Transcript Instrument Ground Training Module 2 Randy Schoephoerster www.airtreknorth.com Agenda • • • • • • • • Turns Turn Rates Climbs and Descents Fundamental Instrument Skills Appropriate Instruments for IFR Unusual Attitudes Inoperative Instruments Turbulence & Wind Shear.

Instrument Ground Training
Module 2
Randy Schoephoerster
www.airtreknorth.com
Agenda
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Turns
Turn Rates
Climbs and Descents
Fundamental Instrument Skills
Appropriate Instruments for IFR
Unusual Attitudes
Inoperative Instruments
Turbulence & Wind Shear
CAUTION…………………..
• The sole purpose of this class is to expedite your passing the FAA
knowledge test. With that said, all extra material not directly tested
on the FAA knowledge test is omitted, even though much more
information and knowledge is necessary to fly safely. Consult the
FAR/AIM (CFR) and other FAA Handbooks for further information along
with a Flight Instruction course.
UNOS – Magnetic Compass
Dip (Turn) error
• Undershoot on turns
to the North
– Compass turns
opposite your turn
initially
• Overshoot on turns to
the South
– Compass turns in the
same direction as your
turn but faster
2.1 TURNS
1. An airplane requires a sideward force to make it turn.
a. When the airplane is banked, lift (which acts perpendicular to the wingspan) acts
not only upward but horizontally as well.
b. The vertical component acts upward to oppose weight.
c. The horizontal component acts sideward to turn the airplane, opposing centrifugal
force.
d. The rate of turn (at a given airspeed) depends on the magnitude of the horizontal
lift component, which is determined by bank angle.
2. A turn is said to be coordinated when the horizontal lift component equals centrifugal
force (the ball is centered).
a. Centrifugal force is greater than horizontal lift in skidding turns (the ball is on the
outside of the turn).
b. Centrifugal force is less than horizontal lift in slipping turns (the ball is on the
inside of the turn).
Ball is Centered
Ball on Inside
Ball on Outside
3. To coordinate a turn, you should center the ball on the turn-and-slip indicator or the
turn coordinator.
a. Center the ball by applying rudder pressure on the side where the ball is (e.g., if
the ball is on the left, use left rudder).
4. A standard-rate turn is indicated when the needle is on the "doghouse" (i.e., standard
rate) mark on the turn-and-slip indicator.
5. The angle of attack must be increased in turns to maintain altitude because additional
lift is required to maintain a constant amount of vertical lift.
a. Thus, load factor always increases in turns (assuming level flight).
6. If airspeed is increased in a turn, the angle of bank must be increased and/or the angle
of attack decreased to maintain level flight.
a. Conversely, if airspeed is decreased in a turn, the angle of bank must be decreased
and/or the angle of attack must be increased to maintain level flight.
SUBUNIT 2.1: TURNS DETAILED OUTLINE
INFORMATION
1. The lift produced by an airplane's wings is used to turn the airplane. When
the wings are banked, the lift is separated into two components known as
the vertical and horizontal components of lift.
• When the airplane begins to turn, centrifugal force, or
inertia, pulls the airplane away
from the turn, i.e., tends to make it fly straight ahead.
• The horizontal component of lift (in a bank) counteracts the
centrifugal force.
1) Therefore, the greater the bank, the sharper the turn or
the greater the rate of turn because more of the total lift
goes into the horizontal component.
2) The horizontal component of lift is the force that pulls an
airplane from a straight flight path to make it turn.
2.2 TURN RATES
1. The standard-rate turn is 360° in 2 min., i.e., 3°/sec.
a. A half-standard-rate turn is 360° in 4 min., i.e., 1.5°/sec.
b. EXAMPLE: A 150° heading change using a standard-rate turn would take 50 sec.
(150° * 3°/sec. = 50 sec.)
c. Rule of Thumb: (Airspeed/10) +7 = Standard Rate Turn Bank Angle
2. A turn and slip indicator may be calibrated as 2 minute or 4 minute.
a. On a 2 minute turn and slip indicator, a single width deflection of the needle
indicates a turning rate of 3° per second, or a standard rate turn (i.e., 360° in 2
minutes).
b. On a 4 minute turn and slip indicator, a single width deflection of the needle
indicates a turning rate of 1.5° per second, or a half rate turn (i.e., 360° in 4
minutes). If the needle is on the doghouse, it is indicating a standard rate turn.
3. At a constant bank, an increase in airspeed decreases the rate of turn and increases the
radius of the turn.
a. The rate of turn can be increased and the radius of turn decreased by decreasing
airspeed and/or increasing the bank.
Constant Angle of Bank
vs Increasing Airspeed
At a constant bank, an increase in airspeed decreases the rate of turn and
increases the radius of the turn.
a. The rate of turn can be increased and the radius of turn decreased by
decreasing airspeed and/or increasing the bank.
Skid vs Slip
• Skid
• Slip
Slip vs Skid and how to get to a
coordinated standard rate turn
• What do we do with rudder to coordinate?
• What do we do with rate of turn for standard rate? Most of
us would think in terms of bank angle
• Centrifugal force vs Horizontal Lift? Which is greater?
Skidding Turn Correction
Slipping Turn
Slipping Turn
Skidding Turn
Coordinated Turn
Aerodynamic Questions
Aerodynamic Questions
Aerodynamic Questions
Aerodynamic Questions
Standard Rate Turn
Standard Rate Turns
Standard Rate Turn
2.3 CLIMBS AND DESCENTS
1. Conditions that determine the pitch attitude required to maintain level flight are
a. Airspeed
b. Air density
c. Angle of Attack
d. Wing design
AAAW!
