Important sentence structures

Contents:

 Appositives  Enumeration  Structures of comparison  Structures of contrast  Cause-effect development

Appositives

同位語

Constructing appositives

 Appositives are used principally to expand the meaning of nouns by supplying defining or identifying details about them.

 We can construct an appositive from any sentence in which a noun phrase follows the to be verb (is, are, was, were).

Eliminate the subject and the verb, insert commas or dashes .

 Generally, we position an appositive next to the noun that it identifies, whether that noun is at the beginning or end of a sentence.

Examples:  Farmers try to control the poinsettia whitefly by digging up entire fields of infested crops. The poinsettia whitefly is a pesticide-resistant superbug.

(Relative clause) Farmers try to control the poinsettia whitefly, which is a pesticide-resistant superbug , by digging up entire fields of infested crops.

Farmers try to control the poinsettia whitefly, a pesticide-resistant superbug , by digging up entire fields of infested crops.

 In 1904, a Saint Louis doctor introduced peanut butter as a health food for the elderly. Peanut butter is the favorite food of American children.

In 1904, a Saint Louis doctor introduced peanut butter the favorite food of American children - as a health food for the elderly.

Appositives can be just as handy for summarizing or generalizing.

Example : To avoid bankruptcy, some major national airlines are joining forces with successful regional airlines, a trend that is likely to continue.

Short summarizing appositives - appositives of one or two words - can produce a striking effect, especially at the end of a sentence.

 Half an hour later, the second police diver returned with the same report nothing .  Incorporated into humanistic programs in our schools is one of the most dehumanizing practice in education – standardized testing.

Longer summarizing appositives can fill in important background information.

 The “sunbelt” states of the South and West – states that remained rural and backward during the industrialization of our country – have come to dominate the U.S. economy during the technological revolution.

 Bloodhounds are friendly and gentle creatures, not the vicious beasts their name would lead you to expect .

When we pack appositives into a series, they summarize by listing characteristics:  In Aesop’s fables, the animals that overcome great odds represent qualities we want for ourselves : power, intelligence, thoughtfulness, and honesty.

Whether positive or negative, appositive are normally nouns . Adjectives can be used as appositives, if we move them from their normal position in front of the noun they modify.

 My blind date turned out to be an honest, fun loving, affectionate, and wonderful person.

My blind date turned out to be a wonderful person – honest, fun-loving, and affectionate.

Practice:

o – Death Valley is a hauntingly beautiful place to visit.

o – more European and cosmopolitan.

o and Kennedy – have died in office.

– including Lincoln, Roosevelt, Use a connective (namely, including, especially, particularly, notably, mainly) for providing an example.

o colons. The different punctuation marks create different effects.

Examples:

 Pet owners upset by soaring veterinary costs can now register for Medipet

,

a pre-paid insurance plan for dogs and cats.

(hardly calls attention)  Pet owners upset by soaring veterinary costs can now register for Medipet

-

a pre-paid insurance plan for dogs and cats.

(longer pause, more emphatic)  Pet owners upset by soaring veterinary costs can now register for Medipet

:

a pre-paid insurance plan for dogs and cats.

(formality)

More examples:

 The popular US

president John Kennedy

for his eloquent and inspirational speeches.

was known ( essential information ) 

John Kennedy

,

the popular US president

, was known for his eloquent and inspirational speeches.

( not essential information ) 

John Kennedy the popular US president

different from

John Kennedy

was quite

the unfaithful husband

.

( essential information )

Enumeration

 A writer starts with a general class, then proceeds to break it down by listing some or all of its members or parts.

General class Member or part Member or part Member or part Member or part

Four ways for Enumeration:

1.

2.

3.

4.

Ordinal numbers Pronouns Descending order Ascending order

Listing signals

- Ordinal numbers (1) First, there are … Second, Third, Last, (2) The first kind / type / step is… The second (Another) The third (The next) The last (The final)

(3) Descending order To mention the most important one first.

More important Less important The most essential most important primary largest chief kind is… reason is…

Example: My

chief reason

for choosing that university was its wonderful study program in agriculture. Second , Bingston hires only the finest teachers to teach in its graduate program. Then , there was Bingston’s deferred payment plan; this represented a great convenience to my parents. A final reason was the reasonable tuition.

