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Latin America Introduction Is comprised of 17 countries Share a history of Iberian colonization Multiethnic (Amerindian, Iberian, African) Export of primary goods (eg, coffee, petroleum) Heightened economic integration (eg. FTAA) 75% urban; prevalence of megacities World’s great reserves of biological diversity (eg. Amazon rain forest, Andes mountains) Environmental Geography Western mountains and Eastern shields The Andes Created by collision of oceanic and continental plates Geologically young volcanism, earthquakes Geologically complex rich in minerals Divided into Northern: Venezuela, Colombia Central: Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia Altiplano Southern: Chile, Argentina Altiplano (elevated plain) Elevated plateau straddling the Bolivian and Peruvian Andes Inhabited mostly by Amerindians High-altitude lake (Titicaca, Poopó) The uplands of Mexico and Central America The Mexican Plateau Mesa Central (southern end) Mexico’s The breadbasket (eg. Mexico City, Puebla) Volcanic Axis of Central America Stretches from Guatemala to Costa Rica Many active volcanoes rich volcanic soil bulk of the agricultural land (produce beef, cotton, and coffee) Fertile volcanic soils, ample rainfall, and temperate climate of the Guatemala highlands have supported dense populations for centuries The Volcano Axis of Central America The Shields Large upland areas of exposed crystalline rock Remnants of the ancient landmass of Gondwanaland Brazilian shield Guiana Shield Human settlements: São Paulo, Rio de Janeiro Paranã basalt plateau: fertile red soils (terra roxa) coffee, orange Patagonian shield Open steppe country with few settlements home to wildlife Brazilian shield Paranã basalt plateau Brazilian shield Oranges are widely cultivated due to the fertile soil Patagonia shield Wildlife (Guanacos) thrives on the steppe River Basins and Lowlands Amazon basin Largest river system by volume and area Year-round precipitation Sparse settlement Plata basin Rivers: Paranã, Paraguay, Uruguay Grassland: Chaco, Pantanal, pampas Large-scale mechanized agriculture Amazon basin River Basins and Lowlands Orinoco basin Llanos Tropical grassland Has supported large cattle ranches Now becomes the area of petroleum production Amazon basin Tropical humid climates Mirror image of mid-latitude climates in the northern hemisphere Tropical, dry, temperate, and highland climates Tropical climates Tropical lowlands in the east of the Andes Support forest or savanna Average monthly temperatures show little variation Unlike tropical wet climate (Af), tropical savanna climate (Aw) has a dry season Dry climates Can be found in The Pacific coasts of Peru and Chile Patagonia Northern Mexico Bahia of Brazil Temperate climates Humid subtropical (Cfa) Argentina, Uruguay, and parts of Paraguay and Chile Mediterranean Around Marine South (Csb) Santiago, Chile west coast (Cfb) of Conceptión, Chile Altitudinal Zonation in temperature by elevation (-3.5 °F for every 1000 feet; also known as environmental lapse rate) Changes in vegetation by elevation – plant communities common to the midlatitudes could thrive in the tropics at higher elevations Changes Altitudinal Zonation Tropical highland areas support a complex array of ecosystems The Andes, the highlands of Central America, the Mexican Plateau El Niño Warm pacific current that usually arrives along coastal Ecuador and Peru in December, around Christmastime Occurs every decade or so Produces torrential rains Causes drought Natural Hazards Environmental issues The Valley of Mexico pollution thermal inversion layer traps pollutants in the high altitude Water Air Shortage: water is overdrawn from valley’s aquifer Contamination: pollutant run off into the soil, which leach into the aquifer reliance on ground water Worsened by poverty and governmental inaction Subsidence Air pollution in Mexico City High elevation and immense size make management of air quality difficult Deforestation The Atlantic coastal forests of Brazil, and the Pacific forests of Central America have nearly disappeared as a result of Agriculture/Settlement Rather seen as an agricultural frontier Cleared to appease landless peasants Ranching Grassification – conversion of tropical forest into pasture Etc. Search for gold (Brazil, Venezuela, and Costa Rica) Coca leaf production (Peru, Bolivia, and Colombia) Degradation of farmlands Agricultural productivity has declined in recent decades due to increased aridity and severe soil erosion Modern agriculture is squeezing out indigenous crops Urban environmental challenges Pollution, inadequate water, garbage removal Squatter settlements – more vulnerable to natural hazards Industrial pollution Eg. Cubatão 1984 oil pipeline explosion