had 50% greater passenger capacity than the
DC-2 (21 seats versus 14), yet cost only 10% more to
operate. It also was considered a safer plane, built of an
aluminum alloy 25% stronger than materials previously
used in aircraft construction. It has more powerful
engines (1,000 horsepower versus 710 horsepower for
the DC-2), and it could travel coast to coast in 16 hours a fast trip for that time.

• Pressurized Cabins
• Although planes such as the Boeing 247 and the DC-3
represented significant advances in aircraft design, they had
a major drawback. They could fly no higher than 10,000
feet because people became dizzy and even fainted due to
the reduced levels of oxygen at higher altitudes.
• The airlines wanted to fly higher to get above the air
turbulence and storms common at lower altitudes. Motion
sickness was a problem for many airline passengers, and an
inhibiting factor to the industry's growth.
• The breakthrough came at Boeing with the Stratoliner, a
derivation of the B-17 bomber introduced in 1940 and first
flown by TWA. It was the first pressurized aircraft, meaning
that air was pumped into the aircraft as it gained altitude to
maintain an atmosphere inside the cabin similar to the
atmosphere that occurs naturally at lower altitudes. With its
regulated air compressor, the 33-seat Stratoliner could fly as
high as 20,000 feet and reach speeds of 200 miles per hour.

• World War II
• Aviation had an enormous impact on the course of World War II and
the war had just as big of an impact on aviation. There were fewer
than 300 air transports in the United States when Hitler marched into
Poland in 1939. By the end of the war, U.S. aircraft manufacturers
were producing 50,000 planes a year!
• Most of the planes, of course, were fighters and bombers, but the
importance of air transports to the war effort quickly became apparent
as well. Throughout the war, the airlines provided much needed airlift
to keep people and supplies moving to the front and throughout the
production chain back home. For the first time in their history, the
airlines had far more business - for passengers as well as freight - than
they could handle. Many of them also had opportunities to pioneer
new routes, gaining an exposure that would give them a decidedly
broader outlook at war's end.
• While there were numerous advances in U.S. aircraft design during
the war that enabled planes to go faster, higher, and further than ever
before, mass production was the chief goal of the United States. The
major innovations of the wartime period - radar and jet engines occurred in Europe.

• Radar
• A technological development with a much greater impact on
the war's outcome (and later on commercial aviation) was
radar. British scientists had been working on a device that
could give them early warning of approaching enemy
aircraft even before the war began, and by 1940 Britain had
a line of radar transceivers along its east coast that could
detect German aircraft the moment they took off from the
Continent.
• British scientists also perfected the cathode ray oscilloscope,
which produced map-type outlines of surrounding
countryside and showed aircraft as a pulsing light.
Americans, meanwhile, found a way to distinguish between
enemy aircraft and Allied aircraft by installing transponders
aboard the later that signaled their identity to radar
operators.

• The present Air Navigation System (ANS)
provides international Air Traffic Services (ATS)
• for civil aviation. The provision of these services is
based on the availability of Communication,
Navigation, Surveillance (CNS) systems and
automated Air Traffic Control (ATC) systems with
various levels of capabilities.
• International air traffic is channelled along specified
air routes and each air route is part of a network of
• generally fixed air routes within a Flight
Information Region (FIR)

• Air Traffic Services (ATS)
• ATS= Air Traffic Management + Flight Information Service + Alerting Service
• ATM= Air Traffic Control + Air Space Management + Air Traffic Flow
Management
• · ATC: Maintain a safe distance between aircraft and obstacles within a confined
airspace and also
• on the airport surface
• · ASM: Maximize, within a given airspace structure, the utilization of available
airspace by
• dynamic time sharing and segregation of airspace among competing categories of
users based
• on short-term needs
• · ATFM: ensure an optimum flow of air traffic through areas during times when
demands (is expected to) exceed the available capacity of ATC service
• · FIS: Collect, handle and disseminate flight-related information to assist the pilot to
conduct his flight in a safe and efficient manner (ex ATIS)
• · AL: initiate an early search and rescue activity for aircraft in distress
• ATIS A service of an airport for traffic in its TMA or CTR
• ATIS is a repeated message (VHF) containing information about· Weather

• ATIS A service of an airport for traffic in its TMA or
CTR
• ATIS is a repeated message (VHF) containing
information about weather
• · The QNH
• · Transition level, transition altitude
• · Operational issues

• Airspace Organisation
• · Control zone (CTR): local ATC (TWR) usually
circular area around airport
• · Terminal Control Area (TMA): local ATC (APP),
incoming and outgoing flights between CTR and
• CTA
• · Control Area (CTA): General ATC (ACC) within
FIR, below certain flight level (lower airspace)
• · Upper Control Area (UTA): General ATC, across
FIRs (upper airspace; ex Eurocontrol)

• SIDs and STARs
• Standard Instrumental Departure
• Defines the route flown between aircraft departure and an ATS route
(‘highway in the sky’) (connects CTR with CTA, through TMA)
• Standard Terminal Arrival Route
• Defines the route flown between an ATS route and an approach fix
(Connects CTA with CTR through TMA)
• ACAS Airborne Collision Avoidance System
• FANS: Future Air Navigation System
• Current operating ANS is not expected to be able to accommodate
foreseen growth in air traffic (in 2008) Shortcomings of existing CNS
and ATS will become more apparent over time
• Summary of general shortcomings
• Lack of real time information
• Short and long term intent of aircraft on certain parts of existing airroutes
• Procedurals of ATC do not provide most efficient flight profiles
Planned through intermediate waypoints Capabilities of modern
airborne systems cannot be fully exploited

• Communication

• · SSR mode S regional VHF data link (VDL) regional Satellite data
link (AMSS)
• Global Navigation
• · Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) GPS + GLONASS +
GALILEO
• Surveillance
• · SSR mode S regional
• · Automatic Dependent Surveillance (ADS) global
• · Airborne Separation Avoidance System (ASAS) global
• ADS
• An on-board avionics function that automatically transmits via a
digital data link real time surveillance information allows surveillance
in oceanic and other areas which are beyond coverage of radar or LOS
communication · Surveillance is dependent in ADS because its
operation and quality depend upon the performance of the aircraft’s
navigation system.

•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•

Data blocks
Basic
· Time of day
· Aircraft identification
· Three dimensional position
Additional can include
· Aircraft velocity and heading (4D)
· Aircraft intent (waypoints stored in FMS)
· Meteorological data
ADS-B
· Each ADS-B equipped aircraft periodically broadcasts its
position, altitude and vector information
• · Any user could receive and process the information
• · Everyone in the system would have real time access to
precisely the same data

• The world's busiest airports by passenger traffic are
measured by number of total passengers (data provided by
Airports Council International). One passenger is
described as someone who arrives in, departs from, or
transfers through the airport on a given day. HartsfieldJackson International Airport in Atlanta has been the
world's busiest airport every year since 2000, although
with all airports combined London has the world's busiest
city airport system in terms of passenger traffic.
• [hide] 1.
• 1-Hartsfield–Jackson Atlanta International AirportAtlanta,
Georgia, United StatesATL/KATL Passenger - 92,365,860
• 2-Beijing Capital International Airport Chaoyang, Beijing,
ChinaPEK/ZBAA77,403,668
• London Heathrow Airport Hillingdon, London, United
KingdomLHR/EGLL-69,433,565


Slide 5

AIR SPACE AND TRAFFIC
MANAGEMENT

Archie William League, widely acknowledged as the first U.S. air
traffic controller, was born in 1907 at Poplar Bluff, Missouri. He
passed away on October 1, 1986 at the age of 79 in Annandale,
Virginia. League retired from the F.A.A. in 1973, as the Assistant
Administrator for Appraisal, with his claim to the first air traffic
controller largely unchallenged. Air Traffic Control: Keeping
Track of Flights
By the end of the first decade of powered flight, people began to
realize that aircraft, like automobiles, would crash into each other
unless some means was developed to control and direct them. At
first, because aircraft could not fly very high, such control was
accomplished using simple hand signals. Later, control was
exercised through radio communication. By the end of World War
II, the invention of radar permitted visually displayed tracking of
several aircraft at once. When coupled with radio communication,
radar made it possible for the pilot to be warned when he was in
danger of colliding with another aircraft or when he was off
course. In 1956, two aircraft crashed over the Grand Canyon
while one was climbing and the other descending. The resulting
public outcry spurred the development of the modern radar-based
air traffic control system. Today, aircraft are continually tracked
from take-off to landing

• First Flight
• On December 17, 1903, Orville and Wilbur Wright capped four years
of research and design efforts with a 120-foot, 12-second flight at
Kitty Hawk, North Carolina - the first powered flight in a heavierthan-air machine. Prior to that, people had flown only in balloons and
gliders.
• The first person to fly as a passenger was Leon Delagrange, who rode
with French pilot Henri Farman from a meadow outside of Paris in
1908. Charles Furnas became the first American airplane passenger
when he flew with Orville Wright at Kitty Hawk later that year.
World War I
• These and other early flights were headline events, but commercial
aviation was very slow to catch on with the general public, most of
which was afraid to ride in the new flying machines. Improvements in
aircraft design also were slow. However, with the advent of World
War I, the military value of aircraft was quickly recognized and
production increased significantly to meet the soaring demand for
planes from governments on both sides of the Atlantic. Most
significant was the development of more powerful motors, enabling
aircraft to reach speeds of up to 130 mph, more than twice the speed
of pre-war aircraft. Increased power also made bigger aircraft
possible.

• Airmail
• By 1917, the U.S. government felt it had seen enough progress in the development
of planes to warrant something totally new - air mail. That year, Congress
appropriated $100,000 for an experimental airmail service that was to be conducted
jointly by the Army and the Post Office between Washington and New York, with an
intermediate stop in Philadelphia. The first flight left Belmont Park, Long Island, for
Philadelphia on May 14, 1918, and the next day continued on to Washington where
it was met by President Woodrow Wilson. Beacons
• In 1921, the Army deployed rotating beacons in a line between Columbus and
Dayton, Ohio, a distance of about 80 miles. The beacons, visible to pilots at 10second intervals, made it possible to fly the route at night.
• The Post Office took over the operation of the guidance system the following year,
and by the end of 1923 constructed similar beacons between Chicago and Cheyenne,
WY, a line later extended coast-to-coast at a cost of $550,000. Mail then could be
delivered across the continent in as little as 29 hours eastbound and 34 hours
westbound (prevailing winds from west to east accounted for the difference), which
was two to three days less than it took by train.

• Aircraft Innovations
• For the airlines to attract more passengers away from the
railroads, they needed both larger and faster airplanes.
They also needed safer airplanes. Accidents such as the
one in 1931 that killed Notre Dame football coach Knute
Rockne and six other men kept people away from flying
in droves.
• Aircraft manufacturers responded to the challenge. There
were so many improvements to aircraft in the 1930s that
many believe it was the most innovative period in
aviation history. Air-cooled engines replaced watercooled engines, reducing weight and making bigger and
faster planes possible. Cockpit instruments also
improved, with better turn indicators, altimeters, airspeed
indicators, rate of climb indicators, compasses, and the
"artificial horizon," which showed pilots the attitude of
the aircraft relative to the ground - important for flying
in reduced visibility.

• Radio
• Another development of enormous importance to aviation was
radio. Aviation and radio developed almost in lock step. Marconi
sent his first message across the Atlantic on the airways just two
years before the Wright Brothers' first flight at Kitty Hawk. By
World War I, some pilots were taking radios up in the air with them
so they could communicate with people on the ground. The airlines
followed suit after the war, using radio to transmit weather
information from the ground to their pilots so they could avoid
storms.
• Perhaps an even bigger development, however, was the realization
that radio could be used as an aid to navigation when visibility was
poor and visual navigation aids such as beacons were useless. Once
technical bugs were worked out, the Department of Commerce
constructed 83 radio beacons across the country. They became fully
operational in 1932, automatically transmitting directional beams, or
tracks, that pilots could follow to their destination. Marker beacons
came next, allowing pilots to locate airports in poor visibility. The
first air traffic control tower was established in 1935 at Newark
International Airport in New Jersey.

• The DC-3
• Called the plane that changed the world, the DC-3 was
the first aircraft to enable airlines to make money
carrying passengers. As a result, it quickly became the
dominant aircraft in the United States following its
debut in 1936 with American Airlines (which played a
key role in its design).
• The DC-3 had 50% greater passenger capacity than the
DC-2 (21 seats versus 14), yet cost only 10% more to
operate. It also was considered a safer plane, built of an
aluminum alloy 25% stronger than materials previously
used in aircraft construction. It has more powerful
engines (1,000 horsepower versus 710 horsepower for
the DC-2), and it could travel coast to coast in 16 hours a fast trip for that time.

• Pressurized Cabins
• Although planes such as the Boeing 247 and the DC-3
represented significant advances in aircraft design, they had
a major drawback. They could fly no higher than 10,000
feet because people became dizzy and even fainted due to
the reduced levels of oxygen at higher altitudes.
• The airlines wanted to fly higher to get above the air
turbulence and storms common at lower altitudes. Motion
sickness was a problem for many airline passengers, and an
inhibiting factor to the industry's growth.
• The breakthrough came at Boeing with the Stratoliner, a
derivation of the B-17 bomber introduced in 1940 and first
flown by TWA. It was the first pressurized aircraft, meaning
that air was pumped into the aircraft as it gained altitude to
maintain an atmosphere inside the cabin similar to the
atmosphere that occurs naturally at lower altitudes. With its
regulated air compressor, the 33-seat Stratoliner could fly as
high as 20,000 feet and reach speeds of 200 miles per hour.

• World War II
• Aviation had an enormous impact on the course of World War II and
the war had just as big of an impact on aviation. There were fewer
than 300 air transports in the United States when Hitler marched into
Poland in 1939. By the end of the war, U.S. aircraft manufacturers
were producing 50,000 planes a year!
• Most of the planes, of course, were fighters and bombers, but the
importance of air transports to the war effort quickly became apparent
as well. Throughout the war, the airlines provided much needed airlift
to keep people and supplies moving to the front and throughout the
production chain back home. For the first time in their history, the
airlines had far more business - for passengers as well as freight - than
they could handle. Many of them also had opportunities to pioneer
new routes, gaining an exposure that would give them a decidedly
broader outlook at war's end.
• While there were numerous advances in U.S. aircraft design during
the war that enabled planes to go faster, higher, and further than ever
before, mass production was the chief goal of the United States. The
major innovations of the wartime period - radar and jet engines occurred in Europe.

• Radar
• A technological development with a much greater impact on
the war's outcome (and later on commercial aviation) was
radar. British scientists had been working on a device that
could give them early warning of approaching enemy
aircraft even before the war began, and by 1940 Britain had
a line of radar transceivers along its east coast that could
detect German aircraft the moment they took off from the
Continent.
• British scientists also perfected the cathode ray oscilloscope,
which produced map-type outlines of surrounding
countryside and showed aircraft as a pulsing light.
Americans, meanwhile, found a way to distinguish between
enemy aircraft and Allied aircraft by installing transponders
aboard the later that signaled their identity to radar
operators.

• The present Air Navigation System (ANS)
provides international Air Traffic Services (ATS)
• for civil aviation. The provision of these services is
based on the availability of Communication,
Navigation, Surveillance (CNS) systems and
automated Air Traffic Control (ATC) systems with
various levels of capabilities.
• International air traffic is channelled along specified
air routes and each air route is part of a network of
• generally fixed air routes within a Flight
Information Region (FIR)

• Air Traffic Services (ATS)
• ATS= Air Traffic Management + Flight Information Service + Alerting Service
• ATM= Air Traffic Control + Air Space Management + Air Traffic Flow
Management
• · ATC: Maintain a safe distance between aircraft and obstacles within a confined
airspace and also
• on the airport surface
• · ASM: Maximize, within a given airspace structure, the utilization of available
airspace by
• dynamic time sharing and segregation of airspace among competing categories of
users based
• on short-term needs
• · ATFM: ensure an optimum flow of air traffic through areas during times when
demands (is expected to) exceed the available capacity of ATC service
• · FIS: Collect, handle and disseminate flight-related information to assist the pilot to
conduct his flight in a safe and efficient manner (ex ATIS)
• · AL: initiate an early search and rescue activity for aircraft in distress
• ATIS A service of an airport for traffic in its TMA or CTR
• ATIS is a repeated message (VHF) containing information about· Weather

• ATIS A service of an airport for traffic in its TMA or
CTR
• ATIS is a repeated message (VHF) containing
information about weather
• · The QNH
• · Transition level, transition altitude
• · Operational issues

• Airspace Organisation
• · Control zone (CTR): local ATC (TWR) usually
circular area around airport
• · Terminal Control Area (TMA): local ATC (APP),
incoming and outgoing flights between CTR and
• CTA
• · Control Area (CTA): General ATC (ACC) within
FIR, below certain flight level (lower airspace)
• · Upper Control Area (UTA): General ATC, across
FIRs (upper airspace; ex Eurocontrol)

• SIDs and STARs
• Standard Instrumental Departure
• Defines the route flown between aircraft departure and an ATS route
(‘highway in the sky’) (connects CTR with CTA, through TMA)
• Standard Terminal Arrival Route
• Defines the route flown between an ATS route and an approach fix
(Connects CTA with CTR through TMA)
• ACAS Airborne Collision Avoidance System
• FANS: Future Air Navigation System
• Current operating ANS is not expected to be able to accommodate
foreseen growth in air traffic (in 2008) Shortcomings of existing CNS
and ATS will become more apparent over time
• Summary of general shortcomings
• Lack of real time information
• Short and long term intent of aircraft on certain parts of existing airroutes
• Procedurals of ATC do not provide most efficient flight profiles
Planned through intermediate waypoints Capabilities of modern
airborne systems cannot be fully exploited

• Communication

• · SSR mode S regional VHF data link (VDL) regional Satellite data
link (AMSS)
• Global Navigation
• · Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) GPS + GLONASS +
GALILEO
• Surveillance
• · SSR mode S regional
• · Automatic Dependent Surveillance (ADS) global
• · Airborne Separation Avoidance System (ASAS) global
• ADS
• An on-board avionics function that automatically transmits via a
digital data link real time surveillance information allows surveillance
in oceanic and other areas which are beyond coverage of radar or LOS
communication · Surveillance is dependent in ADS because its
operation and quality depend upon the performance of the aircraft’s
navigation system.

•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•

Data blocks
Basic
· Time of day
· Aircraft identification
· Three dimensional position
Additional can include
· Aircraft velocity and heading (4D)
· Aircraft intent (waypoints stored in FMS)
· Meteorological data
ADS-B
· Each ADS-B equipped aircraft periodically broadcasts its
position, altitude and vector information
• · Any user could receive and process the information
• · Everyone in the system would have real time access to
precisely the same data

• The world's busiest airports by passenger traffic are
measured by number of total passengers (data provided by
Airports Council International). One passenger is
described as someone who arrives in, departs from, or
transfers through the airport on a given day. HartsfieldJackson International Airport in Atlanta has been the
world's busiest airport every year since 2000, although
with all airports combined London has the world's busiest
city airport system in terms of passenger traffic.
• [hide] 1.
• 1-Hartsfield–Jackson Atlanta International AirportAtlanta,
Georgia, United StatesATL/KATL Passenger - 92,365,860
• 2-Beijing Capital International Airport Chaoyang, Beijing,
ChinaPEK/ZBAA77,403,668
• London Heathrow Airport Hillingdon, London, United
KingdomLHR/EGLL-69,433,565


Slide 6

AIR SPACE AND TRAFFIC
MANAGEMENT

Archie William League, widely acknowledged as the first U.S. air
traffic controller, was born in 1907 at Poplar Bluff, Missouri. He
passed away on October 1, 1986 at the age of 79 in Annandale,
Virginia. League retired from the F.A.A. in 1973, as the Assistant
Administrator for Appraisal, with his claim to the first air traffic
controller largely unchallenged. Air Traffic Control: Keeping
Track of Flights
By the end of the first decade of powered flight, people began to
realize that aircraft, like automobiles, would crash into each other
unless some means was developed to control and direct them. At
first, because aircraft could not fly very high, such control was
accomplished using simple hand signals. Later, control was
exercised through radio communication. By the end of World War
II, the invention of radar permitted visually displayed tracking of
several aircraft at once. When coupled with radio communication,
radar made it possible for the pilot to be warned when he was in
danger of colliding with another aircraft or when he was off
course. In 1956, two aircraft crashed over the Grand Canyon
while one was climbing and the other descending. The resulting
public outcry spurred the development of the modern radar-based
air traffic control system. Today, aircraft are continually tracked
from take-off to landing

• First Flight
• On December 17, 1903, Orville and Wilbur Wright capped four years
of research and design efforts with a 120-foot, 12-second flight at
Kitty Hawk, North Carolina - the first powered flight in a heavierthan-air machine. Prior to that, people had flown only in balloons and
gliders.
• The first person to fly as a passenger was Leon Delagrange, who rode
with French pilot Henri Farman from a meadow outside of Paris in
1908. Charles Furnas became the first American airplane passenger
when he flew with Orville Wright at Kitty Hawk later that year.
World War I
• These and other early flights were headline events, but commercial
aviation was very slow to catch on with the general public, most of
which was afraid to ride in the new flying machines. Improvements in
aircraft design also were slow. However, with the advent of World
War I, the military value of aircraft was quickly recognized and
production increased significantly to meet the soaring demand for
planes from governments on both sides of the Atlantic. Most
significant was the development of more powerful motors, enabling
aircraft to reach speeds of up to 130 mph, more than twice the speed
of pre-war aircraft. Increased power also made bigger aircraft
possible.

• Airmail
• By 1917, the U.S. government felt it had seen enough progress in the development
of planes to warrant something totally new - air mail. That year, Congress
appropriated $100,000 for an experimental airmail service that was to be conducted
jointly by the Army and the Post Office between Washington and New York, with an
intermediate stop in Philadelphia. The first flight left Belmont Park, Long Island, for
Philadelphia on May 14, 1918, and the next day continued on to Washington where
it was met by President Woodrow Wilson. Beacons
• In 1921, the Army deployed rotating beacons in a line between Columbus and
Dayton, Ohio, a distance of about 80 miles. The beacons, visible to pilots at 10second intervals, made it possible to fly the route at night.
• The Post Office took over the operation of the guidance system the following year,
and by the end of 1923 constructed similar beacons between Chicago and Cheyenne,
WY, a line later extended coast-to-coast at a cost of $550,000. Mail then could be
delivered across the continent in as little as 29 hours eastbound and 34 hours
westbound (prevailing winds from west to east accounted for the difference), which
was two to three days less than it took by train.

