Transcript Pre World War I Europe

Nation-Building & Democracy in
Africa & the Middle East
Decolonization
Berlin Conference
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The Berlin Conference (1884-5)
"The Berlin Conference was Africa's undoing in more ways than one.
The colonial powers superimposed their domains on the African
continent. By the time independence returned to Africa in 1950, the
realm had acquired a legacy of political fragmentation that could
neither be eliminated nor made to operate satisfactorily." (H.J. de Blij
and Peter O. Muller, Geography: Realms, Regions, and Concepts
(1997) p. 340).
In 1884 at the request of Portugal, German chancellor Otto von
Bismark called together the major western powers of the world to
negotiate questions and end confusion over the control of Africa.
Bismark appreciated the opportunity to expand Germany's sphere of
influence over Africa and desired to force Germany's rivals to struggle
with one another for territory.
Berlin Conference
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At the time of the conference, 80% of Africa remained under traditional
and local control. What ultimately resulted was a hodgepodge of
geometric boundaries that divided Africa into fifty irregular countries.
This new map of the continent was superimposed over the one
thousand indigenous cultures and regions of Africa. The new countries
lacked rhyme or reason and divided coherent groups of people and
merged together disparate groups who really did not get along.
Fourteen countries were represented by a plethora of ambassadors
when the conference opened in Berlin on November 15, 1884. The
countries represented at the time included Austria-Hungary, Belgium,
Denmark, France, Germany, Great Britain, Italy, the Netherlands,
Portugal, Russia, Spain, Sweden-Norway (unified from 1814-1905),
Turkey, and the United States of America. Of these fourteen nations,
France, Germany, Great Britain, and Portugal were the major players
in the conference, controlling most of colonial Africa at the time.
Berlin Conference
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The initial task of the conference was to agree that the Congo River
and Niger River mouths and basins would be considered neutral and
open to trade. Despite its neutrality, part of the Congo Basin became a
personal kingdom for Belgium's King Leopold II and under his rule,
over half of the region's population died.
At the time of the conference, only the coastal areas of Africa were
colonized by the European powers. At the Berlin Conference the
European colonial powers scrambled to gain control over the interior of
the continent. The conference lasted until February 26, 1885 - a three
month period where colonial powers haggled over geometric
boundaries in the interior of the continent, disregarding the cultural and
linguistic boundaries already established by the indigenous African
population.
Following the conference, the give and take continued. By 1914, the
conference participants had fully divided Africa among themselves into
fifty countries.
Berlin Conference
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Major colonial holdings included:
– Great Britain desired a Cape-to-Cairo collection of colonies and almost
succeeded though their control of Egypt, Sudan (Anglo-Egyptian Sudan),
Uganda, Kenya (British East Africa), South Africa, and Zambia, Zimbabwe,
and Botswana (Rhodesia). The British also controlled Nigeria and Ghana
(Gold Coast).
– France took much of western Africa, from Mauritania to Chad (French
West Africa) and Gabon and the Republic of Congo (French Equatorial
Africa).
– Belgium and King Leopold II controlled the Democratic Republic of Congo
(Belgian Congo).
– Portugal took Mozambique in the east and Angola in the west.
– Italy's holdings were Somalia (Italian Somaliland) and a portion of Ethiopia.
– Germany took Namibia (German Southwest Africa) and Tanzania (German
East Africa).
– Spain claimed the smallest territory - Equatorial Guinea (Rio Muni).
