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Advance Organizer • Explain how good thinking enhances learning • Explain why good thinking is not taught well in schools • Analyse the key components of a ‘Thinking Curriculum’ • Write learning outcomes to incorporate types of thinking • Use instructional strategies to teach good thinking • Identify assessment methods to assess thinking • Analyse a Model of Thinking • Identify barriers to good thinking Thinking: A Key Process for effective learning “The best thing we can do, from the point of view of the brain and learning, is to teach our learners how to think” (Jenson, 1996, p.163) “Thought is the key to knowledge. Knowledge is discovered by thinking, analysed by thinking, organized by thinking, transformed by thinking, assessed by thinking, and, most importantly, acquired by thinking” (Paul, 1993 vii) Thinking is the cognitive process that builds Understanding Problems of Definition “In schools, critical thinking has long been a buzz phrase. Educators pay lip service to its Importance, but few can tell me what they mean by the phrase or how they teach and test it...” (p.16) “For the most part, teachers haven’t been trained to teach students how to think.” (xxiv) (Wagner, T., 2010, The Global Achievement Gap) “... But the heart of this problem is our failure to define such terms as critical thinking, problem solving, metacognition, reasoning, and abstract thinking. Without adequate definition and training, teachers lack the knowledge and skills to teach and test for these desirable but elusive human qualities” (Haladyna, T., 1997, Writing Test Items to Evaluate Higher Order Thinking, p.97) This involves Critical Thinking – have I seen this problem before, what are the likely causes, what information do I need to clearly interpret what’s occurring....? Good thinking, what’s that? I want good Thinking on this So if we really want to develop students ability to think well, we must firstly be able to… Aligned Curriculum Design Model Learning Outcomes Types of Thinking Assessment System Instructional Strategies In basic terms this means that the types of thinking incorporated in the Learning Outcomes must be effectively taught through the Instructional Strategies used and accurately measured in the Assessment System. Things to disrupt - “put a spanner in the works”- good thinking: what do you think they are? Brain Barriers to Learning (and Thinking) Inherent Design Features of Cognition The mind is inherently ‘lazy’ when it comes to cognitive effort and typically relies on learned associations, rather that good thinking and empirical evidence. Furthermore, incoming information automatically passes through established neural networks – hence the brain will ensure that we perceive what we have learned to see. Restricted Working Memory & Slow processing Speed Despite Long Term Memory having unlimited capacity for information – Working Memory can only deal with around 7 bits of information at once. Furthermore, the actual processing speed of the brain is slow compared to its capacity and organising ability. Personality Configurations, Emotions and Conflicting Neural Structures Whether we like it or not, ‘intelligent design’ is highly questionable; the natural state of the mind is one of internal conflict Our brain uses Two Systems to analyse and respond to environmental challenges: System 1 is a fast reflexive system that identifies the familiar, especially threatening elements in a situation and quickly activates automatic response patterns. This system is the most essential for survival and is the default system. However, it also results in rapid stereotypical/prejudicial judgements and action. It is the price we pay for this powerful survival system System 2 is a slow, analytic, reflective system (that explores the more objective factual elements of a situation, compares them with previously learned elements, and then responds. However, this requires self control, effort and time, which creates cognitive strain – and is inherently lazy. Visual Illusions Annoying Beliefs “We forget that beliefs are no more than perceptions, usually with a limited sell by date, yet we act as though they were concrete realities” (Adler, 1996, p.145) ... And they shape our Psychological State (attitude) to the situation we are in Perception shapes reality “90% of errors of thinking are errors of perception” “If you want to change emotions, change perception” Edward De Bono “One man’s meat is another man’s poison” Old English saying (older than me anyway) A Model of Thinking Comparison & Contrast Analysis Inference & Interpretation Metacognition Evaluation Generating Possibilities 14 Generating Possibilities What do we do when we generate possibilities? • Generate many possibilities • Generate different types of possibilities • Generate novel possibilities Comparison & Contrast All creative products involve the combining of old ideas or elements in new ways Analysis Inference & Interpretation Metacognition Generating Possibilities Evaluation 15 What is Creativity? A product or response will be judged creative to the extent that it is novel, useful or a valuable response to the task at hand. (summarized from Amabile, 1996, p.35) <> One dark foggy night in Halifax, as Percy Shaw was driving home, he saw two small green lights, very close together near the