• Aircraft Innovations
• For the airlines to attract more passengers away from the
railroads, they needed both larger and faster airplanes.
They also needed safer airplanes. Accidents such as the
one in 1931 that killed Notre Dame football coach Knute
Rockne and six other men kept people away from flying
in droves.
• Aircraft manufacturers responded to the challenge. There
were so many improvements to aircraft in the 1930s that
many believe it was the most innovative period in
aviation history. Air-cooled engines replaced watercooled engines, reducing weight and making bigger and
faster planes possible. Cockpit instruments also
improved, with better turn indicators, altimeters, airspeed
indicators, rate of climb indicators, compasses, and the
"artificial horizon," which showed pilots the attitude of
the aircraft relative to the ground - important for flying
in reduced visibility.

• Radio
• Another development of enormous importance to aviation was
radio. Aviation and radio developed almost in lock step. Marconi
sent his first message across the Atlantic on the airways just two
years before the Wright Brothers' first flight at Kitty Hawk. By
World War I, some pilots were taking radios up in the air with them
so they could communicate with people on the ground. The airlines
followed suit after the war, using radio to transmit weather
information from the ground to their pilots so they could avoid
storms.
• Perhaps an even bigger development, however, was the realization
that radio could be used as an aid to navigation when visibility was
poor and visual navigation aids such as beacons were useless. Once
technical bugs were worked out, the Department of Commerce
constructed 83 radio beacons across the country. They became fully
operational in 1932, automatically transmitting directional beams, or
tracks, that pilots could follow to their destination. Marker beacons
came next, allowing pilots to locate airports in poor visibility. The
first air traffic control tower was established in 1935 at Newark
International Airport in New Jersey.

• The DC-3
• Called the plane that changed the world, the DC-3 was
the first aircraft to enable airlines to make money
carrying passengers. As a result, it quickly became the
dominant aircraft in the United States following its
debut in 1936 with American Airlines (which played a
key role in its design).
• The DC-3 had 50% greater passenger capacity than the
DC-2 (21 seats versus 14), yet cost only 10% more to
operate. It also was considered a safer plane, built of an
aluminum alloy 25% stronger than materials previously
used in aircraft construction. It has more powerful
engines (1,000 horsepower versus 710 horsepower for
the DC-2), and it could travel coast to coast in 16 hours a fast trip for that time.

• Pressurized Cabins
• Although planes such as the Boeing 247 and the DC-3
represented significant advances in aircraft design, they had
a major drawback. They could fly no higher than 10,000
feet because people became dizzy and even fainted due to
the reduced levels of oxygen at higher altitudes.
• The airlines wanted to fly higher to get above the air
turbulence and storms common at lower altitudes. Motion
sickness was a problem for many airline passengers, and an
inhibiting factor to the industry's growth.
• The breakthrough came at Boeing with the Stratoliner, a
derivation of the B-17 bomber introduced in 1940 and first
flown by TWA. It was the first pressurized aircraft, meaning
that air was pumped into the aircraft as it gained altitude to
maintain an atmosphere inside the cabin similar to the
atmosphere that occurs naturally at lower altitudes. With its
regulated air compressor, the 33-seat Stratoliner could fly as
high as 20,000 feet and reach speeds of 200 miles per hour.

• World War II
• Aviation had an enormous impact on the course of World War II and
the war had just as big of an impact on aviation. There were fewer
than 300 air transports in the United States when Hitler marched into
Poland in 1939. By the end of the war, U.S. aircraft manufacturers
were producing 50,000 planes a year!
• Most of the planes, of course, were fighters and bombers, but the
importance of air transports to the war effort quickly became apparent
as well. Throughout the war, the airlines provided much needed airlift
to keep people and supplies moving to the front and throughout the
production chain back home. For the first time in their history, the
airlines had far more business - for passengers as well as freight - than
they could handle. Many of them also had opportunities to pioneer
new routes, gaining an exposure that would give them a decidedly
broader outlook at war's end.
• While there were numerous advances in U.S. aircraft design during
the war that enabled planes to go faster, higher, and further than ever
before, mass production was the chief goal of the United States. The
major innovations of the wartime period - radar and jet engines occurred in Europe.

• Radar
• A technological development with a much greater impact on
the war's outcome (and later on commercial aviation) was
radar. British scientists had been working on a device that
could give them early warning of approaching enemy
aircraft even before the war began, and by 1940 Britain had
a line of radar transceivers along its east coast that could
detect German aircraft the moment they took off from the
Continent.
• British scientists also perfected the cathode ray oscilloscope,
which produced map-type outlines of surrounding
countryside and showed aircraft as a pulsing light.
Americans, meanwhile, found a way to distinguish between
enemy aircraft and Allied aircraft by installing transponders
aboard the later that signaled their identity to radar
operators.

• The present Air Navigation System (ANS)
provides international Air Traffic Services (ATS)
• for civil aviation. The provision of these services is
based on the availability of Communication,
Navigation, Surveillance (CNS) systems and
automated Air Traffic Control (ATC) systems with
various levels of capabilities.
• International air traffic is channelled along specified
air routes and each air route is part of a network of
• generally fixed air routes within a Flight
Information Region (FIR)

• Air Traffic Services (ATS)
• ATS= Air Traffic Management + Flight Information Service + Alerting Service
• ATM= Air Traffic Control + Air Space Management + Air Traffic Flow
Management
• · ATC: Maintain a safe distance between aircraft and obstacles within a confined
airspace and also
• on the airport surface
• · ASM: Maximize, within a given airspace structure, the utilization of available
airspace by
• dynamic time sharing and segregation of airspace among competing categories of
users based
• on short-term needs
• · ATFM: ensure an optimum flow of air traffic through areas during times when
demands (is expected to) exceed the available capacity of ATC service
• · FIS: Collect, handle and disseminate flight-related information to assist the pilot to
conduct his flight in a safe and efficient manner (ex ATIS)
• · AL: initiate an early search and rescue activity for aircraft in distress
• ATIS A service of an airport for traffic in its TMA or CTR
• ATIS is a repeated message (VHF) containing information about· Weather

• ATIS A service of an airport for traffic in its TMA or
CTR
• ATIS is a repeated message (VHF) containing
information about weather
• · The QNH
• · Transition level, transition altitude
• · Operational issues

• Airspace Organisation
• · Control zone (CTR): local ATC (TWR) usually
circular area around airport
• · Terminal Control Area (TMA): local ATC (APP),
incoming and outgoing flights between CTR and
• CTA
• · Control Area (CTA): General ATC (ACC) within
FIR, below certain flight level (lower airspace)
• · Upper Control Area (UTA): General ATC, across
FIRs (upper airspace; ex Eurocontrol)

• SIDs and STARs
• Standard Instrumental Departure
• Defines the route flown between aircraft departure and an ATS route
(‘highway in the sky’) (connects CTR with CTA, through TMA)
• Standard Terminal Arrival Route
• Defines the route flown between an ATS route and an approach fix
(Connects CTA with CTR through TMA)
• ACAS Airborne Collision Avoidance System
• FANS: Future Air Navigation System
• Current operating ANS is not expected to be able to accommodate
foreseen growth in air traffic (in 2008) Shortcomings of existing CNS
and ATS will become more apparent over time
• Summary of general shortcomings
• Lack of real time information
• Short and long term intent of aircraft on certain parts of existing airroutes
• Procedurals of ATC do not provide most efficient flight profiles
Planned through intermediate waypoints Capabilities of modern
airborne systems cannot be fully exploited

• Communication

• · SSR mode S regional VHF data link (VDL) regional Satellite data
link (AMSS)
• Global Navigation
• · Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) GPS + GLONASS +
GALILEO
• Surveillance
• · SSR mode S regional
• · Automatic Dependent Surveillance (ADS) global
• · Airborne Separation Avoidance System (ASAS) global
• ADS
• An on-board avionics function that automatically transmits via a
digital data link real time surveillance information allows surveillance
in oceanic and other areas which are beyond coverage of radar or LOS
communication · Surveillance is dependent in ADS because its
operation and quality depend upon the performance of the aircraft’s
navigation system.

•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•

Data blocks
Basic
· Time of day
· Aircraft identification
· Three dimensional position
Additional can include
· Aircraft velocity and heading (4D)
· Aircraft intent (waypoints stored in FMS)
· Meteorological data
ADS-B
· Each ADS-B equipped aircraft periodically broadcasts its
position, altitude and vector information
• · Any user could receive and process the information
• · Everyone in the system would have real time access to
precisely the same data

• The world's busiest airports by passenger traffic are
measured by number of total passengers (data provided by
Airports Council International). One passenger is
described as someone who arrives in, departs from, or
transfers through the airport on a given day. HartsfieldJackson International Airport in Atlanta has been the
world's busiest airport every year since 2000, although
with all airports combined London has the world's busiest
city airport system in terms of passenger traffic.
• [hide] 1.
• 1-Hartsfield–Jackson Atlanta International AirportAtlanta,
Georgia, United StatesATL/KATL Passenger - 92,365,860
• 2-Beijing Capital International Airport Chaoyang, Beijing,
ChinaPEK/ZBAA77,403,668
• London Heathrow Airport Hillingdon, London, United
KingdomLHR/EGLL-69,433,565


Slide 7

AIR SPACE AND TRAFFIC
MANAGEMENT

Archie William League, widely acknowledged as the first U.S. air
traffic controller, was born in 1907 at Poplar Bluff, Missouri. He
passed away on October 1, 1986 at the age of 79 in Annandale,
Virginia. League retired from the F.A.A. in 1973, as the Assistant
Administrator for Appraisal, with his claim to the first air traffic
controller largely unchallenged. Air Traffic Control: Keeping
Track of Flights
By the end of the first decade of powered flight, people began to
realize that aircraft, like automobiles, would crash into each other
unless some means was developed to control and direct them. At
first, because aircraft could not fly very high, such control was
accomplished using simple hand signals. Later, control was
exercised through radio communication. By the end of World War
II, the invention of radar permitted visually displayed tracking of
several aircraft at once. When coupled with radio communication,
radar made it possible for the pilot to be warned when he was in
danger of colliding with another aircraft or when he was off
course. In 1956, two aircraft crashed over the Grand Canyon
while one was climbing and the other descending. The resulting
public outcry spurred the development of the modern radar-based
air traffic control system. Today, aircraft are continually tracked
from take-off to landing

• First Flight
• On December 17, 1903, Orville and Wilbur Wright capped four years
of research and design efforts with a 120-foot, 12-second flight at
Kitty Hawk, North Carolina - the first powered flight in a heavierthan-air machine. Prior to that, people had flown only in balloons and
gliders.
• The first person to fly as a passenger was Leon Delagrange, who rode
with French pilot Henri Farman from a meadow outside of Paris in
1908. Charles Furnas became the first American airplane passenger
when he flew with Orville Wright at Kitty Hawk later that year.
World War I
• These and other early flights were headline events, but commercial
aviation was very slow to catch on with the general public, most of
which was afraid to ride in the new flying machines. Improvements in
aircraft design also were slow. However, with the advent of World
War I, the military value of aircraft was quickly recognized and
production increased significantly to meet the soaring demand for
planes from governments on both sides of the Atlantic. Most
significant was the development of more powerful motors, enabling
aircraft to reach speeds of up to 130 mph, more than twice the speed
of pre-war aircraft. Increased power also made bigger aircraft
possible.

• Airmail
• By 1917, the U.S. government felt it had seen enough progress in the development
of planes to warrant something totally new - air mail. That year, Congress
appropriated $100,000 for an experimental airmail service that was to be conducted
jointly by the Army and the Post Office between Washington and New York, with an
intermediate stop in Philadelphia. The first flight left Belmont Park, Long Island, for
Philadelphia on May 14, 1918, and the next day continued on to Washington where
it was met by President Woodrow Wilson. Beacons
• In 1921, the Army deployed rotating beacons in a line between Columbus and
Dayton, Ohio, a distance of about 80 miles. The beacons, visible to pilots at 10second intervals, made it possible to fly the route at night.
• The Post Office took over the operation of the guidance system the following year,
and by the end of 1923 constructed similar beacons between Chicago and Cheyenne,
WY, a line later extended coast-to-coast at a cost of $550,000. Mail then could be
delivered across the continent in as little as 29 hours eastbound and 34 hours
westbound (prevailing winds from west to east accounted for the difference), which
was two to three days less than it took by train.

• Aircraft Innovations
• For the airlines to attract more passengers away from the
railroads, they needed both larger and faster airplanes.
They also needed safer airplanes. Accidents such as the
one in 1931 that killed Notre Dame football coach Knute
Rockne and six other men kept people away from flying
in droves.
• Aircraft manufacturers responded to the challenge. There
were so many improvements to aircraft in the 1930s that
many believe it was the most innovative period in
aviation history. Air-cooled engines replaced watercooled engines, reducing weight and making bigger and
faster planes possible. Cockpit instruments also
improved, with better turn indicators, altimeters, airspeed
indicators, rate of climb indicators, compasses, and the
"artificial horizon," which showed pilots the attitude of
the aircraft relative to the ground - important for flying
in reduced visibility.

• Radio
• Another development of enormous importance to aviation was
radio. Aviation and radio developed almost in lock step. Marconi
sent his first message across the Atlantic on the airways just two
years before the Wright Brothers' first flight at Kitty Hawk. By
World War I, some pilots were taking radios up in the air with them
so they could communicate with people on the ground. The airlines
followed suit after the war, using radio to transmit weather
information from the ground to their pilots so they could avoid
storms.
• Perhaps an even bigger development, however, was the realization
that radio could be used as an aid to navigation when visibility was
poor and visual navigation aids such as beacons were useless. Once
technical bugs were worked out, the Department of Commerce
constructed 83 radio beacons across the country. They became fully
operational in 1932, automatically transmitting directional beams, or
tracks, that pilots could follow to their destination. Marker beacons
came next, allowing pilots to locate airports in poor visibility. The
first air traffic control tower was established in 1935 at Newark
International Airport in New Jersey.

• The DC-3
• Called the plane that changed the world, the DC-3 was
the first aircraft to enable airlines to make money
carrying passengers. As a result, it quickly became the
dominant aircraft in the United States following its
debut in 1936 with American Airlines (which played a
key role in its design).
• The DC-3 had 50% greater passenger capacity than the
DC-2 (21 seats versus 14), yet cost only 10% more to
operate. It also was considered a safer plane, built of an
aluminum alloy 25% stronger than materials previously
used in aircraft construction. It has more powerful
engines (1,000 horsepower versus 710 horsepower for
the DC-2), and it could travel coast to coast in 16 hours a fast trip for that time.

• Pressurized Cabins
• Although planes such as the Boeing 247 and the DC-3
represented significant advances in aircraft design, they had
a major drawback. They could fly no higher than 10,000
feet because people became dizzy and even fainted due to
the reduced levels of oxygen at higher altitudes.
• The airlines wanted to fly higher to get above the air
turbulence and storms common at lower altitudes. Motion
sickness was a problem for many airline passengers, and an
inhibiting factor to the industry's growth.
• The breakthrough came at Boeing with the Stratoliner, a
derivation of the B-17 bomber introduced in 1940 and first
flown by TWA. It was the first pressurized aircraft, meaning
that air was pumped into the aircraft as it gained altitude to
maintain an atmosphere inside the cabin similar to the
atmosphere that occurs naturally at lower altitudes. With its
regulated air compressor, the 33-seat Stratoliner could fly as
high as 20,000 feet and reach speeds of 200 miles per hour.

• World War II
• Aviation had an enormous impact on the course of World War II and
the war had just as big of an impact on aviation. There were fewer
than 300 air transports in the United States when Hitler marched into
Poland in 1939. By the end of the war, U.S. aircraft manufacturers
were producing 50,000 planes a year!
• Most of the planes, of course, were fighters and bombers, but the
importance of air transports to the war effort quickly became apparent
as well. Throughout the war, the airlines provided much needed airlift
to keep people and supplies moving to the front and throughout the
production chain back home. For the first time in their history, the
airlines had far more business - for passengers as well as freight - than
they could handle. Many of them also had opportunities to pioneer
new routes, gaining an exposure that would give them a decidedly
broader outlook at war's end.
• While there were numerous advances in U.S. aircraft design during
the war that enabled planes to go faster, higher, and further than ever
before, mass production was the chief goal of the United States. The
major innovations of the wartime period - radar and jet engines occurred in Europe.

• Radar
• A technological development with a much greater impact on
the war's outcome (and later on commercial aviation) was
radar. British scientists had been working on a device that
could give them early warning of approaching enemy
aircraft even before the war began, and by 1940 Britain had
a line of radar transceivers along its east coast that could
detect German aircraft the moment they took off from the
Continent.
• British scientists also perfected the cathode ray oscilloscope,
which produced map-type outlines of surrounding
countryside and showed aircraft as a pulsing light.
Americans, meanwhile, found a way to distinguish between
enemy aircraft and Allied aircraft by installing transponders
aboard the later that signaled their identity to radar
operators.

• The present Air Navigation System (ANS)
provides international Air Traffic Services (ATS)
• for civil aviation. The provision of these services is
based on the availability of Communication,
Navigation, Surveillance (CNS) systems and
automated Air Traffic Control (ATC) systems with
various levels of capabilities.
• International air traffic is channelled along specified
air routes and each air route is part of a network of
• generally fixed air routes within a Flight
Information Region (FIR)

• Air Traffic Services (ATS)
• ATS= Air Traffic Management + Flight Information Service + Alerting Service
• ATM= Air Traffic Control + Air Space Management + Air Traffic Flow
Management
• · ATC: Maintain a safe distance between aircraft and obstacles within a confined
airspace and also
• on the airport surface
• · ASM: Maximize, within a given airspace structure, the utilization of available
airspace by
• dynamic time sharing and segregation of airspace among competing categories of
users based
• on short-term needs
• · ATFM: ensure an optimum flow of air traffic through areas during times when
demands (is expected to) exceed the available capacity of ATC service
• · FIS: Collect, handle and disseminate flight-related information to assist the pilot to
conduct his flight in a safe and efficient manner (ex ATIS)
• · AL: initiate an early search and rescue activity for aircraft in distress
• ATIS A service of an airport for traffic in its TMA or CTR
• ATIS is a repeated message (VHF) containing information about· Weather

• ATIS A service of an airport for traffic in its TMA or
CTR
• ATIS is a repeated message (VHF) containing
information about weather
• · The QNH
• · Transition level, transition altitude
• · Operational issues

• Airspace Organisation
• · Control zone (CTR): local ATC (TWR) usually
circular area around airport
• · Terminal Control Area (TMA): local ATC (APP),
incoming and outgoing flights between CTR and
• CTA
• · Control Area (CTA): General ATC (ACC) within
FIR, below certain flight level (lower airspace)
• · Upper Control Area (UTA): General ATC, across
FIRs (upper airspace; ex Eurocontrol)

• SIDs and STARs
• Standard Instrumental Departure
• Defines the route flown between aircraft departure and an ATS route
(‘highway in the sky’) (connects CTR with CTA, through TMA)
• Standard Terminal Arrival Route
• Defines the route flown between an ATS route and an approach fix
(Connects CTA with CTR through TMA)
• ACAS Airborne Collision Avoidance System
• FANS: Future Air Navigation System
• Current operating ANS is not expected to be able to accommodate
foreseen growth in air traffic (in 2008) Shortcomings of existing CNS
and ATS will become more apparent over time
• Summary of general shortcomings
• Lack of real time information
• Short and long term intent of aircraft on certain parts of existing airroutes
• Procedurals of ATC do not provide most efficient flight profiles
Planned through intermediate waypoints Capabilities of modern
airborne systems cannot be fully exploited

• Communication

• · SSR mode S regional VHF data link (VDL) regional Satellite data
link (AMSS)
• Global Navigation
• · Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) GPS + GLONASS +
GALILEO
• Surveillance
• · SSR mode S regional
• · Automatic Dependent Surveillance (ADS) global
• · Airborne Separation Avoidance System (ASAS) global
• ADS
• An on-board avionics function that automatically transmits via a
digital data link real time surveillance information allows surveillance
in oceanic and other areas which are beyond coverage of radar or LOS
communication · Surveillance is dependent in ADS because its
operation and quality depend upon the performance of the aircraft’s
navigation system.

•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•

Data blocks
Basic
· Time of day
· Aircraft identification
· Three dimensional position
Additional can include
· Aircraft velocity and heading (4D)
· Aircraft intent (waypoints stored in FMS)
· Meteorological data
ADS-B
· Each ADS-B equipped aircraft periodically broadcasts its
position, altitude and vector information
• · Any user could receive and process the information
• · Everyone in the system would have real time access to
precisely the same data

• The world's busiest airports by passenger traffic are
measured by number of total passengers (data provided by
Airports Council International). One passenger is
described as someone who arrives in, departs from, or
transfers through the airport on a given day. HartsfieldJackson International Airport in Atlanta has been the
world's busiest airport every year since 2000, although
with all airports combined London has the world's busiest
city airport system in terms of passenger traffic.
• [hide] 1.
• 1-Hartsfield–Jackson Atlanta International AirportAtlanta,
Georgia, United StatesATL/KATL Passenger - 92,365,860
• 2-Beijing Capital International Airport Chaoyang, Beijing,
ChinaPEK/ZBAA77,403,668
• London Heathrow Airport Hillingdon, London, United
KingdomLHR/EGLL-69,433,565


Slide 8

AIR SPACE AND TRAFFIC
MANAGEMENT

Archie William League, widely acknowledged as the first U.S. air
traffic controller, was born in 1907 at Poplar Bluff, Missouri. He
passed away on October 1, 1986 at the age of 79 in Annandale,
Virginia. League retired from the F.A.A. in 1973, as the Assistant
Administrator for Appraisal, with his claim to the first air traffic
controller largely unchallenged. Air Traffic Control: Keeping
Track of Flights
By the end of the first decade of powered flight, people began to
realize that aircraft, like automobiles, would crash into each other
unless some means was developed to control and direct them. At
first, because aircraft could not fly very high, such control was
accomplished using simple hand signals. Later, control was
exercised through radio communication. By the end of World War
II, the invention of radar permitted visually displayed tracking of
several aircraft at once. When coupled with radio communication,
radar made it possible for the pilot to be warned when he was in
danger of colliding with another aircraft or when he was off
course. In 1956, two aircraft crashed over the Grand Canyon
while one was climbing and the other descending. The resulting
public outcry spurred the development of the modern radar-based
air traffic control system. Today, aircraft are continually tracked
from take-off to landing

• First Flight
• On December 17, 1903, Orville and Wilbur Wright capped four years
of research and design efforts with a 120-foot, 12-second flight at
Kitty Hawk, North Carolina - the first powered flight in a heavierthan-air machine. Prior to that, people had flown only in balloons and
gliders.
• The first person to fly as a passenger was Leon Delagrange, who rode
with French pilot Henri Farman from a meadow outside of Paris in
1908. Charles Furnas became the first American airplane passenger
when he flew with Orville Wright at Kitty Hawk later that year.
World War I
• These and other early flights were headline events, but commercial
aviation was very slow to catch on with the general public, most of
which was afraid to ride in the new flying machines. Improvements in
aircraft design also were slow. However, with the advent of World
War I, the military value of aircraft was quickly recognized and
production increased significantly to meet the soaring demand for
planes from governments on both sides of the Atlantic. Most
significant was the development of more powerful motors, enabling
aircraft to reach speeds of up to 130 mph, more than twice the speed
of pre-war aircraft. Increased power also made bigger aircraft
possible.

