Transcript No Slide Title

Visible Speech
a short course
in the
fundamentals
of writing
By Joe Napora
Visible Speech:
Writing Fundamentals
A program of instruction in five parts:
Part 1--What is an essay?
Part 2--What is a paragraph?
Part 3--What is a sentence?
Part 4--Word confusions.
Part 5--Punctuation.
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Visible Speech
Instructor: Joe Napora
College: Ashland Community College
E-mail: [email protected]
Phone: 606-326-2037
Website: http://users.ashlandcc.org/jnapora/
WHAT IS AN ESSAY?
LESSON 1-5
Part One
Lesson 1: What is an
essay?
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Form =
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What is an essay?
What is an
essay?
Answer:
Organized
Writing
What is an essay?
If an essay is organized writing, a good
question to ask is “What is organized
writing?”
After all, isn’t all writing
organized?
How is writing
organized?
All writing is organized; otherwise we could
not read it. The writing we are concerned with
is organized in a special way.
Writing is organized according to audience.
Who is the audience?
You or other people.
Couldn’t a machine be an audience?
Yes. But we are only concerned with people.
What difference does
the audience make?
If you are the audience, writing is a form of
memory: you are writing notes to yourself to
help you remember.
These notes may take the form of a diary
(where the time of your writing is
important), and they may just be
nearly random ideas written
on scraps of paper.
This is the end of lesson one
Visible Speech
a short course
in the
fundamentals
of writing / lesson 2
By Joe Napora
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What are the different
forms of writing?
If someone other than you is the audience,
then what are the possible forms that writing
can take?
Below are some of the most common forms
that writing can take.
Notes
E-mail
Letters
Memos
Signs
Essays
Reports
Announcements
Other
Notes
Notes can be written to yourself or others,
but notes usually depend on an intimate
knowledge of the audience.
When you write a note, you usually already
know the audience; therefore you do not
have to introduce yourself to the audience.
An example of a note would be a message
attached to your phone to remind someone
in your family to call your mechanic.
Forms
Notes, continued
Question: Why is it not usually necessary
to have an introduction in a note?
Answer: It’s because you are the audience
as well as the writer. You normally don’t
have to introduce yourself to yourself.
What are two examples of notes that you
have written during the past week?
Forms
Memos
When you write a memo,
you are given a form that
simplifies the relationship
between you, the writer,
and the audience.
Memo
To:
From:
Re:
The introduction and
conclusion are in the form
of TO: and FROM:. And the
subject matter is simply
introduced with RE:.
Forms
Reports
A report is like an expanded memo. The
audience is determined by the subject
matter. If you are doing a report in biology,
your audience anticipates a report on some
subject in biology.
You, as the writer, do not have to
get your audience interested in
your topic because by the very
nature of the subject, they are already
interested.
Forms
E–mail
E-mail is a recent form of writing that was
invented with the online computer.
E-mail is a lot like letter writing, but
it is also a lot like memo and
report writing, plus a little like
a telephone conversation.
Forms
Signs
A sign is a public form of writing
that places a premium on getting the
readers’ attention.
A sign is formal in that it has a
long history of design features
that are proven to work.
Forms
Announcements
An announcement often relies on fancy
paper or graphics to get the readers’
attention.
Announcements
are another type
of formal writing.
Forms
Letters
Letters have a prescribed
structure.
The more formal the letter,
the more standard the
Introduction, the Body, and
the Conclusion.
Forms
Essays
Essays are also a formal type of writing. What
we mean by “formal” is that the structure of
the writing is more rigid than other forms of
writing.
This more rigid structure is not a restriction to
our ability to communicate; in fact, it is an
opportunity to be more creative than if there
was a very loose structure.
Forms
Other Forms of Writing
Writing takes many forms,
many more
than the ones
I have listed.
We live
in a literate age: we cannot
go through a single day of
our lives without the
influence of writing in
some form.
This is the end of lesson two
Try to
imagine a
day without
a direct or
indirect
connection
with writing.