(4) Ascending order - The last item is the most important. - To emphasize the importance.

Less important More important But the most essential most important The primary largest chief kind is… reason is… kind, however, is… reason, however, is… Finally, and most importantly , there is

Example: There are several reasons why I decided to attend Bingston University. First of all , the tuition was reasonable. Second , the university had a deferred payment plan; this represented a great convenience to my parents. Another reason was the fact that Bingston hires only the finest of teachers to teach in its graduate program.

My chief reason

, however, was Bingston’s mandatory study program in argriculture.

Structures of comparison

 Structure 1 - adj. / prep.

 Structure 2 – attached statements  Structure 3 – correlative conjunction  Structure 4 – predicate structures  Structure 5 – sentence connectors  Structure 6 – punctuation only

(1) (2)

Structure 1 - adj. / prep.

same…as

Kennedy was killed on the same day of the week as Lincoln.

(adj) (prep) exactly / almost / practically (degree of similarity)

similar to…

Kennedy’s death was similar to Lincoln’s in that they both died in office. (adj) (prep)

(3)

somewhat / rather / very / quite (degree of similarity)

like…

Kennedy’s death was like Lincoln’s. (prep) Like Lincoln, Kennedy refused to heed his secretary’s warming. (basis of comparison)

Structure 2 – attached statements

(1) …too Kennedy was succeeded by a Southern Democrat, and Lincoln was too.

and so was Lincoln.

Kennedy could arouse the sympathy of the public, and Lincoln could too.

and so could Lincoln.

(2) …either Kennedy’s secretary couldn’t prevent the president’s assassination, and Lincoln’s couldn’t either and neither could Lincoln’s.

Structure 3 – correlative conjunction

(1) both…and Both Kennedy and Lincoln Kennedy and Lincoln both had their elections legally challenged.

(2) Neither...nor

Neither Kennedy’s wife nor his children were expecting anything unusual to happen that day. Neither Kennedy’s children nor his wife was expecting anything unusual to happen that day.

Structure 4 – predicate structures

(1) to resemble Kennedy’s popularity resembled Lincoln’s.

vaguely / closely / greatly (degree of similarity) (2) have…in common Kennedy and Lincoln have features in common.

certain things / many qualities / two characteristics / several aspects (3) There are similarities There are similarities between Kennedy and Lincoln.

certain / many / several / two…

Structure 5 – sentence connectors

Lincoln was succeeded by a Southern Democrat named similarly, correspondingly, likewise, Johnson

;

in the same way, Lyndon Johnson, a Democrat from the South, succeeded Kennedy.

Note: A semicolon is often used before a sentence connector. However, since each of the sentences can stand alone and be considered grammatically correct, a period can also be used after the first sentence.

Structure 6 – punctuation only

semicolon (;) Andrew Johnson was born in 1808

;

Lyndon Johnson was born in 1908.

Lincoln’s secretary was Mrs. Kennedy

;

Kennedy’s was Mrs. Lincoln.

likewise,

Structures of contrast

        Structure 1 …than Structure 2 – prepositions Structure 3 – adverbial structures Structure 4 – adjective Structure 5 – Verbal phrases Structure 6 – sentence connectors Structure 7 – conjunctions Structure 8 – punctuation only

Structure 1 …than

(1) is…than is more reliable is less optimistic learns more slowly (2) as…as is not as reliable as does not learns as slowly as

Structure 2 – prepositions

Unlike Contrary to As opposed to the extrovert, who craves excitement, the introvert likes a well-ordered mode of life.

(basis of contrast) The extrovert, who craves excitement, the introvert likes a well-ordered mode of life in the opposite way .

Structure 3 – adverbial structures

Whereas While the extrovert loses his or her temper quickly, the introvert seldom does.

(basis of contrast)

Structure 4 – adjective

opposite / different There are two models in this case. They are completely opposite (different).

They have opposite views on the question.

Structure 5 – Verbal phrases

contrasts with The introvert differs from is different from in regard to the extrovert in respect of his or her temper.

with respect to (basis of contrast)

Structure 6 – sentence connectors

The extrovert loves crowds

;

however, on the other hand, in contrast, the introvert is fond of solitude.

