Expository Writing

Grammar Points Dr. M. Connor

Just hitting the high points

 The number of possible grammar problems in English writing can seem limitless!

 I’m going to point out a few very common problems then discuss punctuation.

 Other problems we’ll face as they come!

The sentence fragment

 As you know, an English sentence must have a subject and a predicate (which contains the verb).  If one part of a sentence is missing, you have a

sentence fragment

.

 While they can be used sparingly in prose for purposes of style, they are technically incorrect.

Examples of sentence fragments

 Because the sky is blue.

– Because the sky is blue

what?

to complete the thought.

You need  For example, when I play my piano.

– This is a common type of error. In your head it may seem like a complete thought, but in my head I’m saying, when I play the piano

what?

Revising sentence fragments

 There are two ways to fix sentence fragments: – by attaching it to a sentence, usually the one that went before it – by adding whatever is necessary to make it a sentence.

Method one

 Music videos began to make their appearance in 1980.

Some of them concert performances and some technological innovations.

 Music videos began to make their appearance in 1980,

some of them concert performances and some technological innovations.

– Fragment attached to the sentence, separated by a comma.

Method two

 Music videos began to make their appearance in 1980.

Some of them concert performances and some technological innovations.

 Music videos began to make their appearance in 1980.

Some of them were were concert performances and some technological innovations.

– A verb, were, is added to the fragment, making it a sentence.

Run-on sentences

 These fall into two categories – comma splice – fused sentence  Both are

always

wrong – unlike the sentence fragment that can be used for effect.

The Comma splice

 These are two independent clauses (fancy term for a full sentence) linked together with a comma.

 Very common when using the word however: – The house looked run-down, however, the inside was in beautiful shape.

Use a coordinating conjunction

 You can separate two independent clauses with a comma

only

when they are joined by a coordinating conjunction – and – but – or – nor – for – so – yet

Examples

 The mattress caught fire, the flames spread quickly.

 The mattress caught fire,

and

the flames spread quickly.

Other ways to fix a comma splice

 Make separate sentences of the two clauses.

 Insert a semi-colon rather than a comma (more on this later).

 Make one of the independent clauses into a subordinate clause using a subordinating conjunction.

Subordinating conjunctions

 Examples: – although – after – since – when – that, which, who  After the mattress caught fire, the flames spread quickly.

The fused sentence

 This type of error combines two independent clauses with no connecting word or punctuation between them.

 Dr. Ling is director of the hospital he also maintains a private practice.

How to repair a fused sentence

 It can be corrected in the same way as a comma splice.

 But grammarians just like to point out that they are two different

types

of error!

Mixed sentences

 A mixed sentence is a sentence whose parts do not fit together, either in grammar or in meaning.

 Examples: – The catcher dropped the ball is why the runner is safe.

– By seeing the accident made us start wearing seat belts.

Beginning one way, ending another

 Be sure that the parts of your sentences, particularly subjects and predicates, fit together grammatically.

– During the worst part of the storm frightened all of us [prepositional phrase used as a subject] – During the worst part of the storm, all of us were frightened. [main clause revised to include a subject]

Subjects and predicates fit together

 Be sure that subjects and predicates of your sentences fit together in meaning.

– A prank that irks me is my brother when he jumps out from behind corners. [the prank is not the brother] – A prank that irks me is my brother’s he jumping out from behind corners. [the prank is the jumping]

Punctuation

 Russell Baker, a Pulitzer Prize winning author, wrote an essay on how to punctuate for a series of essays on writing for schools sponsored by the International Paper Company in the 1980s.

 I’ll be quoting from it here. And adding my own comments as well!

Listening to punctuation

 When you write, you make a sound in the reader’s head.

 It can be a dull mumble or it can be a joyful noise, a sly whisper, a throb of passion.

You need tools!

 One of the most important tools for making paper speak in your own voice is punctuation.

Body language

 When you speak aloud, you are constantly punctuating.