Forms
Visible Speech
a short course
in the
fundamentals
of writing / lesson 3
By Joe Napora
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The Parts of the Essay
The
Introduction
Interest and
The Body
Details
The
Conclusion
Information
Unity and
a Lasting Image
Introduction
The Introduction has two
functions. The first function is
to get the readers’ attention. It
is the writer’s job (the most
important one) to get the
reader interested. The second
function is let the reader know
what the essay is all about.
What are the two functions of
the Introduction?
Interest
and
Information
Introductory Techniques
There are at least a dozen ways to begin an essay
that have been proven to work well in getting the
attention of the reader. Half this many are most
common, and it is these six that we are most
interested in.
•Ask a question or several questions.
• Make an outrageous statement.
• Give a detailed description.
• Present a dramatic scene.
• Use Dialogue.
• Use a famous quote or historical reference.
Introductory Technique:
Asking Questions
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A question is like a ringing
phone: it’s very hard not to
answer it.
?
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?
A question involves the reader
automatically into your essay.
This is why asking a question or
a series of questions is often a
good way to begin your essay.
Of course it has to be a question
that is appropriate to your thesis.
The thesis rules everything.
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Intro.
Introductory Technique:
Outrageous Statement
Writing is my worse subject!
But it’s not as bad as getting beaten with barbed wire.
I hate writing!
But I hate mean people worse.
When I think of my writing teachers, I’m sure I
believe in capital punishment.
Yet, I’m not so sure I want to see any of them hung.
My writing classes in grade school were
nothing but a form of child abuse.
But then, most classes in grade school were that way.
Writing! Who needs it?
Unfortunately, now everyone needs it.
An outrageous statement gets attention. After
you have the readers’ attention, then you can
alter your statement.
Intro.
Introductory Technique:
Detailed Description
A detailed description
acts like the pictures
that accompany a
story in the newspaper
or in popular
magazines: they get
our attention and relate
We would expect the
to the story.
story with this picture to
That’s why they work.
be about people at work
in a white-collar job.
Intro.
Introductory Technique:
Dramatic Scene
While the doctor listened for
sounds that my only kidney
is failing, I thought to myself,
why had I given my other
kidney to my worthless
brother? The last time we
saw each other he screamed
at me, “I’d rather have a
dog’s kidney than yours.
Thanks for nothing!”
Conflict always
gets the
readers’
attention.
Intro.
Introductory Technique:
Dialogue
Beginning with dialogue
puts the reader in the
position of an
eavesdropper: you listen
to people talk even if
you are not interested in
them or what they are
saying.
You get drawn into their
lives because of the
power of the human
voice.
Dialogue gets the
human voice onto
the lifeless page.
Intro.
Introductory Technique:
Quotes & Allusions
A stitch in time saves nine.
Honor thy father and mother.
Thou shall not kill.
"To believe yourself to be
brave is to be brave; it is the
only essential thing.”
--Mark Twain
“Don’t panic!”
--Hitchhiker's Guide to the
Galaxy
“x”
The X stands for
anything you
have quoted.
And the X must
be exactly, word
for word, as it
was in the
original source.
Intro.
Body
Details
The function of the Body of the
Details
essay is to provide the Details of
what the essay is all about.
Details
The Body of the essay is divided
into paragraphs that are
organized around topic
sentences.
Details
Details
Details
Details
What is the function of the Body
of the essay?
Details
ConclusIon
The function of the Conclusion of
the essay is to unify the reading
experience and to leave with the
reader a lasting image that will
recall to mind the essay after it has
been read, perhaps years after it has
been read.
What are the functions of the
Conclusion?
This is the end of lesson 3
Unity
and
Image
Visible Speech
a short course
in the
fundamentals
of writing / lesson 4
By Joe Napora
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Analogy
The structure of an essay
can be compared to the
structure of the human
body.
Why would you want to
make this comparison?
It helps us to understand
that communication is a
very human act, and it
helps us to remember the
functions of the essay.
