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新生講座
9. That Is What I said,
BUT
That Is Not What I Meant
共同教育中心 蘇以文老師
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解讀語言
1. 何謂語言?
2. 語言與學習
a. 語言與生活
b. 語言與學習
c. 語言與認知
2
What Is Language?
A complex system of communication
• To express inner thoughts and emotions,
• To make sense of complex and abstract thought,
• To learn to communicate with others,
• To fulfill our wants and needs, and
• To establish rules and maintain our culture
3
The fundamental difference between
human and non-human communication
• Animals are believed to react instinctively, in a stereotyped and
predictable way
• Mostly, human behavior is under the voluntary control, and human
language is creative and unpredictable.
• It is generally assumed that only humans have language.
4
Defining Language
• A universally accepted definition of language or the criteria for its
use does not exist.
• Parts of the problem is the problem of describing how human
language differs from any kind of communicative behavior carried
on by non-human or pre-human species.
• The ability to exchange information is shared by all communication
systems, and a number of non-human systems share some features
of human language.
5
Checklist for Language
Charles Hockett (1967)
•
•
•
•
•
duality of pattern (the combo of a phonological and a grammatical system)
productivity (the ability to create and understand new utterances)
arbitrariness (when signs/words do not resemble the things they represent)
interchangeability (the ability to transmit and to receive)
specialization (the only function of speech is communication and the
speaker does not act out his message)
• displacement (the ability to refer to the past and to things not present)
• cultural transmission (the ability to teach/learn from other individuals)
6
Language
• A distinguishing biological trait of Homo Sapiens, but far too
complicated, intriguing, and mysterious to be adequately
explained by a brief definition.
• "Language is the most massive and inclusive art we know, a
mountainous and anonymous work of unconscious
generations."-- Sapir (1921), Language
• All human languages have lots of similarities: they tell us a lot
about what it means to be human, to be Homo Sapiens.
7
Language, Thought and Culture
Language, thought, and culture form three strands of a braid, with each one
affecting the others.
• Does our language affect our way of thinking?
• Does a difference in cultural habits affect both our thoughts and our
language?
• Your culture shapes the way you think, and also the way you talk.
8
I hear what you say
• He accepts my point of view
• I disagree and do not want to discuss it further
9
That’s not bad
• That’s poor
• That’s good
10
That’s a very brave proposal
• He thinks I have courage
• You are insane
11
I would suggest…
• Think about the idea, but do what you like
• Do it or be prepared to justify yourself
12
Oh, incidentally/ by the way
• That is not very important
• The primary purpose of our discussion is…
13
Very interesting
• They are impressive
• That is clearly nonsense
14
I’m sure it’s my fault
• Why is it your fault?
• It’s your fault
15
You must come for dinner
• I will get an invitation soon
• It’s not an invitation. I’m just being polite
16
I only have a few minor comments
• He has found a few typos
• I don’t like you idea
17
Women’s Speech –
an exaggerated view
I’m not mad
• I’m livid!
19
I’ll be ready in
I’ll
be
ready
in
a
minute
a minute
• Sit back, relax, and drink a beer
• Sit back, relax, and drink a beer
20
Is my butt fat?
• Tell me I’m pretty
21
Sure…go ahead
• I don’t want you to
22
Are you listening to me?
• Too late
23
Do you love me?
• I’m about to ask for something big
24
Yes
No
Maybe
No
Yes
No
25
I’m sorry
• You’ll be sorry
26
We need
• I want
27
Deciphering Men’s Language
(to Women)
An over-reading?
Go ahead
• I get to stay home. Nice! Do whatever you want while I catch up some
video games
29
You sure?
• Do I really have to buy this? Because this is all you’re gonna get for a
while…
30
It really looks good
• I just said it looks good. Now please don’t ask me again expecting a
different response!
31
What time are you coming back?
• How long do I have … to just chill without you on my ass. Two hours?
Three? All day?
32
What do you think?
• I really don’t care what you think. Just trying to making conversation,
because you always say I don’t talk and stuff.
33
(Not answering)
• I’m zoned out. You can keep talking. Just don’t ask any questions that
require a response.
34
The breakup lines
You deserve better
• I deserve better
36
We’re too alike
• You bore me
37
You just don’t get me
• I just don’t want you
38
I’m not ready for the real thing
• This isn’t the real thing
39
I love you like a friend
• You don’t really turn me on
40
I need space
• I want to get far, far away from you
41
I wish
it could have worked out between us
• I wish I didn’t have to have this conversation
42
I don’t want to hold you back
• You’re a drag
43
We’re just at different points in our lives
• You’re beneath me
44
My feelings for you are so intense they scare me
•?