• Airmail
• By 1917, the U.S. government felt it had seen enough progress in the development
of planes to warrant something totally new - air mail. That year, Congress
appropriated $100,000 for an experimental airmail service that was to be conducted
jointly by the Army and the Post Office between Washington and New York, with an
intermediate stop in Philadelphia. The first flight left Belmont Park, Long Island, for
Philadelphia on May 14, 1918, and the next day continued on to Washington where
it was met by President Woodrow Wilson. Beacons
• In 1921, the Army deployed rotating beacons in a line between Columbus and
Dayton, Ohio, a distance of about 80 miles. The beacons, visible to pilots at 10second intervals, made it possible to fly the route at night.
• The Post Office took over the operation of the guidance system the following year,
and by the end of 1923 constructed similar beacons between Chicago and Cheyenne,
WY, a line later extended coast-to-coast at a cost of $550,000. Mail then could be
delivered across the continent in as little as 29 hours eastbound and 34 hours
westbound (prevailing winds from west to east accounted for the difference), which
was two to three days less than it took by train.

• Aircraft Innovations
• For the airlines to attract more passengers away from the
railroads, they needed both larger and faster airplanes.
They also needed safer airplanes. Accidents such as the
one in 1931 that killed Notre Dame football coach Knute
Rockne and six other men kept people away from flying
in droves.
• Aircraft manufacturers responded to the challenge. There
were so many improvements to aircraft in the 1930s that
many believe it was the most innovative period in
aviation history. Air-cooled engines replaced watercooled engines, reducing weight and making bigger and
faster planes possible. Cockpit instruments also
improved, with better turn indicators, altimeters, airspeed
indicators, rate of climb indicators, compasses, and the
"artificial horizon," which showed pilots the attitude of
the aircraft relative to the ground - important for flying
in reduced visibility.

• Radio
• Another development of enormous importance to aviation was
radio. Aviation and radio developed almost in lock step. Marconi
sent his first message across the Atlantic on the airways just two
years before the Wright Brothers' first flight at Kitty Hawk. By
World War I, some pilots were taking radios up in the air with them
so they could communicate with people on the ground. The airlines
followed suit after the war, using radio to transmit weather
information from the ground to their pilots so they could avoid
storms.
• Perhaps an even bigger development, however, was the realization
that radio could be used as an aid to navigation when visibility was
poor and visual navigation aids such as beacons were useless. Once
technical bugs were worked out, the Department of Commerce
constructed 83 radio beacons across the country. They became fully
operational in 1932, automatically transmitting directional beams, or
tracks, that pilots could follow to their destination. Marker beacons
came next, allowing pilots to locate airports in poor visibility. The
first air traffic control tower was established in 1935 at Newark
International Airport in New Jersey.

• The DC-3
• Called the plane that changed the world, the DC-3 was
the first aircraft to enable airlines to make money
carrying passengers. As a result, it quickly became the
dominant aircraft in the United States following its
debut in 1936 with American Airlines (which played a
key role in its design).
• The DC-3 had 50% greater passenger capacity than the
DC-2 (21 seats versus 14), yet cost only 10% more to
operate. It also was considered a safer plane, built of an
aluminum alloy 25% stronger than materials previously
used in aircraft construction. It has more powerful
engines (1,000 horsepower versus 710 horsepower for
the DC-2), and it could travel coast to coast in 16 hours a fast trip for that time.

• Pressurized Cabins
• Although planes such as the Boeing 247 and the DC-3
represented significant advances in aircraft design, they had
a major drawback. They could fly no higher than 10,000
feet because people became dizzy and even fainted due to
the reduced levels of oxygen at higher altitudes.
• The airlines wanted to fly higher to get above the air
turbulence and storms common at lower altitudes. Motion
sickness was a problem for many airline passengers, and an
inhibiting factor to the industry's growth.
• The breakthrough came at Boeing with the Stratoliner, a
derivation of the B-17 bomber introduced in 1940 and first
flown by TWA. It was the first pressurized aircraft, meaning
that air was pumped into the aircraft as it gained altitude to
maintain an atmosphere inside the cabin similar to the
atmosphere that occurs naturally at lower altitudes. With its
regulated air compressor, the 33-seat Stratoliner could fly as
high as 20,000 feet and reach speeds of 200 miles per hour.

• World War II
• Aviation had an enormous impact on the course of World War II and
the war had just as big of an impact on aviation. There were fewer
than 300 air transports in the United States when Hitler marched into
Poland in 1939. By the end of the war, U.S. aircraft manufacturers
were producing 50,000 planes a year!
• Most of the planes, of course, were fighters and bombers, but the
importance of air transports to the war effort quickly became apparent
as well. Throughout the war, the airlines provided much needed airlift
to keep people and supplies moving to the front and throughout the
production chain back home. For the first time in their history, the
airlines had far more business - for passengers as well as freight - than
they could handle. Many of them also had opportunities to pioneer
new routes, gaining an exposure that would give them a decidedly
broader outlook at war's end.
• While there were numerous advances in U.S. aircraft design during
the war that enabled planes to go faster, higher, and further than ever
before, mass production was the chief goal of the United States. The
major innovations of the wartime period - radar and jet engines occurred in Europe.

• Radar
• A technological development with a much greater impact on
the war's outcome (and later on commercial aviation) was
radar. British scientists had been working on a device that
could give them early warning of approaching enemy
aircraft even before the war began, and by 1940 Britain had
a line of radar transceivers along its east coast that could
detect German aircraft the moment they took off from the
Continent.
• British scientists also perfected the cathode ray oscilloscope,
which produced map-type outlines of surrounding
countryside and showed aircraft as a pulsing light.
Americans, meanwhile, found a way to distinguish between
enemy aircraft and Allied aircraft by installing transponders
aboard the later that signaled their identity to radar
operators.

• The present Air Navigation System (ANS)
provides international Air Traffic Services (ATS)
• for civil aviation. The provision of these services is
based on the availability of Communication,
Navigation, Surveillance (CNS) systems and
automated Air Traffic Control (ATC) systems with
various levels of capabilities.
• International air traffic is channelled along specified
air routes and each air route is part of a network of
• generally fixed air routes within a Flight
Information Region (FIR)

• Air Traffic Services (ATS)
• ATS= Air Traffic Management + Flight Information Service + Alerting Service
• ATM= Air Traffic Control + Air Space Management + Air Traffic Flow
Management
• · ATC: Maintain a safe distance between aircraft and obstacles within a confined
airspace and also
• on the airport surface
• · ASM: Maximize, within a given airspace structure, the utilization of available
airspace by
• dynamic time sharing and segregation of airspace among competing categories of
users based
• on short-term needs
• · ATFM: ensure an optimum flow of air traffic through areas during times when
demands (is expected to) exceed the available capacity of ATC service
• · FIS: Collect, handle and disseminate flight-related information to assist the pilot to
conduct his flight in a safe and efficient manner (ex ATIS)
• · AL: initiate an early search and rescue activity for aircraft in distress
• ATIS A service of an airport for traffic in its TMA or CTR
• ATIS is a repeated message (VHF) containing information about· Weather

• ATIS A service of an airport for traffic in its TMA or
CTR
• ATIS is a repeated message (VHF) containing
information about weather
• · The QNH
• · Transition level, transition altitude
• · Operational issues

• Airspace Organisation
• · Control zone (CTR): local ATC (TWR) usually
circular area around airport
• · Terminal Control Area (TMA): local ATC (APP),
incoming and outgoing flights between CTR and
• CTA
• · Control Area (CTA): General ATC (ACC) within
FIR, below certain flight level (lower airspace)
• · Upper Control Area (UTA): General ATC, across
FIRs (upper airspace; ex Eurocontrol)

• SIDs and STARs
• Standard Instrumental Departure
• Defines the route flown between aircraft departure and an ATS route
(‘highway in the sky’) (connects CTR with CTA, through TMA)
• Standard Terminal Arrival Route
• Defines the route flown between an ATS route and an approach fix
(Connects CTA with CTR through TMA)
• ACAS Airborne Collision Avoidance System
• FANS: Future Air Navigation System
• Current operating ANS is not expected to be able to accommodate
foreseen growth in air traffic (in 2008) Shortcomings of existing CNS
and ATS will become more apparent over time
• Summary of general shortcomings
• Lack of real time information
• Short and long term intent of aircraft on certain parts of existing airroutes
• Procedurals of ATC do not provide most efficient flight profiles
Planned through intermediate waypoints Capabilities of modern
airborne systems cannot be fully exploited

• Communication

• · SSR mode S regional VHF data link (VDL) regional Satellite data
link (AMSS)
• Global Navigation
• · Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) GPS + GLONASS +
GALILEO
• Surveillance
• · SSR mode S regional
• · Automatic Dependent Surveillance (ADS) global
• · Airborne Separation Avoidance System (ASAS) global
• ADS
• An on-board avionics function that automatically transmits via a
digital data link real time surveillance information allows surveillance
in oceanic and other areas which are beyond coverage of radar or LOS
communication · Surveillance is dependent in ADS because its
operation and quality depend upon the performance of the aircraft’s
navigation system.

•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•

Data blocks
Basic
· Time of day
· Aircraft identification
· Three dimensional position
Additional can include
· Aircraft velocity and heading (4D)
· Aircraft intent (waypoints stored in FMS)
· Meteorological data
ADS-B
· Each ADS-B equipped aircraft periodically broadcasts its
position, altitude and vector information
• · Any user could receive and process the information
• · Everyone in the system would have real time access to
precisely the same data

• The world's busiest airports by passenger traffic are
measured by number of total passengers (data provided by
Airports Council International). One passenger is
described as someone who arrives in, departs from, or
transfers through the airport on a given day. HartsfieldJackson International Airport in Atlanta has been the
world's busiest airport every year since 2000, although
with all airports combined London has the world's busiest
city airport system in terms of passenger traffic.
• [hide] 1.
• 1-Hartsfield–Jackson Atlanta International AirportAtlanta,
Georgia, United StatesATL/KATL Passenger - 92,365,860
• 2-Beijing Capital International Airport Chaoyang, Beijing,
ChinaPEK/ZBAA77,403,668
• London Heathrow Airport Hillingdon, London, United
KingdomLHR/EGLL-69,433,565


Slide 9

AIR SPACE AND TRAFFIC
MANAGEMENT

Archie William League, widely acknowledged as the first U.S. air
traffic controller, was born in 1907 at Poplar Bluff, Missouri. He
passed away on October 1, 1986 at the age of 79 in Annandale,
Virginia. League retired from the F.A.A. in 1973, as the Assistant
Administrator for Appraisal, with his claim to the first air traffic
controller largely unchallenged. Air Traffic Control: Keeping
Track of Flights
By the end of the first decade of powered flight, people began to
realize that aircraft, like automobiles, would crash into each other
unless some means was developed to control and direct them. At
first, because aircraft could not fly very high, such control was
accomplished using simple hand signals. Later, control was
exercised through radio communication. By the end of World War
II, the invention of radar permitted visually displayed tracking of
several aircraft at once. When coupled with radio communication,
radar made it possible for the pilot to be warned when he was in
danger of colliding with another aircraft or when he was off
course. In 1956, two aircraft crashed over the Grand Canyon
while one was climbing and the other descending. The resulting
public outcry spurred the development of the modern radar-based
air traffic control system. Today, aircraft are continually tracked
from take-off to landing

• First Flight
• On December 17, 1903, Orville and Wilbur Wright capped four years
of research and design efforts with a 120-foot, 12-second flight at
Kitty Hawk, North Carolina - the first powered flight in a heavierthan-air machine. Prior to that, people had flown only in balloons and
gliders.
• The first person to fly as a passenger was Leon Delagrange, who rode
with French pilot Henri Farman from a meadow outside of Paris in
1908. Charles Furnas became the first American airplane passenger
when he flew with Orville Wright at Kitty Hawk later that year.
World War I
• These and other early flights were headline events, but commercial
aviation was very slow to catch on with the general public, most of
which was afraid to ride in the new flying machines. Improvements in
aircraft design also were slow. However, with the advent of World
War I, the military value of aircraft was quickly recognized and
production increased significantly to meet the soaring demand for
planes from governments on both sides of the Atlantic. Most
significant was the development of more powerful motors, enabling
aircraft to reach speeds of up to 130 mph, more than twice the speed
of pre-war aircraft. Increased power also made bigger aircraft
possible.

• Airmail
• By 1917, the U.S. government felt it had seen enough progress in the development
of planes to warrant something totally new - air mail. That year, Congress
appropriated $100,000 for an experimental airmail service that was to be conducted
jointly by the Army and the Post Office between Washington and New York, with an
intermediate stop in Philadelphia. The first flight left Belmont Park, Long Island, for
Philadelphia on May 14, 1918, and the next day continued on to Washington where
it was met by President Woodrow Wilson. Beacons
• In 1921, the Army deployed rotating beacons in a line between Columbus and
Dayton, Ohio, a distance of about 80 miles. The beacons, visible to pilots at 10second intervals, made it possible to fly the route at night.
• The Post Office took over the operation of the guidance system the following year,
and by the end of 1923 constructed similar beacons between Chicago and Cheyenne,
WY, a line later extended coast-to-coast at a cost of $550,000. Mail then could be
delivered across the continent in as little as 29 hours eastbound and 34 hours
westbound (prevailing winds from west to east accounted for the difference), which
was two to three days less than it took by train.

• Aircraft Innovations
• For the airlines to attract more passengers away from the
railroads, they needed both larger and faster airplanes.
They also needed safer airplanes. Accidents such as the
one in 1931 that killed Notre Dame football coach Knute
Rockne and six other men kept people away from flying
in droves.
• Aircraft manufacturers responded to the challenge. There
were so many improvements to aircraft in the 1930s that
many believe it was the most innovative period in
aviation history. Air-cooled engines replaced watercooled engines, reducing weight and making bigger and
faster planes possible. Cockpit instruments also
improved, with better turn indicators, altimeters, airspeed
indicators, rate of climb indicators, compasses, and the
"artificial horizon," which showed pilots the attitude of
the aircraft relative to the ground - important for flying
in reduced visibility.

• Radio
• Another development of enormous importance to aviation was
radio. Aviation and radio developed almost in lock step. Marconi
sent his first message across the Atlantic on the airways just two
years before the Wright Brothers' first flight at Kitty Hawk. By
World War I, some pilots were taking radios up in the air with them
so they could communicate with people on the ground. The airlines
followed suit after the war, using radio to transmit weather
information from the ground to their pilots so they could avoid
storms.
• Perhaps an even bigger development, however, was the realization
that radio could be used as an aid to navigation when visibility was
poor and visual navigation aids such as beacons were useless. Once
technical bugs were worked out, the Department of Commerce
constructed 83 radio beacons across the country. They became fully
operational in 1932, automatically transmitting directional beams, or
tracks, that pilots could follow to their destination. Marker beacons
came next, allowing pilots to locate airports in poor visibility. The
first air traffic control tower was established in 1935 at Newark
International Airport in New Jersey.

• The DC-3
• Called the plane that changed the world, the DC-3 was
the first aircraft to enable airlines to make money
carrying passengers. As a result, it quickly became the
dominant aircraft in the United States following its
debut in 1936 with American Airlines (which played a
key role in its design).
• The DC-3 had 50% greater passenger capacity than the
DC-2 (21 seats versus 14), yet cost only 10% more to
operate. It also was considered a safer plane, built of an
aluminum alloy 25% stronger than materials previously
used in aircraft construction. It has more powerful
engines (1,000 horsepower versus 710 horsepower for
the DC-2), and it could travel coast to coast in 16 hours a fast trip for that time.

• Pressurized Cabins
• Although planes such as the Boeing 247 and the DC-3
represented significant advances in aircraft design, they had
a major drawback. They could fly no higher than 10,000
feet because people became dizzy and even fainted due to
the reduced levels of oxygen at higher altitudes.
• The airlines wanted to fly higher to get above the air
turbulence and storms common at lower altitudes. Motion
sickness was a problem for many airline passengers, and an
inhibiting factor to the industry's growth.
• The breakthrough came at Boeing with the Stratoliner, a
derivation of the B-17 bomber introduced in 1940 and first
flown by TWA. It was the first pressurized aircraft, meaning
that air was pumped into the aircraft as it gained altitude to
maintain an atmosphere inside the cabin similar to the
atmosphere that occurs naturally at lower altitudes. With its
regulated air compressor, the 33-seat Stratoliner could fly as
high as 20,000 feet and reach speeds of 200 miles per hour.

• World War II
• Aviation had an enormous impact on the course of World War II and
the war had just as big of an impact on aviation. There were fewer
than 300 air transports in the United States when Hitler marched into
Poland in 1939. By the end of the war, U.S. aircraft manufacturers
were producing 50,000 planes a year!
• Most of the planes, of course, were fighters and bombers, but the
importance of air transports to the war effort quickly became apparent
as well. Throughout the war, the airlines provided much needed airlift
to keep people and supplies moving to the front and throughout the
production chain back home. For the first time in their history, the
airlines had far more business - for passengers as well as freight - than
they could handle. Many of them also had opportunities to pioneer
new routes, gaining an exposure that would give them a decidedly
broader outlook at war's end.
• While there were numerous advances in U.S. aircraft design during
the war that enabled planes to go faster, higher, and further than ever
before, mass production was the chief goal of the United States. The
major innovations of the wartime period - radar and jet engines occurred in Europe.

• Radar
• A technological development with a much greater impact on
the war's outcome (and later on commercial aviation) was
radar. British scientists had been working on a device that
could give them early warning of approaching enemy
aircraft even before the war began, and by 1940 Britain had
a line of radar transceivers along its east coast that could
detect German aircraft the moment they took off from the
Continent.
• British scientists also perfected the cathode ray oscilloscope,
which produced map-type outlines of surrounding
countryside and showed aircraft as a pulsing light.
Americans, meanwhile, found a way to distinguish between
enemy aircraft and Allied aircraft by installing transponders
aboard the later that signaled their identity to radar
operators.

• The present Air Navigation System (ANS)
provides international Air Traffic Services (ATS)
• for civil aviation. The provision of these services is
based on the availability of Communication,
Navigation, Surveillance (CNS) systems and
automated Air Traffic Control (ATC) systems with
various levels of capabilities.
• International air traffic is channelled along specified
air routes and each air route is part of a network of
• generally fixed air routes within a Flight
Information Region (FIR)

• Air Traffic Services (ATS)
• ATS= Air Traffic Management + Flight Information Service + Alerting Service
• ATM= Air Traffic Control + Air Space Management + Air Traffic Flow
Management
• · ATC: Maintain a safe distance between aircraft and obstacles within a confined
airspace and also
• on the airport surface
• · ASM: Maximize, within a given airspace structure, the utilization of available
airspace by
• dynamic time sharing and segregation of airspace among competing categories of
users based
• on short-term needs
• · ATFM: ensure an optimum flow of air traffic through areas during times when
demands (is expected to) exceed the available capacity of ATC service
• · FIS: Collect, handle and disseminate flight-related information to assist the pilot to
conduct his flight in a safe and efficient manner (ex ATIS)
• · AL: initiate an early search and rescue activity for aircraft in distress
• ATIS A service of an airport for traffic in its TMA or CTR
• ATIS is a repeated message (VHF) containing information about· Weather

• ATIS A service of an airport for traffic in its TMA or
CTR
• ATIS is a repeated message (VHF) containing
information about weather
• · The QNH
• · Transition level, transition altitude
• · Operational issues

• Airspace Organisation
• · Control zone (CTR): local ATC (TWR) usually
circular area around airport
• · Terminal Control Area (TMA): local ATC (APP),
incoming and outgoing flights between CTR and
• CTA
• · Control Area (CTA): General ATC (ACC) within
FIR, below certain flight level (lower airspace)
• · Upper Control Area (UTA): General ATC, across
FIRs (upper airspace; ex Eurocontrol)

• SIDs and STARs
• Standard Instrumental Departure
• Defines the route flown between aircraft departure and an ATS route
(‘highway in the sky’) (connects CTR with CTA, through TMA)
• Standard Terminal Arrival Route
• Defines the route flown between an ATS route and an approach fix
(Connects CTA with CTR through TMA)
• ACAS Airborne Collision Avoidance System
• FANS: Future Air Navigation System
• Current operating ANS is not expected to be able to accommodate
foreseen growth in air traffic (in 2008) Shortcomings of existing CNS
and ATS will become more apparent over time
• Summary of general shortcomings
• Lack of real time information
• Short and long term intent of aircraft on certain parts of existing airroutes
• Procedurals of ATC do not provide most efficient flight profiles
Planned through intermediate waypoints Capabilities of modern
airborne systems cannot be fully exploited

• Communication

• · SSR mode S regional VHF data link (VDL) regional Satellite data
link (AMSS)
• Global Navigation
• · Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) GPS + GLONASS +
GALILEO
• Surveillance
• · SSR mode S regional
• · Automatic Dependent Surveillance (ADS) global
• · Airborne Separation Avoidance System (ASAS) global
• ADS
• An on-board avionics function that automatically transmits via a
digital data link real time surveillance information allows surveillance
in oceanic and other areas which are beyond coverage of radar or LOS
communication · Surveillance is dependent in ADS because its
operation and quality depend upon the performance of the aircraft’s
navigation system.