Democracy – 4 requirements
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Free elections
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Citizen participation
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High levels of educ/literacy; freedoms of speech, press &
assembly
Majority rule w/ minority rights
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More than 1 political party; universal suffrage
All citizens equal before the law; shared national identity;
individual rights
Constitutional govt
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Clear laws on which govt is based; educ about how govt works;
national acceptance of majority decisions; policy that no one is
above the law
Africa
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Like Asia, African nations were unwilling to
return to colonial rule after WWII. Problems
with nation-building in Africa:
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Borders drawn by Europeans for their colonial
needs not for ethnic groups
Resources drained by Europeans
People of Africa not experienced with self-rule
Ghana
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Kwame Nkrumah – educated in US; led
independence movement; became 1st prime
minister/president
1966 while visiting Vietnam, army seized power
2000 1st free elections held
Kenya – Jomo Kenyatta, leader of independence
movement – educated London; 1963 became 1st
pres. – Nairobi (capital) major business center in
Africa
Congo
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1960 independence from Belgium
Power struggle between two groups (one
asked USSR for aid)
Mobutu came to power & renamed country
Zaire; police state; economy should have been
fine (mineral wealth) but Mobutu & his cronies
robbed the country of billions
Overthrown in 1997; civil war status; no
free elections
Algeria
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French colony – 1 million French; 9 million Arab muslims
1945 French troops fired on Algerian nationalists; thousands
died in fighting
Independence 1962; French settlers fled
Ahmed Ben Bella – 1st pres. – land reforms, education
plan, export oil
1965 – overthrown
1988 after economic depression, civil war between
Islamic militants & govt
1997 elections excluded reps from Islamic party; calls for
peace talks; thousands have died
Angola
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Portuguese colony- no health, education or
economic system
1960s 3 groups struggled to take power – each
supported by diff. superpower
Portuguese leave in 1975 w/out formally
naming a govt
Communist group seized power
Cease-fire 1989
Civil war 1995 – 2000s
Rwanda
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German colony, then Belgium colony after WWI
The Hutu and Tutsi - two different ethnic groups of
Rwanda based on economic factors – not DNA
Agricultural people were considered Hutu
Property/cattle-owning elite were considered Tutsi.
Belgians had everyone carry an identity card
indicating whether they were Hutu or Tutsi.
Tutsis were used by the Belgium govt to run the
colony, as they had been the kings to rule the lands
for hundreds of years.
Rwanda –Civil War
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Hutu-led revolt in 1959 to establish an
independent Hutu-state by 1962, after killing
thousands of Tutsis in the process.
1990, Tutsi-led Rwanda Patriotic Front
launches a civil war leading to the 1994
genocide
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Hutu extremists killed nearly 1 million Tutsis and
moderate Hutus
RPF ended the genocide with a military
victory for the Tutsis
Rwandan genocide - 1994
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Approx. one million men, women, and children
were massacred.
Radio
Machetes
Rwanda Today
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84% Hutus; 15% Tutsis
Parliamentary Republic, gained
independence from Belgium in 1962
Economy is based on subsistence agriculture
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Coffee & tea
Tourism…especially for mountain gorillas
South Africa
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Small minority white population – ruled SA
Afrikaners (white ruling class) determined to keep
control of SA after independence
1950s laws of APARTHEID – separated blacks &
whites (segregation)
Protesters against apartheid laws created ANC African National Congress
ANC demonstrators were brutally repressed
1962 – leader of anti-apartheid movement – Nelson
Mandela arrested
Nelson Mandela
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Mandela served 27 yrs in maximum security prison; wife &
children not allowed to see him; his son & mom died – not
allowed to attend their funerals
1989 – new white President FW de Klerk elected – wanted to
transform SA & end its isolation in the world
1990 ANC was legalized; Mandela released
1994 – Mandela elected President of the Republic of SA
Bishop Desmond Tutu (Nobel Peace Prize 1984) worked to
free Mandela & end apartheid
World pressures/economic boycotts led to end of apartheid
Mandela &
Bishop Tutu
South African democracy today
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1996 – new constitution guarantees equal rights to
ALL citizens – right to travel freely
Discrimination is forbidden; rights of children are
protected
Protects rights for adequate housing, education &
healthcare
Women – right to vote & run for political office
Few women have been elected
Still job & wage discrimination
Rural areas – families still choose a woman’s husband
Problems in Africa today
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Economic
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One crop economies; resources spent on
building up military instead of on education,
infrastructure, industrialization, hospitals
High populations cripple economies –
occasional droughts/disease kill millions of people
Poverty is worse in rural areas
Economic problems lead to political unrest –
civil war
Health problems
AIDS (acquired human immunodeficiency
syndrome) epidemic – 2/3 of all people
worldwide infected with HIV live in Africa
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Impact on children & families – 12 million+
children are orphans because both parents died
of AIDS
Govts do not have enough resources to
combat HIV/AIDS
Uganda has been most successful because
Pres. Confronted AIDS immediately & started
health & sex education
Political problems
Many African nations that started out as democratic
govt after independence have fallen to military
dictatorships or one-party states
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Conflict among ethnic groups
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Nigeria 1960s – Northerners started killing Ibo group – Ibo fled to
Eastern Nigeria & tried to form a separate nation – 2+ yrs of bloody
civil war; Ibo lost
Rwanda/Burundi – Hutu & Tutsi people Burundi – Tutsi; Rwanda –
Hutu but both groups lived in both countries
1994-Genocide in Rwanda as Hutu majority started ethnic
cleansing campaign against Tutsis – Watch Hotel Rwanda!!
