Transcript Slide 1
EET 1131 Unit 14
Memory and Storage
Read Kleitz, Chapter 16.
Lab #14 due next week.
Final Exam next week.
Terms for Units of Data
•
Bit
: The smallest unit of digital data, a single 1 or 0.
•
Byte
: A group of 8 bits.
•
Nibble
: A “half-byte”: a group of 4 bits.
•
Word
: Used in two ways: •Sometimes means 2 bytes (or 16 bits).
•Sometimes means the data width that a particular chip or system uses: could be 4 bits, 8 bits, 16 bits, 32 bits, etc.
Kilo-, Mega-, Giga-
•In engineering notation, •
Kilo
means 1,000 (the same as 10 3 ) •
Mega
means 1,000,000 (same as 10 6 ) •
Giga
means 1,000,000,000 (same as 10 9 ) •When talking about memories, these terms have slightly different meanings: •
Kilo
means 1,024 (the same as 2 10 ) •
Mega
means 1,048,576 (same as 2 20 ) •
Giga
means 1,073,741,824 (same as 2 30 )
Making Sense of Windows File Sizes
•Have you ever noticed that when you use Windows to look at a file’s size, it gives two numbers that don’t seem to match each other?
•Example: “Size on disk: 624 KB (638,976 bytes)” •That’s because 624 x 1024 = 638,976.
•How many megabytes (MB) is in a file that contains 28,311,552 bytes?
Memory Units The location of a unit of data in a memory is called the
address
. In personal computer memories, a byte is the smallest unit of data that can be addressed. For example the blue byte is located in address 6.
Floyd, Digital Fundamentals, 10 th ed
Computer Busses
•A computer system has two primary busses: •The
data bus
, which carries data and instructions from one part of the system to another.
•The
address bus
, which carries addresses of memory locations or external devices.
•These two busses may have the same width (number of bits), but they need not.
•When people talk about a “16-bit system” or a “32 bit system,” they’re talking about the width of the data bus.
Write Operations The two main memory operations are called
read
and
write
. A simplified write operation is shown in which new data overwrites the original data. Data moves
to
the memory.
Address register 1 0 1 1 0 Data register 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 1.
2.
3.
Address bus The address is placed on the address bus.
Data is placed on the data bus.
A write command is issued.
Address decoder 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Byte organized memory array 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 3 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 Write 2 Data bus Floyd, Digital Fundamentals, 10 th ed
Read Operations The read operation is actually a “copy” operation, as the original data is not changed. The data bus is a “two-way” path; data moves
from
the memory during a read operation.
Address register 0 1 1 1 1 Data register 0 0 0 0 0 1 1.
2.
3.
1 Address bus The address is placed on the address bus.
A read command is issued.
A copy of the data is placed in the data bus and shifted into the data register.
Address decoder 5 6 7 0 1 2 3 4 Byte organized memory array 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 2 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 3 Data bus Read Floyd, Digital Fundamentals, 10 th ed
Some Common Address Bus Widths
•An address bus’s width (in bits) determines the number of locations it can address:
Width of Address Bus
8 bits 10 bits 16 bits 20 bits 24 bits 32 bits
Number of locations
256 1 K 64 K 1 M 16 M 4 G
Powers of 2
•Here’s a handy table up to 2 40 .
showing the powers of 2 •You can use a table like this to answer the following questions: 1. How many addressable locations are there in a memory with
n
address bits?
2. How many rows are there in a truth table with
n
input variables?
3. What is the MOD of an
n
-bit counter?
Designating a Memory Chip’s Size & Layout
•The size and organization of a memory chip is given by a designation such as 16 x 4.
•The first number (16 in our example) tells how many addressable locations the chip contains.
•The second number (4 in our example) tells how many bits are contained in each of these addressable locations.
•Thus, an 8 x 8 chip, a 16 x 4 chip, and a 64 x 1 chip all have a
bit capacity
of 64 bits, but they’re organized differently.
Address Input Pins
•We can tell how many
address pins
a memory chip needs by looking at the first number in its designation. •For example, a 16 x 4 chip has 16 addressable locations. How many address pins are needed if we want to be able to select any one of these 16 locations?
•How many address pins would an 8 x 8 chip need?
•How many address pins would a 64 x 1 chip need?
