Transcript TECHNOLOGY MILESTONES FROM THE CHEMIST’S VIEW I. ENERGY AND TRANSPORTATION Chemists and chemical engineers have made many contributions to energy and transportation.

TECHNOLOGY MILESTONES FROM THE CHEMIST’S VIEW
I. ENERGY AND TRANSPORTATION
Chemists and chemical engineers have made many contributions to energy and transportation that allows us to
power the lives we want to lead on land and in space.
In the 19th century people heated their homes with wood or coal, used kerosene lanterns or candles for illumination,
and traveled by railroad, steamboat, horse or on foot.
As demands for energy in the last two centuries have increased, chemistry has developed and improved power
sources, liquid fuel, batteries, and novel energy-conversion technologies.
Advances in chemistry have also fueled the transportation revolution, contributing new and improved materials to
automobiles, airplanes, space vehicles, and roadways. By extracting metals, minerals, and motor fuels from natural
resources and by creating entirely new materials, their work as revolutionized our way of life of mankind.
Chronology
I.1. Energy Sources
Utilization of coal as an energy source
Petroleum exploration and production
Nuclear energy
Alternative energy sources
I.4. Petrochemical Fuels
Production of gasoline from crude oil
Fuel additives
Catalytic converters
I.2. Electrical Energy Storage and Portable Power Sources
Single-use batteries
Rechargeable batteries
I.5. Automotive Vehicles
Advanced materials for comfort and safety
Plastic components
Tire technology
I.3. Materials for Roadways and Bridges
Concrete
Asphalt
Metals and alloys
Maintenance and repair technology
I.6. Aeronautics
Hot-air balloons
Helium
Rocket fuel
Construction materials for aircrafts and rockets
Technology Milestones in Energy and Transportation
Chronology
1882 First coal-fired electric generating station supplies household electricity.
1884 The German Gottlieb Daimler builds the first gasoline-fueled, spark-ignited, piston-engine car.
1902 Asphalt pavement for roads is made from processing crude oil.
1913 Thermal cracking (breaking of long-chained molecules by heat) of hydrocarbons increases gasoline
production from petroleum.
1921 Thomas Midgley, Jr. uses tetraethyl lead as an antiknock additive in gasoline.
1936 The French Eugene Houdry develops the catalytic cracking of petroleum to produce high-octane gasoline.
1947 The American B. F. Goodrich firm introduces the first tubeless tires.
1949 Eveready Battery Co. miniaturizes the alkaline battery.
1954 First silicon-based solar battery is developed at Bell Labs.
1958 Boeing 707 jet airliners debut and begin to transform air transport.
1970s Unleaded fuels introduced; the phase-out of lead in gas begins.
1975 Catalytic converters are introduced in many automobiles.
1980-1990s Lithium-ion batteries are popular for cellular phones and laptop computers.
1981 The Columbia Space Shuttle becomes the world’s first reusable spacecraft.
I.1. Energy Sources
Utilization of coal as an energy source
Coal replaced wood as the principal source of
energy in the United States by the 1890s. The first
coal-fired power plant was built in 1882,
generating steam that turned a generator to make
electricity. In 1884, Charles Parsons developed the
more efficient high-speed steam turbine. By the
1920s, pulverized coal increased efficiency and
reduced the air need for combustion. The 1940
cyclone furnace used poorer-grade coals to
produce less ash. Recently chemical technology
has developed the combustion of culm (waste
material from coal mining) to produce power and
to decrease environmental load.
Steam turbine of Parsons (1907)
Charles Parsons
I.1. Energy Sources
Petroleum exploration and production
The 1901 discovery of the vast
Spindletop oil field in Texas and the
emergence of the automobile caused
petroleum to surpass coal as the
principal fuel source by 1951. The
chemical technology of refining crude oil
to separate its different chemical
fractions has been continually improved,
starting
with
simple
atmospheric
distillation and progressing to vacuum
(reduced pressure) distillation to thermal
cracking to the use of catalysts. For the
primary crude oil recovery process,
chemistry is most evident in diamond
drilling bits, drilling muds, and oil-fromshale extraction using a combination of
chemicals and steam. The secondary
recovery processes include pumping
high pressure gas (carbon dioxide) or
water solutions into the earth.
I.1. Energy Sources
Nuclear energy
The first nuclear reactor was
developed in 1942 for military use.
After World War II., the diversion of
nuclear technology to peaceful uses
including the generation of electrical
power plant began in 1951 with
President Eisenhower’s Atoms for
Peace program. Chemistry has
played an internal part ever since,
producing the radioactive materials
used as fuel in the reactors, the
reactor control rods that regulate
the flow of neutrons from the
radioactive decay, the reprocessing
of the fuel rods after they lost their
efficiency,
waste-management,
environmental
protection,
and
minimizing radiation load of the
citizens.
