• • • • • • • Environmental science is Systematic study of our environment, and our proper place in it.

There are five major fields of study related to Environmental Science, which are: Biology, Chemistry, Earth Science, Social Sciences, and Humanities.

Sustainability is the ability of the Earth’s various natural systems and human cultural systems to survive and adapt to changing environmental conditions indefinitely.

A critical component in sustainability is natural capital, which is the natural recourses and natural services that keep us and other forms of life alive and support our economies There are two important things involved with natural capital, natural recourses and natural services. Natural recourses are functions of nature that are essential or useful to humans. Natural services are functions of nature, such as purification of air and water which support life and human economies.

There is a wide economic gap between rich and poor countries. 18 percent of the population live in developed countries and those people use 88 percent of the worlds recourse use and 75 percent of the pollution and waste humans produce. 82 percent of the world population live in developing countries and those people only use 12 percent of the worlds recourse use and only create 25 percent of the pollution and waste produce by humans

• • • • • • • Ecological footprint: the amount of biologically productive land and water needed to supply the people in a particular country or area with recourses and to absorb and recycle the wastes and pollution produced by such recourse use. Every person in the world has some sort of ecological footprint and that is called the per capita ecological footprint.

The Earth has two types of recourses, renewable recourses and nonrenewable recourses.

For humans to continually survive, the Earth has to continue to sustain us. Sustainable yield is the highest rate at which a renewable recourse can be used indefinitely without reducing it’s available supply is called sustainable yield. The problem is that we are using resources at such a large rate that the available supply of recourses begins to shrink in a process known as environmental degradation.

The world’s ecological footprint is beginning to rise at a very steep rate and as a result by the year 2060 we would need two earths to sustain humanity.

The United States, Europeans Union, China, India, and japan are the countries that use the most recourses and have the largest ecological footprints.

Our ecological footprints have increased due to cultural changes, and the more recourses we use, the larger the Earth’s population will grow.

Section 1.4-1.6 by Robert

Pollution = Anything in the environment that is harmful.

Point source pollution = identifiable source of pollution.

Non Point Source = Pollution whose origin is unidentifiable.

Biodegradable pollution = pollution that can be broken down by nature.

Causes of Environmental Problems

1. Population increases 2. Unsustainable resource use 3. Poverty 4. Excluding environmental costs 5. Trying to manage nature without knowing enough about nature.

1.4 – 1.6 continued

• • • • • • • • • Poverty = when people are unable to meet their basic needs for food, water, shelter, health, and education.

Four scientific principles of Sustainability 1. reliance on solar energy 2. biodiversity 3. population control 4. nutrient cycling.

Pollution prevention = improvements in pollution control.

Cleanup pollutants Pollution prevention.

Science, Matter Energy, and Systems

By Nicholas Bloom

• • • • • The natural warming effect of the troposphere is called the greenhouse effect.

Biomes are large terrestrial regions characterized by similar climate, soil, plants, and animals, regardless of where they are found in the world.

Permafrost is underground soil in which captured water stays frozen for more than 2 consecutive years.

Forest systems are lands dominated by trees. Cold air is more dense than warm air, so cold air sinks and warms while warm air rises and cools.

• • • • • Inductive reasoning involves using specific observations and measurements to arrive at a general conclusion or hypothesis Deductive reasoning involves using logic to arrive at a specific conclusion based on a generalization or premise Law of conservation of matter: matter cannot be created or destroyed, only transferred Law of conservation of energy: otherwise known as the 1 st of thermodynamics, this law states that energy cannot be created or destroyed, only transferred law Energy quality degrades with every use of that energy (2 nd of thermodynamics) law

• • • • • A system is a set of components that function and interact in some way A positive feedback loop causes a system to change further in the same direction A negative feedback loop causes a system to change in the opposite direction from where it is moving Tipping point causes a fundamental shift in the behavior of a system Synergistic interaction, or synergy, occurs when two or more processes interact so that the combined affect is greater than the sum of their parts

Chapter 3.1-3.3 (Zari Wilson) 3.1: What is Ecology?

