Transcript EXTERNAL FACTORS IMPACTING TOURISM

Chapter 3 Objective and Subjective
Factors Shaping Tourism
Learning Objectives:
 Explain the objective factors
 Explain the effects of cultural background on travel
decisions.
 Explain the effects of time & income on travel
decisions.
 Explain the effects of socio-economic background on
travel decisions.
 Explain the effects of psychographic background on
travel decisions.

Explain the subjective factors—Motivations
Overview

The objective factors
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The effects of TIME on travel
The effects of INCOME on travel
Other SOCIOECONOMIC variables effects on travel
The effects of CULTURE on travel
The effect of PERSONALITY on travel
Other forces
Why people travel? (reasons)
 Motivation
 Pull motivation & Push motivation

Motivation theories and implications
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Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs;
The travel career ladder (TCL; Pearce 1988, 1991, 1993);
Iso-Ahola’s (1982) optimal arousal theory;
Plog’s (1974) allocentric-psychocentric theory.
Barriers to Travel
1. Cost
2. Lack of time
3. Health limitations
4. Family stage
5. Fear and safety
6. Lack of interest
The effects of TIME on travel
Time can be spent in one of three ways:
 Work:
 Maintenance: activities that are
necessary to sustain and maintain life,
such as eating, sleeping, maintaining the
house.
 Leisure: the time remaining after work
and maintenance activities have been
completed.
Vacation time as of July 2003
Country
Days by law
Average
Sweden
25
25-35
Austria
25
30
Denmark
25
30
Germany
24
30
Italy
20
30
Norway
21
30
Spain
25
30
France
25
25-30
Switzerland
20
25-30
Ireland
20
28
Australia
20
25
Finland
24
25
Netherlands
20
25
Portugal
22
25
United Kingdom
20
25
Belgium
20
24
Greece
20
23
Japan
10
17.5
China
15
15
U.S.
0
10.2
The effects of TIME on travel
China’s situation?

To meet the growing demand for leisure travel among China’s
own citizens and to encourage personal consumption for
economic growth, the central government has issued a number of
policies to promote tourism.
1.
In 1992, weeklong holidays were first introduced;
2.
In 1995, a five-day work week was introduced;
3.
Starting in 1999, three weeklong holidays were established
around May 1(May Day/Labor Day), October 1 (National Day),
and the lunar Spring Festival of Chinese New Year.
4.
Starting in 2008, only two weeklong holidays were remained
around October 1 (National Day), and the lunar Spring Festival of
Chinese New Year.
The effects of INCOME on travel
Personal income
Taxes
Disposable income
Personal outlays
Discretionary income
Consumer durables
Savings
Recreation
The effects of INCOME on travel
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Personal Income
 An individual's total annual gross earnings coming from wages,
business enterprises and various investments.
Income tax
 A tax levied on net personal or business income.
 A tax on any money earned during a fiscal year, usually filed on a
yearly basis.
Disposable Income
 The amount of income left after paying taxes.
Discretionary Income
 The amount of an individual's income that is left for spending after
the essentials have been taken care of.
 Individual income that is not allocated for necessary items such as
food and shelter.
Dual Income, No Kids - DINKS
 A household in which there are two incomes and no children.
 DINKS are often the target of marketing efforts for luxury items
such as expensive cars and vacations.
Personal income in the United States
Personal income for the population age 25 or older.
Source: http://www.answers.com/topic/personal-income-in-the-united-states
Income in the United States
SOURCE: US Census Bureau, 2006
http://www.answers.com/topic/personal-income-in-the-united-states
Other SOCIOECONOMIC variables effects
Age
 Generational influence
 Sex
 Education
 Life cycle stages

Class model regarding the social structure of
the United States.
This particular model was introduced by William Thompson and Joseph Hickey
in Society in Focus in 2005.
The effects of CULTURE on travel

