Transcript Slide 1

13 - 1
Chapter
13
McGraw-Hill
Motivating for
Performance
© 2003 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Motivating For Performance
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Motivation
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forces that energize, direct, and sustain a person’s efforts
highly motivated people, with adequate ability and
understanding of the job, will be highly productive
managers must know what behaviors they want to motivate
people to exhibit
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Setting Goals
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Goal setting theory
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Goals that motivate
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people have conscious goals that energize them and direct their
thoughts and behaviors toward a particular end
goals should be acceptable to employees
goals should be challenging but attainable
goals should be specific, quantifiable, and measurable
Limitations of goal setting
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individualized goals create competition and reduce cooperation
single productivity goals interfere with other dimensions of
performance
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Reinforcing Performance
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Law of effect
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Reinforcers
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behavior that is followed by positive consequences will likely
be repeated
positive consequences that motivate behavior
Organizational behavior modification (OB Mod)
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application of reinforcement theory in organizational settings
influences people’s behavior and improves performance by
systematically managing work conditions and the
consequences of people’s actions
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Reinforcing Performance (cont.)
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Consequences of behavior
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positive reinforcement - applying valued consequences that
increase the likelihood that a person will repeat the behavior
that led to it
negative reinforcement - removing or withholding an
undesirable consequence
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can involve the threat of punishment
punishment - administering an aversive consequence
extinction - withdrawing or failing to provide a reinforcing
consequence
Reward system has to support the firm’s strategic intent
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The Consequences Of Behavior
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Positive reinforcement
or
negative reinforcement
Same behavior
likely to be
repeated
Punishment
or
extinction
Same behavior
less likely to be
repeated
Behavior
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Performance-Related Beliefs
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Expectancy theory
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proposes that people will behave based on their perceived
likelihood that their effort will lead to a certain outcome and
on how highly they value that outcome
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effort-to-performance link
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performance-to-outcome link
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expectancy - employees’ perception of the likelihood that their
efforts will enable them to attain their performance goals
instrumentality - perceived likelihood that performance will be
followed by a particular outcome
valence - value an outcome holds for the person contemplating it
for motivation to be high, expectancy, instrumentalities, and
total valence of all outcomes must all be high
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Basic Concepts Of Expectancy Theory
Effort
Performance
Expectancy
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Outcome
Instrumentality
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Performance-Related Beliefs (cont.)
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Expectancy theory (cont.)
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managerial implications of expectancy theory
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increase expectancies
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identify positively valent outcomes
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understand what people want to get out of work
make performance instrumental toward positive outcomes
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provide a work environment that facilitates good performance
set realistically attainable performance goals
good performance should be followed by personal recognition and
praise, favorable performance reviews, and other positive results
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Understanding People’s Needs
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Content theories
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indicate the kinds of needs that people want to satisfy
the extent to which and the ways in which a person’s needs are
met or not met affect her/his behavior on the job
Maslow’s need hierarchy
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human needs are organized into five major types
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physiological - food, water, sex, and shelter
safety or security - protection against threat and deprivation
social - friendship, affection, belonging, and love
ego - independence, achievement, freedom, recognition, and selfesteem
self-actualization - realizing one’s potential
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Understanding People’s Needs (cont.)
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Maslow’s need hierarchy (cont.)
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postulates that people satisfy these needs one at a time, from
bottom to top
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people motivated to satisfy lower needs before they try to satisfy
higher needs
once satisfied, a need is no longer a powerful motivator
not altogether accurate theory of human motivation
nonetheless, made three major contributions
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identified important need categories
helped to think in terms of lower- and higher-level needs
increased salience of personal growth and self-actualization
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Understanding People’s Needs (cont.)
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Alderfer’s ERG theory
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postulates that people have three basic need sets
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Existence needs - material and physiological desires
Relatedness needs - involve relationships with other people
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Growth needs - motivate people to productivity or creativity
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satisfied by the process of mutually sharing thoughts and feelings
satisfied by fully utilizing personal capacities and developing new
capacities
postulates that several different needs can be operating at once
has greater scientific support than Maslow’s hierarchy
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both theories remind managers of the types of reinforcers or
rewards that can be used to motivate people
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Comparison Of Maslow’s Need
Hierarchy And ERG Theory
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Understanding People’s Needs (cont.)
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McClelland’s needs
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achievement - strong orientation toward accomplishment and
an obsession with success and goal attainment
affiliation - strong desire to be liked by other people
power - desire to influence or control other people
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personalized power - negative force
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socialized power - positive force
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expressed through the manipulation and exploitation of others
channeled toward the constructive improvement of organizations and
societies
managerial success associated with low need for affiliation and
moderate to high need for power
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Understanding People’s Needs (cont.)
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Need theories: International perspectives
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need importance varies from country to country
not all people are motivated by the same needs
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achievement, growth, and self-actualization are profoundly
important in the U.S. and other Anglo-American countries
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these needs are not universally important, however
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Designing Motivating Jobs
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Rewards may be available from the nature of the job
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extrinsic reinforcers - reinforcers given to a person by the
boss, the company, or some other person
intrinsic reward - derived directly from performing the job
itself
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essential to the motivation underlying creativity
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the result of a challenging problem
the result of work that is exciting in and of itself
‘mechanistic’ approach to job design - characterizes a
demotivating job
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highly specialized, simple and routine
results in employee dissatisfaction, absenteeism, and turnover
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Designing Motivating Jobs (cont.)
