Transcript Human Perception, Cognition and Action

Human Perception, Cognition
and Action
Matthias Rauterberg
http://www.ipo.tue.nl/homepages/mrauterb/rauterberg.html
Tactile Perception
• The ability to detect and interpret sensory information
cutaneously (of or on the skin).
– When do we see the first signs of this?
• Development:
– one point discrimination by 5 yrs
– two point discrimination by 7 1/2 yrs
– research shows that tactile perception may develop
before the ability to identify objects visually.
• Can you think of any sports that would [not] require tactile
perception?
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Three Types of Sensations
• Pressure
– light
– deep
• Temperature
– cold
– warm (not hot)
• Pain
– sharp
– dull
Sensation and Perception - touch.ppt © 2001 Laura Snodgrass, Ph.D.
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Sensory Humunculus
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The human ear
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The human eye
http://www.exploratorium.edu/exhibits/f_exhibits.html
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The visual field
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The visual sense
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The colour coding schema
Back
ground
foreground
black
blue
black
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blue
–
cyan
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green
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+
red
+
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white
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yellow
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deep green
+
deep cyan
+
deep magenta
+
deep white
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brown
cyan
green
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magenta
red
+
white
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The “Visual Cliff”
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Reversible Figure and Ground
• reversible goblet is a
favorite demonstration
of a figure-ground
reversal
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Hidden Figures
• The triangle on the left
side is “hidden” or
masked on the right
side
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Hidden Figures
• The number 4 on the
left side is “hidden”or
masked on the right
side
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Perceptual Styles
• Two rectangles, one
behind the other is
perceived
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Perceptual Styles
• Without any frame an
oval is perceived just
based on the special
shapes of the
surrounding elements
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Perception of Depth
• height in plane
• gradient texture
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Perception of Distance
• superposition
• relative size
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http://kahuna.psych.uiuc.edu/ipl/index.html
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http://psych.hanover.edu/Krantz/sen_tut.html
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Perceptual Integration
• Simultaneous use of more than one
perceptual system.
• What senses are required to hit a softball?
• Intermodal perception - the ability to
translate information from one sensory
modality to another.
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Perceptual Integration
• Visual-Kinesthetic
– Examples?
• Visual-Auditory
– Examples?
• Auditory-Kinesthetic
– Examples?
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Changes with Aging
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Differences between the visual and the auditory sense
• The two most important
constrains in interface design:
– the control of user's
attention
– the physical size of the
observation field
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The three major Feedback Modalities
visual
PROS
CONS
parallel in space
active eye contact neccessary
large information transfer
auditory
enforces attention allocation noise through environment
enables the perception of
background activities
haptic
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linear in time
important for visually
impaired people
exists only for a short time span
force perception
linear in time
object recognition
contact with objects
textur and surface
perception
neccessary
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The cognitive science view
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Limits of the Working Memory
• working memory
remember rate
100%
–
–
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80%
60%
40%
20%
0
3
6
9
12
15
18
time interval until remember items (in sec)
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remember time < 5 sec
about 5-9 chunks
masking
interferences
• long-term memory
– no capacity limits
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The Perceptual Prototype
• Which shape represents the most typical bird?
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Perceptual Styles
• The continent Africa
can be perceived
without problems if
the figure is rotated
90grad right
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The “normal” order in the world (1)
• There is no problem to perceive a bath room,
based on our daily life experiences
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The “normal” order in the world (2)
• All objects in the
picture are shown at
that place of their
normal appearance
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The “normal” order in the world (3)
• All objects in the
picture are shown in a
random order
• these kinds of pictures
are difficult to
interpret
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The “normal” order in the world (4)
• To break through the “normal” order in the world can be
used to control attention via attraction
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The Perceptual Cycle
[U. Neisser: Cognition and Reality, 1976]
Object
(available
information)
selects
samples
Perception
Exploration
(activity)
(attention)
modifies
directs
Schema
(memory)
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the complete action cycle
t ask(s)
goal-, subgoal-setting
planning of execution
feedback
control of
action
selection of means
mental operation
synchronisation
in space
physical operation
synchronisation in time
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What is this?
Answer: a “magic eye”!
You have to hold it in front of
your face (ca. 20 cm) and look
“through” this picture at a
virtual horizon;
if you do it properly you will
get a stereoscopic image of
three arrows pointing
downwards.
The point of this image is to
know how to handle it!
This is a clear example of the
strong relationship between
perception and action.
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General Information Processing
Model (perceptual motor)
Sensory
input
Perceptual processing
Output
Motor
Stimuli
light
sound
touch
smell
taste
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Receptors
visual
auditory
kinesthetic
tactile
olfactory
gustatory
CNS data
processing
Response
Integration with
memory bank
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Fitts' Law
T = k log2(D/S + 0.5), k ~ 100 msec.