2. When leveling off from a climb or descent to a specific altitude, you must start the
level-off before reaching the desired altitude.
a. Throughout the transition to level flight, the aircraft will continue to climb or
descend at a decreasing rate.
b. An effective practice is to lead the altitude by 10% of the indicated vertical speed.
1) Since the last 1,000 ft. of a climb or descent should be made at 500 fpm, you
will generally use a lead of 50 ft.
c. To level off from a descent at a higher airspeed than descent speed, begin adding
Power 100 to 150 ft. above the desired altitude, assuming a descent rate of 500 fpm.
Lead by 10%
EX: 500fpm = 50ft
Level Off Procedure
Level Off Procedure
Level Off Procedure
Altitude Control
Off by less than 100ft
Another View
Small Correction in Altitude
Altitude Corrections
System Inoperative Instruments
• Break the instruments down into groups
– Each instrument as it’s own failure
– Pitot Failure
• Airspeed Indicator
– Static Failure
• Altimeter
• VSI
• Small Error on Altimeter most likely
– Vacuum Failure
• Attitude Indicator
• Heading Indicator
Climbing turn to the right
Constant Speed
• Turn Coordinator Inop
Straight and Level flight
Vacuum System Failed
Climbing Turn to the Right
Attitude Indicator Failed
Level Turn to the Right
Airspeed should not be slow
• Pitot Tube Inlet
FUNDAMENTAL INSTRUMENT SKILLS DETAILED OUTLINE INFORMATION
1. During your attitude instrument training, you should develop three fundamental
skills involved in all instrument flight maneuvers:
1. instrument cross-check,
2. instrument interpretation, and
3. airplane control.
2. Trim technique is a skill that should be refined for instrument flying.
a. Cross-checking (also called scanning) is the continuous and logical observation
of instruments for attitude and performance information.
1) You will maintain your airplane's attitude by reference to instruments
that will produce the desired result in performance.
2) Since your AI is your reference instrument for airplane control and
provides you with a quick reference to your pitch and bank attitude, it
should be your start (or home-base) for your instrument scan. You should
begin with the AI, scan one instrument (e.g., the HI), and then return to
the AI before moving to a different instrument.
3) Another type of instrument scan is called a "T" scan. Once again, the AI is
the starting point. You should scan one instrument and then return to the AI,
as shown below.
Constant Rate
Turn
Constant Rate
Climb/Descent
a) The TC and VSI are checked as required by the flight maneuver (e.g., straight-and
-level, climbing, descending, or turning).
Three Fundamental Skills in
Attitude Flying
Three Fundamental Skills
Instrument Flying
Recovery from Unusual Attitude
Recovery from Unusual Attitudes
Recovery from Unusual Attitudes
4) Frequent cross-check faults are
a) Fixation, or staring at a single instrument
b) Omission of an instrument from cross-check
c) Emphasis on a single instrument, instead of on a combination of instruments
necessary for attitude information
5) The attitude indicator is at the center of the scan. Your cross-check pattern
should include the attitude indicator as every second or third
instrument scanned.
b. Instrument interpretation requires you to understand each instrument's
construction, operating principle, and relationship to the performance of your
airplane.
1) This understanding enables you to interpret the indication of each instrument
during the cross-check.
2) Some instruments are quicker and more accurate than others.
a) EXAMPLE: The airspeed indicator tends to need time to settle after a pitch or
power change before it portrays an accurate indication, while the attitude
indicator gives almost instantaneous indication of pitch and bank changes.
c. Airplane control requires you to maintain your airplane's attitude or change it by
interpretation of the instruments. It is composed of three elements.
1) Pitch control is controlling the rotation of your airplane about the lateral axis by
movement of the elevators.
a) After interpreting the pitch attitude from the proper flight instruments, you
will exert control pressures to effect the desired pitch with reference to the
attitude indicator.
2) Bank control is controlling the angle made by the wing and the horizon.
a) After interpreting the bank attitude from the appropriate instruments, you will
exert the necessary pressures to move the ailerons and roll your airplane
about the longitudinal axis with reference to the attitude indicator.
b) The rudder should be used as necessary to maintain coordinated flight.
3) Power control is used when interpretation of the flight instruments indicates a
need for a change, e.g., excess or insufficient airspeed.
d. Trim is used to relieve all possible control pressures held after a desired attitude has
been attained.
1) The pressure you feel on the controls must be those that you apply while
controlling a planned change in airplane attitude, not pressures held because you
let the airplane control you.
2) An improperly trimmed airplane requires constant control pressures, produces
tension, distracts your attention from cross-checking, and contributes to abrupt
and erratic attitude control.
3) Always fly your airplane to a desired attitude, then trim.
2.8
TURBULENCE AND WIND SHEAR
1. In severe turbulence, set power for the design maneuvering speed (VA), and
maintain a level flight attitude.
a. Attempting to turn or maintain altitude or airspeed may impose
excessive load on the wings.
2. Flight at or below VA means the airplane will stall before excessive loads can
be imposed on the wings.
3. When climbing or descending through an inversion or wind-shear zone, you
should be alert for any sudden change in airspeed.
In Turbulence:
Maintain at or below Va (maneuvering speed)
• Also, be wary of a
sudden change in
airspeed when
climbing or
descending
through an
inversion or windshear zone
Turbulence vs Airspeed
Agenda
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Turns
Turn Rates
Climbs and Descents
Fundamental Instrument Skills
Appropriate Instruments for IFR
Unusual Attitudes
Inoperative Instruments
Turbulence & Wind Shear