Environmental issues Population and Settlement Sparsely populated, youthfulness of population, urbanized High variation between urban and rural countries The Latin American city Rural-to-urban migration since 1950 1950: 25% 2000: 75% Preference for urban life Cultural: Under Iberian rule, residence in a city conferred status and offered opportunity Economic: primary role in structuring regional economies Urban primacy A country has a primate city three to four times larger than any other city in the country Eg. Lima, Caracas, Guatemala City, Santiago, Buenos Aires, and Mexico City Decentralizing effort: Ciudad Guayana, Brasilia Latin American city model Latin American city model Reflects colonial origins and contemporary growth Colonial origins - existence of CBD(Central Business District) Contemporary growth Zone of Maturity, and In Situ Accretion are radiated out from CBD Residential quality declines as one move from core to periphery Highlights the class divisions Elite spine – newer commercial and business strip that extends from the colonial core to newer parts of the city Peripheral squatter settlements – straddles the periférico (beltway highway); limited services and infrastructure; resulted from (1) rapid inflow of migrants (2) inability of government to meet presseing needs CBD(central business district) Elite Spine (new commercial center) Peripheral Squatter Settlements Elite Residential Sector Informal sector Economic sector that relies on self-employed, low-wage jobs (eg. street vending, shoe shining, and artisan manufacturing) that are unregulated and untaxed Often includes illegal activities such as drug smuggling, sale of contraband items such as illegally copies videos and apes, and prostitutions Fundamental force that houses, services, and employs the inhabitants of squatter settlements Effort of the urban poor to make a place for themselves Patterns of rural settlement Under the colonial rule Colonial authorities granted land to the colonists Latifundia: practice of maintaining large estates Minifundia: peasants farmed small plots for their subsistence Political turmoil in 20th century reform – redistribution of lands Creation of agricultural frontiers Agrarian provides peasants with land Taps unused resources Shores up political boundaries Population growth High growth rates throughout the 20th century Natural increase Immigration Increasing life expectancy Growth rates have weakened in the late 20th century TFR has declined (except for rural countries) due to : Increased participation of women in the labor force Higher education levels of women State support of family planning Better access to birth control Migration to Latin America European migration After gaining independence from Iberia (1870-1930), government attracted European peasants to populate The Southern Cone countries (Argentina, Chile, Uruguay, Paraguay, and southern Brazil) Italian, Portuguese, Spaniards, and Germans Asian migration Mid 19th century: Chinese, and Japanese Eg. Japanese in Peru, Japanese-Brazilian orange farms Latest: South Korea International migration in Latin America Employment opportunities Venezuela’s oil wealth in 1960s and 1970s Argentina attracts Bolivian and Paraguayan laborers U.S. attracts Mexican laborers Political turmoil Chilean intellectuals in the 1970s Nicaraguans in 1979 Civil war in El Salvador and Guatemala Transnationalism Phenomenon in which migrants maintain close contact with their home country Develop vital immigrant social networks in host countries Principal Latin American migration flows Interregional International within Latin America To frontier zones To Venezuela, Argentina International outside Latin America To U.S. To Europe Cultural Coherence and Diversity Cultural identity The Pyramid of the Sun, near Mexico City – pre-Aztec Machu Picchu, Peru – Inca Precontact period: civilization in the central Mexico, and the Andes Since 1500s: forced assimilation of European culture Religion, language, political organization Dominance of European culture is explained by the demographic collapse of native populations Demographic Collapse Dramatic loss of indigenous population 47 million (1500) 5 million (1650) cf. 42 million in western Europe (1500) Causes are Epidemics of influenza and smallpox Warfare Forced labor Starvation due to a collapse of food production systems The Columbian Exchange An immense biological swap that occurred after Columbus came; exchange of crops and animal between Old World and New World Introduction of Old World crops wheat, olives, grapes; sugarcane, coffee Introduction of New World crops potato, corn, tomato, squash eg, Europe’s rapid population increase in 18th century Introduction of Old World animals Introduces Animal-borne disease; used for plowing; wool; diversity