Transcript Diskriminasi Pasar Tenaga Kerja – PPS

Labor Economics Series
LABOR MARKET
DISCRIMINATION
Tokoh Pejuang Wanita Indonesia
Raden Adjeng Kartini
21 April 1879 – 17 September 1904
2
Pemikiran Raden Adjeng Kartini
Adanya keinginan untuk memperbaiki
kondisi kaum wanita yang disebabkan
kungkungan adat, antara lain :
• Dunia wanita hanya sebatas tembok
rumah.
• Tidak bebas mendapatkan akses
pendidikan.
• Dipingit dan dinikahkan dengan pria
yang tidak dikenal.
3
Fakta di Indonesia
4
a
an
an
ni
ta
i
ks
du
ny
in
La
o
Pr
r
Pe
sa
Ja
l
ua
nj
Pe
a
n
l
na
io
Pria
Wanita
TU
TU
TU
ah
Us
na
pi
s
fe
ro
im
P
ga
m
pe
ta
Ta
Ke
Wanita
na
Te
5
0
Pria
Penduduk yang Bekerja (2007)
30.000.000
20.000.000
10.000.000
Penduduk yang Bekerja (2007)
JENIS KELAMIN
Jenis Pekerjaan Utama
Jumlah
Pria
Tenaga Profesional
1.945.782
1.857.339
3.803.121
310.089
57.295
367.384
Tata Usaha
2.608.947
1.383.556
3.992.503
TU Penjualan
8.590.673
8.046.116
16.636.789
TU Jasa
3.351.697
2.992.762
6.344.459
TU Pertanian
26.479.175
15.753.497
42.232.672
Produksi
18.446.465
5.325.368
23.771.833
418.454
15.926
434.380
62.151.282
35.431.859
97.583.141
Kepemimpinan
Lainnya
Jumlah
6
Wanita
sa
Ja
n
ua
Ke
n
ga
n
n
ga
an
ng
an
ut
gk
An
a
ag
rd
Pe
a
un
ng
Ba
tri
rik
st
Li
s
du
In
n
ba
ian
m
rta
Pe
n
rta
Pe
7
Pria
Wanita
0
Pria
Wanita
Rata-rata Upah (2006)
1.600.000
1.200.000
800.000
400.000
Rata-rata Upah (2006)
SEKTOR
LAPANGAN PEKERJAAN
1
Pertanian, Kehutanan, Perburuan, Perikanan
(Agriculture,Forestry,Hunting,Fishery)
2
Pertambangan, Penggalian (Mining and Quarrying)
3
Industri Pengolahan (Manufacturing Industries)
4
Listrik, gas dan air (Electricity, Gaz and Water)
5
WANITA
438.149
234.586
1.541.241
771.415
826.257
583.768
1.176.160
1.338.737
Bangunan (Construction)
734.070
1.073.573
6
Perdagangan Besar, Rumah Makan & Hotel (Wholesale
Trade,Restaurant & Hotel)
806.110
621.248
7
Angkutan, Pergudangan dan Komunikasi (Transportation,Storage &
Communication)
934.761
944.419
8
Keuangan, Asuransi,Jasa Perusahaan (Financing,Insurance,Business
Services)
1.422.252
1.461.926
9
Jasa Kemasyarakatan (Public Services)
1.126.559
789.557
827.101
612.131
Rata-rata
8
PRIA
Penduduk yang Bekerja Berdasarkan
Jam Kerja Tahun 2007
45.000.000
30.000.000
15.000.000
0
Wanita
Pria
9
Pria
Wanita
<1 jam
1-35 jam
>35 jam
803.388
14.623.275
20.005.196
1.798.703
15.615.701
44.736.878
Konsep Diskriminasi
10
Konsep Diskriminasi
George Borjas :
Differences in EARNINGS and
EMPLOYMENT OPPORTUNITIES
among equally skilled workers
employed in the same job simply
because of the worker’s race,
gender, national origin, sexual
orientation, or other seemingly
irrelevant characteristics.
11
Konsep Diskriminasi
Discrimination means treating people
differently and less favourably because
of characteristics that are not related to
their merit or the requirements of the job.
These include race, colour, sex, religion,
political opinion, national extraction and
social origin.
12
The Discrimination Coefficient
13
The Discrimination Coefficient
Lauched for the first time
by Gary S. Becker
The Economics of Discrimination (1957)
14
The Discrimination Coefficient
• Basic Concept : Taste Discrimination
• Assumption  Two types of workers :
• White workers : wage  wW
• Black workers : wage  wB
15
The Discrimination Coefficient
• If the employer is prejudiced againts
black, employer gets disutility from
hiring black workers.