T = time to move the hand to a target
D = distance between hand and target
S = size of target
Fitts' Law is a model to account for the time it takes to point at
something, based on the size and distance of the target object. Fitts'
Law and variations of it are used to model the time it takes to use a
mouse and other input devices to click on objects on a screen.
Broadly, Fitts' Law can be applied by designers to suggest moving
target buttons closer and making them larger for extremely
commonly used buttons. In detail, applying the formula can be
extremely useful for exact design of time-critical applications.
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Attention
• Limited - individuals can only attend to one
thing at a time, and capacity can be exceeded.
• Serial - individuals attend to one thing, then
another.
• In terms of successful motor skill performance:
– Alertness and preparation
– Related to limited capacity
– Selective attention
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Alertness
• Successful movement requires alertness and
preparation.
• In a ‘race start’, what are you alert to?
• Research determines alertness through
reaction time (RT):
– the interval of time between stimulus and
initiation of a response.
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Reaction Time (RT)
Stimulus
Motor Response
Reaction Time
Response (motor) time
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Alertness
• Reaction time includes:
–
–
–
–
–
attention (alertness) to the stimulus
motor system preparation
reception and transmission of the stimulus
interpretation of the information
organization of a motor program for the response
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Alertness
• Development:
– Improves (decreased reaction times) into 20 years
– Stable until ca. 60 years
• Other factors:
– preparation for rapid movement depends on
complexity of the movement.
– Anticipation improves RT performance.
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Divided Attention
• Individuals have limitations in the ability to
take in information.
– Attention needs to be given for successful motor
performance.
– Depending how much attention this requires, may
cause interference with additional activities.
– Interference can result in:
• loss of speed or quality in one activity
• both activities could be affected
• second activity could be ignored
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Divided Attention
• Young children attend to dual tasks equally
• Older children identify and perform primary
task better
• The ability to do multiple tasks improves
with age
– Automation - with practice, less attention is
taken up, freeing some attention for other tasks.
– Attention skills - strategies for freeing up
attention.
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• As you are reading this paragraph I’ll be
talking and saying people’s names in this class.
If I say your name you’ll probably stop reading
and look at me instead of paying attention to
what you’re reading. This is known as the
“Cocktail Party Phenomenon”. Even though
you are paying attention to the person in front
of you, if your name is spoken anywhere close
by, you’ll attend to that instead.
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Selective Attention
• Similar to visual figure-ground perception.
– Picking the right thing out of the background
– Can involve several senses
• What sensory information is Tony getting
during a tennis game?
• What is he paying attention to?
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Selective Attention
• 3 stages of selective attention:
– 1. Overexclusive mode (2-5 years old) - pay
exclusive attention to one stimulus. Also more
easily distracted.
– 2. Overinclusive mode (6-11 years old) - pay
attention to more stimuli, some irrelevant.
– 3. Selective - capable of attending to relevant
stimuli.
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Selective Attention
• Under age 12, children will rely more on
auditory rather than visual if both are present.
• Age differences in attention are generally
experience related.
– Adolescents and adults have more experience for
attending to relevant stimuli.
• Children can be taught to resist irrelevant cues.
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Knowledge in the World and in the Head
Property
Knowledge in the World
Knowledge in the Head
Retrievability:
Retrievability whenever
Not readily retrievable.
visible or audible or tangible. Requires memory search or
reminding.
Learning:
Learning not required.
Interpretation substitutes for
learning.
Requires learning, which can
be considerable.
Efficiency of use: Tends to be slowed up by the Can be very efficient.
need to find and interpret the
external information.
Ease of use at
first encounter:
High.
Low.
Aesthetics:
Can be unaesthetic and
inelegant, especially if there
is a need to maintain a lot of
information.
Nothing need be perceivable,
which gives more freedom to
the designer and can lead to
better aesthetics.
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The Difference between Internal and External Memory
• the mental model of the user about the external world is always
incomplete
• all necessary information which is not in the internal memory must be
provided by the environment (the “external memory”)
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References
 M.W.Eysenck & M.T.Keane 2000
'Cognitive Psychology' (4th ed.) Hove: Psychology Press
the main textbook which covers all the topics but is not very extensive on perception
 R.L.Gregory 1994
'Eye and Brain' London: Oxford University Press
a nice and easy to read introduction to visual perception, does not cover auditory perception and
other aspects
 R.Sekuler & R.Blake 1994
‘Perception’, 3rd ed.
a comprehensive textbook covering a wide range of topics in perception (including non-visual) with
nice examples and helpful physiological background
 V.Bruce, P.R.Green & M.Georgeson 1996
'Visual Perception: Physiology, Psychology and Ecology', 3rd ed., Psychology Press, Hove
a thorough introduction to the fundamental principles of visual perception with many physiological
and comparative aspects
 H.Barlow & J.Mollon, eds. 1982
‘The Senses’, Cambr. Univ. Press
a good introduction (but not the most recent) to psychophysics with valuable references to original
research
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