Cold War problems:
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USSR supported Ethiopia; US set up military bases in Somalia
The United Nation’s
Universal Declaration of Human Rights
After WWII - United Nations
wanted to set standards for
human rights for all nations of world
 10 Articles
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all people born free & equal
no discrimination
right to life, liberty, security
no torture
equality before law
no arbitrary arrests/detentions
genocide
Decolonization of the Middle East after
WWII
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Syria
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Syria attained independence from the French in 1936
French/British protectorate through WWII
Damascus – oldest capital in the world
Lebanon – prosperity - tourism, agriculture & banking
capital of the Arab world
Lebanese Civil War 1975-1990
Immediately following the end of the war, there were
extensive efforts to revive the economy and rebuild
2006 Israel-Lebanon conflict - civilian and military
casualties, extensive damage to infrastructure, and
massive population displacement (mostly people fled to
Syria
ceasefire went into effect on August 14, 2006.
Revolution in Iran
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Oil revenues – rich country – allied
w/ US
1970s Iranians dissatisfied with their ruler –
Mohammad Reva Pahlavi (Shah) – secular, Western govt
Muslim religious movement led by Ayatollah Khomeini
rose to power – return Iran to anti-Western ways
Protesters against Shah shouted ‘death to the shah, death to
the Americans’
Iran-Contra Affair – sell arms illegally to Khomeini and send
$ to Contras in Nicaragua – Reagan authorized CIA to do
this illegally
The Shah is forced out - 1979
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Jan 1979 Shah left Iran
April – Khomeini seized control & declared Iran
to be an Islamic republic – Shah’s supporters
executed/fled
Iranian revolutionaries seized US embassy in
Tehran – 52 Americans taken hostage – held
almost 2 yrs
1989 – Khomeini died; new govt opened society;
today Iran has gone back to a closed society
– people have very few freedoms
The birth of Israel
•For centuries, Arabs & Jews & Christians have
considered Palestine their “holy land”
•Zionism – a movement that argued for a Jewish
homeland
•Palestine colonized by GB
•Balfour Declaration 1917
GB would allow Jewish people to establish a
homeland BUT it could not interfere with civil &
religious of non-Jewish people
1920s & 1930s – many Jews immigrated to
Palestine to escape persecution in Europe
After WWII & Holocaust – world felt
sympathetic toward Zionist cause
1948 – UN resolution divided Palestine
into 2 states – Arab & Jewish
May 1948 – David Ben-Gurion – 1st prime
minister of Israel
Arab reaction to Israel
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Betrayal of promises made by British govt – nation of
Palestine was NOT created
Muslim majority population robbed of their lands –
hundred of thousands forced to move, had to live in
refugee camps, thousands died
Palestinians who refused to leave came under Israeli
rule
Several Arab nations invaded Israel to try to stop its
creation – failed
Most Arab nations do not recognize Israel’s right to
exist
Egypt
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Early 1950s - Gamal Abdel Nasser President
1956 – took control of Suez Canal
– Major waterway linking Mediterranean Sea & Asia
GB, France, Israel joined to take back Suez canal –
Suez War
US & USSR supported Egypt! – wanted more
involvement in Middle East – oil
Nasser led a Pan-Arabism movement but oil-rich
countries did not want to share their oil wealth with
other countries
Arab (Palestinian) - Israeli dispute
intensifies
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1967 – Nasser blockaded Israeli ships from Gulf of
Aqaba – Six Day War
Israel launched pre-emptive war against Egypt,
Syria, Iraq & Jordan
Most of Egyptian air force destroyed
Israeli army occupied Sinai Peninsula
Israel seized territory on West Bank of Jordan
River, occupied Jerusalem, took Golan Heights –
strategic military area
One million more Palestinians now lived under
Israeli rule
A checkpoint in Gaza
Anwar Sadat
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Nasser assassinated in Cairo
Anwar el-Sadat became president of Egypt
1973 – Sadat led a new attack on Israel to
try to get occupied land back
1974 – United Nations negotiated cease-fire
Sadat assassinated because of peace with
Israel
Assassination of Anwar Sadat - Cairo
Peace in Middle East?
