The fundamentals of fitness

Chapter overview

• The components of physical fitness

• Tests to measure physical fitness

• Training methods

• Training principles



Now that you’ve finished …

answers

page 157 page 162 page 185 page 214

The components of physical fitness

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Health-related components of physical fitness

The health-related components of physical fitness are: • cardiorespiratory endurance • muscular strength • muscular endurance • flexibility • body composition.

Skill-related components of physical fitness

The skill-related components of physical fitness are: • power • speed

Personal reflection

• agility • coordination • balance • reaction time.

Consider your current level of fitness across the health- and skill-related components of physical fitness. Does your fitness level help or hinder you in the physical activity you are studying?

Developing both the health-related and skill-related components of physical fitness will improve efficiency of movement and should, therefore, improve overall performance.

Measuring components of physical fitness

The many reasons for measuring physical fitness include to: • evaluate progress • make comparisons with others • develop accurate training programs • set realistic, achievable fitness goals • identify baseline and follow-up fitness levels • assess individual strengths and weaknesses • identify medical problems • motivate athletes to improve results.

Tests to measure physical fitness

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Health-related components of physical fitness

Component

Cardiorespiratory endurance Muscular strength Muscular endurance Body composition Flexibility

Definition

The ability of the heart, lungs and circulatory system to supply oxygen and nutrients efficiently to working muscles and remove waste products. Usually found by measuring the maximum rate of oxygen consumed during exercise, or max VO 2 (maximum oxygen uptake) The greatest maximal force or tension that a muscle group can exert against a resistance in one maximal contraction The ability to sustain or repeat a muscular effort for a relatively long period of time The proportions of various body tissues (fat, muscle, bones, organs) and their influence on body mass The range of movement that can be performed in and around a joint • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Suitable test

PWC170

Multistage fitness test (beep test)

Astrand –Rhyming cycle ergometer test Cooper’s 12-minute run

2.4-km run

Step tests or 1.6-km run

One-repetition maximum test Dynamometers (back, leg and hand) Push-up test Sit-up test

Pull-up test Flexed-arm hang test

Body mass index

Skinfold tests

Waist –hip ratio

Girth measurements Goniometers

Sit-and-reach test

Shoulder rotation test Ankle extension test Leighton flexometer

Skill-related components of physical fitness

Component

Power Speed

Definition

The product of strength and speed: the ability to move the body or an object quickly The rate of change in position • • • •

Suitable test Standing long jump test

Vertical jump test Margaria –Kalamen power test

Sprint tests (20 –60 m)

Agility Coordination Balance Reaction time The ability to change the direction or position of the body (parts of the body or the whole body) rapidly and efficiently A smooth flow of movement when performing a physical task, apparent when the nervous and muscular systems work together smoothly When the body is in a stable position or state of equilibrium. May be static (the body is stationary) or dynamic (the body is moving) The time that it takes to respond to a stimulus • • • • • • • • • • • • Burpee test Figure 8 agility run

Shuttle run test

Illinois agility run Alternate ball toss Hand wall toss

Catch test

One-foot balances

Stork stand balance test

Static and dynamic balance boards

Ruler reaction time test

Computer reaction time test

Personal data sheet for measuring physical fitness components

Personal data sheet

Name Age Date of pre training testing Date of post training testing Marcus Galloway 17 5 February 30 March

Component Test(s) conducted Pre-training test result and rating Health-related components of physical fitness Post-training test result and rating Evaluation

Cardiorespiratory endurance Muscular strength Muscular endurance 2.4 km run Lower back strength dynamometer Push-up test Flexibility Body composition Sit and reach test Waist –hip ratio 11.10 min (Fair) 158 (75%) 36 (Good) 5 (Below average) .88

(75%) 10.56 min (Fair) 169 (85%) 41 (Superior) 4 (Below average) .88

(75%) No change Improved Improved No change No change

Personal data sheet for measuring physical fitness components

Personal data sheet

Name Age Date of pre training testing Date of post training testing Marcus Galloway 17 5 February 30 March

Component Test(s) conducted Pre-training test result and rating Skill-related components of physical fitness

Power Speed Agility Coordination Balance Reaction time Standing long jump Sprint tests over 20 –60m Shuttle run test Catch Stork stand Ruler reaction time test 232 (70%) 4.93 sec (Good) 9.7 sec (75%) 19 (70 –80%) 37 sec (Good) 15 cm (Fair)

Post-training test result and rating

236 (75%) 5.00 sec (Good) 10 sec (50%) 19 (70 –80%) 39 sec (Good) 17.8 cm (Fair)

Evaluation

Improved No change Deteriorated No change No change No change

Training methods

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Aerobic training

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Continuous training

 long, slow, distance training that involves the whole body or large muscle groups, such as running, swimming or cycling.

 involves working for a minimum of 20 minutes, at a uniform intensity within the aerobic training zone  develops an athlete’s aerobic training threshold, improving their ability to use oxygen during exercise.