 Your listener

hears

commas, dashes, question marks, exclamation marks as you shout, whisper, pause, wave you arms, roll your eyes, wrinkle your brow.

 Over 85% of “spoken” communication is

non-verbal !

Do you see the problem?

 We need to figure out how to get that 85% of missing body language onto the page!

 In writing, punctuation plays the part of body language.

 It helps readers hear you the wat you want to be heard.

Lots of scary rules

 Don’t let the rules scare you. Most of them are common sense.

 While there are a few “odd” rules, I’ll tell you what they are, so don’t worry.

Two basic systems of punctuation

 The loose, open system which tries to capture the way body language punctuates talk.

 The tight, closed structural system, which hews closely to the sentence’s grammatical structure.

 Most of us use a little of both.

Punctuation isn’t a “heal-all”

 Punctuation marks cannot save a sentence that’s badly put together.

 If you have to struggle over the punctuation, you have probably built a sentence that’s never going to fly, no matter how much you tinker with it.

– Throw is away and rebuild a simpler one!

Choosing the right tool

 There are 30 main punctuation marks in English!

 Most writing gets by on using less than a dozen.

 I’m going to hit the “highlights” here.

The comma [,]

 This is the most widely used mark of all!

 It is also the toughest and the most controversial.

 Baker has seen aging editors almost come to blows over the comma.

 I have seen grown lawyers screaming curses at one another over the use of the comma! I do not lie!

Comma policy

 Use the comma after a long introductory phrase or clause: – After stealing the crown jewels from the Tower of London, I went home for tea.

 If the introductory material is short, forget the comma: – After the theft I went home for tea.

But, and there’s always a “but”...

  But use the comma if the sentence would be confusing without it, like this: – The day before I’d robbed the Bank of England.

You mean “the day before” to be an introduction, but here it reads like a sentence fragment. You want this: – The day before, I’d robbed the Bank of England.

Series

 Use a comma to separate elements in a series.

– I robbed the Denver Mint, the Bank of England, the Tower of London and my piggy bank.

 Notice there is no comma before

and

in the series. This is common style nowadays, but some publishers use a comma there as well. Your choice.

When using a conjunction

 As noted earlier, you use a comma when separating independent clauses that are joined by a conjunction like

and , but , for , or , nor , because

or

so

: – I shall return the crown jewels, for they are too heavy to wear.

Mildly parenthetical word grouping

 Use a comma to set off a mildly parenthetical word grouping that isn’t essential to the meaning of the sentence: – Boys, who have always interested me , usually differ from girls.

 Notice how we could lose the part in blue without effecting the meaning of the sentence.

Another “but”

 Do not use commas if the word grouping

is

essential to the meaning of the sentence: – Boys who interest me know how to tango.

 See the difference between this and the slide before?

Use in direct address

 Use a comma in direct address: – Your majesty, please hand over the crown.

– Officer, I swear I wasn’t speeding!

– Dear sweet Dr. Connor, I haven’t done my homework.

Between proper names and titles

 Always use a comma between proper names and titles: – Montague Sneed, Director of Scotland Yard, was assigned to the case.

– George W. Bush, President of the United States, is fighting for reelection.

– Marguerite Connor, Queen of the Universe, has absolutely no ego problems at all!

Geographical address

 We use a comma to separate elements of geographical address: – Director Sneed comes from Chicago, Illinois, and now lives in London, England.

– The address for Fu Jen is 510 Jung Jeng Rd., Hsinchuang, 24205, Taipei County, Taiwan, ROC.

Generally speaking…

 Use a comma where you’d pause briefly in speed. For a long pause of completion of thought, use a period.

 If you know music, a comma is a one beat rest, a period is a two-beat rest.

Semicolon [;]

 A more sophisticated mark than the comma, the semicolon separates two independent clauses, but keeps them tightly linked. – I steal crown jewels; she steals hearts.

 One colleague explained it by saying you use a semicolon when you want to link two sentences like they were cousins.