• Disutility : employer will act as if costs
for black worker wB (1 + d), where d is
positive number and is called :
The Discrimination Coefficient
16
The Discrimination Coefficient
• Suppose that wB = $10, and that d =0,5 ;
the employer will then act as if hiring a
black worker costs $ 15
• The greater the prejudiced, the greater is
the disutility from hiring black workers,
and the greater is the discrimination
coefficient d.
17
The Discrimination Coefficient
• If these black employers prefer to hire
black workers, they will act as if hiring a
black worker is cheaper than it actually is.
Nepotism Coefficient  wB (1 – n )
18
Labor Market Discrimination Analysis
FIRM
Non Discriminatory
Firm
W = VMP
19
Discriminatory
Firm
White Firm
againts Black
Black Firm
againts Black
Discrimination
Coefficient
is very High
Discrimination
Coefficient
is relatively Low
Employer Discrimination
20
Skill and Labor Market Outcomes (2001)
WHITE
HISPANIC
Male
Female
Male
Female
Male
Female
Highschool Graduate or
more (Percent)
84.3
85.2
78.5
78.9
56.1
57.9
Bachelor’s degree or more
(Percent)
29.1
25.4
16.4
17.5
11.0
11.2
Labor Force Participation
Rate (Percent)
79.9
59.9
72.1
65.2
83.8
59.3
Unemployment Rate
(Percent)
4.7
3.6
8.0
7.0
5.2
6.6
49.8
29.6
33.5
26.0
30.8
22.3
55.4
37.1
38.5
30.8
34.3
28.0
Annual Earnings (in $1,000)
Annual Earnings
(Full Time)
21
BLACK
Fact :
White Wage > Black Wage
22
Employer Discrimination
• Assumption :
White Workers and Black Workers are
Perfect Subtitutes in Production.
• Firms’s output depends on the total
number of workers hired, regardless of
their race  have the same Marginal
Product of Labor ( MPE )
23
Employer Discrimination
Production function:
q = f ( EW + EB )
q
 firm’s output
EW  number of white workers hired
EB
24
 number of black workers hired
Employment in
a non Discriminatory Firm
25
Employment in a non Discriminatory Firm
• Both groups of workers have the same
Value of Marginal Product, a non
discriminatory firms will hire whichever
group is Cheaper
• Suppose that wW > wB , a firms that
doesn’t discriminate will hire black
workers up to the point where
wB = VMPE  E
26
*
B
The Employment Decision of a Firm
That Does Not Discriminate
Dollar
VMPE
Black workers
wage is less than
wB = VMPE
white
wage
How many worker
will be hired..??
wB
EB*
27
?
Employment
Employment in a
Discriminatory Firm
28
Employment in a Discriminatory Firm
• The employer act as if black wage is not
wB , but instead equal to wB (1 + d).
Where d is discrimination coefficient.
• The employer’s hiring decision based on
a comparison wW and wB (1 + d)
– Hire only blacks if wB (1 + d) < wW
– Hire only white if wB (1 + d) > wW
29
Employment in a Discriminatory Firm
• As long as black and white workers are perfect
subtitutes, firms have a segregated workforce.
• Employer’s who have little prejudice and hence
have small discrimination coefficient, will hire
only BLACKS (called “Black Firm”).
• Employer’s who are very prejudice and have
very large discrimination coefficient, will hire
only WHITES (called “White Firm”).
30
Employment in a Discriminatory Firm
WHITE FIRM
• The white firm hires workers up to the
point where : wW = VMPE
• Assumption : wW > WB
• The white firm is paying an excessively
high price for its workers and hires
relatively few workers ( EW* )
31
The Employment Decision of a
Prejudiced Firm
Dollar
wW
White Firm
VMPE
EW*
32
Employment
Employment in a Discriminatory Firm
BLACK FIRM
• Non discriminatory firms :
*
wB = VMPE  E B
• If discrimination coefficient d0 :
– Price of Black Labor  wB ( 1 + d0 )
– Amount of Labor hired :
wB ( 1 + d0 ) = VMPE
33
Employment in a Discriminatory Firm
BLACK FIRM
The number of black workers hired, therefore,
is smaller for firms that have larger
discrimination coefficient.
