Transcript The Dual Revolutions of the 18th century

The Dual Revolutions of the
th
th
18 and 19 centuries
The French and Industrial
Revolutions and their aftermath
The Industrial Revolution
Economic, Political and Social
Change
Definition
• The process of change from an agrarian
and handicraft based economy to one
dominated by industry and machine
manufacture
• Arnold Toynbee first used the term to
describe developments in England from
1760 to 1840.
Mechanization
• During the first half of the
19th century, the European
manufacturing process
shifted from small-scale
production by hand at
home to large-scale
production by machine in
a factory setting.
Why England?
“Britannia rules the waves”
Profitable agriculture—Enclosure movement
Coal and iron in Lancashire and Yorkshire
Money to risk on innovation from profits of the
colonial empire and slavery
5. The colonies supply raw materials (cotton,
sugar) and also serve as a market for the
products of the factories (English cotton cloth
destroys the domestic textile industry in India.
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Characteristics of the I.R.
• Starts in English cotton textile industry.
• New machines increase production with less human
energy.
• The spinning jenny, power loom, etc. are first powered
by water power, then b y the steam engine, using coal as
a fuel.
• New organization of work, the “FACTORY SYSTEM”,
based on the division of labor and the specialization of
function.
• Improvements in transportation—canals, roads, steam
locomotive and steamship.
• Application of applied science to industry: engineering,
chemistry
John Kay’s “Flying Shuttle”-1730’s –
mechanization of weaving
1765 James Hargreaves – the
Spinning Jenny
• First invention to
improve on the
spinning wheel
• Could be located in
homes of spinners
(spinsters)
• Vital to the domestic
or “putting out”
system of cloth
production
Richard Arkwright:
“Pioneer of the Factory System”
The “Water Frame” 1769
1785: Edmund Cartwright The Power Loom
1765: James Watt – the Steam
Engine
• Most important invention
of the I.R.
• Coal powered-heats
water to create steam
that forces piston to turn
a wheel.
• 1,000 engines in use by
1800
• Applied to transportation
technology
Steam Ship
An Early Steam Locomotive
Factory Production
)
Concentrates production in one
place [materials, machines, labor].
)
Located near sources of power
[rather than labor or markets].
)
Requires a lot of capital investment
[factory, machines, etc.] more
than skilled labor.
)
Only 10% of English industry in
1850.
The Factory System
 Rigid schedule.
 12-14 hour day, six days a week.
 Dangerous conditions.
 Mind-numbing monotony.
At the Expense of Workers
• The shift meant high quality
products at competitive prices,
but often at the expense of
workers. For example, the raw
wool and cotton that fed the
British textile mills came from:
– Lands converted from farming to
sheep raising, leaving farm
workers without jobs
– The southern plantations of the
United States, which were
dependent upon slave labor
Textile Factory
Workers in England
1813
2400 looms
150, 000 workers
1833
85, 000 looms
200, 000 workers
1850
224, 000 looms
>1 million workers
CHILD LABOR IN MINES AND
FACTORIES
• In 1788, two thirds of the workers in English
textile mills were children.
• They worked up to 14 hours a day in dangerous
and unsanitary conditions.
• Poor families could not survive if their children
were not employed.
• Factory Act of 1833 limits hours of work and
forbids employment under the age of nine.
Ages 11-18 12 hours a day
Ages 9-11 8 hours a day
Child Labor in factories and Mines
Urban Growth
• Those who could no
longer make a living
on the land migrated
from the countryside
to the cities to seek
work in the factories.
1850: Population Living in Cities
100
75
50
25
0
England &
Wales
50
25
% Population
France &
Germany
Eastern
Europe
Population Growth
• At the same time, the
population of Europe
continued to grow.
Millions
40
30
20
1831
1851
10
m
an
y
G
er
ce
Fr
an
En
gl
an
d
0
The Plight of the Cities
• The sheer number of human
beings put pressure on city
resources:
– Housing, water, sewers, food
supplies, and lighting were
completely inadequate.
