Transcript Chapter 2
Chapter 2 Seeing and Thinking Sociologically Society • Society—people living in the same geographic area who share a culture and a common identity and whose members fall under the same political authority • Macrolevel—broad social forces and structural features of society • Microlevel—immediate, everyday experiences of individuals Top-down/Bottom-down • Top-down effect – A society influences its members through certain identifiable structural features and historical circumstances • Bottom-up effect – Each individual has a role in forming a society and influencing the course of its history Individuals Structure Society • Through structured social movements • Through day-to-day communication, we construct, reaffirm, experience, and alter the reality of our society. • Although historical events themselves don’t change, their meaning and relevance do. Society Influences the Individual • Through other individuals (social influence) • Through social interaction • Through social structure (societal influence) – Statuses/roles + groups + organizations + social institutions + culture = society Thinking Sociologically • Ordinary people and cruel acts: What would you do? – Social psychologist Stanley Milgram (1974) – Impact of authority – Following orders • How do you know? Status • Status: any named social position that people can occupy (e.g., mother, student, electrician) • Status can be ascribed or achieved – Ascribed status: acquired at birth or taken on involuntarily – Achieved status: earned or taken on voluntarily Role • Set of rights, obligations, behaviors, and duties associated with a particular status • Role strain: when a person lacks the resources to fulfill the demands of a role • Role conflict: when the demands of one expected role clash with the demands of another expected role Groups • In-groups: when we belong and feel a sense of loyalty • Out-groups: when we don’t belong and feel some antagonism • Dyads and triads: groups of two or three people Groups • Coalition: a subgroup of a triad formed when two members unite against the third member • Primary groups: long-time groups with strong direct attachment • Secondary groups: more formal and impersonal Organizations and Social Institutions • Organizations: Large, complex network of positions, created for a specific purpose and characterized by a hierarchical division of labor • Social institutions: Stable set of roles, statuses, groups, and organizations that provides a foundation for behavior in some major area of social life – Examples: education, family, politics, religion, health care, or the economy Culture • A society’s “personality”: the language, values, beliefs, rules, behaviors, and physical artifacts that characterize a society • Provide general rules to live by • Values: provide ways to judge or assess goals or outcomes for their lives Culture • Globalization: managing culture and values in a connected world • Norms: culturally defined “rules” of conduct; expectations for behavior Three Sociological Perpectives • Structural-functionalist perspective • Conflict perspective • Symbolic interactionist perspective • Macro- and micro-levels of analysis • Each has weaknesses Structural-Functionalist Perspective • Macro-level analysis • Dominant theoretical tradition through much of the 20th century • Emphasizes how society is structured to maintain stability; emphasizes consensus and cooperation • Key theorists: Durkheim, Parsons, Merton Assumptions of Structural Functionalism • Societies are integrated systems comprised of specialized parts that serve functions – Manifest, or intended – Latent, or unintended • Society is like an organism • Dysfunctional parts will gradually cease to exist Conflict Perspective • Macro-level of analysis • Addresses some deficiencies of S-F theory • Emphasizes power differentials, dominance and inequality • Key theorists: Marx, Dahrendorf, conflictfeminist theorists Assumptions of Conflict Perspective • Societies are competitive arenas where groups are in a constant struggle for resources • Some groups benefit more from existing social arrangements than others, and will exercise their power to maintain the status quo • Change is inevitable Symbolic Interactionism • Micro-level of analysis • Seeks to understand society by examining dayto-day interactions of people • Particular focus on language, gestures, and symbols and assigning meaning to situations • Key theorists: Blumer, Goffman Assumptions of Symbolic Interactionism • Reality is a social construction • What one believes to be real is one’s own reality, and actions and reactions are based on that reality • The meaning that one attributes to a situation is largely based on past experiences • Change happens when one improves on a script Theoretical Weaknesses • Structural-functionalism: does not address power differential, inequality, or social change • Conflict: lacks a strong explanation for social harmony and cohesion • Symbolic interactionism: has to be taken to the macro-level to see the connections of larger institutions