Fartlek training

 involves some exercise at a uniform pace, interspersed with short sprints.

 after each sprint the athlete returns to the steady pace to recover before the next burst of speed.

 helps to improve VO 2 max.

Long-interval training

Long-interval training incorporates periods of work interspersed with periods of rest (light active rest, such as walking).

The intensity and effectiveness of long-interval training can be varied by manipulating: • the duration of each training period • the intensity of the training • the duration of the rest interval • the number of training and rest intervals in each session.

A work –rest ratio of 1:1 would be used, and each exercise interval would typically be 2 –5 minutes at a sub-maximal pace. Generally, between four and eight repetitions would be completed.

Anaerobic training

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Short-interval training

 uses periods of activity followed by periods of rest.

 intervals generally range between 10 seconds and 2 minutes, with a work –rest ratio of approximately 1:3.

 other situations may require work – rest ratios of 1:5 or 1:10 to allow for ATP and PC replenishment within the muscle.

 the recovery periods allow the anaerobic energy systems to refuel and ensure that every effort is made at 100 per cent.

Short-interval training programs based on training distances

Major energy system Training distances (metres) Approximate training time (min:sec) Sets per workout Repetitions per set Work – relief ratio Type of relief interval

Alactacid

Run

50 100 Alactacid or lactic acid 200 400 Anaerobic: glycolysis or aerobic 600 800

Swim

– 25 50 100 125 –150 200 0:10 <:20 0:30 –0:45 1:20 –1:30 1:45 –2:15 2:30 –3:00 5 3 4 2 1 2 10 8 4 4 5 2 1:4 1:3 1:3 1:2 1:2 1:1 Complete rest recovery (e.g. walking, flexing) Work –relief (e.g. light to mild exercise, jogging) Work –relief Complete rest recovery of work – relief

Source: Data from EL Fox and DK Mathews,

Interval Training: Conditioning for Sport and General Fitness

, Saunders, Philadelphia, 1974

Strength training

 Power is the explosive aspect of strength, and it can be developed by improving maximum strength and/or the speed of coordinated muscle contractions.

  Strength training uses a variety of techniques that vary the amount and frequency of the force being applied. Strength training also employs different types of muscle contractions, depending on the type of exercise, the equipment and the type of strength development being sought.

 A muscle will strengthen only if it has been forced to work beyond its customary intensity —if it is overloaded. Muscles can be overloaded by progressively increasing the: • intensity (by decreasing the number and length of rest periods) • resistance or amount of weight lifted • number of repetitions at a particular weight • number of sets of an exercise • speed of an action.

 Three different types of muscular contractions occur during different types of strength training: isotonic, isometric and isokinetic.

(c) Isokinetic

Resistance training: elastic

Resistance training with elastic resistance methods uses bands or tubes. As the elastic band is stretched, the resistance increases.

Resistance depends on how far the band is stretched. This allows for more flexibility in the type and direction of movement.

Tension is present through the full motion, so muscles are exercised smoothly, reducing the chance of injury.

Integration

Identify movements in a variety of sports where the use of elastic resistance training may be of benefit.

Resistance training: hydraulic resistance

Hydraulic resistance training involves either exercising in water, where each effort is opposed by the fluid, or by exercising using machines that use water resistance technology.

It uses isokinetic contractions, where a joint is moved through its full range of motion at a fixed speed. Resistance is applied at the same rate, to all moving parts of the body.

Resistance training: weights

 Involves using force to resist the effects of gravity, most often through isotonic contractions (moving joint)  Repetition maximum (RM) refers to the maximum number of repetitions that can be completed with a given resistance: 1 RM is the maximum load that can be lifted just once; 10 RM is the maximum load that can be lifted 10 times, but not 11 times  A common example of progressive resistance exercise:   set 1 —ten repetitions using a load that is half the load of 10 RM set 2 —ten repetitions using a load that is three-quarters the load of 10 RM  set 3 —ten repetitions using a load of 10 RM.