45
Media Language
Comments on 美食
•
•
•
•
很特別
這道很口味
not
used
好好吃
其他表情或讚美的話
好吃
47
Academic language –
an ironical view
It has long been known
• I didn’t look up the original reference
49
A definite trend is evident
• The data are practically meaningless
50
While it has not been possible to provide definite
answers to the questions
• An unsuccessful experiment, but I still hope to get it published
51
Three of the samples
were chosen for detailed study
• The other results didn’t make any sense
52
A careful analysis of obtained data
• Three pages of notes were obliterated when I knocked over a glass of
beer
53
Typical results are shown
• This is the prettiest graph
54
These results will be
in a subsequent report
• I might get around to this sometime, if published/funded
55
After additional study by my colleagues
• They didn’t understand it, either
56
A highly significant area
for exploratory study
• A totally useless topic selected by my committee
57
In my experience
• Once
58
In case after case
• Twice
59
In a series of cases
• Three times
60
It is believed that
• I think
61
It is generally believed that
• A couple of others think so, too
62
It is correct within an order of magnitude
• It is wrong
63
It is clear that
much additional work will be required before a complete understanding
of this phenomenon occurs
• I don’t understand
64
According to statistical analysis
• Rumors has it
65
A statistically-oriented projection of the
significance of these findings
• A wild guess
66
It is hoped that this study will stimulate further
investigation in this field
• I quit
67
Academic Persuasion
Ken Hyland (2011:195-212)
Persuasion is accomplished with language
• Because writers can only guide readers to a particular interpretation
rather than demonstrate proof, readers always have the option of
refuting their interpretations. At the heart of academic persuasion,
then, are writers’ attempts to anticipate possible negative reactions
to their claims.
69
• Writers must recognize and make choices from the
rhetorical options available in their fields to appeal to
readers from within the boundaries of their
disciplines.
70
• Because we do not have direct access to the world and our
understandings can only be mediated by a theory to interpret it,
knowledge has to be seen as a rhetorical construct. An effective
academic writing depends on interactions and a model which
attempts to show how writers deploy linguistic resources to represent
themselves, their positions, and their readers. These resources
represent relatively conventional ways of making meaning and so
elucidate a context for interpretation, showing how writers and
readers make connections, through texts, to their disciplinary cultures.
71
• Discourse conventions are persuasive because they carry
the epistemological and social beliefs of community
members.
• Academics use language to acknowledge, construct and
negotiate social relations.
72
• In persuading readers of their claims, writers must display
a competence as disciplinary insiders, which is, at least in
part, achieved through a writer-reader dialogue which
situates both their research and themselves, establishing
relationships between people, and between people and
ideas.
73
• Interaction in academic writing essentially involves
“positioning”, or adopting a point of view in relation to
both the issues discussed in the text and to others who
hold points of view on those issues.
74
•Interactions are accomplished in academic
writing by making choices from the
interpersonal systems of stance and
engagement.
75
• Stance:
Refers to the writer’s textual “voice” or community recognized
personality, an attitudinal, writer-oriented function which concerns
the ways writers present themselves and convey their judgments,
opinions, and commitments.
• Engagement:
Refers more of an alignment function, concerning the ways that
writers rhetorically recognize the presence of their readers to
actively pull them along with the argument, include them as
discourse participants, and guide them to interpretations
76
Human language as opposed to other
communicative signals (Tomasello)
Language is socially learned and transmitted
culturally.
• Linguistic signals are conventional, i.e.
understood intersubjectively
•
77
Conditionals as a Reflection of Mind
• {If P, then Q}
• An if-clause sets up a mental space which is the background for the
construal of the then-clause
• 如果你不介意我說實話的話, 我很討厭她 。
• 要是(換作)我, 我也會覺得不太好。
78
• It is suggested that the undesirability of the then-clause
may be the driving force for the intersubjective nature in
terms of hypotheticality associated with the if-clause.
• The speaker concerns over the hearer's negative face by
mitigating their subjective evaluation, hence softening the
impact of a possible FTA.
79
Linguistic signals “are fundamentally perspectival
• a person may refer to the same entity as dog, animal, pet,
or pest, or to the same event as running, fleeing, moving, or
surviving – depending on her communicative goal with
respect to the listener’s attentional states”
• Language basically involve management and assessment of
other organisms -- This management and assessment is
indirect, presupposing shared knowledge, and aimed at
other minds.
