Transcript 6. Typology of Bilingual Dictionaries

6. Typology of Bilingual
Dictionaries
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1. What is the purpose of this study?
An analysis of the typology of dictionaries will be
done to determine which type of dictionary will
best match the needs of the different target user
groups. This study will not be limited to one single
type of dictionary, but will consider different types
of dictionaries, which will enable the target users
to retrieve the information successfully.
6. Typology of Bilingual
Dictionaries
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2. 九种不同的分类标准
in《双语词典编撰》by 李明 周敬华
按内容分类：
语文词典、百科词典、专科词典
按收词范围和所提供的词汇信息分类：
综合语文词典、专科词典
按所涉及的语种分类：
单语词典、双语词典、多语词典
6. Typology of Bilingual
Dictionaries
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按收词的历史阶段分类：
历时词典(diachronic dictionaries)
共时词典(synchronic dictionaries)
按词典规模分类：
足本词典（unabridged dictionary）
案头词典（desk dictionary）
袖珍词典（pocket dictionary）
6. Typology of Bilingual
Dictionaries
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按服务对象分类：
为外国人编的词典、为本国人编的词典
按主要功能分类：
主动型词典、被动型词典
前苏联著名词典学家谢尔巴认为：“应当明
确区分以下两种词典：旨在帮助本国人把文章译
成外语的词典和用来帮助理解外语文章的词典。”
（转引自Snell-Hornby, 1987:162）
按词目的排列顺序分类：
字顺词典、分类词典
按载体分类：
纸质词典、电子词典
6. Typology of Bilingual
Dictionaries
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3. Previous dictionary typologies:
Scherba (1940, Russian linguist) proposed a classification
based on the structural characteristics of possible
dictionary types. He used a series of six contrasts between
these types:
1) A normative dictionary, which dictates norms vs. a
reference dictionary which adopts a descriptive approach.
2) An encyclopedia vs. a dictionary; the contrast here is
based on the function of proper names in a language, which
should not be excluded from the dictionary because they are
part of the language.
6. Typology of Bilingual
Dictionaries
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3) An ordinary dictionary (such as a defining
dictionary or translating dictionary) vs. a general
concordance in which all the words are listed
along with all the quotations that can be found in
texts, as is the case in a concordance of a dead
language.
4) A dictionary (such as a defining dictionary or a
translating dictionary) vs. an ‘ideological’
dictionary, which groups ideas or subjects (such
as Roget’s Thesaurus).
6. Typology of Bilingual
Dictionaries
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5) A defining dictionary (e.g. monolingual
dictionary) vs. a translating dictionary (such as
bilingual or multilingual dictionary).
6) An historical dictionary vs. a non-historical
dictionary.
For Scherba, the purpose of an historical
dictionary is “to give all the meanings of all the
words that belong, and have belonged, to a
given national language during all its
existence”.
The results from this attempt show a great
overlapping between the various types.
6. Typology of Bilingual
Dictionaries
Malkiel (1962) proposes a typology based on
three main features: (i) range, (ii) perspective
and (iii) presentation.
(i) Classification by range
With regard to range, dictionaries are divided
by:
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the density of articles, which may be measured by the
breadth of coverage (how much of the total lexicon of
the language is covered) and by the depth of coverage
(how many senses are listed under each lemma; are
contextual connotations and idioms covered);
6. Typology of Bilingual
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the number of languages involved, according to which
there are mono, bi-, tri-, quadric- and pluri- or multilingual
dictionaries; and
the extent of concentration on lexical data. Malkiel
distinguishes encyclopedic data by the inclusion of proper
names and by a prodigality of comments, which are more
than a sober definition needs.
Range distinguishes between dictionaries
according to the number of lemmas, the number
of languages used and the percentage of
exclusively linguistic information.
6. Typology of Bilingual
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(ii) Classification by perspective
Dictionaries can be classified according to
(a) the fundamental dimension: the dictionary is
either synchronic or diachronic;
(b) three contrasting patterns of arrangements:
alphabetic, semantic or casual (non-systematic);
and
(c) three contrasting levels of tone: the tone of
the dictionary may be detached (reporting facts
objectively), prescriptive (normative and didactic)
or facetious.