edge of the road. He was curious so he stopped and saw the ‘lights’ were a pair of cats eyes reflecting the light from his head lights. This triggered off his thinking, making some new connections in his brain – subsequently he invented a small device involving two marbles placed close together in a rubber casing; this would then be set in the road at intervals between the lanes of traffic. After a year of experiments, Percy patented the invention and then, in 1935, formed his company, Reflecting Roadstuds Ltd. (That’s Innovation & Enterprise) Creativity: Not Thinking out of the Box It all happens Inside the Head, it’s just a question of what’s in there, what you do with it and how Little in there, little desire and effort to keep making new neural connections especially across knowledge areas – expect little by way of creativity Creativity results from conscious (and subconscious) neural restructuring that results in NEW PERCEPTIONS Reframing “How your perceive something makes all the difference and you are free to see things from any perspective you wish” (Adler, 1996, p.145) To shift to a different frame will typically reframe one’s perspective and therefore, one’s meaning. And when we do this, our very world changes, which changes the sensory experience, hence how we feel Slimy Pond Life or Tasty Dinner? Analysis Comparison & Contrast What do we do when we analyse? Analysis Inference & Interpretation Metacognition Evaluation Generating Possibilities • Identify relationship of the parts to a whole in system /structure/model • Identify functions of each part • Identify consequences to the whole, if a part was missing • Identify what collections of parts form important sub-systems of the whole • Identify if and how certain parts have a synergetic effect 19 Comparison and Contrast What do we do when we compare and contrast? Comparison & Contrast Inference & Interpretation Metacognition Analysis Evaluation Generating Possibilities • Identify what is similar between things objects/options/ideas, etc. • Identify what is different between things • Identify and consider what is important about both the similarities and differences • Identify a range of situations when the different features are applicable 20 Inference and Interpretation What do we do when we make inferences and interpretations? • • • • • Identify intentions and assumptions in data Comparison & Contrast Separate fact from opinion in data Identify key points, connections, and contradictions in data Make meaning of the Analysis data/information available Establish a best picture to make predictions Inference & Interpretation Metacognition Evaluation Generating Possibilities 21 Evaluation What do we do when we evaluate? • Decide on what is to be evaluated • Identify appropriate criteria from which evaluation can be made • Prioritize the importance of the criteria • Apply the criteria and make decision Comparison & Contrast Analysis Inference & Interpretation Metacognition Evaluation Generating Possibilities 22 Metacognition What are we doing when we are metacognitive? Comparison & Contrast Analysis • Aware that we can think in an organized manner (and the barriers to it) • Actively thinking about the ways in which we are thinking • Monitoring and evaluating how effective we are thinking (including how our emotions and beliefs may be impacting the thinking process) • Seeking to make more effective use of the different ways of thinking as well as any useful learning strategies, tools and resources Inference & Interpretation Metacognition Generating Possibilities Evaluation “To be properly metacognitive...students have to be realistically aware of their own cognitive resources in relation to the task demands, and then to plan, monitor, and control those resources” (Biggs, 1987) Metacognition plays a central role in learning by monitoring the quality of the overall (and specific aspects) of the thinking process, our emotional dispositions, as well as the choice and application of learning strategies and skills It operates at both conscious and sub/unconscious levels. Good Thinking is… … the ability to use Critical, Creative & Metacognitive thinking in an highly competent manner to solve problems: This involves: • Using each type of thinking effectively and efficiently • Using them in unison and synergistically • Managing a WIDE range of barriers to the thinking process Infusion Approach 1 Compare & contrast Analysis Inference & interpretation Evaluation Generating possibilities Metacognition Curriculum Infusion Approach 2 Specific types of thinking that underpin competent performance Real world applications of the subject content Curriculum Identifying the Types of Thinking Step 1 • Refocus the curriculum towards real world activities or competency Step 2 • Identify the types of thinking that underpin competent performance in these real world activities through COGNITIVE MODELING In doing this it is useful to start by asking the question: How does a highly competent person think in the effective execution of this activity? Example from a Business Law Module: Predict possible legal outcomes in the event of a breach of contract • Analyse the components of a contract • Compare and contrast the expected and the actual behaviour of defendants • Make inferences and interpretations concerning the behaviour • Evaluate the possibility