Transcript A HISTORICAL STUDY OF LEADERSHIP DURING THE HEROIC …

TWENTY-FIRST CENTURY
LEADERSHIP FOR LIBRARIES
Dr. Roger Podell
[email protected]
Rhode Island Library Association Conference
June 1, 2012
Bryant University
Smithfield, RI
Today’s Goal
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Examine Leadership
Theory
Study Real Life
Application of Effective
Leadership
Create a Global, Usable
Model
Results:
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Improved Job Satisfaction
Improved Job
Performance
How do we train effective
leaders?
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“Leadership is not a
mysterious activity. It
is possible to describe
the tasks that leaders
perform.”
--John Gardner
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Advisor to 6 Presidents
Marine officer WWII
Winner of Presidential
Medal of Freedom
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Why do we need a new model?
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After years of research
and “thousands of
studies, we should have
gained greater insight
into effective
leadership.”
--Leadership Researchers
Angela Gordon &
Gary Yukl
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“Further progress will
require more innovative
research methods.
Leadership researchers
need to branch out
beyond the safe and
comfortable survey…to
capture the truly dynamic
qualities of leadership.”
A new approach to leadership
research
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Instead of testing
individual theories
Examine real events to
determine which theories
emerge as effective in
application
Historical method
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Hindsight
Data
Part I: Leadership Theory
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“The leader has to be
practical and a realist, yet
must talk the language of
the visionary and the
idealist.”
—Eric Hoffer
Leadership Historically
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Leadership studied since ancient
times
Egyptians
 hieroglyphics for “leaders,”
“leadership,” “followers”
 Traits for Pharaohs: justice,
perception, authoritativeness
Plato & Aristotle
 Virtues of leaders: virtue and
education
Confucius
 Moral leadership, rewards and
punishments
Machiavelli
 Ruthless, practical approach
Confucius
Great Man Theory
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1841 Carlyle
Human achievement the result of
the work of great men
Inherent traits
Natural superiority
Research examined genealogies of
leaders
Remained a popular theory into the
20th century
Carlyle
Trait Theory
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Terman
Derived from Great Man Theory
Popular during 1st half of 20th
Century
Identifiable physical, intellectual
and personality traits made leaders
superior to followers
Researched focused on identifying
traits among leaders, children
Did superior children have inborn
traits?
Disputing Trait Theory
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Stodgill’s 1948 meta-analysis
of Trait Theory research:
Although leaders may have
consistent traits
 The traits are not the cause of
the effective leadership
 Traits are not useful predictors
of effective leadership
 Certain traits are only valuable
in specific situations
Led to emphasis on situation
Trait Theory enjoyed a revival in
the late 20th century
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“Prior to this work,
emphasis had been placed on
the search for universal traits
of leadership. After it,
situation-specific analyses
took
--Bernard Bass
“Ralph Stogdill at Ohio State
helped weaken the status of
‘trait’
But then we grew weary
of State sponsored theory
which suffered a similar fate”
Situational Leadership Theory
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Effective leadership, even for
great men, dependent on
situation & skills (James,
1880)
After Stodgill’s meta-analysis
of Trait Theory, wave of
research during 1950s, 1960s
Situational variable a key
influence on leader’s actions
(Tannenbaum & Schmitt,
1951)
William James
Situational Leadership Theory
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Hersey
Blanchard
Hersey and Blanchard, 1972
Model of leadership behavior
designed to match support
level and developmental level
of followers:
 Telling/Directing
 Selling/Coaching
 Participating/Supporting
 Delegating/Observing
Hersey and Blanchard’s Model
Behavioral Theory’s 4 Styles
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Likert
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Exploitative Authoritative
(fear based, low regard for
people)
Benevolent Authoritative
(reward system, higher
regard)
Consultative
(follower input and
feedback encouraged, not
decision-making power)
Participative
(collaborative planning
and decision making)
Theory X
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McGregor
Why low job satisfaction in
employees with good jobs?