Ecology is the study of how organisms interact with one another and with their physical environment of matter and energy.

Ecologist study connections in Nature • Eukaryotic Cells: have a nucleus • Prokaryotic cells: do NOT have a nucleus • Genetic Diversity: a variation in a population • Community/Biological Community: consists of all populations of a different species that live in a particular place • Biosphere: consists of parts of the parts of the earth’s air, water, and soil where life is found.

3.2: What Keeps Us and Other Organisms Alive?

Life is sustained by the flow of energy from the sun through the biosphere, the cycling of nutrients within the biosphere, and gravity.

• Hydrosphere: consists of all of the water on or near the earth’s surface. It is found as liquid water, ice, and water vapor • The biosphere occupies those parts of the atmosphere, hydrosphere, and geosphere where life exists • Biomes: large regions such as forests, deserts, and grasslands, with distinct climates and certain species adapted to them • 3 factors sustain life on earth: 1.One way flow of high quality energy 2.Cycling of matter or nutrients 3. Gravity

3.3: What Are the Major Components of an Ecosystem?

Ecosystems contain living (biotic) and nonliving (abiotic) components • • • • • • • Some organisms produce the nutrients they need, others get their nutrients by consuming other organisms, and some recycle nutrients back to producers by decomposing the wastes and remains of organisms.

Limiting Factor: Too much or too little of any abiotic factor can limit or prevent growth of a population, even if all other factors are at or near the optimal range of tolerance.

Primary Consumers: Herbivores (plant eaters) Secondary Consumers: Carnivores (meat eaters) Third and Higher level consumers: feed on the flesh of other carnivores (ex: tigers) Omnivores: eat both plants and animals Decomposers: consumers that release nutrients from dead bodies of plants and animals and return them to the soil, water, and air for reuse by producers.

Detritus Feeders: Detritivores (feed on the wastes or dead bodies of other organisms.

3.4 – 3.6

Energy and Matter in Ecosystems

By Julia Fox

• Organisms in most ecosystems form a complex network of interconnected food chains called a food web. Energy is transferred through the different trophic levels of the chains, but much of the energy is lost. The percentage of usable chemical energy that is transferred is called the ecological efficiency. The average efficiency is 10%, meaning that 90% of the potential energy is lost to heat.

• Gross primary productivity (GPP) is the rate at which an ecosystems producers photosynthesize. Net primary productivity (NPP) is the rate at which producers photosynthesize minus the rate at which they respire. (So, NPP = GPP – R, where R is the energy used in respiration.)

ENERGY

• • • • • • The water, carbon, nitrogen, phosphorous, and sulfur cycles are all biogeochemical cycles, or nutrient cycles that are necessary in an ecosystem. Water is cycled through the ground, atmosphere, and organisms through evaporation, precipitation, condensation, and transpiration (evaporation of moisture from the surface of plants).

Carbon is cycled though the earth by photosynthesis, respiration, consumption, and combustion of organic material and fossil fuels.

Nitrogen is cycled through nitrogen fixation, nitrification, ammonification, and denitrification (all completed by specialized bacteria). Plants and animals return nitrogen to the soil through waste and decomposition. Humans transfer nitrogen through the use of fertilizers and burning fossil fuels. The phosphorus cycle does not include the atmosphere as the other cycles. Most of the earth’s phosphorus is found in rocks and in ocean sediments. It is often a limiting factor in plant growth. Sulfur is also found in rocks and deep beneath ocean sediment, and is often released into the air by active volcanoes. Humans add sulfur into the environment from burning fossil fuels that contain sulfur.

MATTER

4.1 (david)

• Biological diversity or biodiversity – is the variety of the earth’s species, the genes they contain, the ecosystems in which they live, and the ecosystem processes such as energy flow and nutrient cycling that sustains all life.