80
Wife
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
妻子
老婆
太太
夫人
老伴
內子
內人
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
媳婦
那口子
拙荊
賢內助
孩他媽
孩他娘
糟糠
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
牽手
賤內
賤荊
女人
馬子
主婦
女主人
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
渾家
娘子
另一半
女當家
渾家
髮妻
黃臉婆
81
Context
看到
看見
看清
看懂
看透
看開
Perspective
82
差一個字大不同！
• 學術論文中，“future work should…” 是邀請大家一起研究
同一個題目
• “future work will…” 是?
• 叫其他人不要插手嗎？
83
So, how does language work?
The working of language is primarily cognitive, which is
concerned with
• the meanings of linguistic expressions
• the contrast between subjective and objective construal
reflecting the inherent asymmetry between a perceiving
individual and the entity perceived
84
Homework
85
• With the greatest respect
• Quite good
• I was a bit disappointed
• I’ll bear it in mind
• I almost agree
86
Advertising in the Contemporary World:
An Introduction to Persuasive Texts
•
Many advertisements, particularly video, embed persuasive
techniques in the familiar genre of narrative first to inform,
engage, and interest readers and viewers emotionally, and
then to persuade them to take some form of action.
• This action may be to buy a product, sign a petition, attend
an event, or change their behavior. Sometimes the purpose
is to raise awareness of an issue –the action or response
required is not always made explicit
87
Collect your own data
• Describe what you have learned about the use of language
based on the data you have collected. In your response,
consider the importance of a central message, ways to
communicate the message, and specific uses of language
and/or visuals make one feel or think a certain way.
88
版權聲明
頁碼
作品
版權標示
來源/作者
4-5
The fundamental
difference…..
human language
Ulla Hedeager “IS LANGUAGE UNIQUE TO THE HUMAN SPECIES? “
http://greatapes.freehosting.net/index.html
依據著作權法第 46、52、65 條合理使用。
6
duality of
pattern…… other
individuals
Hockett, Charles F. “A Course in Modern Linguistics”. 12th ed. (1st ed. 1958).
New York: The Macmillan Company and Canada: Collier-Macmillan Ltd., 1967
依據著作權法第 46、52、65 條合理使用。
7
A
distinguishing ……
by a brief
definition.
改寫自
About.com / Richard Nordquist “What Is Language?”
http://grammar.about.com/od/grammarfaq/f/whatislang.htm
依據著作權法第 46、52、65 條合理使用。
7
Language is
the …….
generations
Edward Sapir (1884–1939). Language: An Introduction to the Study of Speech. 1921.
http://www.bartleby.com/186/pages/page235.html
本作品屬於公共領域之著作。
9-17
I hear what you
say……I don’t like
you idea
EUCEN
http://www.eucen.eu/about/english_in_use
依據著作權法第 46、52、65 條合理使用。
18-27
I’m not mad……I
want
Author Unknown
改寫自
http://kcbx.net/~tellswor/wifespea.htm
依據著作權法第 46、52、65 條合理使用。
28-34
Go
ahead……require
a response.
Guyfy / Omar Elbaga
http://www.guyfy.com/funny/11-things-guys-say-to-women-and-what-they-really-mean
依據著作權法第 46、52、65 條合理使用。
89
版權聲明
頁碼
作品
版權標示
來源/作者
36-45
You deserve
better….. they
scare me
Cosmopolitan September 01, 2009 p.242
7 sneaky ways to sink a relationship
依據著作權法第 46、52、65 條合理使用。
49-67
It has long been
known……. I quit
Graham, C. D., Jr. (1957). A glossary for research reports. Metal Progress, 71(5), 75-76
依據著作權法第 46、52、65 條合理使用。
69-76
Because writers
can only
guide ……guide
them to
interpretations
Writing in Knowledge Societies / Edited by Doreen Starke-Meyerring, Anthony Paré, Natasha Artemeva, Miriam Horne,
and Larissa Yousoubova p.193-214
Ch10. Disciplines and Discourses: Social Interactions in the Construction of Knowledge / Ken Hyland
http://wac.colostate.edu/books/winks/ 以創用CC BY-NC-ND授權釋出。
77
Language
is ……understood
intersubjectively
The Shared Mind : Perspectives on intersubjectivity p.309
John Benjamins Publishing Company / Edited by Jordan Zlatev, Timothy P. Racine, Chris Sinha and Esa Itkonen(2008)
依據著作權法第 46、52、65 條合理使用。
80
a person
may……aimed at
other minds
The Shared Mind : Perspectives on intersubjectivity p.307
John Benjamins Publishing Company / Edited by Jordan Zlatev, Timothy P. Racine, Chris Sinha and Esa Itkonen(2008)
依據著作權法第 46、52、65 條合理使用。
90