A n a l o g y, (the Head)
The Introduction is
similar to the Head.
We normally look
first at a person’s
face; it is what
interests us most.
It is the head that
rules the body.
A n a l o g y, (the Torso)
The torso of the
human body is what
we usually refer to as
our body.
And it is the Body of
the essay that is the
essay’s heart, the
center, where the real
action is.
A n a l o g y,
(the legs / feet)
The body ends with
the feet, but there is
more.
The legs and feet are
what moves us on,
connecting us to
what is not with us at
the moment, much
as an image does.
Proportion
Like the form of the
human body, the form of
the human essay has a
pleasing proportionality.
There is a lot of variety
in the human form, just
as there is a lot of
variety in the human
essay.
P r o p o r t i o n,
continued
We might think of an
essay with very few
details in the Body like a
person with an
extremely short torso.
P r o p o r t i o n,
continued
An essay
with very
many small
paragraphs
and only a
few details
is like a
malnourished
body.
This is the end
of lesson 4
Visible Speech
a short course
in the
fundamentals
of writing / lesson 5
By Joe Napora
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The Structure of the
Essay, Review
Good writers organize the essay because
readers expect it to be organized. Since we
write in order to communicate with readers,
we try to meet their expectations. Meeting
readers’ expectations means writing
according to an informed awareness of the
function of the three parts of the essay.
Review: What are the three main parts of the
essay?
Introduction, Body, and Conclusion
The Structure of the
Essay, Review
What is the function of
Interest and
the Introduction?
Information
What is the function
Details
of the Body of the
essay?
What is the function of
the Conclusion?
Unity and
a Lasting
Image
The Structure of the Essay,
Review: Introductions
What are the best six ways to begin an
essay that have been proven to work well?
• Ask a question or several questions.
• Make an outrageous statement.
• Give a detailed description.
• Present a dramatic scene.
• Dialogue.
• Use a famous quote or historical reference.
This is the end of lesson 5 and Part 1
WHAT IS A PARAGRAPH?
Lesson 6 and 7
Part Two
Visible Speech
a short course
in the
fundamentals
of writing / lesson six
By Joe Napora
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What is a paragraph?
What is a
paragraph?
Yes, but it is organized
differently.
Answer:
Organized
Writing
Hey! Isn’t this the same
answer for “What is an
essay?”
How is a paragraph
organized?
A paragraph is organized writing, organized
in three very simple ways:
Deductive
Inductive
Mixed
Deductive Paragraphs
Topic Sentence
Supporting Details
Supporting Details
Supporting Details
Supporting Details
Supporting Details
Most books are
arranged
deductively: they
have a chapter title
and the supporting
details make up
that chapter.
Most of your Body
paragraphs are
arranged this way.
Inductive Paragraphs
Supporting Details
Supporting Details
Supporting Details
Supporting Details
Supporting Details
Topic Sentence
Detective stories
are arranged
inductively: they
give the details
first and involve us
in arriving at the
solution, or topic.
Nature writers
often use a lot of
inductive
paragraphs.
Mixed Paragraphs
Supporting Details
Supporting Details
Topic Sentence
Supporting Details
Supporting Details
Supporting Details
Sometimes
writers put some
significant
information
before the topic
sentence, acting
like the
introduction to an
essay.
Transition Paragraphs
Paragraph A
Transition paragraph
linking A and B
Paragraph B
Transition
paragraphs are
usually small and
don’t contain
topic sentences.
They link
paragraphs
together to help
make the whole
essay read
smoothly, instead
of chopped up
into pieces.
Dialogue Paragraphs
“Dialogue
paragraphs,” I said, “are
simply paragraphs that
indicate speech.”
“Do you mean that
each time another person
speaks I have to begin a
new paragraph?” she
asked.
This is the end of lesson 6
Dialogue
paragraphs are
simply
paragraphs that
are made when
you use quotes to
indicate speech.
Each time
another person
speaks, you
begin a new
paragraph.