Employers believe they need
to control workers through
rewards, punishments, or
coercion
Believed Theory X
ineffective because it failed to
account for Maslow’s “higher
needs”
Theory Y
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McGregor suggested
Theory Y
Rooted in Maslow’s
concepts
Workers presumed to be
capable of self direction,
desirous of work and
responsibility
Theory Y techniques
include participative
management & delegation
of authority
Allows for innovation &
creativity
Pride in workmanship
Maslow
Fielder’s Contingency Theory
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Fiedler
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An awareness that effective
leadership includes:
 Leadership skills
 Leadership styles
 Leadership behaviors
 Applied correctly in
situation
 An understanding of task
 An understanding of
nature of followers
Path-Goal Theory
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House
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Well articulated goal
Clear path
Make it easier for
employees to do a good
job
Eliminate frustrations that
lower morale
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Four styles for leaders to
apply
Path-Goal Theory:
 Directive
 Supportive
 Participative
 Achievement
Oriented
Servant Theory
Greenleaf
Servant Leadership’s ten
principles:
 Listening
 Empathy
 Healing
 Awareness
 Persuasion
 Conceptualization
 Foresight
 Stewardship
 Commitment to the growth
of people
 Building community
Transactional and Transformational
Theory
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Based on historical research
of FDR
Pre-war: Transactional
Reward is contingent on the
successful performance of
the followers’ task
Transactional leadership
theory is based on the
psychological concepts of
classical conditioning and
behaviorism
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Wartime: Transformational
 Widespread support
 Allowed for engineering
of social programs
broader than those of the
New Deal
 Fundamental societal
changes
Transformational Leaders
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Create a vision
Foster support
Generate trust, respect,
and commitment
Focus on long term goals
Inspire followers to look
beyond self interest and
share the motivation and
organizational goals of
the leader
In Extremis Theory
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Kolditz
Based on interviews with
leaders and followers in life
and death situations
Kolditz identified certain
traits among successful
leaders in dangerous settings,
including the willingness to
share risk, which engendered
respect and enhanced
credibility
Deming’s Thoughts on Leadership
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Deming
Goal of leadership:
To improve employee
performance, quality,
production, and “bring pride
of workmanship to people
Not merely to find and
record failures of men, but to
remove the causes of failure:
to help people do a better job
with less effort
Part II: Historical Study
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Heroic Age of Antarctic
Exploration (1897-1922)
provides a window to
observe leadership
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Isolation of crew and leaders
Time factor
Brutally harsh conditions
Life and death situations
Photos & documentation
The benefit of hindsight
Success of the mission vs.
survival of the crew
The Endurance
Application of Theory
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Antarctic expeditions provide
a testing ground for the
practical application of
leadership theory
Leadership theories are not
broad enough to account for
the complex elements that
impact effective leadership
An examination of leadership
during the Antarctic
expeditions will serve as a
controlled test of leadership
theory in reality
Launching of the James Caird
Shackleton
Historical Overview of Antarctica
Prior to 1897
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Pytheas
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Map of Antarctica, @ 1520
Supercontinent broke apart
Antarctica drifted to the south
Cooled and became covered in
snow & ice
6th century B.C. Pythagoras
determined Earth was round
320 B.C. Pytheas sailed to the
Arctic Circle
Greeks theorized the existence of
counterbalancing southern land
“Ant-arktos”
Romans called it “Terra Incognita”
Geography of Antarctica
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9 million square miles, larger
than Australia or Europe
Expansive sheets of ice,
including Ross Ice Shelf
which is larger than France
Glaciers continually flow
from Polar plateau through
the Transantarctic Mountains
constantly adding ice to the
Shelf
Volcanoes, including Mt.
Erebus (active)
Glaciers
Mt. Erebus
Climate of Antarctica
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98% covered in ice & snow
Highest average elevation of
any continent
Receives only diffused rays
from the sun due to angle of
Earth’s axis
Heat reflected, lost
Lowest temperatures on
Earth
Minus 77 degrees F.