Data Output Pins
•We can tell how many
data output pins
a memory chip needs by looking at the second number in its designation. •For example, on a 16 x 4 chip, each location contains 4 bits, so to read out the contents of any location, we need 4 data output pins.
•How many data output pins would an 8 x 8 chip need?
•How many data output pins would a 64 x 1 chip need?
Data Input Pins?
•Some memory chips are read-only memories (ROMs). These chips don’t have data input pins because you cannot change the contents of the memory locations.
•Other memory chips are read-write memories (confusingly called RAMs , for “random-access memory”). These may have data input pins that are separate from the data output pins, or the pins may be combined as data input/output (I/O) pins.
Memory Addressing In addition to address pins and data pins, memory chips usually have other input pins for control signals. These may include the following signals:
Read Enable
(
RE
) and
Write Enable
(
WE
) signals are sent from the CPU to memory to control data transfer to or from memory.
Chip Select
(
CS
) or
Chip Enable
(
CE
) is used as part of address decoding. All other inputs are ignored if the Chip Select is not active.
Output Enable
(
OE
) is active during a read operation, otherwise it is inactive. It connects the memory to the data bus.
Floyd, Digital Fundamentals, 10 th ed
Some Memory Chip Datasheets
•
7489 RAM (16 x 4)
•
6116 RAM (2048 x 8)
•
TMS4700 ROM (1024 x 8)
Computer Memory
•A computer’s memory consists of many memory chips, which may be organized in different ways. •Example: in the tiny memory below, each byte may be contained on a single chip, or may be spread across two or more chips.
Memory Expansion Memory can be expanded in either word size or word capacity or both.
To expand word size: RAM 2
m
´ 2
n
Notice that the data bus size is larger, but the number of addresses is the same.
Address bus m bits m bits RAM 1 2 m ´ n D Data in/out
n
bits m bits RAM 2 2 m ´ n D Data in/out
n
bits Control bus 2
n
bits Data bus Floyd, Digital Fundamentals, 10 th ed
Memory Expansion To expand word capacity, you need to add an address line as shown in this example Address bus 21 bits Control bus Notice that the data bus size does not change.
20 bits RAM 2M ´ 8 RAM 1 1M ´ 8 EN 8 bits 20 bits RAM 2 1M ´ 8 EN 8 bits 8 bits Data bus What is the purpose of the inverter?
Only one of the ICs is enabled at any time depending on the logic on the added address line.
Floyd, Digital Fundamentals, 10 th ed
Computer Memory
•A computer’s memory consists of many memory chips. •Some of the bits on the address bus are used to select one of these chips (and to de-select all of the others).
•The remaining bits on the address bus are used to select a memory location within the selected chip….
Computer Memory
(Continued) •Example: Suppose a computer’s memory consists of 32 memory chips, each of which is 2048 x 8.
•How many bytes does the computer’s memory contain?
•How many bits are needed to select one of the 32 memory chips?
•Once a chip has been selected, how many bits are needed to select a memory location within that chip?
•How many bits wide does this system’s address bus need to be?
Cache Memory
•A computer system typically has one or more small, high-speed
cache memories
in addition to its large, slower main memory.
•Recently used data and instructions are temporarily stored in the cache memory so that if the processor needs them again, they can be retrieved more quickly than if they had to be retrieved from the main memory.
•See figure on next slide.
Block diagram showing L1 and L2 cache memories in a computer system.
Digital Fundamentals
, Tenth Edition Thomas L. Floyd Copyright ©2009 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc.
Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 All rights reserved.
Memory Technologies
•Most memory chips fall into one of the following two categories (which have many subcategories).
1. RAM (Random Access Memory) •Read/write •Volatile (Loses data when power is removed.) 2. ROM (Read-Only Memory) •Impossible or difficult to write to •Non-volatile
Random Access Memory (RAM) • RAM is for temporary data storage. It is read/write memory and can store data only when power is applied, hence it is
volatile
. Two major categories are static RAM (SRAM) and dynamic RAM (DRAM).
• The memory cells in SRAM are latches or flip-flops.
• The memory cells in Dynamic RAMs (DRAMs) are capacitors. Since the capacitors lose charge, they must be refreshed many times each second.
Floyd, Digital Fundamentals, 10 th ed
Types of RAM
Latch or flip-flop storage cell.
Fast but low density. Used for cache memory.