Weight training exercises for major muscle groups

Muscle group

Chest Biceps Triceps Shoulder Back Abdominals Quadriceps Hamstrings Calf

Exercise for the muscle group

Flat dumbbell press, flat dumbbell fly, incline dumbbell press, machine press, ‘pec deck’ machine Seated biceps curl (both arms), biceps curl with a twist, alternate arm curl, double-arm cable curl Lying dumbbell extension, seated one-arm triceps overhead extension, one-arm triceps kickback with a twist, triceps pushdown machine, pulley single-arm triceps kickback, overhead triceps extension on pulley, dips Lateral shoulder raises, seated dumbbell press, chin-ups, seated shoulder press, lateral side cable pulley Upright row (dumbbell or machine), single or double bent-arm dumbbell row, lateral pull-down (in front and behind head, narrow and wide grip), seated pulley row Knee-raised crunches, alternate knee in crunches, side crunches, static contractions with crunches, abdominal machine Variety of squats, leg-extension machine Hamstring curl machine Calf raises (standing or seated, weighted or not, toe in or out, machine or free)

Overload techniques

Technique Explanation

Blitzing Forced repetitions Cheating Negative repetitions

Blitzing

is the practice of working a muscle or muscle group with different exercises from different angles on one training day.

Forced repetitions

are exercises in which a partner gently supports the athlete through the point where the muscles are weakest.

Cheating

is where other muscles are used to assist in lifting the weight over the weakest point. The aim is to move past the weak point and overload the strongest part of the muscle. For example, in a very heavy arm curl, the trunk is bent slightly forward and the muscles of the small of the back are used to lift through the weakest point.

Negative repetitions

use eccentric isotonic contractions after the muscle is fatigued. For example, after the biceps muscle is tired from performing biceps curls, a partner assists by lifting the weight and allowing further lowering (eccentric contractions) of the weight by the athlete. The extra work is known as a negative repetition.

Pre-exhaustion

Pre-exhaustion

refers to exercising to isolate and fatigue a muscle, and then once more using the muscle (along with other muscles) in a more complex exercise so that it works further, for example, performing leg extensions to tire the legs and then doing squats.

Rest pause

Rest pause

refers to fatiguing a muscle by overloading it to such a degree that only 1 RM can

Source: Adapted from ML Foss and SJ Keteyian,

Fox’s Physiological Basis for Exercise and Sport

, 6th edn,

lifters.

WCB/McGraw-Hill, Boston, 1998

Pyramid training

Pyramid training

is the practice of increasing resistance up to the optimal weight, and then decreasing resistance.

Overload techniques

Technique Explanation

Up and down the rack Compound training Hybrid exercises (compound repetitions) Triple drop

Up and down the rack

is similar to pyramid training. It uses light to heavy weights arranged on a weight rack. The athlete works up the rack (increasing weights) and then back down it (decreasing weights).

Compound training

combines exercises of a muscle group and its counteracting muscle group with minimal rest between. It can be done in: • super sets —exercise the muscle, then the counteracting muscle (for example, a biceps curl followed by a triceps extension), or complete a different exercise with the same muscle • group (for example, a bench press followed by a dumbbell fly) tri sets —work the same muscle three times (for example, complete three different • exercises for the deltoids) giant sets —carry out super sets with more than two exercises and no rest in between.

Hybrid exercises

involve a greater range of motion because more than one joint is involved. Instead of doing three or four different exercises, athletes can complete just one hybrid exercise that uses many joints.

Triple drop

involves decreasing the weight of a set of repetitions so that more repetitions can be done. The weight is usually reduced three times, or until complete fatigue is reached.

Pyramid training is the practice of increasing resistance up to the optimal weight, then decreasing resistance, such as this example of a squat workout.

Weight training guidelines for different goals

• • • • • •

Building muscular strength

Use a resistance greater than 80 per cent of 1 RM Complete 3 Use 3 –6 sets of fewer than 6 repetitions –4 exercises per body part Use compound exercises most often Use training cycles that try to maximise strength and power, while minimising the probability of overtraining Use a variety of exercises

Building lean body mass

Beginner • • • • • • Use a moderate weight so as to obtain 8 –12 RM For each body part, select one isolation exercise and one compound exercise For each exercise, perform 2 –3 sets of 8–12 RM in every work-out When more than 12 RM can be performed in the final set, increase the resistance by 2.5