– Slums grew and disease, especially cholera,
ravaged the population.
– Crime increased and became a way of life for
those who could make a living in no other way.
Conditions in the Countryside
• The only successful farmers
were those with large
landholdings who could
afford agricultural
innovations.
• Most peasants:
– Didn’t have enough land to
support themselves
– Were devastated by poor
harvests (e.g., the Irish Potato
Famine of 1845-47)
– Were forced to move to the
cities to find work in the
factories.
The Role of the Railroads
• The railroads, built during
the 1830s and 1840s:
– Enabled people to leave the
place of their birth and
migrate easily to the cities.
– Allowed cheaper and more
rapid transport of raw
materials and finished
products.
– Created an increased
demand for iron and steel
and a skilled labor force.
The Labor Force
• No single description could
include all of these 19th century
workers:
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–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Factory workers
Urban artisans
Domestic system craftsmen
Household servants
Miners
Countryside peddlers
Farm workers
Railroad workers
• Variations in duties, income, and
working conditions made it
difficult for them to unite.
The Condition of Labor
• All working people, however,
faced possible unemployment,
with little or no provision for
security.
• In addition, they were subject
to various kinds of discipline:
– The closing of factory gates to
late workers
– Fines for tardiness
– Dismissal for drunkenness
– Public censure for poor quality
workmanship
– Beatings for non-submissiveness
Proletarianization
• Factory workers lose control of the means
of production
• Factory owners provide the financial
capital to construct factory and purchase
machines and raw materials
• Factory workers can only exchange their
labor for wages
“Upstairs”/“Downstairs”
Life
Industrial Staffordshire
Worker Resistance
• The Luddites:1811-1816 Craftsman
destroy the new textile machines
• 1819 “Peterloo” massacre: Troops fire on
workers demonstrating in Manchester
• The Chartist Movement: 3 million sign the
People’s Charter, which called for
universal manhood suffrage and the secret
ballot
• Trade unions were illegal
Family Structures Changed
• With the decline of the domestic
system and the rise of the factory
system, family life changed.
– At first, the entire family,
including the children, worked
in the factory, just as they had
at home.
– Later, family life became
fragmented (the father worked
in the factory, the mother
handled domestic chores, the
children went to school).
Family as a Unit of Consumption
• In short, the European
family changed from
being a unit of
production and
consumption to being a
unit of consumption
alone.
Gender-Determined Roles
• That transformation
prepared the way for
gender-determined roles.
– Women came to be
associated with domestic
duties, such as housekeeping,
food preparation, child rearing
and nurturing, and household
management.
– The man came to be
associated almost exclusively
with breadwinning.
Political and social changes
• Decline in the importance of the aristocracy.
• Rise in power of the “Bourgeoisie”
• Liberalism becomes the dominant ideology of
the middle classes
• Working class organizes in labor unions and
socialist parties based on the ideas of Karl Marx
(1848 The Communist Manifesto)
Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels
The Communist Manifesto 1848
• History has a direction—it moves along through
necessary stages
• History is moved along by changes in the economic life
of each society—the mode of production and exchange
• History is moved along by class struggle—a struggle
between dominant and the subordinate social classes
• In the industrial era, the struggle is between the
bourgeoisie (the owners of the means of production) and
the proletariat (workers who only own their own labor)
• The Communist Revolution will destroy capitalism and
the class system.
The French Revolution
The Revolutionary Ideas
-Ideological Foundation for
Political Liberalism and
Democracy
Liberty
• The notion of individual
human rights
• A new type of
government in which the
people are sovereign
• The importance of a
representative assembly
• The importance of a
written constitution
• The notion of selfdetermination
• Freedom to accumulate
property
Equality
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Equality of rights and civil liberties
Equality before the law
No special privileges for the rich
Equality of opportunity
“Careers Open to Talent”
Inherent tension between liberty and
equality
“The Atlantic Revolution”
• French Revolution was a part of a whole
series of revolutions which took place
during the late 18th century
--Political agitation in England, Ireland,
Holland, Belgium, Switzerland, Italy,
Germany, Hungary, Poland and the North
and South American colonies
• One big movement of revolutionary
agitation that continues well into the 19th c.
