Transcript Managing Organizational Change and Learning
McGraw-Hill/Irwin Copyright © 2009 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Individual Behavior and Differences
Organizations: Behavior, Structure, Processes
Chapter 4
Learning Objectives
Define perception and explain its role in understanding and coping with organizational life Describe how self-efficacy can influence an employee’s behavior Discuss why increasing diversity of the workforce requires the adoption of a different approach/style of managing employees Compare the meaning of the psychological contract from employee and employer perspectives Explain why it’s difficult to change an attitude
4-3
Understanding Behavior
Variables that influence behavior Abilities and skills Background Demographic variables Can any manager modify, mold, or reconstruct behaviors?
This is much debated among behavioral scientists and managerial practitioners
4-4
Individual Behavior Framework
The Environment The Individual Behaviors Outcomes
4-5
Individual Behavior
To understand individual differences, managers must Observe and recognize the differences Study variables that influence individual behavior Discover relationships among the variables
4-6
Individual Behavior
Research finds that behavior Is caused Is goal directed Can be observed Is measurable Is motivated Behavior that is not directly observable is also important in accomplishing goals
4-7
Individual Behavior
Questions that help managers pinpoint performance issues Does the employee have the skill and ability to perform the job?
Does the employee have the resources to perform the job?
Is the employee aware of the performance problem?
4-8
Individual Behavior
Questions (continued) When did the performance problem surface?
How do the employee’s co-workers react to the performance problem?
What can I do as a manager to alleviate the performance problem?
4-9
Individual Differences
Poor performance Even highly motivated employees may not have the abilities or skills to perform well Ability A biological or learned trait that permits a person to do something mental or physical Skills Task-related competencies
4-10
Individual Differences
Job analysis Defining and studying a job in terms of behavior Specifying education and training needed to perform the job Used to take some of the guesswork out of matching jobs to people Matching people with jobs is often a problem
4-11
Matching People to Jobs
Matching people to jobs involves Employee selection Training and development Career planning Employee counseling Managers must examine Job content Required behaviors Preferred behaviors
4-12
Skills and Abilities
Mental ability examples Flexibility Fluency and verbal comprehension Inductive reasoning Associative memory Span memory Number facility Deductive reasoning Spatial orientation and visualization
4-13
Skills and Abilities
Physical skill examples Dynamic strength Extent flexibility Gross body coordination Gross body equilibrium Stamina
4-14
Demographics
Among the most important demographic classifications Gender Race Cultural diversity
4-15
Demographics
White male research results should not influence Decisions Prescriptions Techniques Faulty generalizations lead to Improper assumptions Inadequate solutions Inaccurate rewards and evaluations
4-16
Psychological Variables
Perception Emotional Intelligence Personality Attribution Attitudes
4-17
Perception
Perception is based on five senses Sight Touch Hearing Taste Smell Perception helps individuals Select, organize, store, and interpret stimuli into a meaningful and coherent picture of the world.
4-18
Differing Perceptions
A manager believes employees have opportunities to judge how to do the job The employee feels there is no freedom to make judgments A worker’s response to a request is based on what she thought she heard It was not based on what was actually requested A manager considers a product to be of high quality The customer feels it is poorly made
4-19
Perceptual Differences & Behavior
Manager’s perception
Worker has lots of freedom to make decisions
Manager’s behavior
No concern about freedom given to worker
Manager’s behavior
Puzzled by the absence record of worker
Freedom worker is given Worker’s perception
I am not given freedom to make decisions
Worker’s behavior
Feeling of being left out Staying home
Worker’s behavior
Belief that no one really cares
4-20
Stereotyping
Over-generalized, over-simplified belief about people’s personal characteristics Most people engage in stereotyping Applies to both people and occupations Self-perpetuating Affects promotions, motivation, job design, or performance evaluation Situational factors, needs, emotions can affect perceptual accuracy
4-21
Stereotyping
Stereotyping is perpetuated by Selective perception The manager’s characteristics Situational factors Needs Emotions
4-22
Attribution
The process of perceiving the causes of behavior and outcomes
4-23
Attribution
Dispositional attributions Emphasize some aspect of the individual Situational attributions Emphasize the environment’s effect on behavior Before deciding if behavior is due to the person or the situation, consider Consensus Distinctiveness Consistency
4-24
Attribution
