Transcript PowerPoint 演示文稿

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Teaching Contents
• 9.1 Choice of pronoun case forms
• 9.2 Reflexive pronouns
• 9.3 Pronoun reference
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9.1 Choice of pronoun case forms
• In English, most personal pronouns and the
interrogative / relative pronoun “who” have
three case forms: the subjective case
(I,we,who…), the object case(me,us,whom…),
and the genitive case. The genitive case falls
into two categories: the determinative genitive
(my, our, your,whose…) and the nominal
genitive (mine, ours, yours…).
• When a personal pronoun is used as the
subject of a sentence, it occurs in the subjective
case;
2015/7/21 when used as object, in the objective
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1) Choice between subjective and objective
case
Subject ----subjective case; object---objective
case
But there are exceptions to this general rule:
(1) In informal style, when a personal pronoun
functions as the subject of a minor sentence
that stands without a predicate or with only a
nonfinite verb as the predicator, the pronoun
usually occurs in the objective case. They
are the sentences always with strong
emotions denoting surprise, distrust,
negation, disdain, retort, etc.
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---You ought to pay the bills. --- What, me?
(2) In comparative clauses, the choice between
subjective and objective case follows the
general rule. But in informal style, a personal
pronoun may appear in the objective case even
if acting as the subject of a comparative clause,
especially when the pronoun is followed by
such items as all / both as appositive.
--- She is cleverer than them both.
--- She is much taller than me( I ).
--- I like Tom as much as / no less than him / he.
(3) In an SVC construction where the subject
complement is a pronoun, the objective case
sounds much more natural.
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--- 2015/7/21
I bet it’s her.
(4) In a cleft sentence where the focal element is
a personal pronoun, the subjective case is
much more common than the objective case
though it is permissible to use the objective
case in informal style.
--- It was he who did it.(fml.)
--- It was me that did it. (infml.)
• Or if the pronoun functions as the subject in the
clause, we generally use the subjective case,
while if as object, then the objective case.
--- It was I who answered the phone.
--- 2015/7/21
It’s not me (who) he wants.
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(5) When the subject of a sentence is “everybody
/ all / nobody + but / except + personal pronoun”,
the pronoun should occur in the objective case
according to a prescriptive rule, but usage
requires that the subjective case be used so
long as it appears in the subject area.
--- Everyone except I agreed to take the
job.(subject)
--- Nobody agreed to take the job but him.(part of
S)
--- I met nobody but her. (object)
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(6) In a who-question, the case form of the
interrogative pronoun is determined by its
function in the sentence.
• In formal style, subject---- subjective case;
object----objective case
--- Who called this morning?
--- Whom did you meet at the milk bar?
• In informal style, so long as the pronoun (used
as object) appears in the subject slot, it takes
the subjective form except when directly
preceded by a preposition.
--- 2015/7/21
Who did you meet at the milk bar?
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(7) In a relative clause introduced by who, when
the relative pronoun functions as the subject of
the clause and is followed by an insertion such
as “I believe”, “I think” (embedded), the pronoun
generally occurs in the subjective case.
--- She is a woman who people believe may be
the president of the company some day.
--- She is a woman whom people believe may be
the president of the company some day.
(very informal spoken language)
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(8) In a nominal clause introduced by whoever,
the choice of the case form follows the general
rule.
--- They always elect whoever is popular.
--- I will not trust whomever they will elect.
• If acting as the subject complement after the
verb phrase containing “to be”, the objective
case is usually used.
--- My sympathy is with this poor man, whomever
he might be thought to be.
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2) Choice between objective and genitive case
A personal pronoun: object ---- objective case;
used to denote possession ---- genitive case
(1) Personal pronoun + -ing participle
• Used as object, the pronoun--- genitive case:
---We are considering his / Mary’s going there.
In informal style, the pronoun--- objective case:
--- We are considering him / Mary going
there.(pro)
When the noun phrase has a postmodifier , the
objective case must be used:
---He objected to members of the same school
winning the prize.
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• Used as prepositional complementation, the
pronoun can occur either in the genitive or in
the objective case. The former is more
common.
--- I am surprised at his / him making that
mistake.
• If the –ing participle clause is preceded by
such predicate verbs as “defer, deny,
postpone”, the pronoun can only appear in the
genitive case.
--- I had to postpone my drafting the plan to
sometime later.
• Used as subject, the pronoun can only take
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the
genitive form.
(2) In the SVOC construction, when the object is
realized by a personal pronoun, and the object
complement by an –ing participle clause, the
pronoun can only take the objective form.
---Once we caught him dozing off in class.
(3) When an infinitive clause with a personal
pronoun as its own subject functions as the
object of the main clause, the pronoun can only
occur in the objective case.
---I’ll leave him to solve the problem for himself.
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9.2 Reflexive pronouns
1) Reflexives as appositive
In emphatic use, reflexives often follow a noun
phrase or another pronoun as its appositive to
reinforce its meaning.
When the reinforced item is the subject of a
sentence, the reflexive pronoun may have
positional mobility. It may take medial or end
position, and even initial position so as to lend
special emphasis.
---The president himself will attend the opening
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ceremony.
---You should solve the problem yourself.
--- Myself I had to go to Paris.
• If the reinforced item is not the subject of the
sentence , the reflexive pronoun must directly
follow the item it emphasizes.