The American Revolution
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1760’s:British Parliament taxes the 13
North American colonies to pay for the
Seven Years war with France
1774 Continental Congress: “No
taxation without representation’
1775 Battles at Lexi9ngton and
Concord
July 4, 1776: Declaration of
Independence – “All Men are Created
Equal.” Influenced by ideas of John
Locke and the Enlightenment.
American victory made possible by
military support from France and the
Netherlands.
1783 Peace of Paris
The significance of the American
constitution (1787)
The influence of the American
Revolution on revolutions throughout
the world
The Declaration of Independence July 4, 1776
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When in the Course of human events it becomes necessary for one people to dissolve the political
bands which have connected them with another and to assume among the powers of the earth,
the separate and equal station to which the Laws of Nature and of Nature's God entitle them, a
decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that they should declare the causes which
impel them to the separation.
We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by
their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of
Happiness. — That to secure these rights, Governments are instituted among Men, deriving their
just powers from the consent of the governed, — That whenever any Form of Government
becomes destructive of these ends, it is the Right of the People to alter or to abolish it, and to
institute new Government, laying its foundation on such principles and organizing its powers in
such form, as to them shall seem most likely to effect their Safety and Happiness. Prudence,
indeed, will dictate that Governments long established should not be changed for light and
transient causes; and accordingly all experience hath shewn that mankind are more disposed to
suffer, while evils are sufferable than to right themselves by abolishing the forms to which they are
accustomed. But when a long train of abuses and usurpations, pursuing invariably the same
Object evinces a design to reduce them under absolute Despotism, it is their right, it is their duty,
to throw off such Government, and to provide new Guards for their future security. — Such has
been the patient sufferance of these Colonies; and such is now the necessity which constrains
them to alter their former Systems of Government. The history of the present King of Great Britain
is a history of repeated injuries and usurpations, all having in direct object the establishment of an
absolute Tyranny over these States. To prove this, let Facts be submitted to a candid world.
The Bill of Rights- first 10 amendments to the U.S.
Constitution, ratified on December 15, 1791
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Amendment I: Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free
exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to
assemble, and to petition the government for a redress of grievances.
Amendment II: A well regulated militia, being necessary to the security of a free state, the right of the people to
keep and bear arms, shall not be infringed.
Amendment III: No soldier shall, in time of peace be quartered in any house, without the consent of the owner,
nor in time of war, but in a manner to be prescribed by law.
Amendment IV: The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against
unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated, and no warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause,
supported by oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the persons or things to
be seized.
Amendment V: No person shall be held to answer for a capital, or otherwise infamous crime, unless on a
presentment or indictment of a grand jury, except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the militia, when
in actual service in time of war or public danger; nor shall any person be subject for the same offense to be twice
put in jeopardy of life or limb; nor shall be compelled in any criminal case to be a witness against himself, nor be
deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor shall private property be taken for public use,
without just compensation.
Amendment VI: In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial, by an
impartial jury of the state and district wherein the crime shall have been committed, which district shall have been
previously ascertained by law, and to be informed of the nature and cause of the accusation; to be confronted with
the witnesses against him; to have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor, and to have the
assistance of counsel for his defense.
Amendment VII: In suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall exceed twenty dollars, the right of
trial by jury shall be preserved, and no fact tried by a jury, shall be otherwise reexamined in any court of the United
States, than according to the rules of the common law.
Amendment VIII: Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual
punishments inflicted.
Amendment IX: The enumeration in the Constitution, of certain rights, shall not be construed to deny or disparage
others retained by the people.
Amendment X: The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the
states, are reserved to the states respectively, or to the people.