Capacitor storage cell. Must be refreshed.
High-density but slow. Used for main memory.
Floyd, Digital Fundamentals, 10 th ed © 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved
Read-Only Memory (ROM) • Members of the ROM family are all considered non volatile, because they retain data with power removed.
• Various members can be either permanent memory (truly read-only) or erasable (not truly read-only, but they are more difficult to write to than RAM). • ROMs are used to store data that is never (or rarely) changed, such as system initialization files.
Floyd, Digital Fundamentals, 10 th ed
Types of ROM
Data written by the user, and can be changed with some difficulty.
Data written by the manufacturer, and can never be changed.
Data written by the user, and can never be changed.
Floyd, Digital Fundamentals, 10 th ed © 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved
Read-Only Memory (ROM) A ROM symbol is shown with typical inputs and outputs. The triangles on the outputs indicate it is a tri-stated device.
To read a value from the ROM, an address is placed on the address bus, the chip is enabled, and a short time later (called the access time), data appears on the data bus.
Address input lines Data outputs Address transition Valid address on input lines
t a
Valid data on output lines Address input lines
A
0
A
1
A
2
A
3
A
4
A
5
A
6
A
7 ROM 256 ´ 4 0 7 A 0 255 D D D D Data output lines
O
0
O
1
O
2
O
3 Data output transition
E
0
E
1 & EN Chip select Floyd, Digital Fundamentals, 10 th ed
PROMs, UV EPROMs and EEPROMs PROMs are programmable ROM, in which a fused link is burned open during the programming process. Once the PROM is programmed, it cannot be reversed. A UV EPROM can be erased by exposure to UV light through a window. To program it, a high voltage is applied to
V
PP brought LOW.
and
OE
is Another type of erasable PROM is the EEPROM, which can be erased and programmed with electrical pulses.
V
PP
A
0
A
1
A
2
A
3
A
4
A
5
A
6
A
7
A
8
A
9
A
10
CE/PGM OE
EPROM 2048 ´ 8 0 A 0 2047 D D D D D D D D 10 & EN
O
0
O
1
O
2
O
3
O
4
O
5
O
6
O
7 Floyd, Digital Fundamentals, 10 th ed
Figure 10.29
MOS PROM array with fusible links. (All drains are commonly connected to
V
DD .)
Digital Fundamentals
, Tenth Edition Thomas L. Floyd Copyright ©2009 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc.
Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 All rights reserved.
Flash Memory Flash memories are high density read/write memories that are nonvolatile. They have the ability to retain charge for years with no applied power.
Floating gate Control gate Drain Flash memory uses a MOS transistor with a floating gate as the basic storage cell. The floating gate can store charge (logic 0) when a positive voltage is applied to the control gate. With little or no charge, the cell stores a logic 1.
– – – – – – – – – – – – Source logic 0 is stored MOS transistor symbol – – logic 1 is stored Floyd, Digital Fundamentals, 10 th ed
Here’s a good summary table from p. 777 of our textbook.
Digital Electronics: A Practical Approach with VHDL, 9 th
William Kleitz
Edition
Copyright ©2012 by Pearson Education, Inc.
All rights reserved.
Memory versus Storage
•“Memory” refers to semiconductor devices of the kinds we’ve been discussing (RAM, ROM, Flash).
•“Storage” refers to non-semiconductor non-volatile devices used to store huge quantities of data. Major categories include: •Magnetic disk (such as computer hard drives) •Magnetic tape •Optical disk (CDs and DVDs)
Magnetic Hard Drive The magnetic hard drive is the backbone of computer mass storage and is applied to other devices such as digital video recorders. Capacities of hard drives have increased exponentially, with 1 TB (1 trillion bytes!) drives available today.
Spindle Platters Actuator arms Read/Write heads Case Hard drive with cover removed Floyd, Digital Fundamentals, 10 th ed
Optical Storage The compact disk (CD) uses a laser to burn tiny
pits
into the media. Surrounding the pits are flat areas called
lands
. The CD can be read using a low-power IR laser that detects the difference between pits and lands. Binary data is encoded with a special method called negative non-return to zero encoding. A change from a pit to a land or a land to a pit represents a binary one, whereas no change represents a zero. A standard 120 mm CD can hold approximately 700 MB of data.
Floyd, Digital Fundamentals, 10 th ed