• • • • Species diversity – The number and abundances of species present in different communities.

Ecosystem diversity – Variety of genetic material within a species or a population. Functional diversity – The variety of processes such as matter cycling and energy flow taking place within ecosystem. Scientists have identified about 1.8 million of the 4 – 100 million species on earth.

4.2

• • • • • Biological evolution – The process whereby earth’s life changes over time through changes in the genes of populations. Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace independently proposed the idea of natural selection but Darwin had evidence to prove it.

Differential reproduction – enables individuals with the trait to leave more offspring than other members of the population leave.

Genetic resistance – The ability of one or more organism in a population to tolerate a chemical designed to kill it.

“Survival of the fittest” means “Survival of the strongest”, however to Biologist , fitness is the measure of reproductive success not strenght.

4.3

• • • The movement of the tectonic plates: The location of the continents and oceanic basin greatly influence the earth’s climate and thus help determine where plants and animal can live.

Second, the movement of the continent has allowed species to move, adapt to new environments, and form new species through natural selection. Earthquakes can also affect biological evolution by causing fissures in the earth’s crust that can separate and isolate population of species.

Chapter 4; Section 4-6

Speciation, Species Diversity, and Niches

4.4: Speciation

• • • • Natural Selection can create entirely new species, through a process called speciation, where two species arise from one.

Speciation most commonly occurs due to geographic isolation (physical isolation preventing one population to mix with another) and reproductive isolation (mutation and change by natural selection operate independently in the gene pools of geographically isolated populations.

Extinction, when a species entirely ceases to exist, affects how many and what kind of species thrive on the Earth. Due to many anthropogenic environmental changes many species become prematurely extinct, faster than their normal rate of background extinction.

Species Diversity

• • • The number of species and the size of their populations in a certain community or ecosystem is known as species diversity.

Species diversity increases in tropical areas such like the equator, and decreases as you move towards the poles.

Species richness increases the productivity and stability of an ecosystem.

Species play roles

• • • • Every species has an ecological niche, or a distinct role they play in their ecosystem.

Generalist species, such as the cockroach have broad niche, and can thrive in many different environmental settings.

Specialist species have specific roles that are vital to the ecosystem that they belong to, such as the Giant Panda Indicator species are species that give signs of early damage to an ecosystem or a community.

Chapter 5 (will) • Five types of species interactions-competition, predation, parasitism, mutualism, and commensalism • • Specialist species have a narrow niche while general species have a broad niche Gause’s Law- no two species can occupy the same niche • Biotic potential -capacity for population growth under ideal conditions

• r- species, opportunists • high rate of population increase (Small, lots of offspring, no parental care) K- species, competitors • • Small number of offspring, reproduce later in life, long life span (Large mammals) Ecological succession-primary: from scratch (rocks),secondary: land has been disrupted (fire) Case study: sea otters- recovering from extinction, keystone species and affected by oil and toxins in the water

Chapter 6 (JURI)

• Birth, death, fertility, and migration rates are the factors that determine population size. • As birth rates have declined in developed countries, population has increased due to people’s migrating into these countries.

• Women’s fertility rates have dropped but are still above the replacement-level fertility around the world.

• Population size is profoundly affected by age structure. If women are past their primary child-bearing ages, population increase will be limited.

• If, however, the population has a large percentage of young women entering their childbearing years, the potential for large population increases is present.

• • • In general, the closer a country’s young women are to 15–40 years of age, the more potential for a rapidly increasing population We can influence population size by encouraging smaller families, by encouraging adoption of children already born and discouraging new births. Population size is, also, affected by health care or its lack; by epidemics (such as AIDS); by losses through war, etc. Lack of prenatal care for expectant mothers, failure to protect children from communicable diseases (like measles) or wide-spread diseases (like malaria), can contribute to a smaller population. In the past economic development, family planning, and economic opportunities for women have reduced birth rates.