•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•

Data blocks
Basic
· Time of day
· Aircraft identification
· Three dimensional position
Additional can include
· Aircraft velocity and heading (4D)
· Aircraft intent (waypoints stored in FMS)
· Meteorological data
ADS-B
· Each ADS-B equipped aircraft periodically broadcasts its
position, altitude and vector information
• · Any user could receive and process the information
• · Everyone in the system would have real time access to
precisely the same data

• The world's busiest airports by passenger traffic are
measured by number of total passengers (data provided by
Airports Council International). One passenger is
described as someone who arrives in, departs from, or
transfers through the airport on a given day. HartsfieldJackson International Airport in Atlanta has been the
world's busiest airport every year since 2000, although
with all airports combined London has the world's busiest
city airport system in terms of passenger traffic.
• [hide] 1.
• 1-Hartsfield–Jackson Atlanta International AirportAtlanta,
Georgia, United StatesATL/KATL Passenger - 92,365,860
• 2-Beijing Capital International Airport Chaoyang, Beijing,
ChinaPEK/ZBAA77,403,668
• London Heathrow Airport Hillingdon, London, United
KingdomLHR/EGLL-69,433,565


Slide 10

AIR SPACE AND TRAFFIC
MANAGEMENT

Archie William League, widely acknowledged as the first U.S. air
traffic controller, was born in 1907 at Poplar Bluff, Missouri. He
passed away on October 1, 1986 at the age of 79 in Annandale,
Virginia. League retired from the F.A.A. in 1973, as the Assistant
Administrator for Appraisal, with his claim to the first air traffic
controller largely unchallenged. Air Traffic Control: Keeping
Track of Flights
By the end of the first decade of powered flight, people began to
realize that aircraft, like automobiles, would crash into each other
unless some means was developed to control and direct them. At
first, because aircraft could not fly very high, such control was
accomplished using simple hand signals. Later, control was
exercised through radio communication. By the end of World War
II, the invention of radar permitted visually displayed tracking of
several aircraft at once. When coupled with radio communication,
radar made it possible for the pilot to be warned when he was in
danger of colliding with another aircraft or when he was off
course. In 1956, two aircraft crashed over the Grand Canyon
while one was climbing and the other descending. The resulting
public outcry spurred the development of the modern radar-based
air traffic control system. Today, aircraft are continually tracked
from take-off to landing

• First Flight
• On December 17, 1903, Orville and Wilbur Wright capped four years
of research and design efforts with a 120-foot, 12-second flight at
Kitty Hawk, North Carolina - the first powered flight in a heavierthan-air machine. Prior to that, people had flown only in balloons and
gliders.
• The first person to fly as a passenger was Leon Delagrange, who rode
with French pilot Henri Farman from a meadow outside of Paris in
1908. Charles Furnas became the first American airplane passenger
when he flew with Orville Wright at Kitty Hawk later that year.
World War I
• These and other early flights were headline events, but commercial
aviation was very slow to catch on with the general public, most of
which was afraid to ride in the new flying machines. Improvements in
aircraft design also were slow. However, with the advent of World
War I, the military value of aircraft was quickly recognized and
production increased significantly to meet the soaring demand for
planes from governments on both sides of the Atlantic. Most
significant was the development of more powerful motors, enabling
aircraft to reach speeds of up to 130 mph, more than twice the speed
of pre-war aircraft. Increased power also made bigger aircraft
possible.

• Airmail
• By 1917, the U.S. government felt it had seen enough progress in the development
of planes to warrant something totally new - air mail. That year, Congress
appropriated $100,000 for an experimental airmail service that was to be conducted
jointly by the Army and the Post Office between Washington and New York, with an
intermediate stop in Philadelphia. The first flight left Belmont Park, Long Island, for
Philadelphia on May 14, 1918, and the next day continued on to Washington where
it was met by President Woodrow Wilson. Beacons
• In 1921, the Army deployed rotating beacons in a line between Columbus and
Dayton, Ohio, a distance of about 80 miles. The beacons, visible to pilots at 10second intervals, made it possible to fly the route at night.
• The Post Office took over the operation of the guidance system the following year,
and by the end of 1923 constructed similar beacons between Chicago and Cheyenne,
WY, a line later extended coast-to-coast at a cost of $550,000. Mail then could be
delivered across the continent in as little as 29 hours eastbound and 34 hours
westbound (prevailing winds from west to east accounted for the difference), which
was two to three days less than it took by train.

• Aircraft Innovations
• For the airlines to attract more passengers away from the
railroads, they needed both larger and faster airplanes.
They also needed safer airplanes. Accidents such as the
one in 1931 that killed Notre Dame football coach Knute
Rockne and six other men kept people away from flying
in droves.
• Aircraft manufacturers responded to the challenge. There
were so many improvements to aircraft in the 1930s that
many believe it was the most innovative period in
aviation history. Air-cooled engines replaced watercooled engines, reducing weight and making bigger and
faster planes possible. Cockpit instruments also
improved, with better turn indicators, altimeters, airspeed
indicators, rate of climb indicators, compasses, and the
"artificial horizon," which showed pilots the attitude of
the aircraft relative to the ground - important for flying
in reduced visibility.

• Radio
• Another development of enormous importance to aviation was
radio. Aviation and radio developed almost in lock step. Marconi
sent his first message across the Atlantic on the airways just two
years before the Wright Brothers' first flight at Kitty Hawk. By
World War I, some pilots were taking radios up in the air with them
so they could communicate with people on the ground. The airlines
followed suit after the war, using radio to transmit weather
information from the ground to their pilots so they could avoid
storms.
• Perhaps an even bigger development, however, was the realization
that radio could be used as an aid to navigation when visibility was
poor and visual navigation aids such as beacons were useless. Once
technical bugs were worked out, the Department of Commerce
constructed 83 radio beacons across the country. They became fully
operational in 1932, automatically transmitting directional beams, or
tracks, that pilots could follow to their destination. Marker beacons
came next, allowing pilots to locate airports in poor visibility. The
first air traffic control tower was established in 1935 at Newark
International Airport in New Jersey.

• The DC-3
• Called the plane that changed the world, the DC-3 was
the first aircraft to enable airlines to make money
carrying passengers. As a result, it quickly became the
dominant aircraft in the United States following its
debut in 1936 with American Airlines (which played a
key role in its design).
• The DC-3 had 50% greater passenger capacity than the
DC-2 (21 seats versus 14), yet cost only 10% more to
operate. It also was considered a safer plane, built of an
aluminum alloy 25% stronger than materials previously
used in aircraft construction. It has more powerful
engines (1,000 horsepower versus 710 horsepower for
the DC-2), and it could travel coast to coast in 16 hours a fast trip for that time.

• Pressurized Cabins
• Although planes such as the Boeing 247 and the DC-3
represented significant advances in aircraft design, they had
a major drawback. They could fly no higher than 10,000
feet because people became dizzy and even fainted due to
the reduced levels of oxygen at higher altitudes.
• The airlines wanted to fly higher to get above the air
turbulence and storms common at lower altitudes. Motion
sickness was a problem for many airline passengers, and an
inhibiting factor to the industry's growth.
• The breakthrough came at Boeing with the Stratoliner, a
derivation of the B-17 bomber introduced in 1940 and first
flown by TWA. It was the first pressurized aircraft, meaning
that air was pumped into the aircraft as it gained altitude to
maintain an atmosphere inside the cabin similar to the
atmosphere that occurs naturally at lower altitudes. With its
regulated air compressor, the 33-seat Stratoliner could fly as
high as 20,000 feet and reach speeds of 200 miles per hour.

• World War II
• Aviation had an enormous impact on the course of World War II and
the war had just as big of an impact on aviation. There were fewer
than 300 air transports in the United States when Hitler marched into
Poland in 1939. By the end of the war, U.S. aircraft manufacturers
were producing 50,000 planes a year!
• Most of the planes, of course, were fighters and bombers, but the
importance of air transports to the war effort quickly became apparent
as well. Throughout the war, the airlines provided much needed airlift
to keep people and supplies moving to the front and throughout the
production chain back home. For the first time in their history, the
airlines had far more business - for passengers as well as freight - than
they could handle. Many of them also had opportunities to pioneer
new routes, gaining an exposure that would give them a decidedly
broader outlook at war's end.
• While there were numerous advances in U.S. aircraft design during
the war that enabled planes to go faster, higher, and further than ever
before, mass production was the chief goal of the United States. The
major innovations of the wartime period - radar and jet engines occurred in Europe.

• Radar
• A technological development with a much greater impact on
the war's outcome (and later on commercial aviation) was
radar. British scientists had been working on a device that
could give them early warning of approaching enemy
aircraft even before the war began, and by 1940 Britain had
a line of radar transceivers along its east coast that could
detect German aircraft the moment they took off from the
Continent.
• British scientists also perfected the cathode ray oscilloscope,
which produced map-type outlines of surrounding
countryside and showed aircraft as a pulsing light.
Americans, meanwhile, found a way to distinguish between
enemy aircraft and Allied aircraft by installing transponders
aboard the later that signaled their identity to radar
operators.

• The present Air Navigation System (ANS)
provides international Air Traffic Services (ATS)
• for civil aviation. The provision of these services is
based on the availability of Communication,
Navigation, Surveillance (CNS) systems and
automated Air Traffic Control (ATC) systems with
various levels of capabilities.
• International air traffic is channelled along specified
air routes and each air route is part of a network of
• generally fixed air routes within a Flight
Information Region (FIR)

• Air Traffic Services (ATS)
• ATS= Air Traffic Management + Flight Information Service + Alerting Service
• ATM= Air Traffic Control + Air Space Management + Air Traffic Flow
Management
• · ATC: Maintain a safe distance between aircraft and obstacles within a confined
airspace and also
• on the airport surface
• · ASM: Maximize, within a given airspace structure, the utilization of available
airspace by
• dynamic time sharing and segregation of airspace among competing categories of
users based
• on short-term needs
• · ATFM: ensure an optimum flow of air traffic through areas during times when
demands (is expected to) exceed the available capacity of ATC service
• · FIS: Collect, handle and disseminate flight-related information to assist the pilot to
conduct his flight in a safe and efficient manner (ex ATIS)
• · AL: initiate an early search and rescue activity for aircraft in distress
• ATIS A service of an airport for traffic in its TMA or CTR
• ATIS is a repeated message (VHF) containing information about· Weather

• ATIS A service of an airport for traffic in its TMA or
CTR
• ATIS is a repeated message (VHF) containing
information about weather
• · The QNH
• · Transition level, transition altitude
• · Operational issues

• Airspace Organisation
• · Control zone (CTR): local ATC (TWR) usually
circular area around airport
• · Terminal Control Area (TMA): local ATC (APP),
incoming and outgoing flights between CTR and
• CTA
• · Control Area (CTA): General ATC (ACC) within
FIR, below certain flight level (lower airspace)
• · Upper Control Area (UTA): General ATC, across
FIRs (upper airspace; ex Eurocontrol)

• SIDs and STARs
• Standard Instrumental Departure
• Defines the route flown between aircraft departure and an ATS route
(‘highway in the sky’) (connects CTR with CTA, through TMA)
• Standard Terminal Arrival Route
• Defines the route flown between an ATS route and an approach fix
(Connects CTA with CTR through TMA)
• ACAS Airborne Collision Avoidance System
• FANS: Future Air Navigation System
• Current operating ANS is not expected to be able to accommodate
foreseen growth in air traffic (in 2008) Shortcomings of existing CNS
and ATS will become more apparent over time
• Summary of general shortcomings
• Lack of real time information
• Short and long term intent of aircraft on certain parts of existing airroutes
• Procedurals of ATC do not provide most efficient flight profiles
Planned through intermediate waypoints Capabilities of modern
airborne systems cannot be fully exploited

• Communication

• · SSR mode S regional VHF data link (VDL) regional Satellite data
link (AMSS)
• Global Navigation
• · Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) GPS + GLONASS +
GALILEO
• Surveillance
• · SSR mode S regional
• · Automatic Dependent Surveillance (ADS) global
• · Airborne Separation Avoidance System (ASAS) global
• ADS
• An on-board avionics function that automatically transmits via a
digital data link real time surveillance information allows surveillance
in oceanic and other areas which are beyond coverage of radar or LOS
communication · Surveillance is dependent in ADS because its
operation and quality depend upon the performance of the aircraft’s
navigation system.

•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•

Data blocks
Basic
· Time of day
· Aircraft identification
· Three dimensional position
Additional can include
· Aircraft velocity and heading (4D)
· Aircraft intent (waypoints stored in FMS)
· Meteorological data
ADS-B
· Each ADS-B equipped aircraft periodically broadcasts its
position, altitude and vector information
• · Any user could receive and process the information
• · Everyone in the system would have real time access to
precisely the same data

• The world's busiest airports by passenger traffic are
measured by number of total passengers (data provided by
Airports Council International). One passenger is
described as someone who arrives in, departs from, or
transfers through the airport on a given day. HartsfieldJackson International Airport in Atlanta has been the
world's busiest airport every year since 2000, although
with all airports combined London has the world's busiest
city airport system in terms of passenger traffic.
• [hide] 1.
• 1-Hartsfield–Jackson Atlanta International AirportAtlanta,
Georgia, United StatesATL/KATL Passenger - 92,365,860
• 2-Beijing Capital International Airport Chaoyang, Beijing,
ChinaPEK/ZBAA77,403,668
• London Heathrow Airport Hillingdon, London, United
KingdomLHR/EGLL-69,433,565


Slide 11

AIR SPACE AND TRAFFIC
MANAGEMENT

Archie William League, widely acknowledged as the first U.S. air
traffic controller, was born in 1907 at Poplar Bluff, Missouri. He
passed away on October 1, 1986 at the age of 79 in Annandale,
Virginia. League retired from the F.A.A. in 1973, as the Assistant
Administrator for Appraisal, with his claim to the first air traffic
controller largely unchallenged. Air Traffic Control: Keeping
Track of Flights
By the end of the first decade of powered flight, people began to
realize that aircraft, like automobiles, would crash into each other
unless some means was developed to control and direct them. At
first, because aircraft could not fly very high, such control was
accomplished using simple hand signals. Later, control was
exercised through radio communication. By the end of World War
II, the invention of radar permitted visually displayed tracking of
several aircraft at once. When coupled with radio communication,
radar made it possible for the pilot to be warned when he was in
danger of colliding with another aircraft or when he was off
course. In 1956, two aircraft crashed over the Grand Canyon
while one was climbing and the other descending. The resulting
public outcry spurred the development of the modern radar-based
air traffic control system. Today, aircraft are continually tracked
from take-off to landing

• First Flight
• On December 17, 1903, Orville and Wilbur Wright capped four years
of research and design efforts with a 120-foot, 12-second flight at
Kitty Hawk, North Carolina - the first powered flight in a heavierthan-air machine. Prior to that, people had flown only in balloons and
gliders.
• The first person to fly as a passenger was Leon Delagrange, who rode
with French pilot Henri Farman from a meadow outside of Paris in
1908. Charles Furnas became the first American airplane passenger
when he flew with Orville Wright at Kitty Hawk later that year.
World War I
• These and other early flights were headline events, but commercial
aviation was very slow to catch on with the general public, most of
which was afraid to ride in the new flying machines. Improvements in
aircraft design also were slow. However, with the advent of World
War I, the military value of aircraft was quickly recognized and
production increased significantly to meet the soaring demand for
planes from governments on both sides of the Atlantic. Most
significant was the development of more powerful motors, enabling
aircraft to reach speeds of up to 130 mph, more than twice the speed
of pre-war aircraft. Increased power also made bigger aircraft
possible.

• Airmail
• By 1917, the U.S. government felt it had seen enough progress in the development
of planes to warrant something totally new - air mail. That year, Congress
appropriated $100,000 for an experimental airmail service that was to be conducted
jointly by the Army and the Post Office between Washington and New York, with an
intermediate stop in Philadelphia. The first flight left Belmont Park, Long Island, for
Philadelphia on May 14, 1918, and the next day continued on to Washington where
it was met by President Woodrow Wilson. Beacons
• In 1921, the Army deployed rotating beacons in a line between Columbus and
Dayton, Ohio, a distance of about 80 miles. The beacons, visible to pilots at 10second intervals, made it possible to fly the route at night.
• The Post Office took over the operation of the guidance system the following year,
and by the end of 1923 constructed similar beacons between Chicago and Cheyenne,
WY, a line later extended coast-to-coast at a cost of $550,000. Mail then could be
delivered across the continent in as little as 29 hours eastbound and 34 hours
westbound (prevailing winds from west to east accounted for the difference), which
was two to three days less than it took by train.

• Aircraft Innovations
• For the airlines to attract more passengers away from the
railroads, they needed both larger and faster airplanes.
They also needed safer airplanes. Accidents such as the
one in 1931 that killed Notre Dame football coach Knute
Rockne and six other men kept people away from flying
in droves.
• Aircraft manufacturers responded to the challenge. There
were so many improvements to aircraft in the 1930s that
many believe it was the most innovative period in
aviation history. Air-cooled engines replaced watercooled engines, reducing weight and making bigger and
faster planes possible. Cockpit instruments also
improved, with better turn indicators, altimeters, airspeed
indicators, rate of climb indicators, compasses, and the
"artificial horizon," which showed pilots the attitude of
the aircraft relative to the ground - important for flying
in reduced visibility.

• Radio
• Another development of enormous importance to aviation was
radio. Aviation and radio developed almost in lock step. Marconi
sent his first message across the Atlantic on the airways just two
years before the Wright Brothers' first flight at Kitty Hawk. By
World War I, some pilots were taking radios up in the air with them
so they could communicate with people on the ground. The airlines
followed suit after the war, using radio to transmit weather
information from the ground to their pilots so they could avoid
storms.
• Perhaps an even bigger development, however, was the realization
that radio could be used as an aid to navigation when visibility was
poor and visual navigation aids such as beacons were useless. Once
technical bugs were worked out, the Department of Commerce
constructed 83 radio beacons across the country. They became fully
operational in 1932, automatically transmitting directional beams, or
tracks, that pilots could follow to their destination. Marker beacons
came next, allowing pilots to locate airports in poor visibility. The
first air traffic control tower was established in 1935 at Newark
International Airport in New Jersey.

• The DC-3
• Called the plane that changed the world, the DC-3 was
the first aircraft to enable airlines to make money
carrying passengers. As a result, it quickly became the
dominant aircraft in the United States following its
debut in 1936 with American Airlines (which played a
key role in its design).
• The DC-3 had 50% greater passenger capacity than the
DC-2 (21 seats versus 14), yet cost only 10% more to
operate. It also was considered a safer plane, built of an
aluminum alloy 25% stronger than materials previously
used in aircraft construction. It has more powerful
engines (1,000 horsepower versus 710 horsepower for
the DC-2), and it could travel coast to coast in 16 hours a fast trip for that time.

• Pressurized Cabins
• Although planes such as the Boeing 247 and the DC-3
represented significant advances in aircraft design, they had
a major drawback. They could fly no higher than 10,000
feet because people became dizzy and even fainted due to
the reduced levels of oxygen at higher altitudes.
• The airlines wanted to fly higher to get above the air
turbulence and storms common at lower altitudes. Motion
sickness was a problem for many airline passengers, and an
inhibiting factor to the industry's growth.
• The breakthrough came at Boeing with the Stratoliner, a
derivation of the B-17 bomber introduced in 1940 and first
flown by TWA. It was the first pressurized aircraft, meaning
that air was pumped into the aircraft as it gained altitude to
maintain an atmosphere inside the cabin similar to the
atmosphere that occurs naturally at lower altitudes. With its
regulated air compressor, the 33-seat Stratoliner could fly as
high as 20,000 feet and reach speeds of 200 miles per hour.

• World War II
• Aviation had an enormous impact on the course of World War II and
the war had just as big of an impact on aviation. There were fewer
than 300 air transports in the United States when Hitler marched into
Poland in 1939. By the end of the war, U.S. aircraft manufacturers
were producing 50,000 planes a year!
• Most of the planes, of course, were fighters and bombers, but the
importance of air transports to the war effort quickly became apparent
as well. Throughout the war, the airlines provided much needed airlift
to keep people and supplies moving to the front and throughout the
production chain back home. For the first time in their history, the
airlines had far more business - for passengers as well as freight - than
they could handle. Many of them also had opportunities to pioneer
new routes, gaining an exposure that would give them a decidedly
broader outlook at war's end.
• While there were numerous advances in U.S. aircraft design during
the war that enabled planes to go faster, higher, and further than ever
before, mass production was the chief goal of the United States. The
major innovations of the wartime period - radar and jet engines occurred in Europe.

• Radar
• A technological development with a much greater impact on
the war's outcome (and later on commercial aviation) was
radar. British scientists had been working on a device that
could give them early warning of approaching enemy
aircraft even before the war began, and by 1940 Britain had
a line of radar transceivers along its east coast that could
detect German aircraft the moment they took off from the
Continent.
• British scientists also perfected the cathode ray oscilloscope,
which produced map-type outlines of surrounding
countryside and showed aircraft as a pulsing light.
Americans, meanwhile, found a way to distinguish between
enemy aircraft and Allied aircraft by installing transponders
aboard the later that signaled their identity to radar
operators.