Culture can be defined as a “set of beliefs,
values, attitudes, habits, and forms of
behavior that are shared by a society and
are transmitted from generation to
generation”.
The effects of culture on travel
Hofstede found the value patterns vary along
four main dimensions:
 Power Distance (social hierarchy, formality)
 Individualism vs Collectivism
(individual/group achievements)
 The closeness of the relationship between one
person and other persons.
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Femininity vs Masculinity (social roles)
Uncertainty Avoidance (ambiguity)
 How to deal with the uncertainty of future;
 The role of opinion leaders is strong and safety is
important in high scoring countries.
Hofstede (1980, 2001)
Evidence for Different Work Values across Cultures
Country Cluster and their Value Systems
Source: Jackofsky, Slocum & McQuaid (1988). ‘Cultural Values and the CEO: Alluring Companions?’, The Academy of
Management Executive, Vol 11(1), 39-49; Original Source: Hofstede, G. (1980a). Culture’s Consequences: International
Differences in Work-Related Values, Beverly Hills, California: Sage Publications
The effect of PERSONALITY on travel
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Introverts (introverted):
 look into themselves and tend to be shy and
reserved.

Extroverts (extroverted):
 Are other-oriented, looking outside the self, and
tending to be objective rather than subjective in
outlook.
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People from the East prefer dependable types
of travel while people from the West prefer
more venturesome types of travel;
Other External Factors Impacting Tourism
Political stability
 Energy prices rising directly affects
consumer disposable income
 Exchange rate

 The Canadian dollar is expected to stay
on par with current levels.
 Outbound Canadian travel will remain
strong.
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Public health issue — SARS，H1N1 flu
Tourism Motivations
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Robert W. McIntosh, Charles R. Goeldner,
JR Brent Ritchie (1995) proposed four
basic tourism motivations in their book
named Tourism: Principles, Practices and
Philosophies:
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Physical
Cultural
Interpersonal
Status and prestige
Motivation
Motivation: the drive to satisfy needs and wants,
both physiological and psychological through
the purchase and use of products and services.
 Push motivations: internal, socio-psychological
motivations that predispose the individual to
travel. (whether to go?)
 Pull motivation: external motivations that attract
the individual to a specific destination once the
decision to travel has been made.
(where to go?)
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Push and Pull factors

People travel because they are pushed by
physiological, psychological, intangible
and internal factors; and people travel also
because they are pulled by the unique
things a destination features, such as
image, recreation facilities, education,
appreciating scenery, safety, gambling and
foods.
Motivational Push Items
Motivational pull items
Motivation theories