I.1. Energy Sources
Alternative energy sources
Unorthodox methods for power generation, such as wind, hydroelectric, and geothermal, account for less
than one percent of the world’s total power generation, but they can play an important regional role, as
determined by economics and availability. Through chemistry, solar panels for both thermal and photovoltaic
generation, lightweight carbon fiber propellers for wind generation, concrete and metal turbines for
hydroelectric plants, and corrosion-resistant materials for harnessing geothermal sources have all been
developed.
The first silicon-based
solar battery (1954)
I.2. Electrical Energy Storage and Portable Power Sources
Single-use batteries
Electrical energy storage was developed by Alessandro Volta in
the late 1700s, and chemistry has contributed to subsequent
improvements in battery power. The 1890 carbon-zinc dry cell
improved upon the earlier Leclanché ’wet-cell’ design. It was
commercially produced for use in flashlights and it is still used
today. In 1949, a new alkaline paste for the traditional battery
enhanced lifetime and allowed miniaturization, and this alkaline
battery quickly found many uses in portable electronic devices and
cameras. Since then, newer battery developments have used
silver oxide, mercuric oxide, or lithium.
Carbon-zinc dry battery
I.2. Electrical Energy Storage and Portable Power Sources
Rechargeable batteries
The 1859 lead-acid rechargeable battery was an
early commercial example of using a controlled
chemical reaction to produce electricity. First
improved in 1881 and continuously enhanced
since, the lead-acid battery continues to be the
dominant form of battery used in automobiles and
trucks. The nickel-cadmium rechargeable battery,
made originally in 1899, was too expensive to
compete commercially. Latest developments have
focused on lithium. After a failed attempt to use
lithium metal in the 1980s, lithium-ion batteries are
commonplace, finding applications in cellular
phones and laptop computers.
I.3. Materials for Roadways and Bridges
Concrete
The massive U.S. interstate construction
projects of the 1950s depended heavily on the
strength and longevity of concrete on roads
and bridges. Portland cement, first made in
1824 and patented as reinforced concrete by
the French Joseph Monier in 1877, slow-sets
due to a complex chemical reaction in which
the cement paste fills the void around coarse
and fine particulates and any reinforcements.
Durability and strength depend on careful
control of the cement manufacturing process,
and adding different chemicals to the initial
concrete mixture will reduce shrinkage and
improve corrosion resistance.
I.3. Materials for Roadways and Bridges
Asphalt
Asphalt is a popular road construction
material today because of its cost and
performance advantages. Natural asphalt was
discovered in 1595, but it was not bound with
coal tar and used to pave roadways until
1902. Bitumen, the solid or semi-solid residue
of the refinery process to make gasoline from
petroleum, quickly replaced natural asphalt in
paving. Recently, different synthetic polymers
have improved performance and durability.
Superpave (an acronym for Superior
Performing Asphalt Pavements) is the latest
technique for making superior asphalt to
withstand adverse load and weather
conditions.
I.3. Materials for Roadways and Bridges
Metals and alloys
Steel has become the primary structural material for bridges due
to its light weight, strength, durability, ease of maintenance and
construction, low erection costs, and resistance to natural
disasters such as earthquakes. New high-performance steels
introduced in the 1990s have superior strength and corrosion
resistance. Another technology for protecting steel in bridge
construction is a process known as metalizing where aluminum
or zinc is sprayed onto a cleaned steel surface to form a 30-year
protective coating.
I.3. Materials for Roadways and Bridges
Maintenance and repair technique
Road infrastructure must be maintained
without significant deterioration in all
types of weather and on a long timescale.
Innovations
in
construction
and
maintenance materials have allowed
longer intervals between the rebuilding of
roads. Sealants for concrete, asphalt,
and steel are important to prolonging
road life. Other chemical and polymeric
material function as binder addictives to
enhance the performance of asphalt
roadways,
for
example,
styrenebutadiene-styrene results in less rutting
and cracking in Europe.
I.4. Petrochemical Fuels
Production of gasoline from crude oil
To improve gasoline recovery
from crude oil, refiners initially
used heat to break down the
larger molecules of the heavy oil
fraction into the smaller ones
found in gasoline, using a process
called thermal cracking (1913).
Since high temperatures also
formed unwanted products, a
vacuum distillation that operated
at lower temperatures was used
by 1928. Using an inert catalyst
(catalytic cracking) rather then
high temperature to achieve
cracking was developed by
Eugene Houdry (1936), was
introduced commercially in 1937
and revolutionized the gasoline
refining process.
Eugene Houdry with
the model of the
catalytic converter
I.4. Petrochemical Fuels
Fuel additives
Thomas
Midgley
Jr.
use
tetraethyl lead as antiknock
additive in gasoline (1921)
Early automotive engines ‘knocked’ whenever poor quality gasoline was used. In 1921,
tetraethyl lead was added to gasoline to make engines run smoother and quieter. By 1926, an
octane rating was introduced to measure the quality of gasoline (compression tolerance). The
use of lead additives was discontinued in the 1970s because of environmental concerns.
