The Human impact

Lonnie Thompson, Ohio State University Melting of glaciers: During the last 27 years the Quelccaya glacier in Peru retracted. At its place a lake of melted water appeared Kilimanjaro Temperate regions: From 1990 to 2005 the Morteratsch glacier in the Bernina area (Switzerland) retracted several ten meters.

The pole caps During three years the north polar ice shields shrinked by about 30%.

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The worst case scenario (steady rise in CO 2 emissions Predicted changes in winter precipitation up to 2100 Measured temperatures, precipitation and snow cover (northern hemisphere) since 1850.

Predicted changes in summer precipitation up to 2100

Global Average Sea Level Change 1990 to 2100

What is global change?

Major global environmental global changes

Climate change

Climate change is manifest through the increase of atmospheric CO 2

Stratospheric ozone loss

and other greenhouse gases O 3 protect us from the harmful effects of ultraviolet rays. It is destroyed by chlorofluorocarbons

Air pollution

Air pollution, once thought to be of only local importance (SMOG) has now become a global problem

Ocean pollution

Pollution more and more reduce the ability of the world’s oceans to sustain life and to provide food

Fresh water issues

A rising number of countries has problems to provide it’s people with fresh water

Soil degradation

Over the past 50 years, about 11% of the earth’s vegetated land surface has experienced moderate top extreme soil degradation

Biodiversity loss

Although estimates are very imprecise it seems clear that we are actually undergoing a phase of mass extinction.

Species distribution modelling

White - red - jack pine Spruce fire Longleaf - slash pine Loblolly - shortical pine -750 Oak - pine Oak - hickory Oak - gum - cypress -500 -250 0 Elm - ash - cottonwood Maple - beech - birch Aspen - birch Area in 1000 km 2 250 500 750 Potential change in area occupied by 10 North American forest types. Mean values of five climatic scenarios that gave similar results (modified from Iverson and Prasad 2001, Ecosystems 4: 186-199).

Park Acadia Big Bend Glacier GSM Shenandoah Yellowstone Yosemite Zion Ranked geogr. position 3 8 1 7 4 2 5 6 Current species number 43 48 52 48 33 53 64 53 Species lost 3 10 2 8 3 0 6 1 Species gained 8 22 45 29 11 49 25 41 Gained - lost 5 12 43 21 8 49 19 40 1 0.9

0.8

0.7

0.6

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0 0 Gaines R 2 = 0.27

R 2 = 0.58

Losses 2 4 6 8 Rank geographic position [north to south] 10 Data from Burns et al. (2003) Proc. Natl. Acd. Sci. USA 100: 11474-11477

Major drivers on changes in biodiversity

Land use Climate N deposition Biotic exchange CO2 0 0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1

Relative effects of major drivers on changes in biodiversity. Land use was given the value of 1. Sala O. E. et al. 2000. Science 287: 1770-1774

1 0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0 Arctic 1 0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0 Savanna 1 0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0 Apine 1 0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0 Lakes 1 0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0 Boreal 1 0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0 Mediteranean 1 0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0 Grassland 1 0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0 Desert 1 0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0 Northern temperate forests 1 0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0 Southern temperate forests 1 0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0 Tropical forests 1 0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0 Streams Effect of five important drivers on future biodiversity change for 12 terrestrial and freshwater ecosystems or biomes.

Sala O. E. et al. 2000. Science 287: 1770-1774

Relative amounts of change under the assumption that major drivers act independent

Relative amounts of change under the assumption that major drivers act synergistic

Global biodiversity conservation priorities CE: crisis ecoregions; BH: biodiversity hotspots; EBA: endemic rd areas; CPD: centers of plant diversity; MC: megadiversity countries; G200: global 200 ecoregions; HBWA: high biodiversity wilderness areas; FF: frontier forests; LW: last of the wild From Brooks T. M. et al. 2006. Science 313:58-61

Spatial overlap (percents) between nine priority approaches Crisis ecoregion Biodiverity hotspots Endemic bird areas Centres of plant diversity Megadiversity countries Global 200 ecoregions High biodiversity wilderness areas Frontier forests Last of the wild Percent land area Crisis ecoregion 61 43 34 Biodiverity hotspots Endemic bird areas 33 50 40 14 33 28 Centres of plant diversity Megadiversi ty countries 10 21 24 44 46 68 Global 200 ecoregions 36 78 70 High biodiversity wilderness areas 2 0 7 48 66 18 Frontier forests 1 5 11 14 38 28 6 4 5 30 21 33 0 8 4 16 19 19 15 11 4 10 12 15 19 13 7 9 48 79 39 34 35 53 72 64 43 37 18 16 35 17 8 11 16 41 28 9 Last of the wild 4 6 11 21 24 28 53 73 24 Areas of potential conservation value only partly overlap. Depending on the criteria different areas receive high conservation values. There is no unequivocal criterium which area to protect.