(basis of contrast) The extrovert loves crowds

;

the introvert

,

however, on the other hand, in contrast, is fond of solitude.

Structure 7 – conjunctions

is fond of solitude.

Structure 8 – punctuation only

The introvert likes books

;

people.

the extrovert is fond of

 

Practice:

The extrovert loves crowds.

The introvert is fond of solitude.

1. The extrovert loves crowds

; however,

the introvert is fond of solitude.

2. The introvert is fond of solitude ; the extrovert , however, loves crowds.

3. The extrovert loves crowds.

However

, the introvert is fond of solitude.

4. The extrovert

contrasts with

the introvert

in regard to

need of solitude.

(in regard to + N/Ving = about) 5.

Unlike

the introvert, who is fond of solitude, the extrovert loves crowds.

Cause and Effect development structural signals

 When you use a cause-effect method of development, this will often mean that your are supporting the topic sentence by listing or enumerating.

Focus on cause cause # 1 cause # 2 Situation cause # 3 Focus on effect effect # 1 Situation effect # 2 effect # 3   Effect – what a certain situation has led to or has resulted in.

Cause – reasons or explanations why something is the way it is, or why it happened the way it did .

 Structure 1 – sentence connectors  Structure 2 – conjunctions  Structure 3 – clause structures  Structure 4 – phrase structures  Structure 5 – predicate structures  Structure 6 – participial phrases

Structure 1 – sentence connectors

as a result, consequently, In some areas, water levels will fall

;

therefore, because of this, hence, these areas will no longer be able to support industry.

(cause) (effect)

Structure 2 – Conjunctions

(1) so In some areas, water levels will fall, so these areas will no longer be able to support industry.

(cause) (effect) (2) for (because) Some areas will no longer be able to support industry, for water levels will have fallen in these areas.

(effect) (cause)

(1)

Structure 3 – clause structures

so…that such…that such a…that

be

so

great

that

The rise in temperature will happen so fast that dry out so much land that cause

such

terrible damage

that

agricultural patterns will change.

cause

such a

severe heat

Use

so that

to introduce a clause indicating a purpose.

So that

is often used with

can

or

could

.

Use

so … that

to place emphasis on the cause. Use an adverb or adjective after

so

.

So

modifies an adjective or adverb in the

cause

clause. (Note that

very

cannot be used in place of

so

.) Examples: 1. We stayed out all night so that we could watch a meteor storm.

2. The starts were so bright that we were amazed.

3. The meteor storm was so beautiful that we watched it all night.

4. The meteor storm passed so quickly that it went by in one night.

5. It was such a beautiful meteor storm that we watched it all night.

(2) Since Because Since Because Because of the fact that Due to the fact that rainfall patterns will change, water supplies will diminish.

(cause) (effect)

Structure 4 – phrase structures

Because of Due to As a result of In view of the increased heat, agricultural patterns will change.

(cause) (effect)

Structure 5 – predicate structures

 The predicate of a sentence includes everything from the verb to the end. In this group of structures, the cause-effect relationship is indicated either by the verb or the words following it.

(1) cause Changes in water result in levels will be the reason for changes in living patterns.

be responsible for (cause) (effect) contribute to lead to

(2) Drastic changes in living patterns will result from be a result of be a consequence of be due to changes in water levels.

Structure 6 – participial phrases

 Participial phrases have no subjects, and contain verbs which are in the –ing form.

(1) Water levels will change, causing leading to contributing to changes in living patterns.

resulting in (cause) (effect)

(2) Living patterns will change, resulting from following from changes in water levels.

(effect) (cause)

More examples:



Massive shifts in population will result from these environmental changes.

all of

All of these environment will change; hence , population will shift massively.

Because of massively.

all the environmental changes, the population will shift 

The Greenhouse Effect will cause the way we live.

dramatic changes in

In the way we live will change dramatically, resulting from the Greenhouse Effect.

Dramatic changes in the way we live will follow from Greenhouse Effect.

the

Web links

    http://www.mhhe.com/mayfieldpub/tsw/esl-link.htm

(common writing problems) http://lbarker.orconhosting.net.nz/words.html

(words that are often confused) http://www.englishdaily626.com/c-mistakes.php

(common mistakes) http://www.grammar-quizzes.com/8-8.html

(grammar)