Human Sexuality Chapter 5: Gender and Gender Roles

Gender: Topic Areas • Impact of gender on human development • Gender and sexual development • Biological and cultural perspectives • Sexual orientation • Gender stereotypes and health • Gender socialization • Gender variance and gender identity • Biological differences: brain, hormones, anatomy

Sex • Sex: biologically male or female, based on chromosomes and anatomy –

Genetics

: XX or XY –

Anatomical

: genitals/bodily differences

Gender • Gender: a social construct; related to notions of masculinity and femininity • Gender Identity: the gender one believes oneself to be

Gender • Gender roles: attitudes, behaviors, rights and responsibilities assigned to us based on our sex – Varies by culture

Gender • Gender-role stereotypes: rigidly held, oversimplified beliefs about sex appropriate behavior.

Gender • Gender-role attitudes: our personal perspectives/beliefs about sex appropriate behavior • Gender-role behaviors: activities/behaviors we engage in as influenced by our sex/gender

Gender • Gender presentation: how our sex/gender is perceived by others – Based on our physical appearance, movements, habits, personality, etc.

– Baby X study

Gender: Congruence and Incongruence • Biological, cultural, psychological, and social contexts of gender – These contexts can be

congruent

or

incongruent

– Examples?

Gender Variations • Some do not conform to socially/culturally constructed gender norms – How are such violations represented in

dominant discourses

?

– Psychological impact of gender variations?

Social Construction of Gender Identity • U.S.: gender identity- internalized by age 2 • East African societies: boys is a “woman child” until an initiation rite which makes him a man • Mundugumor of New Guinea: women are expected to be violent/aggressive

Instrumentality and Expressiveness •

Instrumentality

: being task-oriented; stereotypically applied to males •

Expressiveness

: being emotionally oriented/focused; stereotypically applied to females – “Gender Quotient Test”

Gender Stereotypes and Sexual Orientation – Ex. Gay men are not masculine; Lesbian women are not feminine – Gay people may have more flexible interpretations of gender roles and expectations (Lippa, 2000)

Cognitive Social Learning Theory • Albert Bandura • We “learn” gender as a result of: – Reinforcements and consequences – Imitation/modeling and observation • The social world provides many models and messages about gender • Body image: “Women’s Ideal Bodies”

Cognitive-Developmental Theory •

Developmental level

impacts cognitive processing of gender • Understanding gender in developmental perspective

Gender Schemas • Mental frameworks for understanding gender • Accounts for gender stereotypes

Social Constructionism • Cultures invent or “construct” notions of gender • Mediated by language and social systems

Social Constructionism • Feminist Studies • Post-Modern Approaches • Queer Theory

Social Constructionism and Identity • (Cohen & Savin-Williams, 1996) – Many sexual minority youth are not identifying as gay • Rejection of the social construction of sexual orientation

Contextual Influences on Gender • Parents “socialize” gender – Messages about gender appropriate behavior – Directing children to gender appropriate toys

Parents “Socialize” Gender – Differential language for the same behavior: “active” boy vs. a girl who is a “tomboy” – Directing children toward gender appropriate activities (I.e. helping mom in the kitchen)

Gender Socialization • Peers: peer pressure, reinforce gender norms • Teachers: differential treatment based on gender? Classroom reinforcement • Media: gender roles and stereotypes

Sexual “Scripts” • Script: acts/rules/expectations associated with a particular role (male and female “scripts”) – Men/women are impacted by certain “scripts” internalized from social interactions

Male Sexual Scripts (Zilbergeld, 1992) • Men should not have/express certain feelings • Sex is for physicality • Men are in charge

Male Sexual Scripts • Men always want and are ready for sex • Men should be sexually skilled and successful in sexual interactions

Female Sexual Scripts (Barbach, 2001) • Sex is good and bad (good in the context of a marriage, stigmatized elsewhere) • Masturbation is stigmatized • Sex is for men; women are sexually passive (nurturers)

Female Sexual Scripts • Women should not articulate their needs/desires • Women shouldn’t discuss sex • Women should look like models

Androgyny • Both instrumental and expressive traits • Flexibility in gender roles

Intersexed People • Ambiguous genitalia • 1 in every 2,000 births • Due to genetic or hormonal factors