Lesson 7: Visual Clues
Paragraphs, like all of writing, are visual as
well as logical ways to organize information.
Paragraphs are visual blocks help us read the
essay.
On paper, we indent for each paragraph.
On the internet, we can’t easily indent so we skip
a line between paragraphs.
THISISTHEWAYPEOPLEONCEWROTEWITHNOSP
ACEBETWEENWORDSANDNOSPACEBEFOREANE
WPARAGRAPHANDMOSTOFUSWOULDAGREET
HATITISALOTHARDERTOREADTHANWITHSPA
CESBETEENWORDSANDPARAGRAPHS
The End
Of Part Two
WHAT IS A SENTENCE?
LESSONS 8-9
Part Three
Visible Speech
a short course
in the
fundamentals
of writing / lesson eight
By Joe Napora
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What is a sentence?
What is a
sentence?
Yes, but it is organized
differently.
Answer:
Organized
Writing
Hey! Isn’t this the same
answer for “What is an essay
and what is a paragraph?”
How is a sentence
organized?
Sentences can be
organized in the
most simple
manner: by type.
They are either
complete
sentences, or they
are incomplete.
A complete sentence
contains a subject, a
verb, and most often
an object phrase.
An incomplete
sentence is
fragmented: it
usually doesn’t
contain a complete
verb.
Complete Sentences
A complete
sentence
has a
subject and
a verb, and
usually a
phrase.
Subject = S
Verb = V
Phrase = P
Subjects
Subjects can be
people, objects,
events, and ideas.
Subjects are usually
in the most
important part of
the sentence, the
first part.
John, Mary, Men,
Women, my uncle,
chairs, dogs, the
World Series,
freedom, next year
John loves Mary.
“John” is in the
most important part
of the sentence.
Verbs
Action. Making
connections.
Relationships.
MOVEMENT is
the main
function of
verbs,
movement that
affects the
subject.
Subjects run, walk, and
sleep.
Subjects are and will be.
And it’s verbs that allow
subjects to move, and
movement draws
attention to our
sentences.
Object Phrases
P = Object Phrase
Remember the
equation S + V + P?
A phrase comes in many shapes,
does many things, and attaches to
the main sentence in many ways.
Phrases
Here is a simple sentence:
John drives. [S + V]
Add an object phrase:
John drives to the park. [S + V + P]
Add more phrases:
According to Mary, John drives to the park in the
morning. [P + S + V + P]
Fragmented Sentences
Incomplete
sentences usually
result from writing
a phrase as if it
were a complete
sentence.
According to Mary.
[P]
John drives to the
park in the morning.
[S + V + P]
This is the end of lesson 8
Simple and Complex
Sentences
Lesson Nine
Visible Speech
a short course
in the
fundamentals
of writing / lesson nine
By Joe Napora
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Making Sentence SENSE
The object of writing
is to make sense of
our ideas to other
people. One way to
do this is to write
clearly, starting with
standard sentences.
A standard sentence
is one that makes
SENSE.
SENSE =
Standard
ENglish
SentencE
More SENSE
The Basic SENSE
sentence can easily
be expanded to
make your
sentences more
interesting, varied,
rhythmic, attention
getting.
John loves Mary.
According to Alice,
John loves Mary.
According to Alice,
John loves Mary,
who he met last
week.
This is the end of lesson nine
Sentence Styles
Lesson Ten
Visible Speech
a short course
in the
fundamentals
of writing / lesson ten
By Joe Napora
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Prepositions
Take your basic
sentence:
John loves Mary.
[S + V + O]
Add a preposition
phrase:
John loves Mary with
all of his heart.
[S + V + O + PP]
Prepositions are the
most common words
in the English
language.
You can’t say more
than a few words
without one.
Prepositions, again
Take your basic
sentence with a
prepositional
phrase:
John loves Mary with
all of his heart.
[S + V + O + PP]
Write it in this form:
PP + S + V + O
With all of his
heart, John
loves Mary.