Blizzards common
Winds up to 200 mph
Historical Overview of Antarctica
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Europeans believed in Terra
Incognita and drew it on
maps
1520 Magellan
1773 James Cook
1820 T. Bellingshausen
1820-1895 Various
international expeditions
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Magellan
Naval
Scientific
Hunters
Bellingshausen
Birth of the Heroic Age of Antarctic
Exploration 1897-1922
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Several factors combined to
generate an surge of interest in
Antarctic exploration:
Push from British societies
Excitement over century
National glory of reaching South
Pole
Personal rivalries of explorers
Scientific investigation
Military potential
Possible natural resources
Whale and seal hunting
Markham
Focus: Shackleton and Scott
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Lives and legacies
intertwined
Notable differences:
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Background
Personalities
Leadership styles
Mission outcome
Survival of crew
Shackleton and Scott
Sir Robert Falcon Scott
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Career Naval officer
Becomes Antarctic explorer
for monetary and career
reasons
Led two expeditions:
Discovery (1901-1904)
 400 miles from South Pole
Terra Nova (1910-1912)
 Reached South Pole with his
team
Scott
Sir Ernest Shackleton
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Merchant marine background
Requests to join Scott’s Discovery
Expedition
Commanded
Nimrod (1907-1909)
 Trans-Antarctic Expedition (19141917)
 Quest (1921-1922)
Trans-Antarctic Expedition
 Failed to achieve goal of traversing
Antarctica
 Succeeded in bringing entire crew
home safely
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Shackleton
Legend as ultimate successful
leader
Expeditions
Scott:
Discovery (1901-1904)
Terra Nova (1910-1913)
Shackleton:
Nimrod (1907-1909)
Endurance (1914-1917)
Quest (1921-1922)
Scott’s Leadership
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Early experiences
 Path to role of
commander
Discovery (1901-1904)
 Furthest South Record
Terra Nova
(1910-1913)
 Race with Amundsen
 Reaching South Pole
 Return journey
Shackleton’s Leadership
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Early experiences
Discovery with Scott
(1901-1903)
– Learning the Antarctic
Nimrod: (1907-1909)
– 90 Miles from Pole
Endurance (1914-1917)
– Ocean Camp
– Patience Camp
– Elephant Island
– Voyage of the Caird
– Crossing South Georgia
– Rescue
Part III: Synthesizing Theory
with Application
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Effective Leadership:
An Amalgam of
Existing Leadership
Theories
– Path-Goal Structure
– Transformational
Leadership
– Servant Leadership
– In Extremis
Leadership
Shackleton’s Leadership
and Path Goal Theory
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Articulating a clear goal and path
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Meeting follower needs
– Reaching safety by dragging boats
– Removal of obstacles/altered
plans
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Supportive Behaviors
• Personally worked with men
with low morale
• Rotated tent assignments on
pretext
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Directive Behaviors
• Meal and work schedules
• Sharing of work: scientists
and sailors
• Unified diverse crew
• Psychological Structure
(House & Mitchell, 1974)
Shackleton’s Leadership
and Path Goal Theory
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Participative Behaviors
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Worked closely with Wild and
Worsley
Listened to suggestions from
crew
Achievement Behaviors
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Wild in command on Elephant
Island
Worsley navigating
James Caird
Shackleton: Supplementing Path
Goal by Transforming Follower
Motivation
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Transformational Theory
– Inspiring Trust
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Servant Theory
– Selflessness
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Leading rescue party during
Nimrod expedition
Planting flag
Giving food to Wild
Giving his gear to others
In Extremis Theory
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Egalitarianism
• Shared work, risk & living
conditions
Scott’s Leadership
and Path Goal Theory
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Articulating Goal
and Path
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Plan to reach South Pole
using manhauling, ponies,
dogs, motorized sledges
Ignored race
Revisions as necessary
Improvements
Supportive Behaviors
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Provided positive work
environment
Made sure scientists had
best possible equipment
Scott’s Leadership
and Path Goal Theory
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Directive Behaviors
 Coordinated teams
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5 vs. 4
Designated tasks
 Psychological Structure
Achievement Behaviors
 Delegated authority:
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Bowers—planning
Wilson—science
Atkinson—command
Participative Behaviors
 Sought crew’s opinion
regarding race with
Amundsen
Scott: Supplementing Path Goal by
Transforming Follower Motivation
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Transformational Theory
 Inspiring Trust
 Sympathy and praise
 Oates, Evans
Servant Theory
 Selflessness
 Helping Shackleton
In Extremis Theory
 Shared work, shared risk
 Rescued dogs
 Powerful sledger
 Led by example
Part IV: A Model for Twenty-first
Century Leadership
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Provide a Goal and a Path to
Get There
Articulate a clear goal
Create a path to the goal
Clear the path of any
obstacles
Think ahead about possible
problems that may arise
Make changes as necessary
to keep the path clear
Inspiring People
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Your Goal as Leader:
Inspire People to Want
to Follow the Path and
Attain the Goal:
Build trust and loyalty
Transform individuals
and the organization
Create a cohesive group
from diverse elements
How to Inspire People
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Make people your priority
and demonstrate this
through actions
Focus intensely on
supporting them, especially
those who are struggling
Be selfless, humble,
altruistic, and empathetic
Share work and share risk
High Expectations
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Set high expectations
High expectations yield
higher results
Show confidence
Encourage excellence
Teach, direct, and guide
Believe in the potential
of people
Keep Morale High
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Use an understanding of
human psychology to
guide your actions
Constantly spread
optimism to individuals
and the organization