• • • India and China have both made efforts to control their population growth. China has been more successful because, as a dictatorship, it has imposed restrictions on family size with rewards and punishments for those who support or defy the government’s direction. India, without a policy of coercion, has reduced its birth rate; but the wish for male children and several children for the care of old parents has helped to maintain a growing population.

Effective methods for slowing the growth of world population include investing in family planning, reducing poverty, and elevating the status of women.

Chapter 7

Kamal Patel

• • • • • Climate is an area’s general pattern of atmospheric or weather conditions measured over long periods of time ranging from decades to thousands of years.

Air is heated much more at the equator, where the sun’s rays strike directly, than at the poles, where sunlight strikes at a slanted angle and spread over a much greater area.

As the earth rotates around its axis, its equator spins faster than its polar regions.

Prevailing winds blowing over the oceans produce mass movements of surface water called currents.

Greenhouse gases allow visible light and some infrared radiation and ultraviolet radiation from the sun to pass through the atmosphere.

• • • • • The natural warming effect of the troposphere is called the greenhouse effect.

Biomes are large terrestrial regions characterized by similar climate, soil, plants, and animals, regardless of where they are found in the world.

Permafrost is underground soil in which captured water stays frozen for more than 2 consecutive years.

Forest systems are lands dominated by trees. Cold air is more dense than warm air, so cold air sinks and warms while warm air rises and cools.

8-1 and 8-2 Review Powerpoint

By: Khalid Ziad

Chapter 8-1

• • • • •

The varying types of planktons are:

–

Phytoplankton – They are drifting plantlike producers that support the aquatic ecosystem.

–

Zooplankton – They are animal-like plankton that eat phytoplankton and are primary consumers.

–

Ultraplankton – They are photosynthetic and responsible for 70% of the primary productivity near the ocean surface.

The Benthos consists of oysters, clams, worms, and crabs. Basically, they’re the bottom-dwellers.

The Nekton of the aquatic ecosystems are whales, fish, and seaturtles. They are basically the strong swimmers of the aquatic ecosystems.

The two types of systems are: deep and shallow

–

Deep systems: They consist of a euphotic zone through which sunlight can penetrate. However, these systems can easily be disturbed by the turbidity of the water (how cloudy it is) because of algal blooms. They block out the sunlight and can cause coral reefs to die.

–

Shallow systems: Nutrients are readily available to the producers in these systems which are usually found in streams, rivers, and lakes, and thus they usually have a higher Net Primary Productivity than deep systems.

Aquatic life zones are classified under two categories:

–

Saltwater: oceans and their estuaries, coastal wetlands, shorelines, coral reefs, and mangrove forests.

–

Freshwater: lakes, rivers, streams, and inland wetlands.

Chapter 8-2

• • • • • Oceans provide nearly 12 trillion dollars in economical services per year. This is close to the GDP of the US.

The zone behind the open sea is divided into 2 parts, the estuarine zone and coastal zone. The continental shelf is also located here.

The open sea is divided into the euphotic zone, bathyal zone, and abyssal zone.

Water temperature drops rapidly as you dive deeper and pressure increases further. The ocean’s average NPP is low because it covers a large space, but because of this fact it is the greatest overall contributor to the Earth’s total NPP.

8.3-8.5

By: Carlos Carmona

• • • • • •

Human impacts on marine ecosystems and Coral Reefs

Half of coastal wetlands lost to urban development Erosion of beaches due to coastal development/rising sea levels At least 20% of coral reefs have been severely damaged Ocean warming, bleaching, damage from anchors, fishing ,and diving By 2040, UP TO 80% OF WORLD’S PPL ARE GOING TO LIVE ON OR NEAR COASTAL AREA!

IMAGINE THAT :0

Importance of freshwater systems(lakes, rivers, wetlands)

• Vital services provided: Climate moderation, nutrient cycling, waste treatment, flood control, groundwater recharge, biodiversity, food, hydroelectricity, transportation, recreation, employment • • BUT MOST IMPORTANTLY WATER!