–5 per cent Use one set of each exercise for the first 2 –4 weeks Exercise every second day with rests in between • • • • Intermediate to advanced Use advanced overload techniques Use split work-outs: one half of the body one day, then the other half the next Increase the number of exercises to work each muscle from different angles Increase the total number of sets (4 –5) per exercise

Weight training guidelines for different goals

• • • •

Building muscular endurance

Use a resistance that eventually causes fatigue, but allows you to perform many repetitions before you tire —usually a resistance of 15–20 RM Vary each set between 20 seconds and 60 seconds, depending on fitness levels Vary rest or recovery periods between exercises, depending on the desired training intensity (generally 0 –10 seconds) Monitor intensity by measuring the heart rate • • • • •

Building muscular power

Resistance should be 30 –70 per cent of 1 RM Perform 2 –3 sets with 6–8 repetitions at high velocity Allow 9 –10 seconds rest between repetitions Allow 4 –6 minutes rest between sets Allow 8 –10 minutes rest between sequences

Resistance training: isometric

 A contraction performed at a constant angle against an immovable load  Although isometric training improves strength and endurance, it is not ideally suited to many sports because it requires static contractions that very rarely occur in sports.

Plyometric training

 Enhances power and explosiveness  Uses an eccentric contraction to stretch a muscle group, followed by a rapid concentric contraction of the same muscle group.

 Focus should be on the quality of work, not the quantity.  Exercises should be completed with maximal effort, and appropriate rest periods should be allowed.  Should be 1 –3 minutes between sets and 3–5 minutes between each exercise.

• • • • •

Plyometric stabilisation tests

Static stand (hip flexed) for 10 seconds Single-leg squat Hop for distance —hold landing for 10 seconds Hop down off 30 centimetre box —hold landing for 10 seconds Repetitive jump test (maximum effort) —tuck jump for 30 seconds, checking for switch time, movement from starting position and jump count

Source: Adapted from V Gambetta, ‘Plyometrics: Myths and Misconceptions’,

Sports Coach

, vol 20, 1998, pp. 7 –12

Plyometric demand rating scale Rating

1 Very low stress 2 Low stress 3 Moderate stress 4 High stress

Recovery time

Very rapid recovery Rapid recovery: one day required One to two days’ recovery

Example

Jump rope or ankle bounces or other low amplitude jumps Tuck jumps, heel kicks, 360-degree jumps Stair jumps, stride jumps Slow recovery: at least two days required Hops, bounds or jumps for distance 5 Very high stress Very slow recovery: three days required Depth jumps or other shock jumps

Source: Adapted from V Gambetta, ‘Plyometrics: Myths and Misconceptions’,

Sports Coach

, vol 20, 1998, pp. 7 –12

Plyometric stabilisation tests

• • • •

Advantages

Exercise is performed more explosively than with traditional weights, leading to a more rapid development of force, which promotes more muscular power.

The continual acceleration throughout the exercise produces high forces during the entire range of motion, which is more sport specific.

The exercises are able to be performed at higher velocities than with traditional weight training.

• • •

Disadvantages

There is an increased risk of musculoskeletal injuries due to high-impact forces.

A limited range of exercises are able to be performed.

The exercises enable the use of elastic energy and minimise the stretch reflex by training for a specific activity to increase power.

• • Research has concluded that power is minimised at an approximate load of 30 –40% of maximum; the use of one’s own body weight in plyometrics does not represent this.

It is difficult to gain feedback from plyometrics; for example, the amount of force, speed, weight and so on are variables and are difficult to standardise when compared with weights.

Higher velocities of contraction lead to lower forces and therefore lower muscular strength.

Plyometric push-up

Starting position Drop down Bottom of push-up position Extend arms

Plyometric sit-up

Starting position Leg thrust Leg lift Return to starting position

Depth jump

Starting position Step off platform Land on both feet, flexing knees Extend body

Flexibility training



Static flexibility training:

stretching the muscle by moving slowly and steadily into a position beyond the point of resistance, held for 10 –30 seconds. 

Proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation

(PNF): muscle is stretched, but then contracted for 6 –10 seconds against a resistance, which is often provided by a partner or a fixed object. Muscle is then relaxed and stretched to its maximum. 

Dynamic

: movements replicating those required in an activity increasing muscle temperature.