Revolutions in Mexico and Central
and South America
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Led by wealthy Creole class
Goal: Independence from Spanish
and Portuguese rule
Simon Bolivar, the father of Latin
American independence: led
revolts in Columbia, Venezuela,
Ecuador and Peru
Bolivar cooperated with Jose de
San Martin and Bernardo
O’Higgins in successful revolts in
Argentina and Chile
Bolivar’s goal “a United Sates of
South America”
By 1825 Spanish rule ended in
South America
1822 Independence of Brazil
under Emperor Pedro I
1821 End of Spanish rule in
Mexico and Central America
Continued dominance of the white
Creole elites
Background of Haitian Revolution
• Treaty of Ryswick (1697): Spain cedes
Western third of Hispaniola to France
• From 1697 to 1789, Saint Domingue
becomes the richest colony in the world
based on slave produced sugar, coffee
indigo dye, cotton, tobacco and exotic
spices
• The plantation system on S.D. was the
most brutal the world had ever seen.
1791: The structure of Saint
Domingue society
• 20,000 whites (Planters
and Petit Blancs)
• 50,000 “free people of
color” (affranchis)
• 500,000 African slaves
(most born in Africa)
• 10,000 to 20,000
Maroons (runaway
slaves) living in the
mountains.
Impact of American and French
Revolutions on Saint Domingue
• 500 gens de couleur (affranchis) serve in French
army and participate in the American Revolution.
Bring revolutionary ideas back to S.D.
• The planters want an independent S.D. that they
can control without interference from Paris.
• The petit blancs are the only group loyal to
France; hostile to the free persons of color and
want to retain slavery.
• The affranchis want a free Saint Domingue—
with slavery- and equal rights with the whites.
• The slaves want only one thing—freedom!
The Haitian Revolution Begins
• August 21, 1791:
revolt of the slaves on
the northern plain.
• More than a thousand
planters and their
families killed
• Whites and affranchis
unite to put down the
rebellion
Francois-DominiqueToussaint
(L’Ouverture) 1744-1803
• Former slave, 47
years old, joins rebels
as a medical officer
• Rises to become a
general and the
leader of the
revolution
• To get rid of French
he allies with the
English and Spanish
Toussaint L’Ouverture
• In 1793, the National Assembly
in France abolishes slavery.
• Sonthanax, the French
representative in S.D. issues
proclamation ending slavery.
• In 1794, Toussaint joins the
French side as . a brigadier
general
• He defeats the Spanish and
English and conquers the
whole island of Hispaniola by
1801
• July 26, 1801: Toussaint’s
Constitution
Napoleon Bonaparte
• Napoleon wants to
take power back from
“the gilded African”
• 1802: General Laclerc
lands at Cap Francois
• Toussaint betrayed,
arrested and sent to
France—dies in
prison in April 1803.
The Republic of Haiti
• Henri Christophe and
Jean Jacques Dessalines
continue war.
• French surrender in
November 1803.
• Napoleon, disgusted at
the cost of colonial wars,
sells Louisiana to the
U.S.
• January 1, 1804:
Dessalines proclaims the
independence of Haiti
The problems of independence
• A devastated economy: Former slaves refuse to
return to plantation labor. Do not produce for
export.
• International boycott against trade with Haiti
• Haitian independence recognized by France in
1825; England in 1833; the United States in
1862!!!
• The affranchis form a Haitian ruling class.
• Between 1843 -1915, a succession of 20 rulers;
16 overthrown by revolution or assassination.
• United States military occupation of Haiti (19151934)
The French Revolution
• More fundamental and profound
consequences than the American
Revolution and the revolutions in Latin
America
• France = most powerful and populous
state in Europe
• Massive social revolution
• Worldwide impact
• Becomes model for future revolutions
How Should We Look at the
French Revolution?
“Series of revolutions which became
more radical as leadership cascaded
down through French society.”
Background to the French
Revolution
• The ideas of the Enlightenment: Locke, Voltaire,
Diderot, Montesquieu, Rousseau
• Primary idea is “popular sovereignty.”
Government should be based on the will of the
people.