• The present Air Navigation System (ANS)
provides international Air Traffic Services (ATS)
• for civil aviation. The provision of these services is
based on the availability of Communication,
Navigation, Surveillance (CNS) systems and
automated Air Traffic Control (ATC) systems with
various levels of capabilities.
• International air traffic is channelled along specified
air routes and each air route is part of a network of
• generally fixed air routes within a Flight
Information Region (FIR)

• Air Traffic Services (ATS)
• ATS= Air Traffic Management + Flight Information Service + Alerting Service
• ATM= Air Traffic Control + Air Space Management + Air Traffic Flow
Management
• · ATC: Maintain a safe distance between aircraft and obstacles within a confined
airspace and also
• on the airport surface
• · ASM: Maximize, within a given airspace structure, the utilization of available
airspace by
• dynamic time sharing and segregation of airspace among competing categories of
users based
• on short-term needs
• · ATFM: ensure an optimum flow of air traffic through areas during times when
demands (is expected to) exceed the available capacity of ATC service
• · FIS: Collect, handle and disseminate flight-related information to assist the pilot to
conduct his flight in a safe and efficient manner (ex ATIS)
• · AL: initiate an early search and rescue activity for aircraft in distress
• ATIS A service of an airport for traffic in its TMA or CTR
• ATIS is a repeated message (VHF) containing information about· Weather

• ATIS A service of an airport for traffic in its TMA or
CTR
• ATIS is a repeated message (VHF) containing
information about weather
• · The QNH
• · Transition level, transition altitude
• · Operational issues

• Airspace Organisation
• · Control zone (CTR): local ATC (TWR) usually
circular area around airport
• · Terminal Control Area (TMA): local ATC (APP),
incoming and outgoing flights between CTR and
• CTA
• · Control Area (CTA): General ATC (ACC) within
FIR, below certain flight level (lower airspace)
• · Upper Control Area (UTA): General ATC, across
FIRs (upper airspace; ex Eurocontrol)

• SIDs and STARs
• Standard Instrumental Departure
• Defines the route flown between aircraft departure and an ATS route
(‘highway in the sky’) (connects CTR with CTA, through TMA)
• Standard Terminal Arrival Route
• Defines the route flown between an ATS route and an approach fix
(Connects CTA with CTR through TMA)
• ACAS Airborne Collision Avoidance System
• FANS: Future Air Navigation System
• Current operating ANS is not expected to be able to accommodate
foreseen growth in air traffic (in 2008) Shortcomings of existing CNS
and ATS will become more apparent over time
• Summary of general shortcomings
• Lack of real time information
• Short and long term intent of aircraft on certain parts of existing airroutes
• Procedurals of ATC do not provide most efficient flight profiles
Planned through intermediate waypoints Capabilities of modern
airborne systems cannot be fully exploited

• Communication

• · SSR mode S regional VHF data link (VDL) regional Satellite data
link (AMSS)
• Global Navigation
• · Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) GPS + GLONASS +
GALILEO
• Surveillance
• · SSR mode S regional
• · Automatic Dependent Surveillance (ADS) global
• · Airborne Separation Avoidance System (ASAS) global
• ADS
• An on-board avionics function that automatically transmits via a
digital data link real time surveillance information allows surveillance
in oceanic and other areas which are beyond coverage of radar or LOS
communication · Surveillance is dependent in ADS because its
operation and quality depend upon the performance of the aircraft’s
navigation system.

•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•

Data blocks
Basic
· Time of day
· Aircraft identification
· Three dimensional position
Additional can include
· Aircraft velocity and heading (4D)
· Aircraft intent (waypoints stored in FMS)
· Meteorological data
ADS-B
· Each ADS-B equipped aircraft periodically broadcasts its
position, altitude and vector information
• · Any user could receive and process the information
• · Everyone in the system would have real time access to
precisely the same data

• The world's busiest airports by passenger traffic are
measured by number of total passengers (data provided by
Airports Council International). One passenger is
described as someone who arrives in, departs from, or
transfers through the airport on a given day. HartsfieldJackson International Airport in Atlanta has been the
world's busiest airport every year since 2000, although
with all airports combined London has the world's busiest
city airport system in terms of passenger traffic.
• [hide] 1.
• 1-Hartsfield–Jackson Atlanta International AirportAtlanta,
Georgia, United StatesATL/KATL Passenger - 92,365,860
• 2-Beijing Capital International Airport Chaoyang, Beijing,
ChinaPEK/ZBAA77,403,668
• London Heathrow Airport Hillingdon, London, United
KingdomLHR/EGLL-69,433,565


Slide 12

AIR SPACE AND TRAFFIC
MANAGEMENT

Archie William League, widely acknowledged as the first U.S. air
traffic controller, was born in 1907 at Poplar Bluff, Missouri. He
passed away on October 1, 1986 at the age of 79 in Annandale,
Virginia. League retired from the F.A.A. in 1973, as the Assistant
Administrator for Appraisal, with his claim to the first air traffic
controller largely unchallenged. Air Traffic Control: Keeping
Track of Flights
By the end of the first decade of powered flight, people began to
realize that aircraft, like automobiles, would crash into each other
unless some means was developed to control and direct them. At
first, because aircraft could not fly very high, such control was
accomplished using simple hand signals. Later, control was
exercised through radio communication. By the end of World War
II, the invention of radar permitted visually displayed tracking of
several aircraft at once. When coupled with radio communication,
radar made it possible for the pilot to be warned when he was in
danger of colliding with another aircraft or when he was off
course. In 1956, two aircraft crashed over the Grand Canyon
while one was climbing and the other descending. The resulting
public outcry spurred the development of the modern radar-based
air traffic control system. Today, aircraft are continually tracked
from take-off to landing

• First Flight
• On December 17, 1903, Orville and Wilbur Wright capped four years
of research and design efforts with a 120-foot, 12-second flight at
Kitty Hawk, North Carolina - the first powered flight in a heavierthan-air machine. Prior to that, people had flown only in balloons and
gliders.
• The first person to fly as a passenger was Leon Delagrange, who rode
with French pilot Henri Farman from a meadow outside of Paris in
1908. Charles Furnas became the first American airplane passenger
when he flew with Orville Wright at Kitty Hawk later that year.
World War I
• These and other early flights were headline events, but commercial
aviation was very slow to catch on with the general public, most of
which was afraid to ride in the new flying machines. Improvements in
aircraft design also were slow. However, with the advent of World
War I, the military value of aircraft was quickly recognized and
production increased significantly to meet the soaring demand for
planes from governments on both sides of the Atlantic. Most
significant was the development of more powerful motors, enabling
aircraft to reach speeds of up to 130 mph, more than twice the speed
of pre-war aircraft. Increased power also made bigger aircraft
possible.

• Airmail
• By 1917, the U.S. government felt it had seen enough progress in the development
of planes to warrant something totally new - air mail. That year, Congress
appropriated $100,000 for an experimental airmail service that was to be conducted
jointly by the Army and the Post Office between Washington and New York, with an
intermediate stop in Philadelphia. The first flight left Belmont Park, Long Island, for
Philadelphia on May 14, 1918, and the next day continued on to Washington where
it was met by President Woodrow Wilson. Beacons
• In 1921, the Army deployed rotating beacons in a line between Columbus and
Dayton, Ohio, a distance of about 80 miles. The beacons, visible to pilots at 10second intervals, made it possible to fly the route at night.
• The Post Office took over the operation of the guidance system the following year,
and by the end of 1923 constructed similar beacons between Chicago and Cheyenne,
WY, a line later extended coast-to-coast at a cost of $550,000. Mail then could be
delivered across the continent in as little as 29 hours eastbound and 34 hours
westbound (prevailing winds from west to east accounted for the difference), which
was two to three days less than it took by train.

• Aircraft Innovations
• For the airlines to attract more passengers away from the
railroads, they needed both larger and faster airplanes.
They also needed safer airplanes. Accidents such as the
one in 1931 that killed Notre Dame football coach Knute
Rockne and six other men kept people away from flying
in droves.
• Aircraft manufacturers responded to the challenge. There
were so many improvements to aircraft in the 1930s that
many believe it was the most innovative period in
aviation history. Air-cooled engines replaced watercooled engines, reducing weight and making bigger and
faster planes possible. Cockpit instruments also
improved, with better turn indicators, altimeters, airspeed
indicators, rate of climb indicators, compasses, and the
"artificial horizon," which showed pilots the attitude of
the aircraft relative to the ground - important for flying
in reduced visibility.

• Radio
• Another development of enormous importance to aviation was
radio. Aviation and radio developed almost in lock step. Marconi
sent his first message across the Atlantic on the airways just two
years before the Wright Brothers' first flight at Kitty Hawk. By
World War I, some pilots were taking radios up in the air with them
so they could communicate with people on the ground. The airlines
followed suit after the war, using radio to transmit weather
information from the ground to their pilots so they could avoid
storms.
• Perhaps an even bigger development, however, was the realization
that radio could be used as an aid to navigation when visibility was
poor and visual navigation aids such as beacons were useless. Once
technical bugs were worked out, the Department of Commerce
constructed 83 radio beacons across the country. They became fully
operational in 1932, automatically transmitting directional beams, or
tracks, that pilots could follow to their destination. Marker beacons
came next, allowing pilots to locate airports in poor visibility. The
first air traffic control tower was established in 1935 at Newark
International Airport in New Jersey.

• The DC-3
• Called the plane that changed the world, the DC-3 was
the first aircraft to enable airlines to make money
carrying passengers. As a result, it quickly became the
dominant aircraft in the United States following its
debut in 1936 with American Airlines (which played a
key role in its design).
• The DC-3 had 50% greater passenger capacity than the
DC-2 (21 seats versus 14), yet cost only 10% more to
operate. It also was considered a safer plane, built of an
aluminum alloy 25% stronger than materials previously
used in aircraft construction. It has more powerful
engines (1,000 horsepower versus 710 horsepower for
the DC-2), and it could travel coast to coast in 16 hours a fast trip for that time.

• Pressurized Cabins
• Although planes such as the Boeing 247 and the DC-3
represented significant advances in aircraft design, they had
a major drawback. They could fly no higher than 10,000
feet because people became dizzy and even fainted due to
the reduced levels of oxygen at higher altitudes.
• The airlines wanted to fly higher to get above the air
turbulence and storms common at lower altitudes. Motion
sickness was a problem for many airline passengers, and an
inhibiting factor to the industry's growth.
• The breakthrough came at Boeing with the Stratoliner, a
derivation of the B-17 bomber introduced in 1940 and first
flown by TWA. It was the first pressurized aircraft, meaning
that air was pumped into the aircraft as it gained altitude to
maintain an atmosphere inside the cabin similar to the
atmosphere that occurs naturally at lower altitudes. With its
regulated air compressor, the 33-seat Stratoliner could fly as
high as 20,000 feet and reach speeds of 200 miles per hour.

• World War II
• Aviation had an enormous impact on the course of World War II and
the war had just as big of an impact on aviation. There were fewer
than 300 air transports in the United States when Hitler marched into
Poland in 1939. By the end of the war, U.S. aircraft manufacturers
were producing 50,000 planes a year!
• Most of the planes, of course, were fighters and bombers, but the
importance of air transports to the war effort quickly became apparent
as well. Throughout the war, the airlines provided much needed airlift
to keep people and supplies moving to the front and throughout the
production chain back home. For the first time in their history, the
airlines had far more business - for passengers as well as freight - than
they could handle. Many of them also had opportunities to pioneer
new routes, gaining an exposure that would give them a decidedly
broader outlook at war's end.
• While there were numerous advances in U.S. aircraft design during
the war that enabled planes to go faster, higher, and further than ever
before, mass production was the chief goal of the United States. The
major innovations of the wartime period - radar and jet engines occurred in Europe.

• Radar
• A technological development with a much greater impact on
the war's outcome (and later on commercial aviation) was
radar. British scientists had been working on a device that
could give them early warning of approaching enemy
aircraft even before the war began, and by 1940 Britain had
a line of radar transceivers along its east coast that could
detect German aircraft the moment they took off from the
Continent.
• British scientists also perfected the cathode ray oscilloscope,
which produced map-type outlines of surrounding
countryside and showed aircraft as a pulsing light.
Americans, meanwhile, found a way to distinguish between
enemy aircraft and Allied aircraft by installing transponders
aboard the later that signaled their identity to radar
operators.

• The present Air Navigation System (ANS)
provides international Air Traffic Services (ATS)
• for civil aviation. The provision of these services is
based on the availability of Communication,
Navigation, Surveillance (CNS) systems and
automated Air Traffic Control (ATC) systems with
various levels of capabilities.
• International air traffic is channelled along specified
air routes and each air route is part of a network of
• generally fixed air routes within a Flight
Information Region (FIR)

• Air Traffic Services (ATS)
• ATS= Air Traffic Management + Flight Information Service + Alerting Service
• ATM= Air Traffic Control + Air Space Management + Air Traffic Flow
Management
• · ATC: Maintain a safe distance between aircraft and obstacles within a confined
airspace and also
• on the airport surface
• · ASM: Maximize, within a given airspace structure, the utilization of available
airspace by
• dynamic time sharing and segregation of airspace among competing categories of
users based
• on short-term needs
• · ATFM: ensure an optimum flow of air traffic through areas during times when
demands (is expected to) exceed the available capacity of ATC service
• · FIS: Collect, handle and disseminate flight-related information to assist the pilot to
conduct his flight in a safe and efficient manner (ex ATIS)
• · AL: initiate an early search and rescue activity for aircraft in distress
• ATIS A service of an airport for traffic in its TMA or CTR
• ATIS is a repeated message (VHF) containing information about· Weather

• ATIS A service of an airport for traffic in its TMA or
CTR
• ATIS is a repeated message (VHF) containing
information about weather
• · The QNH
• · Transition level, transition altitude
• · Operational issues

• Airspace Organisation
• · Control zone (CTR): local ATC (TWR) usually
circular area around airport
• · Terminal Control Area (TMA): local ATC (APP),
incoming and outgoing flights between CTR and
• CTA
• · Control Area (CTA): General ATC (ACC) within
FIR, below certain flight level (lower airspace)
• · Upper Control Area (UTA): General ATC, across
FIRs (upper airspace; ex Eurocontrol)

• SIDs and STARs
• Standard Instrumental Departure
• Defines the route flown between aircraft departure and an ATS route
(‘highway in the sky’) (connects CTR with CTA, through TMA)
• Standard Terminal Arrival Route
• Defines the route flown between an ATS route and an approach fix
(Connects CTA with CTR through TMA)
• ACAS Airborne Collision Avoidance System
• FANS: Future Air Navigation System
• Current operating ANS is not expected to be able to accommodate
foreseen growth in air traffic (in 2008) Shortcomings of existing CNS
and ATS will become more apparent over time
• Summary of general shortcomings
• Lack of real time information
• Short and long term intent of aircraft on certain parts of existing airroutes
• Procedurals of ATC do not provide most efficient flight profiles
Planned through intermediate waypoints Capabilities of modern
airborne systems cannot be fully exploited

• Communication

• · SSR mode S regional VHF data link (VDL) regional Satellite data
link (AMSS)
• Global Navigation
• · Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) GPS + GLONASS +
GALILEO
• Surveillance
• · SSR mode S regional
• · Automatic Dependent Surveillance (ADS) global
• · Airborne Separation Avoidance System (ASAS) global
• ADS
• An on-board avionics function that automatically transmits via a
digital data link real time surveillance information allows surveillance
in oceanic and other areas which are beyond coverage of radar or LOS
communication · Surveillance is dependent in ADS because its
operation and quality depend upon the performance of the aircraft’s
navigation system.

•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•

Data blocks
Basic
· Time of day
· Aircraft identification
· Three dimensional position
Additional can include
· Aircraft velocity and heading (4D)
· Aircraft intent (waypoints stored in FMS)
· Meteorological data
ADS-B
· Each ADS-B equipped aircraft periodically broadcasts its
position, altitude and vector information
• · Any user could receive and process the information
• · Everyone in the system would have real time access to
precisely the same data

• The world's busiest airports by passenger traffic are
measured by number of total passengers (data provided by
Airports Council International). One passenger is
described as someone who arrives in, departs from, or
transfers through the airport on a given day. HartsfieldJackson International Airport in Atlanta has been the
world's busiest airport every year since 2000, although
with all airports combined London has the world's busiest
city airport system in terms of passenger traffic.
• [hide] 1.
• 1-Hartsfield–Jackson Atlanta International AirportAtlanta,
Georgia, United StatesATL/KATL Passenger - 92,365,860
• 2-Beijing Capital International Airport Chaoyang, Beijing,
ChinaPEK/ZBAA77,403,668
• London Heathrow Airport Hillingdon, London, United
KingdomLHR/EGLL-69,433,565


Slide 13

AIR SPACE AND TRAFFIC
MANAGEMENT

Archie William League, widely acknowledged as the first U.S. air
traffic controller, was born in 1907 at Poplar Bluff, Missouri. He
passed away on October 1, 1986 at the age of 79 in Annandale,
Virginia. League retired from the F.A.A. in 1973, as the Assistant
Administrator for Appraisal, with his claim to the first air traffic
controller largely unchallenged. Air Traffic Control: Keeping
Track of Flights
By the end of the first decade of powered flight, people began to
realize that aircraft, like automobiles, would crash into each other
unless some means was developed to control and direct them. At
first, because aircraft could not fly very high, such control was
accomplished using simple hand signals. Later, control was
exercised through radio communication. By the end of World War
II, the invention of radar permitted visually displayed tracking of
several aircraft at once. When coupled with radio communication,
radar made it possible for the pilot to be warned when he was in
danger of colliding with another aircraft or when he was off
course. In 1956, two aircraft crashed over the Grand Canyon
while one was climbing and the other descending. The resulting
public outcry spurred the development of the modern radar-based
air traffic control system. Today, aircraft are continually tracked
from take-off to landing

• First Flight
• On December 17, 1903, Orville and Wilbur Wright capped four years
of research and design efforts with a 120-foot, 12-second flight at
Kitty Hawk, North Carolina - the first powered flight in a heavierthan-air machine. Prior to that, people had flown only in balloons and
gliders.
• The first person to fly as a passenger was Leon Delagrange, who rode
with French pilot Henri Farman from a meadow outside of Paris in
1908. Charles Furnas became the first American airplane passenger
when he flew with Orville Wright at Kitty Hawk later that year.
World War I
• These and other early flights were headline events, but commercial
aviation was very slow to catch on with the general public, most of
which was afraid to ride in the new flying machines. Improvements in
aircraft design also were slow. However, with the advent of World
War I, the military value of aircraft was quickly recognized and
production increased significantly to meet the soaring demand for
planes from governments on both sides of the Atlantic. Most
significant was the development of more powerful motors, enabling
aircraft to reach speeds of up to 130 mph, more than twice the speed
of pre-war aircraft. Increased power also made bigger aircraft
possible.

• Airmail
• By 1917, the U.S. government felt it had seen enough progress in the development
of planes to warrant something totally new - air mail. That year, Congress
appropriated $100,000 for an experimental airmail service that was to be conducted
jointly by the Army and the Post Office between Washington and New York, with an
intermediate stop in Philadelphia. The first flight left Belmont Park, Long Island, for
Philadelphia on May 14, 1918, and the next day continued on to Washington where
it was met by President Woodrow Wilson. Beacons
• In 1921, the Army deployed rotating beacons in a line between Columbus and
Dayton, Ohio, a distance of about 80 miles. The beacons, visible to pilots at 10second intervals, made it possible to fly the route at night.
• The Post Office took over the operation of the guidance system the following year,
and by the end of 1923 constructed similar beacons between Chicago and Cheyenne,
WY, a line later extended coast-to-coast at a cost of $550,000. Mail then could be
delivered across the continent in as little as 29 hours eastbound and 34 hours
westbound (prevailing winds from west to east accounted for the difference), which
was two to three days less than it took by train.

• Aircraft Innovations
• For the airlines to attract more passengers away from the
railroads, they needed both larger and faster airplanes.
They also needed safer airplanes. Accidents such as the
one in 1931 that killed Notre Dame football coach Knute
Rockne and six other men kept people away from flying
in droves.
• Aircraft manufacturers responded to the challenge. There
were so many improvements to aircraft in the 1930s that
many believe it was the most innovative period in
aviation history. Air-cooled engines replaced watercooled engines, reducing weight and making bigger and
faster planes possible. Cockpit instruments also
improved, with better turn indicators, altimeters, airspeed
indicators, rate of climb indicators, compasses, and the
"artificial horizon," which showed pilots the attitude of
the aircraft relative to the ground - important for flying
in reduced visibility.

• Radio
• Another development of enormous importance to aviation was
radio. Aviation and radio developed almost in lock step. Marconi
sent his first message across the Atlantic on the airways just two
years before the Wright Brothers' first flight at Kitty Hawk. By
World War I, some pilots were taking radios up in the air with them
so they could communicate with people on the ground. The airlines
followed suit after the war, using radio to transmit weather
information from the ground to their pilots so they could avoid
storms.
• Perhaps an even bigger development, however, was the realization
that radio could be used as an aid to navigation when visibility was
poor and visual navigation aids such as beacons were useless. Once
technical bugs were worked out, the Department of Commerce
constructed 83 radio beacons across the country. They became fully
operational in 1932, automatically transmitting directional beams, or
tracks, that pilots could follow to their destination. Marker beacons
came next, allowing pilots to locate airports in poor visibility. The
first air traffic control tower was established in 1935 at Newark
International Airport in New Jersey.

• The DC-3
• Called the plane that changed the world, the DC-3 was
the first aircraft to enable airlines to make money
carrying passengers. As a result, it quickly became the
dominant aircraft in the United States following its
debut in 1936 with American Airlines (which played a
key role in its design).
• The DC-3 had 50% greater passenger capacity than the
DC-2 (21 seats versus 14), yet cost only 10% more to
operate. It also was considered a safer plane, built of an
aluminum alloy 25% stronger than materials previously
used in aircraft construction. It has more powerful
engines (1,000 horsepower versus 710 horsepower for
the DC-2), and it could travel coast to coast in 16 hours a fast trip for that time.

• Pressurized Cabins
• Although planes such as the Boeing 247 and the DC-3
represented significant advances in aircraft design, they had
a major drawback. They could fly no higher than 10,000
feet because people became dizzy and even fainted due to
the reduced levels of oxygen at higher altitudes.
• The airlines wanted to fly higher to get above the air
turbulence and storms common at lower altitudes. Motion
sickness was a problem for many airline passengers, and an
inhibiting factor to the industry's growth.
• The breakthrough came at Boeing with the Stratoliner, a
derivation of the B-17 bomber introduced in 1940 and first
flown by TWA. It was the first pressurized aircraft, meaning
that air was pumped into the aircraft as it gained altitude to
maintain an atmosphere inside the cabin similar to the
atmosphere that occurs naturally at lower altitudes. With its
regulated air compressor, the 33-seat Stratoliner could fly as
high as 20,000 feet and reach speeds of 200 miles per hour.