Types of attribution errors Attributional bias Fundamental attribution error General positivity (the Pollyanna principle) Self-serving bias
4-25
Attitudes
A positive or negative feeling or mental state of readiness Learned, organized through experience Influences a person’s response to people, objects, and situations Components of an attitude Affect Cognition Behavior
4-26
Outcomes of Attitudes
Stimuli Work factors
Job design Manager style Company policies Technology Salary Benefits
Attitudes Components
Affect Cognition Behavior
Outcomes Responses
Emotional Perceptual Action
4-27
Cognitive Dissonance
A mental state of anxiety Occurs when there’s a conflict among an individual’s various cognitions after a decision has been made
4-28
Cognitive Dissonance
Organizational implications Helps explain the choices made by someone with attitude inconsistency Can help predict a person’s propensity to change attitudes If one is required to do or say things that contract personal attitudes An attitude may be chosen that is more compatible with what they’ve said or done
4-29
Attitudes
Changing employee attitudes Can hinder job performance Factors that affect attitude change Trust in the sender The message itself The situation
4-30
Attitudes and Values
Values The conscious, affective desires and wants that guide behavior Once internalized, values Become a standard for guiding one’s actions Affect the perceptions of appropriate ends and the appropriate means to those ends
4-31
Attitudes and Job Satisfaction
Job satisfaction Attitude individuals have about their jobs Results from their perception of the jobs Dimensions linked to job satisfaction Pay Job Promotion opportunities Supervisor Co-workers
4-32
Satisfaction-Performance Views
1. Job satisfaction causes “The satisfied worker is more productive.” Job Performance 2. Job satisfaction is caused by “The more productive worker is satisfied.” Job Performance 3. Job satisfaction Job Performance “There is no specific direction or relationship.”
4-33
Job Satisfaction Comparison
Prottas and Thompson findings Self-employment is a better career choice than organizational employment Higher levels of job satisfaction Lower job stress Higher levels of job autonomy satisfaction Lower levels of job pressure
4-34
Job-Customer Satisfaction
Most businesses in developed countries are service oriented Only satisfied customers return Satisfied employees increase customer satisfaction and loyalty Job satisfaction and customer satisfaction flow in both directions Rude, unhappy customers can result in dissatisfied employees
4-35
Personality
Characteristics, tendencies, and temperaments Determines commonalities and differences in people’s behavior
4-36
Personality
Personality is influenced by Hereditary factors Cultural factors Social class and other group membership forces Family and environment
4-37
Ego Defense Mechanisms
Some ego defense mechanisms Rationalization Identification Compensation Denial of reality
4-38
Theories of Personality
Trait Personality Theories Predispositions direct the behavior of an individual in a consistent pattern Psychodynamic Personality Theories Freudian approach (id, superego, ego) Emphasis on subconscious determinants of behavior Humanistic Personality Theories Emphasis on growth and self-actualization
4-39
Measuring Personality
Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory Statements to which one responds True, False, or Cannot Say Covers health, psychosomatic symptoms, neurological disorders, social attitudes, phobias, delusions, and sadistic tendencies
4-40
Measuring Personality
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) Assesses personality or cognitive style Extroverted or introverted, sensory or intuitive, thinking or feeling, perceiving or judging
4-41
Big Five Model
“Big Five” personality dimensions Conscientiousness Extraversion-Introversion Agreeableness Emotional Stability Openness to Experience
4-42
Self-Efficacy
Believing that you can perform adequately in a situation
4-43
Self-Efficacy
Self-efficacy has three dimensions Magnitude Strength Generality A person with high self-efficacy is motivated toward achievement Machiavellianism Negative connotation associated with political maneuvering and power manipulation
4-44
Creativity
The generation of novel ideas that may be converted into opportunities Should be a core competency The first step in the innovation process
4-45
Developing Creativity
Buffering Look for ways to absorb the risks of creative decisions made by employees Organizational time-outs Give people time off to work on a problem and think things through Intuition Give half-baked or raw ideas a chance
4-46
Developing Creativity
Innovative attitudes Encourage everyone to solve problems Innovative organizational structures Let employees see and interact with many managers and mentors
4-47
Emotional Intelligence
The ability to accurately perceive, evaluate, express, and regulate emotions and feelings
4-48
The Psychological Contract
An implied understanding of mutual contributions between a person and an organization
4-49
The Psychological Contract
Violation A person perceives that the organization has failed honor one or more obligations Common obligations Job security and feedback Childcare benefits Merit-based pay raises Job autonomy Computer training Promotion
4-50