of specific outcomes Writing learning outcomes Write in direct performance terms – focusing on: the Type of Thinking or Product Outcome • • • • Analyse the impact of pollution on water quality Compare and contrast a range of retaining structures Generate new design options for marketing a health food product Predict the outcomes of specified legal scenarios • • • • Conduct product packaging tests for a specified product Prepare a voyage passage plan Write a programme in Java script to animate a range of figures Prepare a tender report NOTE: Objectives can be written at different levels of specificity and contextualized accordingly – but the general concept of focusing on the desired performance applies Promoting Thinking – General but Essential Instructional Principles • Systematically teach and model the types of thinking, taking students through the range of cognitive operations for each type of thinking (Direct Instruction using the Language of Thinking: Making Thinking Visible) • Use structured questions to direct and reinforce types of thinking (e.g., “Lets compare & contrast these two diets”; What inferences and interpretations can be drawn from these data sources about the possible use of cloning in food production, etc)” • Involve students in real world learning tasks which necessitate direct use of the types of thinking • Consistently promote dispositions (habits of mind) conducive to good thinking and effective learning (e.g., persistence, managing impulsivity, openness, flexibility, attention to detail, good listening, humour, etc) Getting students familiar with the Language of Thinking Often used teacher language Comment on these two proposed solutions Do you think this is the best option? What do you think might have happened here? What’s this data about? How else could this be done? How will you know if your assignment is well done? What is taken for granted by the author in this piece of writing? Cueing types of thinking Lets compare and contrast these two solutions....identify what is similar and different in each....then apply our understanding to some specific situations.... Making Good Thinking Visible “...teachers have to make their own intellectual processes (their performances) visible. This means that the teacher-expert has to make visible to learners the otherwise invisible processes of thinking that underlie complex cognitive operations ... Teachers have to articulate and demonstrate rather than assume the thought processes they want students to learn” (Sheppard et al, 2009, p.188) Making Students Thinking Visible “We need to make thinking visible because it provides us with the information we as teachers need to plan opportunities that will take students’ learning to the next level and enable continued engagement with the ideas being explored. It is only when we understand what our students are thinking, feeling, and attending to that we can use that knowledge to further engage and support them in the process of understanding. Thus making students’ thinking visible becomes an ongoing component of effective teaching” (Ritchhart, Church & Morrison, 2011, p.27) The Power of Questions “Questions are the primary way we learn virtually everything” “Thinking itself is nothing but the process of asking and answering questions” “Questions immediately change what we focus on and, therefore, how we feel” (Anthony Robbins, 2001, pp.179-8) “All answers come out of the question. If we pay attention to our questions, we increase the power of meaningful learning” Ellen Langer Using Questions The effective use of questions is a powerful means of promoting specific types of thinking, for example: • What are the similarities and differences between Hepatitis A and HIV? • In what ways are these differences significant? • What inferences and interpretations can be drawn from the data on HIV infection in Asia? • How might we evaluate the effectiveness of the present HIV prevention programme? • What is the relationship between HIV infection and poverty? • What other ways might we make people more aware of HIV infection? Instructional Strategies (methods, activities, tools) for promoting thinking • Questioning • Small group activities that involve specific types of thinking (e.g. buzz groups, rounds, poster board tours, etc) • Co-operative learning structures • Case studies • Projects/PBL activities • Role play • Performance tasks that involve specific types of thinking • Discussion/Debates • Thinking Tools, e.g., Mind mapping, ‘Thinking Hats’, PlusMinus-Interesting, Forced Associations, etc Ways in which meta-cognitive thinking can be developed & enhanced: 1. Make students Aware of this distinctively human capability and how it works • • 2. Build metacognitive thinking into specific learning activities (e.g., project work • 3. Explain and demonstrate how metacognition works Illustrate with a range of examples why metacognition is so important in learning and personal success Get students to reflect on and document the quality of their thinking, identifying challenges faced in their learning and how they have gone about tackling these challenges Facilitate and reinforce metacognition through other ‘Teachable Moments’ • Whenever metacognitive thinking would be valuable to enhancing thinking and learning Thinking Tools and Techniques • Mindmapping (A learning & thinking tool) • Thinking