What is the
difference
between these
two sentences?
Absolutes
Take your basic
sentence.
John loves Mary.
[S + V + O]
Add an absolute
phrase.
His heart ruling his
head, John loves
Mary.
AP + S + V + O
Absolutes are phrases
that contain a
complete subject [his
heart] but only a
partial verb [ruling].
Appositives
Take your basic
sentence.
John loves Mary.
[S + V + O]
Add an appositive
phrase.
John, the great
Romeo, loves Mary.
S + ApP + V + O
The word
“appositive”
means
“positioned next
to.
Participles
Take your basic
sentence.
John loves Mary.
[S + V + O]
Add a participle
phrase.
Ignoring his mother’s
advice, John loves
Mary.
PP + S + V + O
Participles are ways
to add more
movement into your
sentences.
Relative Clauses
Take your basic
sentence.
John loves Mary.
which,
[S + V + O]
when,
Add a relative
clause.
where
John loves Mary, who
he only met
yesterday.
S + V + O + RC
Who,
are the most
common relative
pronouns.
End of Lesson 10
Word Confusions
Lesson Eleven
Visible Speech
a short course
in the
fundamentals
of writing / lesson
eleven
By Joe Napora
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Sound Confusions
Most word
confusions are
due to the fact
that many words
in English that
have different
meanings sound
the same.
Sight / Cite / Site
Their / There / They’re
To / Too / Two
Where / Wear
Hear / Here
Through / Threw
Bare / Bear
Your / You’re
Sound Confusions
Its / It’s
This is most common of all word
confusions.
“Its” is similar to “his” and “hers.” We don’t
write “his” like this: “hi’s”; nor do we write
“hers” like this: “her’s.”
“It’s” means “it is.”
Sometimes “it’s” means “it has,” as in “So
long, it’s been good to know you.”
Sound Confusions
We confuse many
words because we
don’t always
pronounce words
clearly.
We say, “I used to
know better,” but we
mistakenly write it as
“We use to.”
And the same goes
for “supposed to”;
it’s not “suppose to.”
More Confusions
Some words are
spelled differently
in advertising than
they are in essay
writing.
Light / Lite
Through / Thru
Right / Rite
Though / Tho
This is the end of lesson 11, part 4
Visible Speech
a short course
in the
fundamentals
Lesson 12, part five
By Joe Napora
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Why Punctuation?
Writing is something we see
before we hear it.
When we read, we translate
the written signs [letters
made into words made into
sentences…] into sounds.
To help readers make better
sense of this translation, we
use a very few additional
signs.
End Signs
We have signs that go
at the end of
sentences. They act
something like a stop
sign.
Period .
Question
Mark ?
Exclamation
Point
!
[These signs sometimes appear within quotation marks.]
More on End Signs
End signs end the sentence. This
sentence ends with a period.
A sentence (or sometimes a single
word) that asks a question ends with
a question mark. Doesn’t it?
A sentence that indicates yelling,
screaming, a voice raised higher than
normal is indicated by an exclamation
mark. Listen!
.Periods.
Periods sometimes indicate when we
take a deep breath if we spoke the
sentence. Unfortunately, none of the
punctuation signs are consistent
indicators of how we speak. We could,
for instance, pause long when we
speak the words “for instance,” but we
wouldn’t write the sentence like this:
We could. For instance. Pause when
we speak the words “for instance,” ...
?Question Marks?
The Spanish language has a better sign
system for question marks. When you
read a question in Spanish, you know
immediately that the sentence is going to
be a question because there is an upside
down question mark at the beginning of
the sentence as well as a regular
question mark at the end.
What?
Que?
?
!Exclamation Marks!
We don’t get more emphasis
Someday the
by using more exclamation
exclamation
marks!!!!!!!!
mark may be
How many times do I have to replaced with
sentences
tell you?????
written in
Nor do we get more
BOLD and
emphasis by using more
than one question mark.
Well, maybe we do, but it’s
not good practice.