Define these MUST KNOW following terms: oligotrophic lake, eutrophic lake, and cultural eutrophication.

• • • •

How have humans impacted freshwater systems?

Dams and canals fragment about 40% of the world’s large rivers, thus destroying terrestrial and aquatic habitats by reducing water flow and increasing damage from coastal storms. Flood control levees disconnect the rivers from their flood-plains.

Addition of pollutants and excess plant nutrients to nearby streams, rivers, and lakes.

Wetlands have been drained or filled to grow crops or have been covered with concrete, asphalt, and buildings.

Chapter 9.1-9.2

colvin

• • Humans have disturbed around 83% of the earths land surfaces through filling wetland, converting grassland, forest to crop land and urbanizing areas.

Background Extinction – Low levels of extinction over 3.56 billion years.

• Extinction Rate – Percentage of extinctions within a certain period aka year.

Ex. One extinction per year 1/1,000,000 = 0.000001

Expressed as a percentage 0.00001 x 100 = 0.0001%

• • • • • Instrumental Value – usefulness to us in providing many of the ecological and economic services that make up earth’s natural capital.

2 forms of instrumental value Use Value – Benefits us in for of economic goods/ services, information, etc.

Non-Use Value - (existence value) and (Aesthetic value)

Intrinsic or Existence Values

9.3:How Do Humans Accelerate Species Extinction? daniel • • • • • • • • • • • HIPPCO: Habitat destruction, degradation, and fragmentation; Invasive (nonnative) species; Population and resource use growth (too many people consuming too many resources); Pollution; Climate change; and Overexploitation.

Migratory, mountain, island, wetland, Antarctic, Artic, and sea birds are especially at risk from climate change.

The second biggest cause of premature animal and plant extinction is the deliberate or accidental introduction of harmful invasive species into an ecosystem. Examples(Giant Toad, Zebra Mussel, Hydrilla, etc.) These invasive species don’t have no natural predators, competitors, parasites, or pathogens to help control their numbers , so they end up disrupting the ecosystem. Population Growth and the vast increase of excessive and wasteful consumption of resources has eliminated vast areas of wildlife habitats. Pollution also threatens some species with extinction. Pollution by pesticides has caused the deaths of one-fifth of beneficial honeybee colonies in the USA, more than 67 million birds, and 6-14 million fish. EX of pesticides DDT.

Climate change is also a great threat to wildlife. The increasing temperatures has caused the melting of Artic ice caps leaving many of its inhabitants with out homes like polar bears. Illegal Killing and capturing of wild species is a major threat to biodiversity. The poaching of endangered animals has sprung a great demand in organized crime and illegal trade. Bush Meat- a source of wildlife for food for centuries. An increases in bush meat hunting has led to the extinction of exotic animals. Ex: gorilla, orangutan, chimpanzee, elephant, and hippopotamus. The Endangered Species Act of 1973 was designed to identify and protect endangered species in the USA and abroad. Precautionary Principle :When an activity can harm human health or the health of the environment, we should take precautionary measures to prevent or reduce such harm. Daniel Carrillo 6 th period 4/27/2020

• • • • • • 9.4: How can we protect wild Species from Extinction Resulting form Our activities?

International treaties such as the 1975 convention on International Trade in Endangered Species ( CITES) can help to prevent the extinction of species. 172 countries signed it to ban hunting, capturing, and selling of threatened or endangered species.

The Endangered Species Act of 1973 was designed to identify and protect endangered species in the USA and abroad. Few areas that have the concentration of a countries rarest and most imperial species are called Hotspots. Wildlife refuges were established to preserve wildlife area by President Theodore Roosevelt. Gene or seed banks preserve genetic information and endangered plants species by storing their seeds in refrigerated, low-humidity environments. Precautionary Principle :When an activity can harm human health or the health of the environment, we should take precautionary measures to prevent or reduce such harm. Daniel Carrillo 6 th period 4/27/2020