to diet Indian survival Largest indigenous populations can be found in Mexico, Guatemala, Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia Occurs in isolated settings through the link to land Amerindians’ political control Eg. Comarcas in Panama – areas of land set aside for indigenous Amerindians Eg. The first Amerindian president in Peru Complex ethnic blend Racial mixing is the norm Mestizo: Spaniard + Indian Mulattoes: European + African Racial caste system under Spanish rule: Blanco (European ancestry) Mestizo (mixed ancestry) Indio (Indian ancestry) Negro (African ancestry) Languages 2/3 Spanish 1/3 Portuguese in Brazil Indigenous languages in the Central Andes, Mexico, and Guatemala Religions 90% Roman Catholic Syncretic religions Blends of different belief systems Animist practices + Christian worship Churches are important religious and social centers in Latin America Machismo and Marianismo Cultural traits assigned to men and women Machismo Marianismo Honor, risk-taking, self-confident Patient, loving, gentle, willing to suffer in silence, keeper of home, nurturers of childen, deferential to husbands Fading stereotype Global reach of Latino culture Telenovelas Popular National Dance nightly soap opera exported worldwide identities and music tradition Tango (Argentina), Samba (Brazil), mariachi (Mexico) Literature Gabriel Garcia Marquez, Isabel Allende Geopolitical Framework Since 1500s Iberian rule has shaped political landscape profoundly In 1900s, declared independence Political instability persists until recently Iberian conquest Treaty of Tordesillas (1494) Division of New World by Spain and Portugal Iberian conquest (~1800s) Portuguese Settled in the coast of Brazil since 1500 Brazilwood, sugar estates, slave trade (late 16th century) Gold in the Brazilian interior (17th century) Spanish Silver in Central Mexico, Central Andes (mid 16th century) Cacao, sugar, and livestock Revolution and independence Portuguese colony Became independent republic (1808-89) Spanish colonies Experienced fragmentation in the 19th century Gran Colombia – led by Simon Bolivar United Provinces of Central America Persistent border conflicts Sparsely populated interior became a source of border conflicts War of the Pacific (1879-82): Chile, Bolivia Mexican War (1846-48): U.S., Mexico War of the Triple Alliance (1864-70): alliance of Argentina, Brazil, and Uruguay against Paraguay Chaco War (1932-35): Bolivia, Parguay Falkland (1981): U.K., Argentina Territorial claims to Antarctica Antarctic Treaty (1959) – should be used for peaceful purposes Trend toward democracy Long independence, but political instability has been a problem 250 constitutions have been written since independence Military coups are frequent After 1980s Democratically elected governments Market-driven policy by free-market reformers However, problems still persist Trend toward economic integration Trade blocks are established to foster internal trade and reduce trade barriers Mercosur (1991) Brazil, Argentina, Uruguay, Paraguay Chile, Bolivia as an associate member $19 billion interregional trade NAFTA U.S., Canada, Mexico $700 billion interregional trade Impetus to the vision of FTAA (Free Trade Area of the America) Free Trade Area of the America (FTAA) Proposed in 1994 34 states (excluding Cuba) in the Western Hemisphere Pledges to establish free trade zone stretching from Alaska to Cape Horn by 2005 Embodies the ideals of Neoliberalism Increased trade and economic integration will improve the standard of living for people in the America Insurgencies, drug traffickers, and protest Insurgency group Shining Path (Peru), FARC and ELN (Colombia) Drug trade Often seen as the root of many of the regions’ problem Brings in currency, but damages judicial system Eg. Colombia – highest crime rate Protest Zapatista rebellion in Mexico – supported by Amerindian peasant; protest the consequences of globalization; how increased foreign trade and investment hurt rural peasant Coca-growing areas in South America Peru, Bolivia Colombia Economic and Social Development Primary export dependency Entrenched informal sector Experimented with various development strategies From World import substitution to neoliberalism “periphery”? Most Latin American countries are “middle income”, but extreme poverty exist Agricultural production ~1950s: commercial agriculture for export Each country specializes in one or two commodities Costa Rica (Banana, coffee), Nicaragua (coffee, cotton), Brazil (coffee) Peru, Chile, and Colombia (coca) 1960s~: diversification/mechanization of agriculture Conversion of plains into fields Agricultural production increases while fewer people are employed by it (eg. Agriculture labor force in Peru: 45% 7%) 1990s~: efforts to conserve the ecosystem Mining