Ballistic stretching:

using momentum to force muscles up to and past their normal range of motion – not very safe

Flexibility screening tests

Source: J Bloomfield, E Bruce and T Ackland,

Applied Anatomy and Biomechanics in Sport

, Blackwell Scientific Publications, Melbourne, 1994

Skills training

 Usually in the form of drills or modified games Skills training varies according to the:   athlete’s current skill level athlete’s motivation  practice methods used  length of practice session  requirements of the sport.

Training principles

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Specificity

Training should be specific to the:  task requirements    energy systems required in the task muscle groups and fibres required in the task components of fitness involved in the task.

Personal reflection

Have you thought about the specific requirements of your sport? Should you adjust your training?

F.I.T.T

Frequency:

how often training should occur as well as how many sets and reps in a session.

Aerobic system: 3 –5 days Anaerobic system: 3 days Intensity:

how hard a program/session/set or rep should be.

Aerobic work: 75 –85% of max hr Anaerobic work: above 85% of max hr Time

: how long a program or session should go for.

*Also applies to the amount of resistance

Type

: what type of exercise should be undertaken.

Relates to the principle of

specificity

• 12–15 weeks for aerobic gains • 10 weeks for anaerobic (speed) gains • 5 weeks for strength gains.

Training sessions should go for 30 –60 minutes.

Progressive overload

Athletes must exercise at a level beyond what they are accustomed to for training to have an effect.

This can be achieved by:       increasing the frequency of training increasing the intensity of training increasing the distance covered decreasing the time allocated to complete repetitions, sets or sessions decreasing the recovery time between repetitions, sets or sessions incorporating more muscle groups into training activities or increasing a joint’s range of motion.

Progression and maintenance of exercise training

Recuperation

 To achieve equilibrium, the body has two responses after exercise; repair and adapt  Athletes must allow the body enough rest time for these responses to occur  Without adequate rest the athlete will become sick or injured

Reversibility

 The effects of fitness training can be reversed.

 Athletes developing their aerobic system can expect significant decreases in VO 2 max about two weeks after they stop training. Reductions in muscular strength take longer to occur.

Variety

 Athletes who do not have a varied fitness regime can quickly become bored and lose motivation.

 Variety must, however, be balanced with the need for specificity.

Diminishing returns

As athletes progress, the gains will be more gradual.

Now that you’ve finished …

Answers

1. Describe a fitness test designed to test one of the skill-related components of physical fitness.

Component: Power Test: Standing long jump.

Participant stands with feet together behind a line (positioned close to the long jump pit), bends knees, swings arms up and jumps as far as possible. The recorder marks the landing point of the heel of the back foot (closest to the starting line) and records the best of 3 attempts.

2. Investigate why some sporting organisations do fitness testing in and out of the competitive season.

The more testing that is conducted, the greater the knowledge gained about the participant’s fitness. Improvement and deterioration can be identified, highlighting weaknesses and strengths. If tests are taken from season to season, an athlete and their coach/teacher can decide if the correct response is being achieved and make necessary changes to the training plan or program.

3. Discuss the value of including both aerobic and anaerobic training in team sports.

Aerobic and anaerobic training thresholds indicate the maximum effect possible without an increase in lactic acid. Training all athletes, regardless of their position on a team, to have efficient aerobic and anaerobic systems will improve their ability to tolerate lactic acid. Furthermore, even anaerobic-based physical activities may require athletes to have an efficient aerobic capacity as they are required to repeat movements over a long period of time. For example, a netball goal shooter makes agile, short and sharp movements to find the best position in the goal circle, which taxes the anaerobic system; however, he/she will need to do these for an hour, therefore taxing the aerobic system.

4. Imagine that you are about to start a twelve-week personal training program designed to improve your aerobic capacity. Discuss the methods that could be used to measure your improvement.

 Pre- and post-fitness testing, focusing on the fitness components being trained.  Monitoring changes in heart rate recovery (over time)  Monitoring changes to perceived exertion levels after sessions (over time)

5. List sports that would benefit from:

a. isometric training

– gymnastics: the rings

b. isotonic training

– softball: the pitch

c. isokinetic training

– swimming: the freestyle stroke

d. all of the above

– waterpolo: gripping the ball (isometric), throwing ball (isotonic), eggbeater kick (isokinetic).

6. Imagine you have been approached by a friend who is going to open a new gym. Recommend a range of equipment that would help the gym’s customers develop strength. Give reasons for each.