• The burdens on the French peasantry: tithes to
the church; taxes to the State and to wealthy
landlords; the corvee—unpaid labor services;
the salt monopoly
• Grievances of the bourgeoisie
• Grievances of the urban poor
The Events of the French
Revolution
Watch for the different revolutions
within the Revolution!
The Origins
The financial crisis of Louis
XVI’s government
• Began as a revolt of
the aristocracy
• Attempt to capitalize
on the financial woes
of the monarchy
• Only solution = tax
reform and a direct
tax on all property
• Aristocracy refused
and forces the issue
The Estates-General
• An old feudal assembly
that had not met since
1614
• Three Estates: Clergy,
Nobility, All Others
• 1788 the cahiers des
doleances
• The miscalculation and
lack of social awareness
of the aristocracy
The Third Estate
• Who were they?
• Third Estate was
dominated by the middle
class
• Blending of aristocratic
and bourgeois classes by
1789
• Middle class = Big
Winners
• Revolutionary goals of
the middle class
An Agenda of Classical Liberalism
• Representative
government did not
mean democracy or
“mob rule”
• Estates-General
became the National
Assembly in June of
1789 with the power
to frame a constitution
--Tennis Court Oath
“Revolutionaries in the Streets”
• Who were they?
• “Sans-culottes”
(without knee
britches)
• Picked up the ideas
and slogans of the
Revolution from the
more educated
leadership of lawyers
and journalists
What were the Motivations of these
Revolutionaries?
• Poverty and Hunger
• Low wages and fear of
unemployment
• Heightened expectations
and the exposure to a
political perspective
-- “Cahiers”
• Strong dislike for and
distrust of the wealthy
• The role of conspiracy
The Storming the Bastille: July 14, 1789
• Reasons for the attack on
the Bastille on the
morning of July 14
• The stubbornness of the
governor of the fortress
• Celebrations on the night
of July 14th
• Sparks tremendous
popular revolution all over
France
“The Great Fear”
• Independent
revolutionary agitation in
the countryside
• Rumors of Royalist troops
becoming wandering
vandals
• Fear breeds fear and
peasants start marching
• Within 3 weeks of July
14, the countryside of
France had been
completely changed
• Abolition of the Nobility
The Declaration of the Rights of
Man and Citizen August 26, 1789
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The representatives of the French people, organized as a National Assembly, believing that the ignorance, neglect, or contempt of the
rights of man are the sole cause of public calamities and of the corruption of governments, have determined to set forth in a solemn
declaration the natural, unalienable, and sacred rights of man, in order that this declaration, being constantly before all the members of
the Social body, shall remind them continually of their rights and duties; in order that the acts of the legislative power, as well as those of
the executive power, may be compared at any moment with the objects and purposes of all political institutions and may thus be more
respected, and, lastly, in order that the grievances of the citizens, based hereafter upon simple and incontestable principles, shall tend to
the maintenance of the constitution and redound to the happiness of all. Therefore the National Assembly recognizes and proclaims, in
the presence and under the auspices of the Supreme Being, the following rights of man and of the citizen:Articles:1. Men are born and
remain free and equal in rights. Social distinctions may be founded only upon the general good.2. The aim of all political association is
the preservation of the natural and imprescriptible rights of man. These rights are liberty, property, security, and resistance to
oppression.3. The principle of all sovereignty resides essentially in the nation. No body nor individual may exercise any authority which
does not proceed directly from the nation.4. Liberty consists in the freedom to do everything which injures no one else; hence the
exercise of the natural rights of each man has no limits except those which assure to the other members of the society the enjoyment of
the same rights. These limits can only be determined by law.5. Law can only prohibit such actions as are hurtful to society. Nothing may
be prevented which is not forbidden by law, and no one may be forced to do anything not provided for by law.6. Law is the expression of
the general will. Every citizen has a right to participate personally, or through his representative, in its foundation. It must be the same for
all, whether it protects or punishes. All citizens, being equal in the eyes of the law, are equally eligible to all dignities and to all public