Intersexed People • Sex chromosomes, external genitalia, or internal reproductive system • Underdeveloped penis or enlarged clitoris

Intersexed People: Chromosomal Abnormalities • Turner Syndrome: • XO • 1 in 2,000 births • Female external genitalia, no ovaries

Turner Syndrome • Secondary sexual development cannot occur; no menstruation • Short • Treated with hormonal therapy • Infertility

Klinefelter Syndrome • XXY;XXXY;XXXXY • 1 in 1,000 births • Male genitalia (small penis) • Female characteristics: breasts

Klinefelter Syndrome • Sparse body hair • Learning disabilities • Low sex drive, sexual dysfunction

Intersexed People: Hormonal Disorders • Androgen-Insensitivity Syndrome: • (testicular feminization) • Inherited condition; passed on through X chromosomes

Androgen-Insensitivity Syndrome • 1 in 13,000 individuals • Genetically male • Born with undescended testes (inside the abdomen) • estrogen is prevalent in the body

Androgen-Insensitivity Syndrome • Vagina and labia, but no female internal reproductive structures • Secondary female characteristics develop during puberty, without pubic hair

Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia • Genetic female • Ovaries • Malfunctioning adrenal gland • Develops externally as a male

Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia • 1 in 13,000 births • Penis and empty scrotum • External genitalia are ambiguous • Often assigned “female”

DHT Deficiency • Unable to convert testosterone to DHT • Internal male organs • Ambiguous external genitalia (looking more female)

DHT Deficiency • Begin to look male during puberty (genitalia and physical development)

Gender Identity Disorder • Cross-gender identification • Discomfort with one’s assigned gender • Psychological distress

Transsexuality • Gender identity and sexual anatomy are not compatible • Different from homosexuality

Transgendered People • Arguably the most stigmatized sexual minority

Transgendered People • An umbrella term; inclusive • Flexibility in terms of gender and social identity • Move toward transgender rights; legal to fire transgender people in many states

Positioning Theory • Rom Harre • We “position” ourselves and others in discourse – Power relationships

Positioning Theory • Ex. Positioning oneself as an expert, others as uninformed • Ex. Positioning oneself as masculine, another male as powerless/emasculated

Masculinity • How does culture/society construct masculinity?

–

Dominant discourses

on masculinity –

Contested discourses

on masculinity

Masculinity • How are constructions of masculinity sustained and reproduced?

Hyper-masculinity • Exaggerated, stereotypical male behavior – Aggression – Strength – Dominance

Chauvinism • Origins: nationalism; revering one’s own group • Current usage: male/female relationships • Refers to *power*

Anxious Masculinity • Enactments of masculinity/manliness that are motivated by a fear of being perceived as feminine • “the most important thing about being a man is

not

being a woman” – Ducat, S.

Anxious Masculinity • Rejection of feminine activities/qualities • Rejection of non-heterosexual discourses • Challenging/needing to prove one’s manliness

Mixed Cultural Messages • Masculinity – Need to be strong, unemotional, rational, dominant – Constructions of the “modern man” emotionally connected and sensitive

Mansfield article • “The Manliness of Men” • Holds that feminists fault men for society’s ills • “gains and losses” in the women’s movement

Mansfield article • Women have a problem with manliness because they are excluded – Argues that women overcompensate/seek to be more like men

Mansfield article • “Feminists insist that men must work harder to appreciate women. Yet they never ask women to be more understanding of men” - Mansfield

Mansfield article • Because women don’t want to be dependent, men may become more selfish (an unintended consequence)

Mansfield article • Equates masculinity with “noble sacrifice for a cause beyond oneself”

Ducat book • Central Questions: – When are men so terrified of being like women?

– Why must men constantly prove their masculinity?

Ducat: Men’s “fear of the feminine” • Being a “sissy” has a very negative connotation • Cross-gender behaviors are taboo in men

Ducat • Men are encouraged to “cut the apron strings” • Exude independence; reject nurturance from mom

Ducat • Studies: men were more anxious when engaging in cross gender activities, answering cross gender questions

Ducat • Men are conflicted – Men reject all things feminine – May secretly want to violate these gender barriers

Ducat • Men are attracted to qualities in women that they detest in themselves