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

Chest press – chest muscles Lat pulldown – back muscles Shoulder press – shoulder muscles Bicep curl – biceps muscles Tricep press – triceps muscles Leg press – quadriceps, gluteus and hamstring muscles Leg extension – quadriceps muscles Leg curl – hamstring muscles Calf raise – calf muscles Back extension – lower back muscles Ab curl – abdominal muscles

7. Analyse the use of flexibility training to improve performance in a team sport of your choice.

Example: rugby  The more flexible a rugby player, the less likely they will be of becoming injured. The general running up and down the field, passing of the ball and quick manoeuvring requires general muscle flexibility. In particular, kicking the ball requires a high degree of dynamic flexibility. Not only will working on hamstring flexibility for the kicking action prevent injury, it may increase the length of a kick. Finally, rugby players regularly place their bodies under strain when tackled. Good flexibility is essential for injury prevention in these circumstances.

8. The table below shows a type of training session. Discuss what training method is being employed and why.

Work Rest

10 x 40 m 30 seconds 5 x 80 m 1 minute 4 x 100 m 1.5 minutes The above training session is an example of short-interval training. This is because there are short periods of activity followed by periods of rest to develop speed.

9. Explain the intensity component of the FITT principle.

Applying intensity to a training program

The intensity of a training program is the overall level of exercise difficulty. Athletes should exercise at a rate sufficient to tax the energy system being developed:   aerobic system —athletes should aim for an intensity somewhere between 75 and 85 per cent of their maximum heart rate.

anaerobic system —athletes should aim for an intensity somewhere above 85 per cent of their maximum heart rate.

Applying intensity to a training session

The intensity of a training session is the difficulty of a set or repetition. It is expressed differently depending on the training method being applied. For example, the intensity of interval training is expressed as a percentage of the athlete’s maximum heart rate. Intensity when referring to strength training refers to a percentage of an individual’s repetition max.

10a. Describe the principles of training.

Specificity FITT Progressive overload Recuperation Reversibility Variety Diminishing returns The type of exercise used in training should be specific to the task, energy systems, muscle groups and fibres, and components of fitness

The frequency, intensity, time and type of training must be stated every session. Athletes must exercise at a level beyond what they are accustomed to for training to have an effect.

Athletes must rest for adequate periods of time to prevent injury, illness and loss of motivation.

The training effect can be lost if training is not maintained.

Training programs must include a variety of activities to maintain athlete motivation.

As athletes progress, the gains will be more gradual.

10b. Analyse how any four of these principles can be applied to a program designed to develop muscular hypertrophy.

Specificity

Resistance training: Muscle contractions should involve both concentric and eccentric contractions Where possible, actions should mimic that of the event/sport.

Frequency

Untrained athletes: 1 –2 sessions per week. 2 –3 sets per session. Advanced athletes: 3 –5 sessions per week, per muscle group, split sessions. 3 –6 sets per session.

Intensity

Untrained athletes: 8 –12 RM slow/moderate movement speed Advanced athletes: 2 –6 RM, slow/moderate movement speed

Time

The number of sets will guide the time for each session. However, the amount of rest is constant.

Untrained athletes: 2 –3 min between sets Advanced athletes: 3 –5 min between sets

Overload

Gradual decreases of 2 –10% or RM, meaning that the lower the RM, the heavier the weight.

Variety

Machines, free weights, elastic bands, person’s own body weight, pulleys/levers and sport specific machines; i.e., swimming resistance bench.

11. Explain the dangers athletes are likely to face if they do not allow for proper recuperation in an anaerobic training program.

If athletes do not give their body adequate time to repair and respond to exercise, they run the risk of over-training and damaging the body. Over-training occurs when an athlete does more work than can be physically tolerated. The body is not able to adapt, which results in tissue damage and not enough time to repair it. This in turn affects performance, which has a flow-on effect on motivation. Athletes who are not performing at their best can lose motivation. Overuse injuries occur when excessive and repetitive force is placed on the bones and connective tissues of the body.

Image credits

  Slide 1, Getty Images/Quinn Rooney Slide 12, Shutterstock/Schmid Christophe   Slide 19, Newspix / Scott Mark Slide 20, Photolibrary/Kroeger & Gross   Slide 21, Getty Images / Bongarts / Alexander Hassenstein Slide 21, Newspix / Michael Watt   Slide 31, Voice Photography Slide 32, Voice Photography  Slide 32, Voice Photography   Slide 34, Voice Photography Slide 35, Getty Images/Robert Gray   Slide 39, Getty Images/Michael Blann Slide 41, istock Photo/Stephanie Swartz  Slide 43, Getty Images/Jamie Grill