Hats (A thought management tool) • Plus-Minus-Interesting (A simple practical tool for identifying positives, negatives and unsure elements in a situation) • Force-Field Analysis (A critical and creative thinking tool for managing change) • Forced Associations (A creative thinking technique to break out of traditional patterns of perception and thinking) • PO (A creative thinking technique) Note: thinking tools and techniques don’t do the thinking, they only provide a means for organizing your thinking Plus-Minus-Interesting PLUS MINUS INTERESTING Current Force-Field Situation Analysis Potency: 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Desired Situation 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 :Potency Forces driving change Forces resisting change Equilibrium The objective is to move the balance to the right, which can be achieved by: • identifying forces, their causes and strength • planning and acting to assist the driving forces • planning and acting to reduce the resisting forces • using some of the resisting forces against each other if possible Forced Associations (Random Triggers) Forced Associations is a technique for linking another thinking pattern into the one we are presently using. We do this by selecting a random concrete noun from a different field and combining it with the problem under consideration. For example, we might be looking at ways to make lifts quicker. Force Associate with ‘Mirror’ By choosing a random word ‘Mirror’ could lead to installing mirrors by lifts. As we know this is a popular solution for ‘slow lifts’. The lift doesn’t go faster, but people waiting don’t notice this as they look in the mirror. PO (Provocative Operation) PO involves making deliberately provocative statements, which seek to force thinking out of established patterns. Examples: “Everybody should go to prison” “Lets abolish schools” Having made a provocative statement, it is then necessary to suspend judgement and use the statement to generate ideas. For example, you can generate ideas by examining: • • • • The consequences of the statement What the benefits could be? What would need to change in order to make it a sensible statement? What would happen if a sequence of events changed? What are ‘Real World’ Learning Tasks? “Central to a pedagogy that seeks to promote the development of good thinking is the systematic use of well constructed and managed learning tasks that reflect real world activity and involve the use of specific types of thinking. (Wasserman, 1993, p.20) Such tasks are often referred to as Performance-Tasks as they concentrate on the thoughtful application of knowledge in real life contexts Types of Real World Tasks • Real work projects and tasks • Simulations • Problem solving through case studies • Problem-based learning (PBL) activities • Presentations • Any activity that essentially models what would be done by people in the world of work Example: Design A Food Package Select a food product and design the packaging that you think will give it best marketability. You must be able to identify the product attributes, protection and enhancement needed to satisfy the functional and marketing requirements, and use suitable packaging material(s) and package type. The work produced should reflect the quality of your thinking in the following areas: • • • • • • identify the criteria for evaluating the marketability of a product analyze the components of a product that constitute an effective design generate new ways of viewing a product design beyond existing standard forms predict potential clients response to the product given the information you have monitor the development on the group’s progress and revise strategy where necessary ----------------------------------------------------------- Steps in designing performance tasks Step 1: Identify clearly the knowledge, skills and processes to be incorporated into the task For this step it is important to: • Choose specific topic areas in your curriculum that encompass key underpinning knowledge (e.g., central concepts, principles, procedures) and skills essential for understanding and performance in real world applications. • Identify the types of thinking that are important for promoting student understanding and subsequent competence in these topic areas. For example, generating possibilities, analysis, comparison and contrast, inference and interpretation, evaluation, etc. • Identify other process skills (e.g., communication, team-working, managing learning, etc.) that are important for competent performance in the identified areas. Steps in designing performance tasks Step 2: Produce the learning task It is important that the task: • Clearly involves the application of the knowledge, skills and processes identified from Step 1. • Is sufficiently challenging, but realistically achievable in terms of student’s prior competence, access to resources, and time frames allocated. • Successful completion involves more than one correct answer or more than one correct way of achieving the correct answer • Clear notes of guidance are provided, which: • Identify the products of the task and what formats of presentation are acceptable (e.g. written report, learning materials, portfolio, oral presentation, etc.) • Specify the parameters of the activity (e.g. time, length, areas to