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November 1967, the UN Security Council unanimously
passed Resolution 242.
Two conditions for establishment of a just and lasting peace
in the Middle East.
– First, it called for the "withdrawal of Israel armed forces
from territories occupied in the recent conflict.“
– Second, it called for the "termination of all belligerency
and respect for and acknowledgment of the sovereignty,
territorial integrity and political independence of every
State in the area and their right to live in peace within
secure and recognized boundaries free from threats or
acts of force."
►Israel did not withdraw from the occupied territories.
The Six Day War led to the Yom Kippur War in 1973
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Israel - peace with Egypt and returned the Sinai.
Peace with Jordan, but did not return East Jerusalem
– site of 3rd holiest shrine in Islam.
Israeli occupation of this holy site continues to fuel strong
resentment against Israel in the entire Muslim world.
A generation of Palestinians has grown up in the West
Bank and Gaza under Israeli occupation.
No hope for the future, some Palestinians have resorted
to carrying out suicide bombings since September 2000.
The bombings have killed hundreds of Israelis and
brought on Israeli retaliation, killing thousands of
Palestinians. This cycle of violence shows no signs of
letting up.
GIVE 1, GET 2
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Revolution in Iran
Balfour Declaration
Birth of Israel & Arab reaction
Zionism
Ayatollah Khomeini
Six-Day War
Sadat
Nasser
Suez Canal
What does OIL have to do with the
Middle East peace crisis???
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At 2003 consumption levels, the remaining
reserves represent 44.6 years of oil and 66.2
years of natural gas.
China has just started using major amounts of
oil; India is also using oil at high levels
US has always used the most oil and continues
to use the most in 2006
Does the U.S. have the highest population in the
world?
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China - 1,313,973,713
India - 1,095,351,995
United States - as of Nov. 2006 - 300,176,035
Indonesia - 245,452,739
Brazil - 188,078,227
Pakistan - 165,803,560
Bangladesh - 147,365,352
Russia - 142,893,540
Nigeria - 131,859,731
Japan - 127,463,611
Mexico - 107,449,525
Philippines - 89,468,677
Vietnam - 84,402,966
Germany - 82,422,299
Egypt - 78,887,007
Ethiopia - 74,777,981
Turkey - 70,413,958
Iran - 68,688,433
Thailand - 64,631,595
Democratic Republic of the Congo - 62,660,551
U.S. oil consumption
OPEC
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1960 – oil-rich nations formed – Organization of
Petroleum Exporting Countries
Purpose – control the price of oil
During 1973 conflict – OPEC increased price of oil
– shortages of oil/gasoline in West
1977 – Jimmy Carter sponsored Camp David
Accords – peace treaty between Egypt & Israel
Other Arab countries angry at Egypt for signing
treaty
OPEC members
PLO
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1964 Palestine Liberation Front – para
military group formed to represent the
interests of the Palestinian people
Leader – Yasir Arafat
Used terrorist attacks on Israel to try to win back
territorial losses & establish a Palestinian
nation
Intifada – uprising – escalation in protests –
increased guerrilla warfare tactics
Peace talks
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US sponsored peace talks Pres. Clinton
1993 – Israel agreed to give Palestinians some
autonomy in certain areas
PLO recognized Israel
Palestinian Authority – semi-independent territory
– Yasir Arafat – leader
Ultimate goal of Clinton – a Palestinian nation &
Arab recognition of Israel
Problem: some Israelis don’t want to give back
territory gained in 1967; some Arabs refuse to
recognize Israel’s right to exist
Terrorism used by BOTH sides
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Terrorism – intimidate states &
institutions to help solve their political
goals
Bombings, hostage taking, plane hijacking
Terrorism in other areas
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Ireland – Irish Republican Army
Afghanistan – Taliban
Sri Lanka – Tamal Tiger rebels
Middle Eastern terrorism against the
West – WHY??