The present research concentrates on the
development, modification, and potential
enhancement of one of the existing
theories of tourist motivation.
 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs;
 The travel career ladder (TCL; Pearce 1988,
1991, 1993);
 Iso-Ahola’s (1982) optimal arousal theory;
 Plog’s (1974) allocentric-psychocentric
theory.
Maslow’s Theory
 Sought
to explain why people are
driven by particular needs at
particular times
 Human needs are arranged in a
hierarchy
 When the important need is satisfied,
it stops being a motivator
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Self
Actualization
Esteem Needs
(self-esteem)
Social Needs
(sense of belonging, love)
Safety Needs
(security, protection)
Physiological Needs
(hunger, thirst)
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
According to Maslow there are five needs forming a hierarchy.
Maslow’s needs and their order of priority are:
• Physiological -- food, water, shelter, reproduction
• Safety -- stability, security, structure
• Love -- affiliation, affection, sense of belonging
• Esteem -- success, self worth, achievement
• Self-actualization -- self fulfillment, personal growth
Maslow’s suggested that a person will be motivated to
fulfill a higher level need only if lower needs have already
been fulfilled.
The travel career ladder
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Pearce’s Travel Career Ladder is based on a hierarchy
of travel motives and builds on Maslow’s model (in
Pearce et al., 1998).
Each person has a “travel career” just as they have a
“work career”.
People start their travel careers at different levels during
their travel careers.
Broadly, the TCL theory proposed that people progress
upward through the levels of motivation when
accumulating travel experiences.
People’s travel decisions and decision-making
processes are not static; they change over a person’s
lifetime based on their travel experiences.
Fulfilment needs
People tend to ascend
the ladder as they
become more
experienced travelers
Need for self-actualization
Need for flow experience
Self-esteem/development needs
(Other directed)
Need for status
Need for respect
recognition
Need for achievement
Higher-level motives include
low-level motives.
Lower-level motives have to
be satisfied or experienced
before high-level motives
come into play
(Self-directed)
Need for self-development
Need for growth
Need for mastery, control competence
Need for self-efficacy
Relationship needs
(Other directed)
Need to reduce anxiety about others
Need to affiliate
(Self-directed)
Need to give love, affection
Safety/security needs
(Other directed)
Need for security
(Self-directed)
Need to reduce anxiety
Need to predict and explain the world
Relaxation needs
(Externally oriented)
(Internally oriented)
need for escape, excitement, curiosity
Need for rest, eating, drinking
Need for arousal, external excitement, stimulation
Need for relaxation (manage arousal level)
The travel needs ladder
Optimal Arousal Theory
• Optimal Arousal Theory, also named two dimensional theory of tourist
motivation, is developed by S. E. Iso-Ahola’s.
• The basic principle behind the optimal arousal theory is that a person seeks
out a level of stimulation that is best for him/her as an individual. If a person’s
life is too quiet, the person may seek out stimulation through activity. If too
much is happening in a person’s world, then the person seeks to cut off
stimulation and find a quieter environment.
• Tourism provides an excellent means of accommodating a person’s need for an
optimal level of stimulation. Someone whose day-to-day life is overbearing may
choose to visit a remote, peaceful setting to counter the pressures of home and
work. Someone whose work and life are boring may want a vacation that
supplies adventure and excitement.
Iso-Ahola’s theory of seeking and escaping
Source: Iso-Ahola, S. E. (1984). Social psychological foundations of leisure and resultant
implications for leisure counseling. In Leisure counseling: concepts and
applications, E. T. Dowd, ed., pp. 97-125. Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas.
Plog’s allocentric-psychocentric theory

Psychocentric-allocentric model
This work was historically important in
providing one organizing theory of travel
motivation.
1. It offers only a single trait: a static and
extrinsic account of tourist motivation
2. It is not of universal application
3. It is limited by its formulation in the tourism
context of the early 1970s
Plog’s distribution of psychological segments
-five types personality
Plog (1973) used a psychometric scale to categories tourists into allocentric, mid-centric and
psychocentric, depending on individual's relative focus on their own culture and the one they are
visiting.
Psychocentrics tourists like good facilities; nice swimming pools; well-organized trip; pub lunches.
Plog’s distribution of psychological segments
The personality scale helps to explain why destinations rise and fall in popularity.
In particular, tourists’ personality characteristics determine their travel patterns
and preferences.
Resource: Stanley Plog, Why destination areas rise and fall in popularity, Cornell Hotel
and Restaurant Administration Quarterly; Jun 2001; 42, 3; ABI/INFORM Global, pg. 13
Psychographic positions of destinations (1972)
Psychocentric: Conservative in travel pattern, prefer ‘safe’ destinations.
Allocentric: Adventurous and discover , prefer ‘new’ destinations.
Resource: Stanley Plog, Why destination areas rise and fall in popularity, Cornell Hotel
and Restaurant Administration Quarterly; Jun 2001; 42, 3; ABI/INFORM Global, pg. 13
Psychographic positions of destinations
(2001)
Resource: Stanley Plog, Why destination areas rise and fall in popularity, Cornell Hotel
and Restaurant Administration Quarterly; Jun 2001; 42, 3; ABI/INFORM Global, pg. 13