From Brooks T. M. et al. (2006)

Primary causes of endangerment for 98 US plant species Water control 8% Natural causes 1% Trampling 8% Exotics 6% Fire control 4% Agriculture 5% Grazing 11% Military 1% Logging 7% Collecting 10% Off-road vehicles 6% Oil, Gas, Mining 8% Roads 4% Development 21%

Invasive species

„But the cardoon (Cynara cardunculus) has a far wider range.: it now occurs in these latitudes on both sides of the Cordillera across the continent. I saw it in unfrequented spots in Chile, Entre Rios, and Banda oriental. In the latter country alone, very many (probably several hundred) square miles are covered with one mass of these prickly plants, and are impenetrable by man or beast. Over the undulating plains, where these great beds occur, nothing else can live. Before their introduction, however, I apprehend the surface supported as in other parts a rank herbage. I doubt whether any case is on record of an invasion of so grand scale of one plant over the aborigines”

Charles Darwin 1839: Voyage of the Beagle.

What are invasive species?

Invasive species (neobiota) are those that • were accidently introduced into new habitats by man (alien species) • • were intentionally introduced into new habitats by man for commercial purposes were intentionally introduced into new habitats by man for biological control • greatly extended their natural home ranges towards new areas for instance due to climate change or human activities (roads, tunnels)

Some well known examples

Colorado Potato beetle Gipsy moth First introduced to Europe in 1877 First record in Poland 1960 First introduced into North America in 1868 Has about 650 different host plants During outbreaks causes major damages in softwood forests

Tiger mosquito (Aedes albopictus) Nil perch The Asian species was first reported from Houston texas in 1985 Now established in Brazil, Europe, and New Zealand Vectors of yellow and dengue fever, as well as encephalitis First occurrence in mainland France in 2006. Now recorded from Belgium, Italy, France, Balkan region. Since 2007 in Middle Europe (Germany) In Germany it partly outcompetes the indigen Culex pipiens.

First deadly infection of Chikungunya feaver in Italy 2007.

Introduced into the great Est African lakes during the 1950s and 1960s to improve fishering.

Caused dramatic changes in faunal and floral composition Caused algal blooms and eutrophication Caused the extinction of more than 200 native fish species (2/3 of all species)

Hulecoeteomyia japonicus

The Asian bush mosquito was introducuded to southern Europe since about 2000.

Since 2013 in Central and Eastern Germany Occasisonal vector of West-Nil virus and Encephalitis.

Sciurus carolinensis

The grey squirrel was introduced to great britain in 1989 and since then outcompeted the red squirrel Sciurus

vulgaris due to its resistence against an

Parapox virus. Introduced also to Ireland, Italy and RPA. In 2006 a campaign against the grey sqirrel started.

Eichhornia crassipes Marenzelleria viridis Introduced into China from South America in the 1930s as an ornamental plant, to provide liestock food and to control air pollution Caused reduction of lake areas and let to the extinction of about 30 fish species Reduced lake areas caused climate changes and changes in water cycling The flatworm was introduced via ship ballast water (first records 1979) In the vistula lagoon it has become the dominant species constituting up to 97% of the total biomass of the bottom- living macrofauna

Harmonia axyridis

In the USA unsuccessfully used as aphid predator in biological control programs since 1916.

Sudden spread in USA since 1980.

Major impact on natural communities of aphid predators due to its high reproduction rate.

First observations of the Asian Lady beetle 2001: Belgium 2002: Germany, Netherlands 2004: UK, France 2007: Scandinavia, Poland 2009: Whole of Poland

Unknown Leiobunum harvestman (Opilionida) species First observed in the Netherlands (2007) In 2008 massive invasion along the Rhine river up to Switzerland Species are up to 18 cm in diameter.

They occur in large colonize of up to several hundred individuals.

They show colonial movements.

How many species are invasive?

New Zealand (plants) Hawaii (plants) Hawaii (all species) Tristan de Cunha (plants) Campbell Islands (plants) South Georgia (plants) Southern Africa (freshwater fish) California (freshwater fish) Berlin (plants) Woody perennials (Southern Australia) Europe (spiders) Great Britain (trees) Number of native species 1790 956 17591 70 128 26 176 83 839 2230 3500 35 Data from McNeely J. A. (1999), Kobelt and Nentwig (2008), Caley et al. 2008, and Sukopp (1990) Number of invasive species 1570 861 4465 97 81 54 52 52 593 188 80 1700

How do alien species come to Hawaii?

Miscella neous Mails 2% 3% Baggage 40% Air cargo 39% Ship cargo 16% 25% of all Hawaiian species are alien

A conceptual model of invading species Human activities Disturbance Changing land use Changing environmental conditions Habitat fragmentation Changing land management Changing of ecosystem functioning Increasing opportunities for invaders Invading species

What makes a species invasive?

• • • • • • Marcel Rejmanek (1946 Charcteristics of invasie species • • • r-strategists have high dispersal ability have small genome sizes are habitat or feeding generalists self pollinators (plants) have long flowering periods (plants) have a high proportion of leaf area (grasses) have small seed sizes (in woody plants) occupy often disturbed sites DNA contents of 148 Californian angiosperms (from Knight et al. 2005) What habitats are susceptible to invasions?

• • • • Early to mid-successional habitats Mesic environments and open water Disturbed habitats Fragmented habitats