34
The Employment Decision of a
Prejudiced Firm
Dollar
Discrimination Coefficient
wB 1  d1 
Black Firm
wB 1  d0 
wB
VMPE
EB1
35
E
0
B
E
*
B
Employment
Discrimination and Profits
36
Discrimination and Profits
Firms that discriminate lose on two counts :
• The prejudiced employer could have hired
the same number of black worker at lower
wage. Because black and white workers are
perfect subtitutes.
• Discriminatory black firms are hiring too few
0
1
workers ( E B or E B )  they are giving up
profits in order to minimize contact with
black workers.
37
Profit and Discrimination Coefficient
Dollar
max
Max Profit
w
Black
Firm
0
38
White Firm
dw
Discrimination
Coefficient
Discrimination and Profits
The Most Profitable Firm 
Zero Discrimination
39
Labor Marker Equilibrium
40
Discrimination and Profits
• Firm dengan Discrimination Coefficient :
– Rendah
 cenderung Black Firm
– Tinggi
 cenderung White Firm
• Asumsi : Supply Black Worker Perfectly
Inelastic  sejumlah N Black person tidak
terpengaruh tingkat upah.
41
Labor Market Equilibrium
Black-White
Wage Ratio
S
(wB / wW )'
D’
1
R
(wB / wW ) *
D
0
42
N
Black Employment
Employee Discrimination
43
Employee Discrimination
• Diskriminasi dilakukan oleh “Fellow Worker”
• Misal : White worker yang bekerja pada Black
Firm dengan upah wW akan merasa mendapat
upah wW (1- d).
• Tidak berpengaruh terhadap “Profitability of
Firms” karena white worker dan black worker
adalah perfect subtitutes sehingga firm
membayar jumlah upah yang sama.
44
Customer Discrimination
45
Customer Discrimination
• Dikemukakan oleh Harry J. Holzer dan Keith
R. Ihlanfeldt (1998)  research di Atlanta,
Boston, Detroit dan Los Angeles.
• Keputusan membeli tidak ditentukan oleh
Actual Price ( p ) tapi oleh The UtilityAdjusted Price  p (1 + d).
• Employer dapat mengatur tenaga penjualan
sesuai kondisi.
46
Customer Discrimination
TYPE FIRM
> 75 %
WHITE
CUSTOMER
PERBEDAAN
Customer &
worker
bertemu
58,0 %
9,0 %
49,0 %
Customer &
worker tidak
bertemu
46,6 %
12,2 %
34,4 %
-
-
14,6 %
Perbedaan
47
> 50 %
BLACK
CUSTOMER
Customer Discrimination and NBA
Lawrence Kahn and Peter Sherer 1998) :
A study of attenance records indicates
that replacing a black player with an
eqqually talented white player bring in
about 9,000 additional fans per year.
At $50 a head (a very conservative estimate of
ticket prices and concession revenues), the
racial switch would increase annual team
revenues by roughly $450,000
48
Measuring Discrimination
49
Measuring Discrimination
Asumsi : Tenaga kerja terdiri dari
___
• Male, dengan average wage W
M
___
• Female, dengan average wage W F
Diskriminasi : selisih average wage, yaitu :
___
___
___
 W  WM  WF
50
Measuring Discrimination
Pengembangan model :
Schooling mempengaruhi pendapatan
Earning Function :
• Male
: wM
• Female
M
51
:
  M   M SM
wF   F   F SF
menyatakan pendapatan pria meningkat bila
mendapatkan tambahan 1 tahun pendidikan.
Measuring Discrimination
Model Regresi :
___
___
___
W  WM  WF   M   M s M   F   F s F
52
Measuring The Impact of
Discrimination on the Wage
Men’s Earning
Dollars
Men’s
Earning
Men’s
Earning
Function
___
WM
Women’s
Earning
Function
Women’s Earning
*
F
w
M
Measure Discrimination :
___
Woman’s
Earning
53
___
*Schooling
Women’sMen’s
Schooling
WF
F
wF
__
__
sF
sM
WF
Schooling
Trend in Female-Male Wage Ratio
(USA 1930-1990)
0.72
0.69
0.66
0.63
0.60
0.57
0.54
1930
1940
1950
1960
Year
54
1970
1980
1990
Global Gender Gap 2007
INDONESIA
Rank 2007 : 81
Score 2007 : 0.6550 ( 1 = equality )
Rank 2006 : 68
Score 2007 : 0.6541( 1 = equality )
55
Global Gender Gap 2007
56
Global Gender Gap 2007
INDONESIA
57
Terima kasih…
58