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Job rotation
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changing from one routine task to another to alleviate boredom
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can benefit everyone when done properly
Job enlargement
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giving people additional tasks at the same time to alleviate
boredom
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additional tasks at the same level of responsibility
Job enrichment
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changing a task to make it inherently more rewarding,
motivating, and satisfying
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adds higher levels of responsibility
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Designing Motivating Jobs (cont.)
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Herzberg’s two-factor theory
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distinguished between two broad categories of factors that
affect people working on their jobs
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hygiene factors - characteristics of the workplace
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motivators - characteristics of the job itself
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make people unhappy
will not make people truly satisfied
when present, jobs presumed to be both satisfying and motivating
theory has been widely criticized
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nevertheless, highlights the distinction between extrinsic and
intrinsic rewards
reminds managers that worker motivation depends on more than
extrinsic rewards
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Designing Motivating Jobs (cont.)
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The Hackman and Oldham model of job design
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well designed jobs produce three critical psychological states
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meaningfulness - believe that work is important to other people
responsibility - feel personally responsible for how the work turns
out
knowledge of results - know how well the job was performed
psychological states produced by five core job dimensions
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skill variety - different job activities involving several skills
task identity - completion of a whole, identifiable piece of work
task significance - important impact on the lives of others
autonomy - independence and discretion in making decisions
feedback - information about job performance
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Designing Motivating Jobs (cont.)
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The Hackman and Oldham model of job design (cont.)
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effective job enrichment increases all five core dimensions
effectiveness of a job enrichment program depends on a
person’s growth need strength
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growth need strength - degree to which individuals want
personal and psychological development
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The Hackman And Oldham Model
Of Job Enrichment
Core job
dimensions
Critical
psychological
states
Skill variety
Task identity
Task significance
Experienced
meaningfulness
of the work
Autonomy
Feedback
Experienced responsibility
for work outcomes
Knowledge of results
Employee growth
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Personal and
work
outcomes
High internal
work motivation
High-quality
work performance
High job
satisfaction
Low absenteeism
and turnover
need strength
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Designing Motivating Jobs (cont.)
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Empowerment
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process of sharing power with employees, thereby enhancing
their beliefs about being influential contributors
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employees perceive meaning in work
employees feel competent
employees derive a sense of self-determination
employees believe they have an impact on important decisions
empowering environment
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provides information required to perform at one’s best
knowledge available about how to use the information
employees have the power to make decisions
employees receive rewards for contributions
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Actions That Empower Employees
Increase
signature authority
at all levels
Reduce the
number of
approval steps
Provide more
freedom of access
to people
Provide more
freedom of access
to resources
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Reduce the
number of rules
Assign
nonroutine
jobs
Specific
actions to
empower
Allow
independent
judgment
Define jobs
more broadly as
projects
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Achieving Fairness
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Equity theory
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two factors used to assess how fairly one has been treated
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people expect the outcomes they receive to be proportional to
the inputs they provide
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outcomes - various things the person receives on the job
inputs - contributions the person makes to the organization
people also pay attention to the outcomes and inputs of others
Assessing equity
T heirown
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Outcomes
Outcomes
versus Others'
Inputs
Inputs
equity exists when the ratios are equal
assessments of equity are subjective perceptions or beliefs
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Achieving Fairness (cont.)
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Restoring equity
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inequity causes dissatisfaction and leads to attempts to restore
balance to the relationship
a variety of behavioral and perceptual options may be used to
restore equity
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alter Person’s ratio
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alter Other’s ratio
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reduce inputs - give less effort, perform at lower levels, quit
increase outcomes - request higher grade, better pay
decrease outcomes
increase inputs
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Achieving Fairness (cont.)
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Fair process
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procedural justice - using a fair process in decision making
and making sure others know that the process was as fair as
possible
fair processes make unfair outcomes more palatable
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explain how a decision is made
make an unbiased decision
offer a chance to voice complaints
collaborate in making decision
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Job Satisfaction
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Correlates of job satisfaction
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job satisfaction is unrelated to job performance
the greater the job dissatisfaction:
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the higher turnover
the higher absenteeism
the lower corporate citizenship
the more grievances and lawsuits
the higher the probability of a strike
the more likely that stealing and/or vandalism will occur
the poorer the mental and physical health of the workers
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Job Satisfaction (cont.)
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Quality of work life (QWL)
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programs designed to create a workplace that enhances
employee well-being
goal is to satisfy the full range of employee needs
organizations differ drastically in their attention to QWL
in assessing the effects of QWL, productivity is defined
broadly to include turnover, absenteeism, accidents, theft,
sabotage, creativity, and quality of work
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Categories Of Quality Of Life
Safe and
healthy
environment
Adequate and fair
compensation
Socially responsible
organizational
actions
Minimum infringements on personal
and family needs
Constitutionalism
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Jobs develop
human
capacities
Quality
of Work
Life
Chance for personal
growth and security
Supportive
social
environment
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Job Satisfaction (cont.)
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Psychological contracts
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a set of perceptions of what employees owe their employers,
and what their employers owe them
Benefits provided by
the organization
Benefits promised by
the organization
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versus
Contributions provided
by the employee
Contributions promised
by the employee
has important implications for employee
satisfaction/motivation
historically, this relationship has been stable in many
companies
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now, mergers, layoffs, and other disruptions have undermined the
‘old deal’
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