• World War II
• Aviation had an enormous impact on the course of World War II and
the war had just as big of an impact on aviation. There were fewer
than 300 air transports in the United States when Hitler marched into
Poland in 1939. By the end of the war, U.S. aircraft manufacturers
were producing 50,000 planes a year!
• Most of the planes, of course, were fighters and bombers, but the
importance of air transports to the war effort quickly became apparent
as well. Throughout the war, the airlines provided much needed airlift
to keep people and supplies moving to the front and throughout the
production chain back home. For the first time in their history, the
airlines had far more business - for passengers as well as freight - than
they could handle. Many of them also had opportunities to pioneer
new routes, gaining an exposure that would give them a decidedly
broader outlook at war's end.
• While there were numerous advances in U.S. aircraft design during
the war that enabled planes to go faster, higher, and further than ever
before, mass production was the chief goal of the United States. The
major innovations of the wartime period - radar and jet engines occurred in Europe.

• Radar
• A technological development with a much greater impact on
the war's outcome (and later on commercial aviation) was
radar. British scientists had been working on a device that
could give them early warning of approaching enemy
aircraft even before the war began, and by 1940 Britain had
a line of radar transceivers along its east coast that could
detect German aircraft the moment they took off from the
Continent.
• British scientists also perfected the cathode ray oscilloscope,
which produced map-type outlines of surrounding
countryside and showed aircraft as a pulsing light.
Americans, meanwhile, found a way to distinguish between
enemy aircraft and Allied aircraft by installing transponders
aboard the later that signaled their identity to radar
operators.

• The present Air Navigation System (ANS)
provides international Air Traffic Services (ATS)
• for civil aviation. The provision of these services is
based on the availability of Communication,
Navigation, Surveillance (CNS) systems and
automated Air Traffic Control (ATC) systems with
various levels of capabilities.
• International air traffic is channelled along specified
air routes and each air route is part of a network of
• generally fixed air routes within a Flight
Information Region (FIR)

• Air Traffic Services (ATS)
• ATS= Air Traffic Management + Flight Information Service + Alerting Service
• ATM= Air Traffic Control + Air Space Management + Air Traffic Flow
Management
• · ATC: Maintain a safe distance between aircraft and obstacles within a confined
airspace and also
• on the airport surface
• · ASM: Maximize, within a given airspace structure, the utilization of available
airspace by
• dynamic time sharing and segregation of airspace among competing categories of
users based
• on short-term needs
• · ATFM: ensure an optimum flow of air traffic through areas during times when
demands (is expected to) exceed the available capacity of ATC service
• · FIS: Collect, handle and disseminate flight-related information to assist the pilot to
conduct his flight in a safe and efficient manner (ex ATIS)
• · AL: initiate an early search and rescue activity for aircraft in distress
• ATIS A service of an airport for traffic in its TMA or CTR
• ATIS is a repeated message (VHF) containing information about· Weather

• ATIS A service of an airport for traffic in its TMA or
CTR
• ATIS is a repeated message (VHF) containing
information about weather
• · The QNH
• · Transition level, transition altitude
• · Operational issues

• Airspace Organisation
• · Control zone (CTR): local ATC (TWR) usually
circular area around airport
• · Terminal Control Area (TMA): local ATC (APP),
incoming and outgoing flights between CTR and
• CTA
• · Control Area (CTA): General ATC (ACC) within
FIR, below certain flight level (lower airspace)
• · Upper Control Area (UTA): General ATC, across
FIRs (upper airspace; ex Eurocontrol)

• SIDs and STARs
• Standard Instrumental Departure
• Defines the route flown between aircraft departure and an ATS route
(‘highway in the sky’) (connects CTR with CTA, through TMA)
• Standard Terminal Arrival Route
• Defines the route flown between an ATS route and an approach fix
(Connects CTA with CTR through TMA)
• ACAS Airborne Collision Avoidance System
• FANS: Future Air Navigation System
• Current operating ANS is not expected to be able to accommodate
foreseen growth in air traffic (in 2008) Shortcomings of existing CNS
and ATS will become more apparent over time
• Summary of general shortcomings
• Lack of real time information
• Short and long term intent of aircraft on certain parts of existing airroutes
• Procedurals of ATC do not provide most efficient flight profiles
Planned through intermediate waypoints Capabilities of modern
airborne systems cannot be fully exploited

• Communication

• · SSR mode S regional VHF data link (VDL) regional Satellite data
link (AMSS)
• Global Navigation
• · Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) GPS + GLONASS +
GALILEO
• Surveillance
• · SSR mode S regional
• · Automatic Dependent Surveillance (ADS) global
• · Airborne Separation Avoidance System (ASAS) global
• ADS
• An on-board avionics function that automatically transmits via a
digital data link real time surveillance information allows surveillance
in oceanic and other areas which are beyond coverage of radar or LOS
communication · Surveillance is dependent in ADS because its
operation and quality depend upon the performance of the aircraft’s
navigation system.

•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•

Data blocks
Basic
· Time of day
· Aircraft identification
· Three dimensional position
Additional can include
· Aircraft velocity and heading (4D)
· Aircraft intent (waypoints stored in FMS)
· Meteorological data
ADS-B
· Each ADS-B equipped aircraft periodically broadcasts its
position, altitude and vector information
• · Any user could receive and process the information
• · Everyone in the system would have real time access to
precisely the same data

• The world's busiest airports by passenger traffic are
measured by number of total passengers (data provided by
Airports Council International). One passenger is
described as someone who arrives in, departs from, or
transfers through the airport on a given day. HartsfieldJackson International Airport in Atlanta has been the
world's busiest airport every year since 2000, although
with all airports combined London has the world's busiest
city airport system in terms of passenger traffic.
• [hide] 1.
• 1-Hartsfield–Jackson Atlanta International AirportAtlanta,
Georgia, United StatesATL/KATL Passenger - 92,365,860
• 2-Beijing Capital International Airport Chaoyang, Beijing,
ChinaPEK/ZBAA77,403,668
• London Heathrow Airport Hillingdon, London, United
KingdomLHR/EGLL-69,433,565


Slide 14

AIR SPACE AND TRAFFIC
MANAGEMENT

Archie William League, widely acknowledged as the first U.S. air
traffic controller, was born in 1907 at Poplar Bluff, Missouri. He
passed away on October 1, 1986 at the age of 79 in Annandale,
Virginia. League retired from the F.A.A. in 1973, as the Assistant
Administrator for Appraisal, with his claim to the first air traffic
controller largely unchallenged. Air Traffic Control: Keeping
Track of Flights
By the end of the first decade of powered flight, people began to
realize that aircraft, like automobiles, would crash into each other
unless some means was developed to control and direct them. At
first, because aircraft could not fly very high, such control was
accomplished using simple hand signals. Later, control was
exercised through radio communication. By the end of World War
II, the invention of radar permitted visually displayed tracking of
several aircraft at once. When coupled with radio communication,
radar made it possible for the pilot to be warned when he was in
danger of colliding with another aircraft or when he was off
course. In 1956, two aircraft crashed over the Grand Canyon
while one was climbing and the other descending. The resulting
public outcry spurred the development of the modern radar-based
air traffic control system. Today, aircraft are continually tracked
from take-off to landing

• First Flight
• On December 17, 1903, Orville and Wilbur Wright capped four years
of research and design efforts with a 120-foot, 12-second flight at
Kitty Hawk, North Carolina - the first powered flight in a heavierthan-air machine. Prior to that, people had flown only in balloons and
gliders.
• The first person to fly as a passenger was Leon Delagrange, who rode
with French pilot Henri Farman from a meadow outside of Paris in
1908. Charles Furnas became the first American airplane passenger
when he flew with Orville Wright at Kitty Hawk later that year.
World War I
• These and other early flights were headline events, but commercial
aviation was very slow to catch on with the general public, most of
which was afraid to ride in the new flying machines. Improvements in
aircraft design also were slow. However, with the advent of World
War I, the military value of aircraft was quickly recognized and
production increased significantly to meet the soaring demand for
planes from governments on both sides of the Atlantic. Most
significant was the development of more powerful motors, enabling
aircraft to reach speeds of up to 130 mph, more than twice the speed
of pre-war aircraft. Increased power also made bigger aircraft
possible.

• Airmail
• By 1917, the U.S. government felt it had seen enough progress in the development
of planes to warrant something totally new - air mail. That year, Congress
appropriated $100,000 for an experimental airmail service that was to be conducted
jointly by the Army and the Post Office between Washington and New York, with an
intermediate stop in Philadelphia. The first flight left Belmont Park, Long Island, for
Philadelphia on May 14, 1918, and the next day continued on to Washington where
it was met by President Woodrow Wilson. Beacons
• In 1921, the Army deployed rotating beacons in a line between Columbus and
Dayton, Ohio, a distance of about 80 miles. The beacons, visible to pilots at 10second intervals, made it possible to fly the route at night.
• The Post Office took over the operation of the guidance system the following year,
and by the end of 1923 constructed similar beacons between Chicago and Cheyenne,
WY, a line later extended coast-to-coast at a cost of $550,000. Mail then could be
delivered across the continent in as little as 29 hours eastbound and 34 hours
westbound (prevailing winds from west to east accounted for the difference), which
was two to three days less than it took by train.

• Aircraft Innovations
• For the airlines to attract more passengers away from the
railroads, they needed both larger and faster airplanes.
They also needed safer airplanes. Accidents such as the
one in 1931 that killed Notre Dame football coach Knute
Rockne and six other men kept people away from flying
in droves.
• Aircraft manufacturers responded to the challenge. There
were so many improvements to aircraft in the 1930s that
many believe it was the most innovative period in
aviation history. Air-cooled engines replaced watercooled engines, reducing weight and making bigger and
faster planes possible. Cockpit instruments also
improved, with better turn indicators, altimeters, airspeed
indicators, rate of climb indicators, compasses, and the
"artificial horizon," which showed pilots the attitude of
the aircraft relative to the ground - important for flying
in reduced visibility.

• Radio
• Another development of enormous importance to aviation was
radio. Aviation and radio developed almost in lock step. Marconi
sent his first message across the Atlantic on the airways just two
years before the Wright Brothers' first flight at Kitty Hawk. By
World War I, some pilots were taking radios up in the air with them
so they could communicate with people on the ground. The airlines
followed suit after the war, using radio to transmit weather
information from the ground to their pilots so they could avoid
storms.
• Perhaps an even bigger development, however, was the realization
that radio could be used as an aid to navigation when visibility was
poor and visual navigation aids such as beacons were useless. Once
technical bugs were worked out, the Department of Commerce
constructed 83 radio beacons across the country. They became fully
operational in 1932, automatically transmitting directional beams, or
tracks, that pilots could follow to their destination. Marker beacons
came next, allowing pilots to locate airports in poor visibility. The
first air traffic control tower was established in 1935 at Newark
International Airport in New Jersey.

• The DC-3
• Called the plane that changed the world, the DC-3 was
the first aircraft to enable airlines to make money
carrying passengers. As a result, it quickly became the
dominant aircraft in the United States following its
debut in 1936 with American Airlines (which played a
key role in its design).
• The DC-3 had 50% greater passenger capacity than the
DC-2 (21 seats versus 14), yet cost only 10% more to
operate. It also was considered a safer plane, built of an
aluminum alloy 25% stronger than materials previously
used in aircraft construction. It has more powerful
engines (1,000 horsepower versus 710 horsepower for
the DC-2), and it could travel coast to coast in 16 hours a fast trip for that time.

• Pressurized Cabins
• Although planes such as the Boeing 247 and the DC-3
represented significant advances in aircraft design, they had
a major drawback. They could fly no higher than 10,000
feet because people became dizzy and even fainted due to
the reduced levels of oxygen at higher altitudes.
• The airlines wanted to fly higher to get above the air
turbulence and storms common at lower altitudes. Motion
sickness was a problem for many airline passengers, and an
inhibiting factor to the industry's growth.
• The breakthrough came at Boeing with the Stratoliner, a
derivation of the B-17 bomber introduced in 1940 and first
flown by TWA. It was the first pressurized aircraft, meaning
that air was pumped into the aircraft as it gained altitude to
maintain an atmosphere inside the cabin similar to the
atmosphere that occurs naturally at lower altitudes. With its
regulated air compressor, the 33-seat Stratoliner could fly as
high as 20,000 feet and reach speeds of 200 miles per hour.

• World War II
• Aviation had an enormous impact on the course of World War II and
the war had just as big of an impact on aviation. There were fewer
than 300 air transports in the United States when Hitler marched into
Poland in 1939. By the end of the war, U.S. aircraft manufacturers
were producing 50,000 planes a year!
• Most of the planes, of course, were fighters and bombers, but the
importance of air transports to the war effort quickly became apparent
as well. Throughout the war, the airlines provided much needed airlift
to keep people and supplies moving to the front and throughout the
production chain back home. For the first time in their history, the
airlines had far more business - for passengers as well as freight - than
they could handle. Many of them also had opportunities to pioneer
new routes, gaining an exposure that would give them a decidedly
broader outlook at war's end.
• While there were numerous advances in U.S. aircraft design during
the war that enabled planes to go faster, higher, and further than ever
before, mass production was the chief goal of the United States. The
major innovations of the wartime period - radar and jet engines occurred in Europe.

• Radar
• A technological development with a much greater impact on
the war's outcome (and later on commercial aviation) was
radar. British scientists had been working on a device that
could give them early warning of approaching enemy
aircraft even before the war began, and by 1940 Britain had
a line of radar transceivers along its east coast that could
detect German aircraft the moment they took off from the
Continent.
• British scientists also perfected the cathode ray oscilloscope,
which produced map-type outlines of surrounding
countryside and showed aircraft as a pulsing light.
Americans, meanwhile, found a way to distinguish between
enemy aircraft and Allied aircraft by installing transponders
aboard the later that signaled their identity to radar
operators.

• The present Air Navigation System (ANS)
provides international Air Traffic Services (ATS)
• for civil aviation. The provision of these services is
based on the availability of Communication,
Navigation, Surveillance (CNS) systems and
automated Air Traffic Control (ATC) systems with
various levels of capabilities.
• International air traffic is channelled along specified
air routes and each air route is part of a network of
• generally fixed air routes within a Flight
Information Region (FIR)

• Air Traffic Services (ATS)
• ATS= Air Traffic Management + Flight Information Service + Alerting Service
• ATM= Air Traffic Control + Air Space Management + Air Traffic Flow
Management
• · ATC: Maintain a safe distance between aircraft and obstacles within a confined
airspace and also
• on the airport surface
• · ASM: Maximize, within a given airspace structure, the utilization of available
airspace by
• dynamic time sharing and segregation of airspace among competing categories of
users based
• on short-term needs
• · ATFM: ensure an optimum flow of air traffic through areas during times when
demands (is expected to) exceed the available capacity of ATC service
• · FIS: Collect, handle and disseminate flight-related information to assist the pilot to
conduct his flight in a safe and efficient manner (ex ATIS)
• · AL: initiate an early search and rescue activity for aircraft in distress
• ATIS A service of an airport for traffic in its TMA or CTR
• ATIS is a repeated message (VHF) containing information about· Weather

• ATIS A service of an airport for traffic in its TMA or
CTR
• ATIS is a repeated message (VHF) containing
information about weather
• · The QNH
• · Transition level, transition altitude
• · Operational issues

• Airspace Organisation
• · Control zone (CTR): local ATC (TWR) usually
circular area around airport
• · Terminal Control Area (TMA): local ATC (APP),
incoming and outgoing flights between CTR and
• CTA
• · Control Area (CTA): General ATC (ACC) within
FIR, below certain flight level (lower airspace)
• · Upper Control Area (UTA): General ATC, across
FIRs (upper airspace; ex Eurocontrol)

• SIDs and STARs
• Standard Instrumental Departure
• Defines the route flown between aircraft departure and an ATS route
(‘highway in the sky’) (connects CTR with CTA, through TMA)
• Standard Terminal Arrival Route
• Defines the route flown between an ATS route and an approach fix
(Connects CTA with CTR through TMA)
• ACAS Airborne Collision Avoidance System
• FANS: Future Air Navigation System
• Current operating ANS is not expected to be able to accommodate
foreseen growth in air traffic (in 2008) Shortcomings of existing CNS
and ATS will become more apparent over time
• Summary of general shortcomings
• Lack of real time information
• Short and long term intent of aircraft on certain parts of existing airroutes
• Procedurals of ATC do not provide most efficient flight profiles
Planned through intermediate waypoints Capabilities of modern
airborne systems cannot be fully exploited

• Communication

• · SSR mode S regional VHF data link (VDL) regional Satellite data
link (AMSS)
• Global Navigation
• · Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) GPS + GLONASS +
GALILEO
• Surveillance
• · SSR mode S regional
• · Automatic Dependent Surveillance (ADS) global
• · Airborne Separation Avoidance System (ASAS) global
• ADS
• An on-board avionics function that automatically transmits via a
digital data link real time surveillance information allows surveillance
in oceanic and other areas which are beyond coverage of radar or LOS
communication · Surveillance is dependent in ADS because its
operation and quality depend upon the performance of the aircraft’s
navigation system.

•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•

Data blocks
Basic
· Time of day
· Aircraft identification
· Three dimensional position
Additional can include
· Aircraft velocity and heading (4D)
· Aircraft intent (waypoints stored in FMS)
· Meteorological data
ADS-B
· Each ADS-B equipped aircraft periodically broadcasts its
position, altitude and vector information
• · Any user could receive and process the information
• · Everyone in the system would have real time access to
precisely the same data

• The world's busiest airports by passenger traffic are
measured by number of total passengers (data provided by
Airports Council International). One passenger is
described as someone who arrives in, departs from, or
transfers through the airport on a given day. HartsfieldJackson International Airport in Atlanta has been the
world's busiest airport every year since 2000, although
with all airports combined London has the world's busiest
city airport system in terms of passenger traffic.
• [hide] 1.
• 1-Hartsfield–Jackson Atlanta International AirportAtlanta,
Georgia, United StatesATL/KATL Passenger - 92,365,860
• 2-Beijing Capital International Airport Chaoyang, Beijing,
ChinaPEK/ZBAA77,403,668
• London Heathrow Airport Hillingdon, London, United
KingdomLHR/EGLL-69,433,565


Slide 15

AIR SPACE AND TRAFFIC
MANAGEMENT

Archie William League, widely acknowledged as the first U.S. air
traffic controller, was born in 1907 at Poplar Bluff, Missouri. He
passed away on October 1, 1986 at the age of 79 in Annandale,
Virginia. League retired from the F.A.A. in 1973, as the Assistant
Administrator for Appraisal, with his claim to the first air traffic
controller largely unchallenged. Air Traffic Control: Keeping
Track of Flights
By the end of the first decade of powered flight, people began to
realize that aircraft, like automobiles, would crash into each other
unless some means was developed to control and direct them. At
first, because aircraft could not fly very high, such control was
accomplished using simple hand signals. Later, control was
exercised through radio communication. By the end of World War
II, the invention of radar permitted visually displayed tracking of
several aircraft at once. When coupled with radio communication,
radar made it possible for the pilot to be warned when he was in
danger of colliding with another aircraft or when he was off
course. In 1956, two aircraft crashed over the Grand Canyon
while one was climbing and the other descending. The resulting
public outcry spurred the development of the modern radar-based
air traffic control system. Today, aircraft are continually tracked
from take-off to landing

• First Flight
• On December 17, 1903, Orville and Wilbur Wright capped four years
of research and design efforts with a 120-foot, 12-second flight at
Kitty Hawk, North Carolina - the first powered flight in a heavierthan-air machine. Prior to that, people had flown only in balloons and
gliders.
• The first person to fly as a passenger was Leon Delagrange, who rode
with French pilot Henri Farman from a meadow outside of Paris in
1908. Charles Furnas became the first American airplane passenger
when he flew with Orville Wright at Kitty Hawk later that year.
World War I
• These and other early flights were headline events, but commercial
aviation was very slow to catch on with the general public, most of
which was afraid to ride in the new flying machines. Improvements in
aircraft design also were slow. However, with the advent of World
War I, the military value of aircraft was quickly recognized and
production increased significantly to meet the soaring demand for
planes from governments on both sides of the Atlantic. Most
significant was the development of more powerful motors, enabling
aircraft to reach speeds of up to 130 mph, more than twice the speed
of pre-war aircraft. Increased power also made bigger aircraft
possible.

• Airmail
• By 1917, the U.S. government felt it had seen enough progress in the development
of planes to warrant something totally new - air mail. That year, Congress
appropriated $100,000 for an experimental airmail service that was to be conducted
jointly by the Army and the Post Office between Washington and New York, with an
intermediate stop in Philadelphia. The first flight left Belmont Park, Long Island, for
Philadelphia on May 14, 1918, and the next day continued on to Washington where
it was met by President Woodrow Wilson. Beacons
• In 1921, the Army deployed rotating beacons in a line between Columbus and
Dayton, Ohio, a distance of about 80 miles. The beacons, visible to pilots at 10second intervals, made it possible to fly the route at night.
• The Post Office took over the operation of the guidance system the following year,
and by the end of 1923 constructed similar beacons between Chicago and Cheyenne,
WY, a line later extended coast-to-coast at a cost of $550,000. Mail then could be
delivered across the continent in as little as 29 hours eastbound and 34 hours
westbound (prevailing winds from west to east accounted for the difference), which
was two to three days less than it took by train.

• Aircraft Innovations
• For the airlines to attract more passengers away from the
railroads, they needed both larger and faster airplanes.
They also needed safer airplanes. Accidents such as the
one in 1931 that killed Notre Dame football coach Knute
Rockne and six other men kept people away from flying
in droves.
• Aircraft manufacturers responded to the challenge. There
were so many improvements to aircraft in the 1930s that
many believe it was the most innovative period in
aviation history. Air-cooled engines replaced watercooled engines, reducing weight and making bigger and
faster planes possible. Cockpit instruments also
improved, with better turn indicators, altimeters, airspeed
indicators, rate of climb indicators, compasses, and the
"artificial horizon," which showed pilots the attitude of
the aircraft relative to the ground - important for flying
in reduced visibility.

