Transcript Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg Chapter 4 Chapter 4: Attention and Consciousness Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J.

Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4
Chapter 4:
Attention and
Consciousness
Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4
Some Questions of Interest
• Can we actively process
information, even if we are not
aware of doing so? If so, what do
we do, and how do we do it?
• What are some of the functions of
attention?
Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4
Some Questions of Interest
• What are some theories cognitive
psychologists have developed to
explain attentional processes?
• What have cognitive psychologists
learned about attention by studying
the human brain?
Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4
Attention Is…
• The means by which we actively
process a limited amount of
information
Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4
Main Functions of Attention
•
•
•
•
Signal detection and vigilance
Search
Selective attention
Divided attention
Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4
Signal Detection Theory (SDT)
• Measure sensitivity to a target’s
presence
Signal
Present
Decision
Present
Hit
Absent
Miss
Absent
False
Alarm
Correct
Rejection
Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4
Vigilance and SDT
• Vigilance is attending to a set of
stimuli over a length of time in order
to detect a target signal
• Vigilance decreases rapidly over
time (fatigue), thus misses and
false alarms increase
Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4
Search
• Actively searching for a target
• Number of targets and distracters
influence accuracy
• Feature search versus conjunctive
search
Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4
Conjunctive Search
• Find the letter T
– Which panel is
easier?
Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4
Feature Search
• Find the letter O
– Easier or harder
than the previous
one?
Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4
Feature-Integration Theory (FIT)
• Individual feature processing is done in
parallel
– Simultaneous processing is done on the whole
display and if feature is present, we detect it
• Conjunctive searching requires attention to
the integration or combination of the
features
– Attention to particular combination of features
must be done sequentially to detect presence
of a certain combination
Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4
Another Feature Search
Is there a red T in
the display?
Target is defined by a
single feature
According to feature
integration theory, the
target should “pop out”
No attention required
T
T
T
T
T T T
T
T
T T
T T
T
T
T
T
Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4
Another Conjunction Search
Is there a red T in
the display?
Target is defined by two
features: shape and color
According to FIT, the features
must be combined and so
attention is required
Need to examine one by one
X X T
T X T
T X T X
X X T
T T
Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4
Similarity Theory
• Similarity between
targets and distracters is
important, not number of
features to be combined
– More shared features =
more difficult to detect a
target
– Find the letter R
Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4
Guided Search
• Cave & Wolf (1990)
• All searches have two phases
– Parallel phase
– Serial stage
Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4
Selectivity of Attention
• Cocktail party phenomenon
– How are we able to follow one
conversation in the presence of other
conversations?
Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4
Cherry’s Shadowing Technique
Attended Ear:
The doctor went
to the park to find
the homeless
man. He was
Unattended Ear:
The lawyer
defended his
client as the trial
began. He was
able
…..The
doctor went to
the park…..
Listen to two different conversations and repeat one
of the messages; may be binaural or dichotic
Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4
Cherry’s Results
• Noticed in unattended ear
– Change in gender
– Change to a tone
• Did not notice in unattended ear
– Changed language
– Changed topic, same speaker
– If speech was played backwards
Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4
Models of Selective Attention
• Do they have a filter?
• Where does the filter occur?
Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4
Broadbent’s Model
• We filter information
right after we notice it at
the sensory level
Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4
Broadbent’s Model
• Had trouble explaining
– Why participant’s name gets through
– Why participants can shadow
meaningful message that switches
from one ear to another
– Effects of practice on detecting
information in unattended ear (e.g.,
detect digit in unattended ear for
naïve and practiced participants)
Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4
Treisman’s Attenuation Model
• Instead of blocking stimuli out,
the filter weakens the strength
of stimuli other than the target
stimulus
Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4
Late Selection Theory
(Deutsch & Deutsch, 1963)
• All stimuli is processed to the level of meaning
• Relevance determines further processing and
action
Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4
Neisser’s Synthesis
• Preattentive processes
– Parallel
– Note physical characteristics
• Attentive processes
– Controlled processes occur serially
– Occur in working memory
Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4
Divided Attention
• How many tasks can you do at once?
– e.g., driving and talking, radio, phone...
Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4
Dual-Task Paradigm
• Task 1 may require a verbal
response to an auditory stimulus
• Task 2 may require a participant to
push a button in response to a
visual stimulus
• Results indicate that responses to
the second task are delayed
Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4
Capacity Models of Attention
Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4
Real-Life Dual Task
• Driving and
– Cell phones
– Adjusting music
– Watching the scenery
• Almost 80% of crashes and 65% of
near-crashes involved some form
of driver inattention within three
seconds of the event
Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4
Gauging Your Distraction
During Driving
• http://www.nytimes.com/interactive/
2009/07/19/technology/20090719driving-game.html
Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4
Strayer & Drews (2007)
• Naturalistic observation of cell
phone use and driver behavior
Failed to Stopped
stop
properly
On cell phone
82
28
No cell phone
352
1286
Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4
Strayer & Drews (2007) Results
• Impact of hands-free cell-phone
conversations on simulated driving
– Cell-phone conversation led to
inattentional blindness
– Even if they looked at an object,
participant did not remember the
object
Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4
Factors that Influence Our
Ability to Pay Attention
•
•
•
•
Anxiety
Arousal
Task difficulty
Skills
Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4
Three Subfunctions of
Attention
• Alerting
– Being prepared to attend to some
incoming event and maintaining this
attention
– Involves right frontal and parietal
cortexes as well as the locus
coeruleus
Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4
Three Subfunctions of
Attention
• Orienting
– The selection of stimuli to attend to
– Needed when we perform a visual
search
– Involves the superior parietal lobe,
the temporal parietal junction, the
frontal eye fields, and the superior
colliculus
Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4
Three Subfunctions of
Attention
• Executive attention
– Processes for monitoring and
resolving conflicts that arise among
internal processes
– Involves the anterior cingulate, lateral
ventral, and prefrontal cortex as well
as the basal ganglia
Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4
When Attention Fails Us
• ADHD
• Change blindness and inattentional
blindness
• Spatial neglect
Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4
Attention Deficit Hyperactivity
Disorder (ADHD)
• Symptoms
– Inattention
– Hyperactivity
– Impulsivity
– Not everyone who is overly hyperactive,
inattentive, or impulsive has ADHD
– Behavior must be demonstrated to a
degree that is inappropriate for the
person’s age
Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4
Change Blindness
• An inability to detect changes in
objects or scenes that are being
viewed
http://viscog.beckman.uiuc.edu/djs_lab/de
mos.html
Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4
Inattentional Blindness
• People are not able to see things
that are actually there
http://news.yahoo.com/s/livescience/20100713/sc_lives
cience/invisiblegorillatestshowshowlittlewenotice
Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4
Spatial Neglect
• Lesion on one side of brain causes
person to ignore half of their visual
field
Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4
Habituation
• Decrease in responsiveness when
exposed to a repeated stimulus
– People who smoke do not notice the
smell of cigarettes on their clothes,
but nonsmokers do
– People get used to hearing the
chiming of their clocks
Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4
Dishabituation
• Change in familiar stimuli
causes one to notice it again
– Smokers who quit suddenly notice
how much their clothes smell of
smoke
– If clock breaks, owner suddenly
notices the clock isn’t chiming
Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4
Habituation/Dishabituation
Paradigm
• Allows psychologists to test abilities of
infants and animals
• Measure subject’s arousal to see if a
change occurs when pattern or sound
changes
– If animal or infant dishabituates to a
change, they can detect the change
– If the animal or infant does not dishabituate
to a change in stimuli, they did not detect
the change
Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4
Controlled vs. Automatic
Processing
• Automatic processing
– Requires no conscious control
• Controlled processing
– Requires conscious control
Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4
Is Typing Automatic or
Controlled for You?
• Do you type without thinking where
your fingers are? Are you a search-andpeck typer?
• If you do type without using attention,
what happens when you think about the
letters as you are typing them?
Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4
Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4
Automatization: Two
Explanations
• Integrated components theory:
Anderson
– Practice leads to integration; less and
less attention is needed
• Instance theory: Logan
– Retrieve from memory specific
answers, skipping the procedure; thus
less attention is needed
Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4
Effect of Practice on
Automatization
Negativeacceleration
curve
• Rate of learning slows as amount of
learning increases
Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4
Stroop Effect
Say the color the words
are printed in as quickly
as you can
What errors do you make?
Reading interferes with
your ability to state the
color, and your reaction
time is slower
red
yellow
green
blue
red
blue
yellow
green
blue
red
Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4
Preconscious Processing
• Information that is available for
cognitive processing but that
currently lies outside conscious
awareness
– Priming
– TOT phenomenon
– Blindsight
Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4
Priming
BREAD
NURSE
CAT
BUTTER
DOCTOR
DOG
• How quickly do you process the
second word?
• Faster if you have been primed with
a related word
Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4
Marcel (1983)
Condition
Subliminally
Present Prime
Consciously
Present Prime
Prime
PALM
PALM
Mask
XXXX
Target
PINE OR WRIST
PINE OR WRIST
Body part or
plant?
Body part or plant?
How fast?
How fast?
Response
Reaction time
Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Marcel’s Procedure with
Participants
PALM
XXXX
PINE
It’s a plant.
Subliminal Condition
Chapter 4
PALM
PINE
Umm, it’s a plant.
Conscious Condition
Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4
Marcel (1983) Results
Condition
Targets:
PINE or
WRIST
Subliminally
Present
Prime
Found faster RT
for both target
words
Interpretation Both meanings
were primed
Consciously
Present
Prime
Found faster RT for
one of two target
words, slower RT
for the other target
Only one meaning
is primed, the other
inhibited
Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4
Priming Can Speed or Slow
Processing
• Facilitative priming
– Target stimuli (e.g., BUTTER) are
processed faster if preceded by a
related word (e.g., BREAD)
• Negative priming effect
– Target stimuli (e.g., PINE) is
processed slower if preceded by a
word related to target’s alternate
meaning (PALM relating to hand)
Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4
Bowers, Regehr, Balthazard, &
Parker (1990)
Triad A
Triad B
Basket
Swan
Room
Army
Foot
Mask
Which of these triads is coherent?
What is the 4th word that ties them together?
Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4
Bowers et al. (1990) Results
• Even if participants could not
generate the 4th word, they still
selected the coherent triad
• Results demonstrate preconscious
processing
Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4
Tip-of-the-Tongue Experiences
(TOT)
• You know you know the word, but
you cannot fully retrieve the word
• Paradigms used to generate TOT
– Show pictures of famous people or
politicians and have participants
name them
– Ask general knowledge questions to
generate TOTs
Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4
TOT Demonstration
• What is the name of Dagwood
Bumstead’s dog?
• Who wrote Paradise Lost?
• What is a wheeled hospital cart called?
• Do any of these questions put the
answer on the tip of your tongue?
Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4
Blindsight
• Person cannot consciously see a
certain portion of their visual field
but still behave in some instances
as if they can see it
• Being aware of doing something is
distinguishable from doing
something
Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4
Visual Mind Reading
• Using fMRI to predict what people
are paying attention to
INSERT VIDEO #23, Visual Mind
Reading