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Dictionaries
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Perspective differentiates historical dictionaries
and synchronic dictionaries.
Historical dictionaries describe the evolution of the
language over a certain period of time: they
contain obsolete words and archaic words, as well
as information on the history of every lemma.
Synchronic dictionaries only describe the
language as it is used at a given period, usually
the present.
6. Typology of Bilingual
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Malkiel also distinguishes between
prescriptive and descriptive dictionaries.
For him a dictionary can be detached,
prescriptive, or facetious, though
facetiousness is hardly compatible with
modern lexicography.
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(iii) Classification by presentation
Here dictionaries are classified in
the light of their
(a) definitions,
(b) exemplifications,
(c) graphic illustrations (including
maps), and
(d) special features (localization in
territorial terms on the social scale).
6. Typology of Bilingual
Dictionaries
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Presentation, in Malkiel’s typology, is a
measure of the precision of the definitions,
the nature of the examples, the presence of
the pictures and certain pieces of
information, such as phonetic transcription
and usage labels.
6. Typology of Bilingual
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Many other authors have presented a dictionary
typology. Some have based them on the type of
linguistic approach used by the lexicographer.
Bejoint (2000:35) cites Guilbert (1969), who
distinguishes five types of dictionaries:
the encyclopedia,
the scientific and technical dictionary,
the ‘linguistic’ and encyclopedic dictionary,
the Dictionnaires de langue (no equivalent in
English) and
the linguistic-type dictionary.
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Quemada (1968) also made a typology mainly
based on specialized language dictionaries, such as
dictionary of proverbs,
dictionary of roots,
dictionary of verbs,
dictionary of synonyms, pronunciation and the like.
Rey (1967) proposes his ‘genetic’ typology, based
on the more or less chronological choices that
lexicographers have to make when designing and
compiling a dictionary (cf. Bejoint 2000).
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Al-Kasimi (1977) proposes his typology of
bilingual dictionaries. He states that the new
typology is an aid to lexicographers in order to
help them understand linguistic theoretical
solutions. It is also meant to guide the user in
choosing and selecting the dictionary that satisfies
his/her needs.
Al-Kasimi presents in his typology of bilingual
dictionaries three criteria: source, scope and
purpose.
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His scope is linguists’ views on lexicography and
their criticisms of the existing dictionaries. Then
the discussion is limited to bilingual dictionaries
and finally the purpose is “ to assist the
lexicographer in digesting linguistic theories to
produce better bilingual dictionaries”. This
classification is based on seven contrasts:
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Dictionaries for the speakers of the source
language vs. dictionaries for the speakers of the
target language.
Dictionaries of the literary language vs.
dictionaries of the spoken language.
Dictionaries for production vs. dictionaries for
comprehension.
Dictionaries for human users vs. dictionaries for
machine translation.
Historical dictionaries vs. descriptive dictionaries.
Lexical dictionaries vs. encyclopedic dictionaries.
General dictionaries vs. special dictionaries.
6. Typology of Bilingual
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Many researchers over the years have attempted
to classify dictionaries in a clear typology and
have reached mainly the same conclusion; the
task is difficult if not impossible because the
concept is too imprecise. Most of all, the
structural characteristics that compose
dictionaries overlap from one type to another.
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Why is a typological classification of
dictionaries needed?
First, a proper typology will contribute to the
establishment of lexicography as an academic
discipline.
Second, a proper typology will locate dictionaries
of different types in their right positions so that
special attention will be devoted to those
distinctive features of an individual type which
single it out from other types.
Third, a proper typology will help clarify the
lexicographic functions each type of dictionary is
supposed to fulfill.
Finally, a proper typology will benefit linguists,
publishers, users and the librarians.
6. Typology of Bilingual
Dictionaries
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A sound typology for dictionaries should meet
the following criteria:
1) It should be open-ended.
2) It should consider the compilers’ perspectives
the dictionary itself and the users’ expectations
within a unified framework.
3) It should highlight those distinctive
characteristics which distinguish one dictionary
type from another.
4) It should avoid too much overlapping between
dictionary types.