Oil Venezuela, Tin, Mexico, Ecuador, Colombia Copper Bolivia, Chile Mechanized more production with fewer miners Gold Tropical regions of Venezuela, Brazil, Colombia, Costa Rica Labor-intensive offer employment Logging Exportation of boards and wood pulp Short-term infusion of cash into a local economy, but makes the system of extraction unsustainable Plantation forestry Brazil, Venezuela, Chile, and Argentina Eg. Chile’s booming export economy Entrenched informal sector Provides goods and services without the benefit of government regulation, registration, or taxation Estimated nearly 60% of the total non-agricultural employment in 1998 Reflects the inability of the formal economies of the region to absorb labor Development strategies Self-sufficiency policy since the 1950s Import substitution - foster domestic industry by imposing inflated tariffs on all imports State-run nationalized industries Agrarian reform Neoliberalism emerges recently Privatization of industries; direct foreign investment (DFI) Establishment of trade blocks Industrial center Emphasized manufacturing since the 1960s National support Growth poles (planned industrial center) Eg. Ciudada Guayana (Venezuela), Ciudad Juárez, Tijuana (Mexico) Local investment Industrial sectors developed without direct state support Eg. Monterrey (Mexico), Medellín (Colombia), São Paulo (Brazil) São Paulo, Brazil Industrial giant of Latin America Financial center of Brazil The city of 18 million Began to industrialize in the early 1900s City’s coffee merchants started to diversity their investments Since then, industries have agglomerated Produce automobiles, aircraft, chemicals, process foods, and construction materials within a 60-mile radius of the city center Foreign investment Realize the benefit of attracting foreign investment taking advantage of relatively cheap labor, and lax government regulation eg. Maquiladoras The Mexican assembly plants that line the border with U.S. Manufacturing systems in an increasingly globalized economy Mexico’s competitive advantage is Its location along the U.S. border Membership in NAFTA Maquiladoras – opportunities and challenges Opportunities Between 1994 and 2000, 3 out of 10 new jobs in Mexico were in Maquiladoras Account for nearly half of Mexico’s exports Challenges U.S. workers lost jobs Industrial pollution due to lax government regulation Poorly integrated with the rest of the economy Latin America in the Global Economy Why does Latin America’s economy suffer? Dependency theory (1960s) Expansion of European capitalism created the region’s underdevelopment For the developed “cores” of the world to prosper, the “peripheries” became dependent and impoverished Support self-sufficiency policy, and agrarian reform Disproportionate flow of exports to the U.S. 80% of Mexican exports 40% of all Central American and Andean export 15% of Mercosur trade Anyhow, increase in intraregional trade is recognized as a positive sign of greater economic independence for Latin America Argentina in early 2002 from the view of dependency theory Shows how dependent economies can be vulnerable to the fluctuation in a global economy Financial crisis in the late 1990s (Asia, Russia) Reduction in DFI in Latin America Devaluation of currency Cheaper Brazilian products Trade instability with Argentina Worsened Argentina’s already unstable economy So do you think FTAA will benefit all (in the hemisphere) or benefit only U.S. eventually? Neoliberalism as globalization By the 1990s most Latin American political leaders area embracing neoliberalism Neoliberal policies stress privatization, export production, direct foreign investment, and few restrictions on imports Eg. Chile’s economic growth: 5.6% (1990s) Social and environmental costs associated with neoliberal policies are not known yet Dollarization A process by which a country adopts the U.S. dollar as its official currency To address the problems of currency devaluation and hyperinflation Ecuador (2000), Panama (1904) No long has control of its monetary policy Political cost Indicator of the prominence of the dollar in a global economy Social development Social indicators have improved last three decades Lower than MDC, but higher than other developing countries despite economic downturns Role of grassroots and nongovernment organizations (NGOs) Extreme variations between rural and urban areas, between regions, and along race and gender lines Race and inequality The complex racial and ethnic mix fostered tolerance for diversity More often than not, link between race and poverty can be found Southern Race Mexico(Indian), Northeastern Brazil(Black) does not necessarily determine one’s economic standing, but it certainly influences it For the last three decades, the status of women has improved