positions and occupations, according to their abilities, and without distinction except that of their virtues and talents.7. No person shall be
accused, arrested, or imprisoned except in the cases and according to the forms prescribed by law. Any one soliciting, transmitting,
executing, or causing to be executed, any arbitrary order, shall be punished. But any citizen summoned or arrested in virtue of the law
shall submit without delay, as resistance constitutes an offense.8. The law shall provide for such punishments only as are strictly and
obviously necessary, and no one shall suffer punishment except it be legally inflicted in virtue of a law passed and promulgated before the
commission of the offense.9. As all persons are held innocent until they shall have been declared guilty, if arrest shall be deemed
indispensable, all harshness not essential to the securing of the prisoner's person shall be severely repressed by law.10. No one shall be
disquieted on account of his opinions, including his religious views, provided their manifestation does not disturb the public order
established by law.11. The free communication of ideas and opinions is one of the most precious of the rights of man. Every citizen may,
accordingly, speak, write, and print with freedom, but shall be responsible for such abuses of this freedom as shall be defined by
law.12. The security of the rights of man and of the citizen requires public military forces. These forces are, therefore, established for the
good of all and not for the personal advantage of those to whom they shall be intrusted.13. A common contribution is essential for the
maintenance of the public forces and for the cost of administration. This should be equitably distributed among all the citizens in
proportion to their means.14. All the citizens have a right to decide, either personally or by their representatives, as to the necessity of the
public contribution; to grant this freely; to know to what uses it is put; and to fix the proportion, the mode of assessment and of collection
and the duration of the taxes.15. Society has the right to require of every public agent an account of his administration.16. A society in
which the observance of the law is not assured, nor the separation of powers defined, has no constitution at all.17. Since property is an
inviolable and sacred right, no one shall be deprived thereof except where public necessity, legally determined, shall clearly demand it,
and then only on condition that the owner shall have been previously and equitably indemnified.
Women in the Age of Revolution
• Olympe de Gouges
1791 Declaration of the
Rights of Women and
the Female Citizen
• Mary Wollstonecraft
1792 A Vindication of
the Rights of
e.doc
Women
Women take the Lead!
• Mounting unemployment
and hunger in Paris in the
fall of 1789
• “October Days”: The
march to Versailles
-- “The point is that we
want bread!”
• The Royal Family returns
to Paris on October 6,
1789
The Consolidation of the Liberal
Revolution
• Events from October, 1789 through
September, 1791
• Abolition of the French nobility as a legal
order
• Constitutional Monarchy established
• Economic centralization
• Nationalization of the Church
--Stage set for subsequent civil war
Popular Political Mobilization
• Revolutionary Talk
--More than 500 new
newspapers
--Oath of Loyalty
-- “Liberte, Equalite,
Fraternite!”
• Revolutionary Symbols
• Revolutionary Clubs
--The Jacobins
• Revolutionary Leaders
Growing Radicalism
• Reasons:
--Snowball Effect
--Unsatisfied
Expectations
--Outbreak of War
• Results:
--Increasing Violence
--Change in Political
Leadership
Robespierre’s Reign of Terror
• The Committee of
Public Safety
• The Concept of “Total
War”
• Maximum price
ceilings on certain
goods
• Nationalization of
Small Workshops
The Reign of Terror (cont)
• Execution of 40,000
“Enemies of the Nation”
• Stress on radical
definition of equality
• Wanted a legal maximum
on personal wealth
• Wanted a regulation of
commercial profits
• End of Robespierre’s
dictatorship on July 28,
1794
The Directory and Napoleon
Bonaparte
• The Directory (17941799)
• Napoleon’s Rise to Power
• The Napoleonic Code
• Establishment of the
Bank of France
• Reconciliation with the
Catholic Church
--Concordat of 1801
• Heavy Censorship
• Napoleon’s “Art of War”
• The Napoleonic Code
Legacies of the French Revolution
• A revolutionary model
• A mass political
consciousness
• Inspires nationalist
movements—unification
of Italy (1867) and
Germany (1871
• Conflict within the Liberal
Tradition: “Libertarianism”
vs. “Egalitarianism”