--- I met the manager himself.
• He met the manager himself.
2) Reflexives as prepositional
complementation
As prepositional complementation, reflexives do
not receive nuclear stress unless they express
contrastive meanings in specific contexts.
---You
think too much of yourself.
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• Collocated with certain prepositions, reflexives
can express special , often metaphorical and
emotive meanings.
--- He was pleased with himself. (洋洋得意）
--- He was beside himself with joy. （欣喜若狂）
3) Reflexives as object
Used as object, reflexives often appear in such
collocations as: “verb + reflexive + adverb” and
“verb + reflexive + preposition” as well as in
some idioms. This is a kind of unemphatic use.
---She took herself away.
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---He
threw himself into the speaking of English.
(1) In SVO constructions, collocated with behave,
conduct, deport, reflexives do not receive
nuclear stress. This kind of construction is
usually used to show the acceptability of one’s
conduct or behavior.
--- He behaved himself fairly well when he was at
college.
(2) In SVoO constructions, as indirect object,
reflexives are preferable to corresponding
objective pronouns except in spoken
American English, reflexives and objective
pronoun can be used interchangeably.
---She made herself a fine dress.
2015/7/21made her a fine dress.(her--- another
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---She
(3) In an SVOC construction where the object is
realized by a reflexive, the complement often
denotes the consequences caused by the
action to oneself.
--- He can’t make himself believed for telling so
many lies.
• In “catch/find/hear + reflexive + complement,
the complement usually denotes some
involuntary situation one is in.
--- I found myself sitting opposite the most
powerful figure in the boxing world.
---She heard herself singing.
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• In “fancy/see + reflexive + complement”, the
complement usually denotes some imaginary
situations.
--- She saw herself living in New York.(想象…情
景）
4) Reflexives as subject complement
Reflexives can also functions as subject
complement, chiefly denoting one’s physical
conditions. In this use, reflexives are usually
stressed.
---She is not quite herself today.
5) Reflexives as subject
According to a prescriptive rule, reflexives should
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never be used as the subject of a sentence or
• But in informal styles, reflexives are commonly
used as part of a compound subject after “and”,
“or”. Occasionally they can be used even as the
subject of a sentence in spoken English.
--- My wife and myself went sailing yesterday.
--- She would have no one to push the swing for
her, but herself drove it high into the air and
down again.
• When the subject is “anyone/no one + but +
reflexive”, the first and second person should
be used, rather than the third person reflexives.
--- Anyone but yourself / myself
--/-- No one but himself --- No one but he himself
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9.3 Pronoun reference
• Pronoun reference is a kind of reference
realized through the use of pronouns. When a
pronoun is used it must refer to somebody or
something. What is referred to is called
antecedent. It is the antecedent that indicates
the referential meaning of the pronoun.
1) anaphoric, cataphoric and situational
reference
According to the relative position of the
antecedent, pronoun reference can be
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anaphoric or cataphoric.
• When the antecedent occurs before the
pronoun, which has to point backward for its
own interpretation, that is anaphoric reference.
---John has moved to a new house. He had it built
last year.
• If the antecedent appears after the pronoun,
and the pronoun has to point forward for its
meaning, that is cataphoric reference.
---When she has finished her work, Mary left the
office.
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• If the antecedent does not occur anywhere in a
linguistic context, and the pronoun only refers to
somebody or something indicated by an extra
linguistic situation in which the utterance is
given, that is situational reference.
--- How hard he studies English.
• When a pronoun is used, it can only refer to
one antecedent. If a pronoun has two or more
possible antecedents, that will lead to ambiguity.
---He introduced me to the pilot who had looked
after him when he was in hospital.
--- He introduced me to the pilot whom he had
looked after in the hospital…
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2) Personal reference
• Personal reference is established by personal
pronouns, possessive pronouns, reflexive
pronouns, and corresponding determiners.
• Personal reference is generally anaphoric. It
may occur within the sentence boundary or
across sentences.
--- When Mary has finished her work, she left the
office.
--- John has moved to a new house. He had it
built last year.
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• Personal reference can also be cataphoric, but
under limited conditions. Generally speaking,
cataphoric personal pronouns usually occur in
subordinate constructions, and where
cataphoric reference occurs, anaphoric
reference canbe used instead, but not
conversely.
---When she had finished her work, Mary left the
office.(cataphoric)
---When Mary had finished her work, she left the
office. (anaphoric)
---Mary bought a new dress, but she didn’t like it.
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---She bought a new dress, but Mary didn’t like it.
3) Demonstrative reference
• Demonstrative reference is established by
demonstrative pronouns and demonstrative
determiners.
• All the demonstratives can be freely used in
anaphoric reference.
---The man gad been drinking too much; this
explain his unsteady walk.
A: I like the polar bears. These are my favourates.
B: Those are my favourates too.
--- Our daughter got a bad sun-burn yesterday.
That’s
why we couldn’t come.
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• As for cataphoric demonstratives, they are
restricted to this and these, which are
commonly used to refer to a following clause or
sentence or a group of sentences.
--- “The great difficulty is this,” said the
psychologist, “you can move about in all
directions of space, but you can’t move about in
time.”
• “That” and “these” are rarely used
cataphorically. When occasionally so used, they
often take on sarcastic meanings.
---How do you like that? He stabs you in the back
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and
then professes to be your friend.