ENLARGED
type.
INSIDE SIGNS
Apostrophe
We have signs
that go within
sentences.
’
Semi-colon ;
Colon :
Quotation Marks
The most used
inside sign, the
comma: ,
Parentheses (
Hyphen Dash -Ellipses ...
)
“”
Apostrophes
The apostrophe indicates possession.
The hat belongs to the boy; therefore, it is
the boy’s hat.
If more than one boy owns the hat, then it is
the boys’ hat. [ Logically we should write it as
“the boys’s hat” but punctuation and spelling are
not very logical.]
Apostrophes are also used to indicate speed in
speech: contractions. We say it’s instead of it is,
don’t instead of do not, won’t instead of will not.
Semi-colons
The main use for the semi-colon is to join
two complete sentences that are closely
related.
John went to the store. He bought apples,
grapes, and a watermelon.
We combine these two sentences into
one, joined with a semi-colon.
John went to the store; he bought apples,
grapes, and a watermelon.
[Sometimes semi-colons separate items
in a list.]
Colons
Colons have a very limited use. People
can write for years and never use one.
Some people use them often because
they make lists. There are lists for many
things: people, dogs, cats, houses,
blouses, mouses (that’s mice, isn’t it?).
Sometimes colons function a lot like the semicolon: they join two sentences, the second
subordinate to the former.
Quotation Marks
You say something. You write it down.
You use quotation marks to indicate
exactly what you said.
You ask your friend, John, how he is doing.
“John,” I asked, “How are you doing?”
You can also write this quote other ways:
I asked, “John. How are you doing?”
“John. How are you doing?” I asked.
Quotation Marks
Quotation marks are very handy; they help
since they allow us to indicate speech as
well as sentences that we quote from other
written materials. But sometimes they
cause problems.
There are two main problems:
1) end punctuation, and
2) quotes within quotes.
Quotes Within Quotes
When we quote something, we place it
within quotation marks. But what if we
quote something that has already been
quoted?
John loves Mary.
I wrote the sentence “John loves Mary.”
We use single quotes within the double quotes.
He said, “I wrote the sentence ‘John loves
Mary’.”
End Quotes
Sometimes quotation marks come at the end of
sentences (and sometimes as the beginning).
When a sentence ends with a quotation mark, periods
cause problems [and also commas, which are not
end punctuation but are affected by the quotation
marks in the same way]).
“John loves Mary,” I said.
Here the period ends the sentence.
I said, “John loves Mary.”
Here the period is inside the quotation marks, not at the end.
This is not logical, but it’s the way we do it.
Parentheses
In drama, the play writer will often
indicate an aside, a time when an actor
will speak directly to another actor or to
the audience.
Parentheses often work like an aside.
In drama, the play writer will often speak
directly with the audience [using a technique
called an aside] to get comic effect.
Hyphens
Hyphens join words and parts of words
together to get additional meaning or to
create new words, usually new nouns or
adjectives.
brother-in-law
re-make
twenty-two
This is a hard-to-understand type of
punctuation because there are no clear rules
about how to use it.
For instance, something could just be hard to
understand.
Dashes
Dashes are just longer hyphens that can
give extra emphasis--more than a comma
can give.
Ellipses
When we don’t need to quote everything,
we must still indicate that we left out
information. In this case we use a
punctuation mark that looks like three
periods run together. We use an ellipsis.
I wrote, “When we don’t need to quote
everything….[W]e use an ellipsis.
We use square brackets [ ] to make certain
that our new sentence is correct in grammar,
capitalization, and punctuation.
Commas
Commas cause problems because
commas sometimes act like short pauses
in speaking and sometimes act like little
signs that separate items in a series, that
introduce quotes in speaking, that come
after greetings, and that do a lot of unrelated things.
More Signs
There are a few other
signs we use in
writing, most taken
from math, logic,
drafting, science, and
computer science.
&
{}
<>
@
#
$
*
%
+
=
The End
Of Parts One to Five