• Radio
• Another development of enormous importance to aviation was
radio. Aviation and radio developed almost in lock step. Marconi
sent his first message across the Atlantic on the airways just two
years before the Wright Brothers' first flight at Kitty Hawk. By
World War I, some pilots were taking radios up in the air with them
so they could communicate with people on the ground. The airlines
followed suit after the war, using radio to transmit weather
information from the ground to their pilots so they could avoid
storms.
• Perhaps an even bigger development, however, was the realization
that radio could be used as an aid to navigation when visibility was
poor and visual navigation aids such as beacons were useless. Once
technical bugs were worked out, the Department of Commerce
constructed 83 radio beacons across the country. They became fully
operational in 1932, automatically transmitting directional beams, or
tracks, that pilots could follow to their destination. Marker beacons
came next, allowing pilots to locate airports in poor visibility. The
first air traffic control tower was established in 1935 at Newark
International Airport in New Jersey.

• The DC-3
• Called the plane that changed the world, the DC-3 was
the first aircraft to enable airlines to make money
carrying passengers. As a result, it quickly became the
dominant aircraft in the United States following its
debut in 1936 with American Airlines (which played a
key role in its design).
• The DC-3 had 50% greater passenger capacity than the
DC-2 (21 seats versus 14), yet cost only 10% more to
operate. It also was considered a safer plane, built of an
aluminum alloy 25% stronger than materials previously
used in aircraft construction. It has more powerful
engines (1,000 horsepower versus 710 horsepower for
the DC-2), and it could travel coast to coast in 16 hours a fast trip for that time.

• Pressurized Cabins
• Although planes such as the Boeing 247 and the DC-3
represented significant advances in aircraft design, they had
a major drawback. They could fly no higher than 10,000
feet because people became dizzy and even fainted due to
the reduced levels of oxygen at higher altitudes.
• The airlines wanted to fly higher to get above the air
turbulence and storms common at lower altitudes. Motion
sickness was a problem for many airline passengers, and an
inhibiting factor to the industry's growth.
• The breakthrough came at Boeing with the Stratoliner, a
derivation of the B-17 bomber introduced in 1940 and first
flown by TWA. It was the first pressurized aircraft, meaning
that air was pumped into the aircraft as it gained altitude to
maintain an atmosphere inside the cabin similar to the
atmosphere that occurs naturally at lower altitudes. With its
regulated air compressor, the 33-seat Stratoliner could fly as
high as 20,000 feet and reach speeds of 200 miles per hour.

• World War II
• Aviation had an enormous impact on the course of World War II and
the war had just as big of an impact on aviation. There were fewer
than 300 air transports in the United States when Hitler marched into
Poland in 1939. By the end of the war, U.S. aircraft manufacturers
were producing 50,000 planes a year!
• Most of the planes, of course, were fighters and bombers, but the
importance of air transports to the war effort quickly became apparent
as well. Throughout the war, the airlines provided much needed airlift
to keep people and supplies moving to the front and throughout the
production chain back home. For the first time in their history, the
airlines had far more business - for passengers as well as freight - than
they could handle. Many of them also had opportunities to pioneer
new routes, gaining an exposure that would give them a decidedly
broader outlook at war's end.
• While there were numerous advances in U.S. aircraft design during
the war that enabled planes to go faster, higher, and further than ever
before, mass production was the chief goal of the United States. The
major innovations of the wartime period - radar and jet engines occurred in Europe.

• Radar
• A technological development with a much greater impact on
the war's outcome (and later on commercial aviation) was
radar. British scientists had been working on a device that
could give them early warning of approaching enemy
aircraft even before the war began, and by 1940 Britain had
a line of radar transceivers along its east coast that could
detect German aircraft the moment they took off from the
Continent.
• British scientists also perfected the cathode ray oscilloscope,
which produced map-type outlines of surrounding
countryside and showed aircraft as a pulsing light.
Americans, meanwhile, found a way to distinguish between
enemy aircraft and Allied aircraft by installing transponders
aboard the later that signaled their identity to radar
operators.

• The present Air Navigation System (ANS)
provides international Air Traffic Services (ATS)
• for civil aviation. The provision of these services is
based on the availability of Communication,
Navigation, Surveillance (CNS) systems and
automated Air Traffic Control (ATC) systems with
various levels of capabilities.
• International air traffic is channelled along specified
air routes and each air route is part of a network of
• generally fixed air routes within a Flight
Information Region (FIR)

• Air Traffic Services (ATS)
• ATS= Air Traffic Management + Flight Information Service + Alerting Service
• ATM= Air Traffic Control + Air Space Management + Air Traffic Flow
Management
• · ATC: Maintain a safe distance between aircraft and obstacles within a confined
airspace and also
• on the airport surface
• · ASM: Maximize, within a given airspace structure, the utilization of available
airspace by
• dynamic time sharing and segregation of airspace among competing categories of
users based
• on short-term needs
• · ATFM: ensure an optimum flow of air traffic through areas during times when
demands (is expected to) exceed the available capacity of ATC service
• · FIS: Collect, handle and disseminate flight-related information to assist the pilot to
conduct his flight in a safe and efficient manner (ex ATIS)
• · AL: initiate an early search and rescue activity for aircraft in distress
• ATIS A service of an airport for traffic in its TMA or CTR
• ATIS is a repeated message (VHF) containing information about· Weather

• ATIS A service of an airport for traffic in its TMA or
CTR
• ATIS is a repeated message (VHF) containing
information about weather
• · The QNH
• · Transition level, transition altitude
• · Operational issues

• Airspace Organisation
• · Control zone (CTR): local ATC (TWR) usually
circular area around airport
• · Terminal Control Area (TMA): local ATC (APP),
incoming and outgoing flights between CTR and
• CTA
• · Control Area (CTA): General ATC (ACC) within
FIR, below certain flight level (lower airspace)
• · Upper Control Area (UTA): General ATC, across
FIRs (upper airspace; ex Eurocontrol)

• SIDs and STARs
• Standard Instrumental Departure
• Defines the route flown between aircraft departure and an ATS route
(‘highway in the sky’) (connects CTR with CTA, through TMA)
• Standard Terminal Arrival Route
• Defines the route flown between an ATS route and an approach fix
(Connects CTA with CTR through TMA)
• ACAS Airborne Collision Avoidance System
• FANS: Future Air Navigation System
• Current operating ANS is not expected to be able to accommodate
foreseen growth in air traffic (in 2008) Shortcomings of existing CNS
and ATS will become more apparent over time
• Summary of general shortcomings
• Lack of real time information
• Short and long term intent of aircraft on certain parts of existing airroutes
• Procedurals of ATC do not provide most efficient flight profiles
Planned through intermediate waypoints Capabilities of modern
airborne systems cannot be fully exploited

• Communication

• · SSR mode S regional VHF data link (VDL) regional Satellite data
link (AMSS)
• Global Navigation
• · Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) GPS + GLONASS +
GALILEO
• Surveillance
• · SSR mode S regional
• · Automatic Dependent Surveillance (ADS) global
• · Airborne Separation Avoidance System (ASAS) global
• ADS
• An on-board avionics function that automatically transmits via a
digital data link real time surveillance information allows surveillance
in oceanic and other areas which are beyond coverage of radar or LOS
communication · Surveillance is dependent in ADS because its
operation and quality depend upon the performance of the aircraft’s
navigation system.

•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•

Data blocks
Basic
· Time of day
· Aircraft identification
· Three dimensional position
Additional can include
· Aircraft velocity and heading (4D)
· Aircraft intent (waypoints stored in FMS)
· Meteorological data
ADS-B
· Each ADS-B equipped aircraft periodically broadcasts its
position, altitude and vector information
• · Any user could receive and process the information
• · Everyone in the system would have real time access to
precisely the same data

• The world's busiest airports by passenger traffic are
measured by number of total passengers (data provided by
Airports Council International). One passenger is
described as someone who arrives in, departs from, or
transfers through the airport on a given day. HartsfieldJackson International Airport in Atlanta has been the
world's busiest airport every year since 2000, although
with all airports combined London has the world's busiest
city airport system in terms of passenger traffic.
• [hide] 1.
• 1-Hartsfield–Jackson Atlanta International AirportAtlanta,
Georgia, United StatesATL/KATL Passenger - 92,365,860
• 2-Beijing Capital International Airport Chaoyang, Beijing,
ChinaPEK/ZBAA77,403,668
• London Heathrow Airport Hillingdon, London, United
KingdomLHR/EGLL-69,433,565


Slide 16

AIR SPACE AND TRAFFIC
MANAGEMENT

Archie William League, widely acknowledged as the first U.S. air
traffic controller, was born in 1907 at Poplar Bluff, Missouri. He
passed away on October 1, 1986 at the age of 79 in Annandale,
Virginia. League retired from the F.A.A. in 1973, as the Assistant
Administrator for Appraisal, with his claim to the first air traffic
controller largely unchallenged. Air Traffic Control: Keeping
Track of Flights
By the end of the first decade of powered flight, people began to
realize that aircraft, like automobiles, would crash into each other
unless some means was developed to control and direct them. At
first, because aircraft could not fly very high, such control was
accomplished using simple hand signals. Later, control was
exercised through radio communication. By the end of World War
II, the invention of radar permitted visually displayed tracking of
several aircraft at once. When coupled with radio communication,
radar made it possible for the pilot to be warned when he was in
danger of colliding with another aircraft or when he was off
course. In 1956, two aircraft crashed over the Grand Canyon
while one was climbing and the other descending. The resulting
public outcry spurred the development of the modern radar-based
air traffic control system. Today, aircraft are continually tracked
from take-off to landing

• First Flight
• On December 17, 1903, Orville and Wilbur Wright capped four years
of research and design efforts with a 120-foot, 12-second flight at
Kitty Hawk, North Carolina - the first powered flight in a heavierthan-air machine. Prior to that, people had flown only in balloons and
gliders.
• The first person to fly as a passenger was Leon Delagrange, who rode
with French pilot Henri Farman from a meadow outside of Paris in
1908. Charles Furnas became the first American airplane passenger
when he flew with Orville Wright at Kitty Hawk later that year.
World War I
• These and other early flights were headline events, but commercial
aviation was very slow to catch on with the general public, most of
which was afraid to ride in the new flying machines. Improvements in
aircraft design also were slow. However, with the advent of World
War I, the military value of aircraft was quickly recognized and
production increased significantly to meet the soaring demand for
planes from governments on both sides of the Atlantic. Most
significant was the development of more powerful motors, enabling
aircraft to reach speeds of up to 130 mph, more than twice the speed
of pre-war aircraft. Increased power also made bigger aircraft
possible.

• Airmail
• By 1917, the U.S. government felt it had seen enough progress in the development
of planes to warrant something totally new - air mail. That year, Congress
appropriated $100,000 for an experimental airmail service that was to be conducted
jointly by the Army and the Post Office between Washington and New York, with an
intermediate stop in Philadelphia. The first flight left Belmont Park, Long Island, for
Philadelphia on May 14, 1918, and the next day continued on to Washington where
it was met by President Woodrow Wilson. Beacons
• In 1921, the Army deployed rotating beacons in a line between Columbus and
Dayton, Ohio, a distance of about 80 miles. The beacons, visible to pilots at 10second intervals, made it possible to fly the route at night.
• The Post Office took over the operation of the guidance system the following year,
and by the end of 1923 constructed similar beacons between Chicago and Cheyenne,
WY, a line later extended coast-to-coast at a cost of $550,000. Mail then could be
delivered across the continent in as little as 29 hours eastbound and 34 hours
westbound (prevailing winds from west to east accounted for the difference), which
was two to three days less than it took by train.

• Aircraft Innovations
• For the airlines to attract more passengers away from the
railroads, they needed both larger and faster airplanes.
They also needed safer airplanes. Accidents such as the
one in 1931 that killed Notre Dame football coach Knute
Rockne and six other men kept people away from flying
in droves.
• Aircraft manufacturers responded to the challenge. There
were so many improvements to aircraft in the 1930s that
many believe it was the most innovative period in
aviation history. Air-cooled engines replaced watercooled engines, reducing weight and making bigger and
faster planes possible. Cockpit instruments also
improved, with better turn indicators, altimeters, airspeed
indicators, rate of climb indicators, compasses, and the
"artificial horizon," which showed pilots the attitude of
the aircraft relative to the ground - important for flying
in reduced visibility.

• Radio
• Another development of enormous importance to aviation was
radio. Aviation and radio developed almost in lock step. Marconi
sent his first message across the Atlantic on the airways just two
years before the Wright Brothers' first flight at Kitty Hawk. By
World War I, some pilots were taking radios up in the air with them
so they could communicate with people on the ground. The airlines
followed suit after the war, using radio to transmit weather
information from the ground to their pilots so they could avoid
storms.
• Perhaps an even bigger development, however, was the realization
that radio could be used as an aid to navigation when visibility was
poor and visual navigation aids such as beacons were useless. Once
technical bugs were worked out, the Department of Commerce
constructed 83 radio beacons across the country. They became fully
operational in 1932, automatically transmitting directional beams, or
tracks, that pilots could follow to their destination. Marker beacons
came next, allowing pilots to locate airports in poor visibility. The
first air traffic control tower was established in 1935 at Newark
International Airport in New Jersey.

• The DC-3
• Called the plane that changed the world, the DC-3 was
the first aircraft to enable airlines to make money
carrying passengers. As a result, it quickly became the
dominant aircraft in the United States following its
debut in 1936 with American Airlines (which played a
key role in its design).
• The DC-3 had 50% greater passenger capacity than the
DC-2 (21 seats versus 14), yet cost only 10% more to
operate. It also was considered a safer plane, built of an
aluminum alloy 25% stronger than materials previously
used in aircraft construction. It has more powerful
engines (1,000 horsepower versus 710 horsepower for
the DC-2), and it could travel coast to coast in 16 hours a fast trip for that time.

• Pressurized Cabins
• Although planes such as the Boeing 247 and the DC-3
represented significant advances in aircraft design, they had
a major drawback. They could fly no higher than 10,000
feet because people became dizzy and even fainted due to
the reduced levels of oxygen at higher altitudes.
• The airlines wanted to fly higher to get above the air
turbulence and storms common at lower altitudes. Motion
sickness was a problem for many airline passengers, and an
inhibiting factor to the industry's growth.
• The breakthrough came at Boeing with the Stratoliner, a
derivation of the B-17 bomber introduced in 1940 and first
flown by TWA. It was the first pressurized aircraft, meaning
that air was pumped into the aircraft as it gained altitude to
maintain an atmosphere inside the cabin similar to the
atmosphere that occurs naturally at lower altitudes. With its
regulated air compressor, the 33-seat Stratoliner could fly as
high as 20,000 feet and reach speeds of 200 miles per hour.

• World War II
• Aviation had an enormous impact on the course of World War II and
the war had just as big of an impact on aviation. There were fewer
than 300 air transports in the United States when Hitler marched into
Poland in 1939. By the end of the war, U.S. aircraft manufacturers
were producing 50,000 planes a year!
• Most of the planes, of course, were fighters and bombers, but the
importance of air transports to the war effort quickly became apparent
as well. Throughout the war, the airlines provided much needed airlift
to keep people and supplies moving to the front and throughout the
production chain back home. For the first time in their history, the
airlines had far more business - for passengers as well as freight - than
they could handle. Many of them also had opportunities to pioneer
new routes, gaining an exposure that would give them a decidedly
broader outlook at war's end.
• While there were numerous advances in U.S. aircraft design during
the war that enabled planes to go faster, higher, and further than ever
before, mass production was the chief goal of the United States. The
major innovations of the wartime period - radar and jet engines occurred in Europe.

• Radar
• A technological development with a much greater impact on
the war's outcome (and later on commercial aviation) was
radar. British scientists had been working on a device that
could give them early warning of approaching enemy
aircraft even before the war began, and by 1940 Britain had
a line of radar transceivers along its east coast that could
detect German aircraft the moment they took off from the
Continent.
• British scientists also perfected the cathode ray oscilloscope,
which produced map-type outlines of surrounding
countryside and showed aircraft as a pulsing light.
Americans, meanwhile, found a way to distinguish between
enemy aircraft and Allied aircraft by installing transponders
aboard the later that signaled their identity to radar
operators.

• The present Air Navigation System (ANS)
provides international Air Traffic Services (ATS)
• for civil aviation. The provision of these services is
based on the availability of Communication,
Navigation, Surveillance (CNS) systems and
automated Air Traffic Control (ATC) systems with
various levels of capabilities.
• International air traffic is channelled along specified
air routes and each air route is part of a network of
• generally fixed air routes within a Flight
Information Region (FIR)

• Air Traffic Services (ATS)
• ATS= Air Traffic Management + Flight Information Service + Alerting Service
• ATM= Air Traffic Control + Air Space Management + Air Traffic Flow
Management
• · ATC: Maintain a safe distance between aircraft and obstacles within a confined
airspace and also
• on the airport surface
• · ASM: Maximize, within a given airspace structure, the utilization of available
airspace by
• dynamic time sharing and segregation of airspace among competing categories of
users based
• on short-term needs
• · ATFM: ensure an optimum flow of air traffic through areas during times when
demands (is expected to) exceed the available capacity of ATC service
• · FIS: Collect, handle and disseminate flight-related information to assist the pilot to
conduct his flight in a safe and efficient manner (ex ATIS)
• · AL: initiate an early search and rescue activity for aircraft in distress
• ATIS A service of an airport for traffic in its TMA or CTR
• ATIS is a repeated message (VHF) containing information about· Weather

• ATIS A service of an airport for traffic in its TMA or
CTR
• ATIS is a repeated message (VHF) containing
information about weather
• · The QNH
• · Transition level, transition altitude
• · Operational issues

• Airspace Organisation
• · Control zone (CTR): local ATC (TWR) usually
circular area around airport
• · Terminal Control Area (TMA): local ATC (APP),
incoming and outgoing flights between CTR and
• CTA
• · Control Area (CTA): General ATC (ACC) within
FIR, below certain flight level (lower airspace)
• · Upper Control Area (UTA): General ATC, across
FIRs (upper airspace; ex Eurocontrol)

• SIDs and STARs
• Standard Instrumental Departure
• Defines the route flown between aircraft departure and an ATS route
(‘highway in the sky’) (connects CTR with CTA, through TMA)
• Standard Terminal Arrival Route
• Defines the route flown between an ATS route and an approach fix
(Connects CTA with CTR through TMA)
• ACAS Airborne Collision Avoidance System
• FANS: Future Air Navigation System
• Current operating ANS is not expected to be able to accommodate
foreseen growth in air traffic (in 2008) Shortcomings of existing CNS
and ATS will become more apparent over time
• Summary of general shortcomings
• Lack of real time information
• Short and long term intent of aircraft on certain parts of existing airroutes
• Procedurals of ATC do not provide most efficient flight profiles
Planned through intermediate waypoints Capabilities of modern
airborne systems cannot be fully exploited

• Communication

• · SSR mode S regional VHF data link (VDL) regional Satellite data
link (AMSS)
• Global Navigation
• · Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) GPS + GLONASS +
GALILEO
• Surveillance
• · SSR mode S regional
• · Automatic Dependent Surveillance (ADS) global
• · Airborne Separation Avoidance System (ASAS) global
• ADS
• An on-board avionics function that automatically transmits via a
digital data link real time surveillance information allows surveillance
in oceanic and other areas which are beyond coverage of radar or LOS
communication · Surveillance is dependent in ADS because its
operation and quality depend upon the performance of the aircraft’s
navigation system.

•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•

Data blocks
Basic
· Time of day
· Aircraft identification
· Three dimensional position
Additional can include
· Aircraft velocity and heading (4D)
· Aircraft intent (waypoints stored in FMS)
· Meteorological data
ADS-B
· Each ADS-B equipped aircraft periodically broadcasts its
position, altitude and vector information
• · Any user could receive and process the information
• · Everyone in the system would have real time access to
precisely the same data

• The world's busiest airports by passenger traffic are
measured by number of total passengers (data provided by
Airports Council International). One passenger is
described as someone who arrives in, departs from, or
transfers through the airport on a given day. HartsfieldJackson International Airport in Atlanta has been the
world's busiest airport every year since 2000, although
with all airports combined London has the world's busiest
city airport system in terms of passenger traffic.
• [hide] 1.
• 1-Hartsfield–Jackson Atlanta International AirportAtlanta,
Georgia, United StatesATL/KATL Passenger - 92,365,860
• 2-Beijing Capital International Airport Chaoyang, Beijing,
ChinaPEK/ZBAA77,403,668
• London Heathrow Airport Hillingdon, London, United
KingdomLHR/EGLL-69,433,565


Slide 17

AIR SPACE AND TRAFFIC
MANAGEMENT

Archie William League, widely acknowledged as the first U.S. air
traffic controller, was born in 1907 at Poplar Bluff, Missouri. He
passed away on October 1, 1986 at the age of 79 in Annandale,
Virginia. League retired from the F.A.A. in 1973, as the Assistant
Administrator for Appraisal, with his claim to the first air traffic
controller largely unchallenged. Air Traffic Control: Keeping
Track of Flights
By the end of the first decade of powered flight, people began to
realize that aircraft, like automobiles, would crash into each other
unless some means was developed to control and direct them. At
first, because aircraft could not fly very high, such control was
accomplished using simple hand signals. Later, control was
exercised through radio communication. By the end of World War
II, the invention of radar permitted visually displayed tracking of
several aircraft at once. When coupled with radio communication,
radar made it possible for the pilot to be warned when he was in
danger of colliding with another aircraft or when he was off
course. In 1956, two aircraft crashed over the Grand Canyon
while one was climbing and the other descending. The resulting
public outcry spurred the development of the modern radar-based
air traffic control system. Today, aircraft are continually tracked
from take-off to landing

• First Flight
• On December 17, 1903, Orville and Wilbur Wright capped four years
of research and design efforts with a 120-foot, 12-second flight at
Kitty Hawk, North Carolina - the first powered flight in a heavierthan-air machine. Prior to that, people had flown only in balloons and
gliders.
• The first person to fly as a passenger was Leon Delagrange, who rode
with French pilot Henri Farman from a meadow outside of Paris in
1908. Charles Furnas became the first American airplane passenger
when he flew with Orville Wright at Kitty Hawk later that year.
World War I
• These and other early flights were headline events, but commercial
aviation was very slow to catch on with the general public, most of
which was afraid to ride in the new flying machines. Improvements in
aircraft design also were slow. However, with the advent of World
War I, the military value of aircraft was quickly recognized and
production increased significantly to meet the soaring demand for
planes from governments on both sides of the Atlantic. Most
significant was the development of more powerful motors, enabling
aircraft to reach speeds of up to 130 mph, more than twice the speed
of pre-war aircraft. Increased power also made bigger aircraft
possible.