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After WWII – US & W. Europe depended on ME oil
US invested heavily in oil-wealthy nations & formed
alliances with wealthy Arab sheiks
BUT – most Arab people remain poor and are angry at
their govts & US for not sharing the wealth
Some Muslims fear that US involvement in ME would
weaken Islam (fear of westernization)
Arabs resent US support of Israel
Most Muslims around the world DO NOT support
terrorism
Iraq
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Leader – Saddam Hussein 1979 – 2004
Border with Iran – tense border issues/tense religious
issues
– IRAN power majority SHIITE muslim
– IRAQ power majority SUNNI muslim **changed since
2004**Sunnis are only 20% of IRAQ’s population
1980 – Hussein attacked Iran
– Children used to clear mine fields
– Poison gas used against civilians (esp. Kurdish people in
North)
1988 – cease-fire
Iraq invades Kuwait
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1990 – Gulf War
US (Pres. Bush #1) led an international force
that forced Saddam Hussein to withdraw his
troops from Kuwait – Hussein claimed Kuwait
was oil drilling diagonally into Iraq territory
Large part of Iraq’s army destroyed
US hoped an internal revolt would overthrow
Hussein, but he stayed in power
1990s UN weapons inspectors were
monitoring Iraq’s weapons programs
The Iraq War – 2003 - ???
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GW Bush demanded a resolution from UN that
Hussein give up all weapons of mass destruction
(WMDs)
Warned that US would go into Iraq alone if UN did not
approve resolution
Oct 2002 – US Congress authorized use of force against
Iraq
UN authorized resolution calling for return of UN
weapons inspectors
Weapons inspectors returned to Iraq but Bush argued
that Hussein was hiding WMDs from inspectors –
inspectors asked for more time to evaluate situation
Bush requests UN go to war
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Bush argued that Iraq posed “an immediate threat”
and tried to link Iraq to the 9/11 attacks
France & Russia wanted to wait for inspectors to
have time to do their job
US & GB along with minimal support from other
countries prepared for war
Antiwar protesters around the world argued that
war was unjustified – Iraq not involved in 9/11
March 20, 2003 – US led coalition attacked Iraq
May 1, 2003 – Bush declared major fighting over –
Baghdad had fallen
The fall of Baghdad & trial for Hussein
No WMDs found
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American/coalition forces have not found WMDs
Jan 2004 – David Kay, Bush’s top weapons inspector –
“we’re very unlikely to find large stockpiles of weapons. I
don’t think they exist.”
Kay – US intelligence provided “flawed” information to
Congress & President
Initially, many Iraqis happy that Saddam was out
Most Iraqis angered to learn that US & GB would be staying
in Iraq to set up a new govt
Insurgency: different groups (Shiite, Sunni, Kurd) who
are fighting US & British troops in Iraq because they are
afraid an American-designed govt will not represent
their interests
Women in Islamic nations
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In Muhammad’s time women had extensive
political & social rights
Restrictions on women came later
20th century – some Muslim countries have
started to reduce restrictions on women –
Turkey/Iran
1970s shift back toward more restrictions for
women esp. in Iran
Women under Islam
War in Afghanistan
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1980s - USSR invasion & withdrawal – Taliban came
to power – militant Islamic party – women rights
gone; no school for girls
Osama bin Laden – Saudi Arabian – one of
wealthiest families in Middle East
1988 – founded al-Qaeda
After USSR forced to withdraw bin Laden convinced
that superpowers could be beaten
Believed that western ideas contaminated Muslim
society
Outraged that Saudi govt allowed US troops in when
Saddam Hussein invaded Kuwait
1998
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Bin Laden called on Muslims to kill Americans
Bombs at US embassies in Kenya & Tanzania –
224 people killed
Pres. Clinton ordered cruise missile attacks on
Afghanistan & Sudan
Oct 2000, al-Qaeda crashed a boat into USS
Cole while it was docked near Yemen
UN demanded in 1999 & 2000 that Taliban turn
bin Laden in for trial – Taliban refused
9/11 Attacks
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4 hijacked planes – target US economic heart & govt
center
Pres. Bush called state of emergency – Congress
authorized use of force
Oct 2001 – US & UN launched attack against al-Qaeda
& Taliban in Afghanistan
Taliban forced out of power – new govt created
Many Afghans celebrated collapse of Talliban – men no
longer had to wear beards; women no longer had to wear
burkas
Today – UN peacekeepers; poverty; Taliban resurgence;
cocaine production
September 11, 2001
Political Cartoon Assignment
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A cartoon is a representational or symbolic
drawing that makes a satiric, witty, or
humorous point.
Target - politics & public affairs