Other semicolon advice

  I once had an editor who asked me – What does a semicolon sound like?

– Like a period, I answered.

– Use a period then.

Perhaps that’s a bit reductionist, but he had a point.

 If you’re unsure as to how to use one, don’t!

Some semicolon rules

 Use a semicolon to separate main clauses not joined by a coordinating conjunction.

– There are six museums in the city; the largest is the Museum of Fine Arts.

 Use a semicolon to separate main clauses joined by a conjunctive adverb.

– The reporters waited for an explanation of the policy change; indeed, they felt they were entitled to it.

            

Conjunctive adverbs

Accordingly  Moreover also  namely anyway  nevertheless besides  next certainly  nonetheless consequently  now finally  otherwise further  similarly furthermore  still hence  then however  thereafter incidentally  thus meanwhile  undoubtedly

On with the ; rules

 Use a semicolon to separate main clauses if they are very long or complex or if they contain commas, even when they are joined by a coordinating conjunction.

– The literacy rate in Indonesia, Malaysia and Singapore is about 50%; but in Cambodia and Laos the rate is 70% and 80% respectively.

– The announcement that classes were cancelled were posted all over campus; yet dozens of students showed up anyway.

Dash [--] and Parenthesis [( )]

 Warning! Use sparingly.

 The dash SHOUTS .

 Parenthesis

whisper.

 Shout too often and people stop listening (think of when your dad starts).

 Whisper too much and people become suspicious of you.

The Dash

 The dash creates a dramatic pause to prepare for an expression needing strong emphasis.

– I’ll marry you--if you’ll rob the Post Office with me.

– Care, tenderness, a sense of humor--Ryan possessed all of these.

– Some of the largest animals--elephants, rhinos, and blue whales--are in danger of extinction.

Parenthesis

 Parenthesis help you pause quietly to drop in some chatty information not vital to your story.

– Despite Betty’s daring spirit (“I love robbing your piggy bank,” she often said), she was a terrible dancer.

– William Butler Yeats (1865-1939) was not only a poet but also a playwright and essayist, and some say, a seer into the future.

Quotation marks [“ ”]

 These tell the reader you’re reciting the exact words someone said or wrote: – Betty said, “I can’t tango.” – OR – “I can’t tango,” Betty said.

 Notice the comma comes before the quote marks in the first example, but comes before them in the second. Not logical? Never mind, do it that way anyway.

More uses

 We also use quotation marks around the titles of a short story, poem, song or book chapter. In other words, part of a whole work, which we would italicize.

– “My Happy Ending” is a great song on Avril Levigne’s album

Under My Skin.

– “The Second Coming” is from W.B. Yeats’s volume

Michael Robartes And The Dancer

, 1921.

The colon [:]

 A colon is a tip-off to get ready for what’s next: a list, a long quotation, or an explanation.

 The message is: “Stay on your toes; it’s coming at you!”

The apostrophe [’]

 This causes a big headache when it comes to

possessive nouns.

 If the noun is singular, add

’s

– I hated Betty’s tango.

 If the noun is plural, simply add an apostrophe after the s.

– Those are the girls’ coats.

Now for the headache part

  The same applies for singular nouns ending in “s” like Dickens and words ending in “z” like Lopez – This is Dickens’s best book.

– This is Mr. Lopez’s car.

And now in the plural, add “es’ ”: – This is the Dickenses’ cottage.

– This is the Lopezes’ boat.

Possessive pronouns

 Possessive pronoun his, hers and its have no apostrophe.

 If you write it’s, you are saying it is.

Contractions

 The other use for apostrophes is in contractions.

 Can not  can’t and so on.

Ending punctuation [. ? !]

 Remember to end your sentences with a period if they need one.

 Questions, of course, need to take a question mark.

 You can also use an exclamation point, but do you have to?

 Too many times they make you sound breathless and silly. Use your words to generate excitement, not a bunch of !!!!