Today, small amount of chemicals (alcohols, ethers) are added to gasoline to improve octane
rating, enhance gasoline performance (metal deactivators), and reduce engine friction and
wear to extend engine life (detergents). Seasonal chemical additives are used in some areas
for geographical concerns, such as the addition of methanol to prevent freezing of fuel line.
I.4. Petrochemical Fuels
Catalytic converters
Two-stage catalytic converters
were introduced in 1975 to control
carbon
monoxide
and
hydrocarbon emissions. Soon, a
third stage was added to clean
nitrogen oxides in the exhaust
gas. Catalytic converters function
by causing a series of chemical
reactions to occur around the
metal, usually platinum catalyst.
Nitrogen oxides are converted
into nitrogen and oxygen gases,
carbon monoxide is converted
into carbon dioxide, and the
unburned
hydrocarbons
are
converted to water and carbon
dioxide.
Three-stage catalytic converter
I.5. Automotive Vehicles
Advanced materials for comfort and safety
The automobile of 21st century bears little
resemblance to its early predecessors in design,
comfort, and safety for passengers. High-intensity
discharge headlamps allow maximum nighttime
illumination. Corrosion has been drastically reduced
with special coatings and materials. Chemical
refrigerants circulate in a closed-environment
system. Automotive safety glass was introduced in
1914. Today’s special polymers coat glass to
reduce weight and outside noise and to protect
from glare and ultraviolet radiation. Safety
innovations include polymer fibers in seat belt
restraints (required in the 1960s) and in air bags
(required in 1996).
I.5. Automotive Vehicles
Plastic components
Reducing weight in automobiles by transitioning from metal
to plastics and identifying new high-performance materials
are possible due to chemical achievements. After World
War II., automobile manufacturers began using synthetic
petroleum-based polymers for their toughness, hardness
and weather resistance that are require for rigid structural
components. After 1970s energy crisis, lightweight
materials were sought to replace metals in various parts of
the automobile. Design applications include: complex body
shapes fabricated by injection molding, thermoplastic
bumpers, polypropylene fibers that are colorfast and UVstable, and special paints coatings, and adhesives.
Polypropilene fibers
I.5. Automotive Vehicles
Tire technology
Natural rubber products appeared in the early 1800s, but were impractical due
to softening or brittleness in hot or cold weather. An American inventor Charles
Goodyear developed the vulcanization process for natural rubber in 1839,
linking unsaturated bonds by sulfur. This basic process is still used with addition
of chemical accelerants and stabilizers. By 1945, synthetic rubber was being
commercially produced as a rubber substitute. As tire demand increased,
improvements including using an inner tube to replace solid rubber tires,
reinforcing with a natural or synthetic fabric cord for strength, and adding
materials for reduced wear. Tubeless tires debuted later.
I.6. Aeronautics
Hot-air balloons
From 1783 when the first human flew in a
balloon propelled by hot air rising an open
fire, innovations in hot-air balloons have
been revolutionary. Hot air was quickly
replaced by hydrogen, which was easier to
control. Hot-air ballooning has become a
popular sport with more than 5000 hot-air
balloon pilots in the United States. Chemistry
has contributed the durable, inexpensive and
heat-resistant nylon fabric and the liquid
propane technology used for propulsion.
I.6. Aeronautics
Helium
The Hindenburg disaster
(1937)
Although hydrogen-filled balloons, such as the
exploded Hindenburg (1937), had rigid
structures, the flammability of hydrogen always
posed a safety hazard. In 1905, two chemists
discovered helium in a Kansas gas well, and
this rare element was suddenly plentiful. During
World War I., chemical technology extracted,
stored, and shipped large quantities of helium,
and helium-filled blimps in World War II. safely
escorted troop and supply ships around
submarines. In the 1950s, helium was useful as
welding atmosphere during rocket construction
and as the force needed to push the rocket’s
fuel to the engines.
I.6. Aeronautics
Rocket fuels
From early test rockets first launched in the 1920s
to communication satellites of the 1950s to the
reusable Space Shuttle of the 1980s, the human
expansion into space is an amazing engineering
feat. Successful space travel depends on rockets
possessing high-enough thrust velocity to
overcome the gravitational force of the Earth. The
first rocket was launched in 1926 using a liquid
fuel of gasoline and liquid oxygen oxidizer.
Subsequently, different fuels and oxidizers have
been used in either solid or liquid form. The
Space Shuttle uses liquid hydrogen as the fuel,
but the launch engines use solid fuel of aluminum
and ammonium perchlorate as the oxidizer with
binder.
I.6. Aeronautics
Construction materials for aircraft and rockets
As aircraft design evolved from early wood and
fabric to sophisticated engineered materials,
chemical technology provided material that met
design requirements. Different metal alloys using
aluminum and titanium were developed to provide
strength, light weight, high-temperature stability,
and corrosion resistance to aircraft. Rockets have
special material requirement because of the
extreme conditions under which they operate.
One example is a special tile in strategic locations
protects the space shuttle (1980s) from high
temperatures on reentry. After an exotic zirconium
composite material was tried, the final tile design
used silica fibers derived from common sand.