• Airmail
• By 1917, the U.S. government felt it had seen enough progress in the development
of planes to warrant something totally new - air mail. That year, Congress
appropriated $100,000 for an experimental airmail service that was to be conducted
jointly by the Army and the Post Office between Washington and New York, with an
intermediate stop in Philadelphia. The first flight left Belmont Park, Long Island, for
Philadelphia on May 14, 1918, and the next day continued on to Washington where
it was met by President Woodrow Wilson. Beacons
• In 1921, the Army deployed rotating beacons in a line between Columbus and
Dayton, Ohio, a distance of about 80 miles. The beacons, visible to pilots at 10second intervals, made it possible to fly the route at night.
• The Post Office took over the operation of the guidance system the following year,
and by the end of 1923 constructed similar beacons between Chicago and Cheyenne,
WY, a line later extended coast-to-coast at a cost of $550,000. Mail then could be
delivered across the continent in as little as 29 hours eastbound and 34 hours
westbound (prevailing winds from west to east accounted for the difference), which
was two to three days less than it took by train.

• Aircraft Innovations
• For the airlines to attract more passengers away from the
railroads, they needed both larger and faster airplanes.
They also needed safer airplanes. Accidents such as the
one in 1931 that killed Notre Dame football coach Knute
Rockne and six other men kept people away from flying
in droves.
• Aircraft manufacturers responded to the challenge. There
were so many improvements to aircraft in the 1930s that
many believe it was the most innovative period in
aviation history. Air-cooled engines replaced watercooled engines, reducing weight and making bigger and
faster planes possible. Cockpit instruments also
improved, with better turn indicators, altimeters, airspeed
indicators, rate of climb indicators, compasses, and the
"artificial horizon," which showed pilots the attitude of
the aircraft relative to the ground - important for flying
in reduced visibility.

• Radio
• Another development of enormous importance to aviation was
radio. Aviation and radio developed almost in lock step. Marconi
sent his first message across the Atlantic on the airways just two
years before the Wright Brothers' first flight at Kitty Hawk. By
World War I, some pilots were taking radios up in the air with them
so they could communicate with people on the ground. The airlines
followed suit after the war, using radio to transmit weather
information from the ground to their pilots so they could avoid
storms.
• Perhaps an even bigger development, however, was the realization
that radio could be used as an aid to navigation when visibility was
poor and visual navigation aids such as beacons were useless. Once
technical bugs were worked out, the Department of Commerce
constructed 83 radio beacons across the country. They became fully
operational in 1932, automatically transmitting directional beams, or
tracks, that pilots could follow to their destination. Marker beacons
came next, allowing pilots to locate airports in poor visibility. The
first air traffic control tower was established in 1935 at Newark
International Airport in New Jersey.

• The DC-3
• Called the plane that changed the world, the DC-3 was
the first aircraft to enable airlines to make money
carrying passengers. As a result, it quickly became the
dominant aircraft in the United States following its
debut in 1936 with American Airlines (which played a
key role in its design).
• The DC-3 had 50% greater passenger capacity than the
DC-2 (21 seats versus 14), yet cost only 10% more to
operate. It also was considered a safer plane, built of an
aluminum alloy 25% stronger than materials previously
used in aircraft construction. It has more powerful
engines (1,000 horsepower versus 710 horsepower for
the DC-2), and it could travel coast to coast in 16 hours a fast trip for that time.

• Pressurized Cabins
• Although planes such as the Boeing 247 and the DC-3
represented significant advances in aircraft design, they had
a major drawback. They could fly no higher than 10,000
feet because people became dizzy and even fainted due to
the reduced levels of oxygen at higher altitudes.
• The airlines wanted to fly higher to get above the air
turbulence and storms common at lower altitudes. Motion
sickness was a problem for many airline passengers, and an
inhibiting factor to the industry's growth.
• The breakthrough came at Boeing with the Stratoliner, a
derivation of the B-17 bomber introduced in 1940 and first
flown by TWA. It was the first pressurized aircraft, meaning
that air was pumped into the aircraft as it gained altitude to
maintain an atmosphere inside the cabin similar to the
atmosphere that occurs naturally at lower altitudes. With its
regulated air compressor, the 33-seat Stratoliner could fly as
high as 20,000 feet and reach speeds of 200 miles per hour.

• World War II
• Aviation had an enormous impact on the course of World War II and
the war had just as big of an impact on aviation. There were fewer
than 300 air transports in the United States when Hitler marched into
Poland in 1939. By the end of the war, U.S. aircraft manufacturers
were producing 50,000 planes a year!
• Most of the planes, of course, were fighters and bombers, but the
importance of air transports to the war effort quickly became apparent
as well. Throughout the war, the airlines provided much needed airlift
to keep people and supplies moving to the front and throughout the
production chain back home. For the first time in their history, the
airlines had far more business - for passengers as well as freight - than
they could handle. Many of them also had opportunities to pioneer
new routes, gaining an exposure that would give them a decidedly
broader outlook at war's end.
• While there were numerous advances in U.S. aircraft design during
the war that enabled planes to go faster, higher, and further than ever
before, mass production was the chief goal of the United States. The
major innovations of the wartime period - radar and jet engines occurred in Europe.

• Radar
• A technological development with a much greater impact on
the war's outcome (and later on commercial aviation) was
radar. British scientists had been working on a device that
could give them early warning of approaching enemy
aircraft even before the war began, and by 1940 Britain had
a line of radar transceivers along its east coast that could
detect German aircraft the moment they took off from the
Continent.
• British scientists also perfected the cathode ray oscilloscope,
which produced map-type outlines of surrounding
countryside and showed aircraft as a pulsing light.
Americans, meanwhile, found a way to distinguish between
enemy aircraft and Allied aircraft by installing transponders
aboard the later that signaled their identity to radar
operators.

• The present Air Navigation System (ANS)
provides international Air Traffic Services (ATS)
• for civil aviation. The provision of these services is
based on the availability of Communication,
Navigation, Surveillance (CNS) systems and
automated Air Traffic Control (ATC) systems with
various levels of capabilities.
• International air traffic is channelled along specified
air routes and each air route is part of a network of
• generally fixed air routes within a Flight
Information Region (FIR)

• Air Traffic Services (ATS)
• ATS= Air Traffic Management + Flight Information Service + Alerting Service
• ATM= Air Traffic Control + Air Space Management + Air Traffic Flow
Management
• · ATC: Maintain a safe distance between aircraft and obstacles within a confined
airspace and also
• on the airport surface
• · ASM: Maximize, within a given airspace structure, the utilization of available
airspace by
• dynamic time sharing and segregation of airspace among competing categories of
users based
• on short-term needs
• · ATFM: ensure an optimum flow of air traffic through areas during times when
demands (is expected to) exceed the available capacity of ATC service
• · FIS: Collect, handle and disseminate flight-related information to assist the pilot to
conduct his flight in a safe and efficient manner (ex ATIS)
• · AL: initiate an early search and rescue activity for aircraft in distress
• ATIS A service of an airport for traffic in its TMA or CTR
• ATIS is a repeated message (VHF) containing information about· Weather

• ATIS A service of an airport for traffic in its TMA or
CTR
• ATIS is a repeated message (VHF) containing
information about weather
• · The QNH
• · Transition level, transition altitude
• · Operational issues

• Airspace Organisation
• · Control zone (CTR): local ATC (TWR) usually
circular area around airport
• · Terminal Control Area (TMA): local ATC (APP),
incoming and outgoing flights between CTR and
• CTA
• · Control Area (CTA): General ATC (ACC) within
FIR, below certain flight level (lower airspace)
• · Upper Control Area (UTA): General ATC, across
FIRs (upper airspace; ex Eurocontrol)

• SIDs and STARs
• Standard Instrumental Departure
• Defines the route flown between aircraft departure and an ATS route
(‘highway in the sky’) (connects CTR with CTA, through TMA)
• Standard Terminal Arrival Route
• Defines the route flown between an ATS route and an approach fix
(Connects CTA with CTR through TMA)
• ACAS Airborne Collision Avoidance System
• FANS: Future Air Navigation System
• Current operating ANS is not expected to be able to accommodate
foreseen growth in air traffic (in 2008) Shortcomings of existing CNS
and ATS will become more apparent over time
• Summary of general shortcomings
• Lack of real time information
• Short and long term intent of aircraft on certain parts of existing airroutes
• Procedurals of ATC do not provide most efficient flight profiles
Planned through intermediate waypoints Capabilities of modern
airborne systems cannot be fully exploited

• Communication

• · SSR mode S regional VHF data link (VDL) regional Satellite data
link (AMSS)
• Global Navigation
• · Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) GPS + GLONASS +
GALILEO
• Surveillance
• · SSR mode S regional
• · Automatic Dependent Surveillance (ADS) global
• · Airborne Separation Avoidance System (ASAS) global
• ADS
• An on-board avionics function that automatically transmits via a
digital data link real time surveillance information allows surveillance
in oceanic and other areas which are beyond coverage of radar or LOS
communication · Surveillance is dependent in ADS because its
operation and quality depend upon the performance of the aircraft’s
navigation system.

•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•

Data blocks
Basic
· Time of day
· Aircraft identification
· Three dimensional position
Additional can include
· Aircraft velocity and heading (4D)
· Aircraft intent (waypoints stored in FMS)
· Meteorological data
ADS-B
· Each ADS-B equipped aircraft periodically broadcasts its
position, altitude and vector information
• · Any user could receive and process the information
• · Everyone in the system would have real time access to
precisely the same data

• The world's busiest airports by passenger traffic are
measured by number of total passengers (data provided by
Airports Council International). One passenger is
described as someone who arrives in, departs from, or
transfers through the airport on a given day. HartsfieldJackson International Airport in Atlanta has been the
world's busiest airport every year since 2000, although
with all airports combined London has the world's busiest
city airport system in terms of passenger traffic.
• [hide] 1.
• 1-Hartsfield–Jackson Atlanta International AirportAtlanta,
Georgia, United StatesATL/KATL Passenger - 92,365,860
• 2-Beijing Capital International Airport Chaoyang, Beijing,
ChinaPEK/ZBAA77,403,668
• London Heathrow Airport Hillingdon, London, United
KingdomLHR/EGLL-69,433,565


Slide 18

AIR SPACE AND TRAFFIC
MANAGEMENT

Archie William League, widely acknowledged as the first U.S. air
traffic controller, was born in 1907 at Poplar Bluff, Missouri. He
passed away on October 1, 1986 at the age of 79 in Annandale,
Virginia. League retired from the F.A.A. in 1973, as the Assistant
Administrator for Appraisal, with his claim to the first air traffic
controller largely unchallenged. Air Traffic Control: Keeping
Track of Flights
By the end of the first decade of powered flight, people began to
realize that aircraft, like automobiles, would crash into each other
unless some means was developed to control and direct them. At
first, because aircraft could not fly very high, such control was
accomplished using simple hand signals. Later, control was
exercised through radio communication. By the end of World War
II, the invention of radar permitted visually displayed tracking of
several aircraft at once. When coupled with radio communication,
radar made it possible for the pilot to be warned when he was in
danger of colliding with another aircraft or when he was off
course. In 1956, two aircraft crashed over the Grand Canyon
while one was climbing and the other descending. The resulting
public outcry spurred the development of the modern radar-based
air traffic control system. Today, aircraft are continually tracked
from take-off to landing

• First Flight
• On December 17, 1903, Orville and Wilbur Wright capped four years
of research and design efforts with a 120-foot, 12-second flight at
Kitty Hawk, North Carolina - the first powered flight in a heavierthan-air machine. Prior to that, people had flown only in balloons and
gliders.
• The first person to fly as a passenger was Leon Delagrange, who rode
with French pilot Henri Farman from a meadow outside of Paris in
1908. Charles Furnas became the first American airplane passenger
when he flew with Orville Wright at Kitty Hawk later that year.
World War I
• These and other early flights were headline events, but commercial
aviation was very slow to catch on with the general public, most of
which was afraid to ride in the new flying machines. Improvements in
aircraft design also were slow. However, with the advent of World
War I, the military value of aircraft was quickly recognized and
production increased significantly to meet the soaring demand for
planes from governments on both sides of the Atlantic. Most
significant was the development of more powerful motors, enabling
aircraft to reach speeds of up to 130 mph, more than twice the speed
of pre-war aircraft. Increased power also made bigger aircraft
possible.

• Airmail
• By 1917, the U.S. government felt it had seen enough progress in the development
of planes to warrant something totally new - air mail. That year, Congress
appropriated $100,000 for an experimental airmail service that was to be conducted
jointly by the Army and the Post Office between Washington and New York, with an
intermediate stop in Philadelphia. The first flight left Belmont Park, Long Island, for
Philadelphia on May 14, 1918, and the next day continued on to Washington where
it was met by President Woodrow Wilson. Beacons
• In 1921, the Army deployed rotating beacons in a line between Columbus and
Dayton, Ohio, a distance of about 80 miles. The beacons, visible to pilots at 10second intervals, made it possible to fly the route at night.
• The Post Office took over the operation of the guidance system the following year,
and by the end of 1923 constructed similar beacons between Chicago and Cheyenne,
WY, a line later extended coast-to-coast at a cost of $550,000. Mail then could be
delivered across the continent in as little as 29 hours eastbound and 34 hours
westbound (prevailing winds from west to east accounted for the difference), which
was two to three days less than it took by train.

• Aircraft Innovations
• For the airlines to attract more passengers away from the
railroads, they needed both larger and faster airplanes.
They also needed safer airplanes. Accidents such as the
one in 1931 that killed Notre Dame football coach Knute
Rockne and six other men kept people away from flying
in droves.
• Aircraft manufacturers responded to the challenge. There
were so many improvements to aircraft in the 1930s that
many believe it was the most innovative period in
aviation history. Air-cooled engines replaced watercooled engines, reducing weight and making bigger and
faster planes possible. Cockpit instruments also
improved, with better turn indicators, altimeters, airspeed
indicators, rate of climb indicators, compasses, and the
"artificial horizon," which showed pilots the attitude of
the aircraft relative to the ground - important for flying
in reduced visibility.

• Radio
• Another development of enormous importance to aviation was
radio. Aviation and radio developed almost in lock step. Marconi
sent his first message across the Atlantic on the airways just two
years before the Wright Brothers' first flight at Kitty Hawk. By
World War I, some pilots were taking radios up in the air with them
so they could communicate with people on the ground. The airlines
followed suit after the war, using radio to transmit weather
information from the ground to their pilots so they could avoid
storms.
• Perhaps an even bigger development, however, was the realization
that radio could be used as an aid to navigation when visibility was
poor and visual navigation aids such as beacons were useless. Once
technical bugs were worked out, the Department of Commerce
constructed 83 radio beacons across the country. They became fully
operational in 1932, automatically transmitting directional beams, or
tracks, that pilots could follow to their destination. Marker beacons
came next, allowing pilots to locate airports in poor visibility. The
first air traffic control tower was established in 1935 at Newark
International Airport in New Jersey.

• The DC-3
• Called the plane that changed the world, the DC-3 was
the first aircraft to enable airlines to make money
carrying passengers. As a result, it quickly became the
dominant aircraft in the United States following its
debut in 1936 with American Airlines (which played a
key role in its design).
• The DC-3 had 50% greater passenger capacity than the
DC-2 (21 seats versus 14), yet cost only 10% more to
operate. It also was considered a safer plane, built of an
aluminum alloy 25% stronger than materials previously
used in aircraft construction. It has more powerful
engines (1,000 horsepower versus 710 horsepower for
the DC-2), and it could travel coast to coast in 16 hours a fast trip for that time.

• Pressurized Cabins
• Although planes such as the Boeing 247 and the DC-3
represented significant advances in aircraft design, they had
a major drawback. They could fly no higher than 10,000
feet because people became dizzy and even fainted due to
the reduced levels of oxygen at higher altitudes.
• The airlines wanted to fly higher to get above the air
turbulence and storms common at lower altitudes. Motion
sickness was a problem for many airline passengers, and an
inhibiting factor to the industry's growth.
• The breakthrough came at Boeing with the Stratoliner, a
derivation of the B-17 bomber introduced in 1940 and first
flown by TWA. It was the first pressurized aircraft, meaning
that air was pumped into the aircraft as it gained altitude to
maintain an atmosphere inside the cabin similar to the
atmosphere that occurs naturally at lower altitudes. With its
regulated air compressor, the 33-seat Stratoliner could fly as
high as 20,000 feet and reach speeds of 200 miles per hour.

• World War II
• Aviation had an enormous impact on the course of World War II and
the war had just as big of an impact on aviation. There were fewer
than 300 air transports in the United States when Hitler marched into
Poland in 1939. By the end of the war, U.S. aircraft manufacturers
were producing 50,000 planes a year!
• Most of the planes, of course, were fighters and bombers, but the
importance of air transports to the war effort quickly became apparent
as well. Throughout the war, the airlines provided much needed airlift
to keep people and supplies moving to the front and throughout the
production chain back home. For the first time in their history, the
airlines had far more business - for passengers as well as freight - than
they could handle. Many of them also had opportunities to pioneer
new routes, gaining an exposure that would give them a decidedly
broader outlook at war's end.
• While there were numerous advances in U.S. aircraft design during
the war that enabled planes to go faster, higher, and further than ever
before, mass production was the chief goal of the United States. The
major innovations of the wartime period - radar and jet engines occurred in Europe.

• Radar
• A technological development with a much greater impact on
the war's outcome (and later on commercial aviation) was
radar. British scientists had been working on a device that
could give them early warning of approaching enemy
aircraft even before the war began, and by 1940 Britain had
a line of radar transceivers along its east coast that could
detect German aircraft the moment they took off from the
Continent.
• British scientists also perfected the cathode ray oscilloscope,
which produced map-type outlines of surrounding
countryside and showed aircraft as a pulsing light.
Americans, meanwhile, found a way to distinguish between
enemy aircraft and Allied aircraft by installing transponders
aboard the later that signaled their identity to radar
operators.

• The present Air Navigation System (ANS)
provides international Air Traffic Services (ATS)
• for civil aviation. The provision of these services is
based on the availability of Communication,
Navigation, Surveillance (CNS) systems and
automated Air Traffic Control (ATC) systems with
various levels of capabilities.
• International air traffic is channelled along specified
air routes and each air route is part of a network of
• generally fixed air routes within a Flight
Information Region (FIR)

• Air Traffic Services (ATS)
• ATS= Air Traffic Management + Flight Information Service + Alerting Service
• ATM= Air Traffic Control + Air Space Management + Air Traffic Flow
Management
• · ATC: Maintain a safe distance between aircraft and obstacles within a confined
airspace and also
• on the airport surface
• · ASM: Maximize, within a given airspace structure, the utilization of available
airspace by
• dynamic time sharing and segregation of airspace among competing categories of
users based
• on short-term needs
• · ATFM: ensure an optimum flow of air traffic through areas during times when
demands (is expected to) exceed the available capacity of ATC service
• · FIS: Collect, handle and disseminate flight-related information to assist the pilot to
conduct his flight in a safe and efficient manner (ex ATIS)
• · AL: initiate an early search and rescue activity for aircraft in distress
• ATIS A service of an airport for traffic in its TMA or CTR
• ATIS is a repeated message (VHF) containing information about· Weather

• ATIS A service of an airport for traffic in its TMA or
CTR
• ATIS is a repeated message (VHF) containing
information about weather
• · The QNH
• · Transition level, transition altitude
• · Operational issues

• Airspace Organisation
• · Control zone (CTR): local ATC (TWR) usually
circular area around airport
• · Terminal Control Area (TMA): local ATC (APP),
incoming and outgoing flights between CTR and
• CTA
• · Control Area (CTA): General ATC (ACC) within
FIR, below certain flight level (lower airspace)
• · Upper Control Area (UTA): General ATC, across
FIRs (upper airspace; ex Eurocontrol)

• SIDs and STARs
• Standard Instrumental Departure
• Defines the route flown between aircraft departure and an ATS route
(‘highway in the sky’) (connects CTR with CTA, through TMA)
• Standard Terminal Arrival Route
• Defines the route flown between an ATS route and an approach fix
(Connects CTA with CTR through TMA)
• ACAS Airborne Collision Avoidance System
• FANS: Future Air Navigation System
• Current operating ANS is not expected to be able to accommodate
foreseen growth in air traffic (in 2008) Shortcomings of existing CNS
and ATS will become more apparent over time
• Summary of general shortcomings
• Lack of real time information
• Short and long term intent of aircraft on certain parts of existing airroutes
• Procedurals of ATC do not provide most efficient flight profiles
Planned through intermediate waypoints Capabilities of modern
airborne systems cannot be fully exploited

• Communication

• · SSR mode S regional VHF data link (VDL) regional Satellite data
link (AMSS)
• Global Navigation
• · Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) GPS + GLONASS +
GALILEO
• Surveillance
• · SSR mode S regional
• · Automatic Dependent Surveillance (ADS) global
• · Airborne Separation Avoidance System (ASAS) global
• ADS
• An on-board avionics function that automatically transmits via a
digital data link real time surveillance information allows surveillance
in oceanic and other areas which are beyond coverage of radar or LOS
communication · Surveillance is dependent in ADS because its
operation and quality depend upon the performance of the aircraft’s
navigation system.

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Data blocks
Basic
· Time of day
· Aircraft identification
· Three dimensional position
Additional can include
· Aircraft velocity and heading (4D)
· Aircraft intent (waypoints stored in FMS)
· Meteorological data
ADS-B
· Each ADS-B equipped aircraft periodically broadcasts its
position, altitude and vector information
• · Any user could receive and process the information
• · Everyone in the system would have real time access to
precisely the same data

• The world's busiest airports by passenger traffic are
measured by number of total passengers (data provided by
Airports Council International). One passenger is
described as someone who arrives in, departs from, or
transfers through the airport on a given day. HartsfieldJackson International Airport in Atlanta has been the
world's busiest airport every year since 2000, although
with all airports combined London has the world's busiest
city airport system in terms of passenger traffic.
• [hide] 1.
• 1-Hartsfield–Jackson Atlanta International AirportAtlanta,
Georgia, United StatesATL/KATL Passenger - 92,365,860
• 2-Beijing Capital International Airport Chaoyang, Beijing,
ChinaPEK/ZBAA77,403,668
• London Heathrow Airport Hillingdon, London, United
KingdomLHR/EGLL-69,433,565