incorporate, individual/collaborative, how much choice is permitted, support provided, etc.) • Cue the types of thinking and other desired process skills • Spell out all aspects of the assessment process and criteria. Key considerations in producing a marking scheme • Performance areas assessed to reflect learning objectives • Performance criteria for each performance area • Marks weighting for each performance area to reflect table of specifications/assessment blueprint • sources of Performance evidence to be used (e.g., written/oral questioning, product, observation, etc) • Format for marking scheme – checklist, rating scale/ scoring rubric Marking Formats for performance assessments Decide on the basis of level of Inference in making assessment decision Marking Scheme analytic Rubric holistic Checklist analytic or holistic rubric – what’s the difference, and on what basis would you decide? Decide format on the basis of whether the item involves High or Low Inference • Low inference items are those where the performances being tested are clearly visible and there is a widely established correct answer (e.g., conducting a fire drill, setting up an experiment) Here a Checklist is most appropriate • High inference items involve performances that are less directly visible and/or more open to subjective judgement (e.g., creative writing, managing a team) Here a rating scale/scoring rubric is most appropriate A major challenge to test design is to produce tasks that require low inference scoring systems. Unfortunately, many worthwhile student outcomes reflecting higher order thinking lend themselves more to high inference scoring. What rubrics can and cannot do… It is also important to remember that the rubric does not make the assessment decision; this is the responsibility of the assessing teacher --------------------------------------------------------------------------Rubrics provides a guiding frame for focusing attention on the key elements/constructs (performance criteria) of the assessment area and summary descriptors of a range of performances. Developing a checklist • Identify the important components - procedures, processes or operations - in an assessment activity • for example, in conducting an experiment one important operation is likely to be the generation of a viable hypothesis • For each component, write a statement that identifies competent performance for this procedure, process or operation • in the above example, the following may be pertinent: A clear viable hypothesis is described • Allocate a mark distribution for each component - if appropriate • this is likely to reflect its importance or level of complexity Note: Checklists are most useful for low inference items –where the performance evidence is clearly agreed and there is little disagreement relating to effective or ineffective performance (e.g., observable steps) Assessment checklist for Designing and Conducting a Small Experiment Performance Areas/criteria: 1. The context of the experiment is accurately described 2. A clear viable hypothesis is presented 3. The method/procedure is appropriate 4. There is no infringement on persons 5. Findings are clearly collated and presented 6. Valid inferences and interpretations are drawn from the data 7. and comparison is made with existing data The write-up of the experiment meets required conventions The allocation of marks for each performance area will reflect the weighting allocated in the Table of Specifications Developing a scoring rubric • Define the performance area/learning targets for an assessment (must relate to learning outcomes) • for example, ‘Valid inferences and interpretations are drawn from the data and comparison is made with existing data’ • Identify and describe the key attributes that underpin competence for each performance area (preferably observable and measurable) • Using the above example (attributes – concept, types of thinking) • Validity • inference and interpretation • comparison and contrast • Write a concise description of performance at a range of levels from very good to very poor • for example, 5 = very good; 1 = very poor Note: Rating Scales/Scoring Rubrics are most for useful for high inference items – where the performance evidence requires considerable professional judgement in making an assessment decision Scoring Rubric for: Valid inferences & interpretations are drawn from the data and comparison is made with existing data Score Description 5 All valid inferences are derived from data. Interpretations are consistently logical given the data obtained. All essential similarities and differences with existing data are identified and their significance fully emphasized. 4 Most of the valid inferences are derived from data. Interpretations are mainly logical given the data obtained. Most essential similarities and differences with existing data are identified and their main significance emphasized. 3 Some valid inferences are derived from data. Some logical interpretations are made from data obtained. Some essential similarities and differences with existing data are identified and their significance partly established. 2 Few valid inferences are derived. Interpretation of findings are limited . Comparison and contrast with existing data is partial and its significance not established. 1 Failure to make valid inferences and interpretations.