Transcript aksi nirkekerasan - Gadjah Mada University

aksi nirkekerasan
pengantar studi perdamaian 2007
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Kasus
Anak-anak muda menggunakan kaos bergambar Che Guevara (tokoh revolusi
sosial Amerika Latin).
Beberapa bhiksu di Vietnam membakar diri guna memprotes pemerintah Vietnam
Selatan yang dianggap sebagai boneka Amerika Serikat.
Buruh melakukan pemogokan menuntut kenaikan upah.
Diplomat dari negara-negara yang berkepentingan bertemu guna menegosiasikan
status Kepulauan Spratley.
Kelompok Amish di Amerika membentuk komunitas dan sistem sendiri, yang relatif
terisolasi dari sistem sosial, politik, dan ekonomi Amerika Serikat.
Mahasiswa menduduki gedung DPR-RI menuntut turunnya Soeharto.
Sejumlah warga menjahit mulut mereka memprotes pemasangan saluran udara
tegangan tinggi (SUTET) di daerah mereka.
Sekelompok warga sipil Amerika Serikat terbang ke Iraq sebelum terjadinya invasi
militer Amerika Serikat ke Iraq 2002 guna menjadi “tameng manusia”.
Seseorang memutuskan tidak menjadi tentara atau menolak wajib militer.
Tidak ikut bertepuk tangan seusai mendengar pidato, karena orang yang memberi
pidato adalah seorang pelanggar HAM.
Warga Bolivia melakukan mogok makan menuntut transisi politik (1980an).
Warga NU melakukan istighosah massal sebagai reaksi dari carut-marut politik
yang berkepanjangan di akhir dekade 1990an.
PP
NK
I
?
apa?
• aksi: berbuat sesuatu / melawan; bukan hanya diam / pasrah / takluk
 pacifism?
 active nonviolence?
• nirkekerasan: tidak menggunakan kekerasan, baik terhadap diri
sendiri maupun lawan
 jahit mulut, mogok makan, puasa, bakar diri, lempar batu?
“an umbrella term for describing a range of methods for dealing with
conflict which share the common principle that physical violence, at
least against other people, is not used” (Weber & Burrowes 1991: 1)
 diplomasi, negosiasi?
prasyarat: complementarity of nonviolent action & conflict resolution
(Veronique Dudouet)
 diwarnai bentrokan dan makian, mengganggu kepentingan umum,
dll?
 untuk menggulingkan kekuasaan?
apa?
Gene Sharp (1973: 64)
Nonviolent action is about “deny(-ing) the enemy the human assistance and
cooperation which are necessary if he is to exercise control over the population” It is
one response to the problem of how to act effectively in politics, especially on how to
wield power effectively (Sharp 1973: 64).
Peter Ackerman and Christopher Kruegler (1994: 4)
Nonviolent actions are “methods capable of bringing pressure to bear against the
most ruthless opponents, by mobilizing social, economic, and political power, without
recourse to killing or otherwise causing direct physical injury to the opponents or their
agents”.
Mohandas Karamchad Gandhi
Ahimsa, or the principle of non-violence, is in man’s nature itself (Gandhi, in Merton
1964: 23) and can be effectively taught only by living it (Gandhi 1966: 5), or in other
words, embracing it as a way of life. The Gandhian concept of nonviolence is more
than merely rejecting violence. It is also about love, seeking for truth, building positive
relationships, and developing just structures – sometimes involving self-suppression
and suffering. The term satyagraha, which in many literatures is simply translated as
nonviolent action, actually means an ongoing and persistent search for truth and a
determination to achieve truth. Here, the exclusion of violence is based on the notion
that no one is capable of knowing the absolute truth (Gandhi, cited in Burrowes 1996:
107-108).
(1) ideologis/pragmatis? (2) mengapa perlu dibedakan?
the consent theory of power
• power is pluralistic, not monolithic or inherently possessed by one party
• political power emerges from the interaction of all or several of these
sources: (1) authority, or the acceptance by others of one’s right to
command, (2) human resources, (3) skills and knowledge of the power
holder and his or her supporters, (4) intangible factors, such as
psychological considerations and ideological conditioning, (5) material
resources, meaning one’s possession and, or, control, over properties,
natural and financial resources, economic system, means of
communication and transportation, and (6) the type and extent of
sanctions at the power holder’s disposal
• a power holder is dependent on the obedience and cooperation of
others in allowing him or her to gain access to the above sources –
nonviolence is about exploiting this dependency, i.e. by withdrawing the
consent or obstructing the power holder from getting the resources
needed for exercising power
• “nonviolent action is possible, and is capable of wielding great power
even against ruthless rulers and military regimes, because it attacks the
most vulnerable characteristic of all hierarchical institutions and
governments: dependence on the governed” (Sharp cited in Ackerman
and Duvall 2000: 9).
beberapa cerita
“… when the Japanese approach, the
people evacuate the village
completely, bury their food, remove all
animals and utensils, and retire to the
hills. The Japanese must, therefore,
bring with them everything they need”
(George Taylor, cited in Sharp 1973:
211).
beberapa cerita
“… each morning an entire platoon of
Chinese soldiers would march out on the ice
and lowering their trousers train their buttocks
towards the Soviet side, the ultimate in
Chinese insults. This exercise continued until
one morning just as the Chinese assumed
their positions the Russians set up large
portraits of Mao facing in their direction. The
Chinese hastily covered themselves and
retired in confusion. There were no
repetitions” (Edmund Stevens, cited in Sharp
1973: 145).
beberapa cerita
“The year was 1600, or thereabouts, when
these tribal feminists decided that they had
enough of unregulated warfare by their men.
Lysistratas among the Indian women
proclaimed a boycott on lovemaking and
childbearing. Until the men conceded to
them the power to decide upon war and
peace, there would be no more warriors.
Since the Iroquois men believed that women
alone knew the secret of birth, the feminist
rebellion was instantly successful” (Stan
Steiner, cited in Sharp 1973: 191).
198 metode aksi nirkekerasan
• 52 metode protes & persuasi
• 16 metode nonkooperasi sosial
• 49 metode nonkooperasi ekonomi
• 38 metode nonkooperasi politik
• 41 metode intervensi
mengapa? (1)
Ideological Nonviolence
 nonviolent actions are based on ethical
reasons and the belief in the unity of means
and ends
 the goal is to embrace the opponent as a
partner in the struggle to satisfy the needs of
all
 focuses on the capacity to treat the causes
of violence and offer a direction to human
development
 its exponents tend to wage conflict in more
positive modes, aimed at achieving mutually
acceptable solutions
 trust, truthfulness, and openness play an
important role – exponents believe that the
opponents will be accessible to reason and
moral appeals if fear, misunderstanding,
prejudice, and mistrust are removed
 nonviolence works as a moral jiu-jitsu: when
faced with fearless, calm, steady, and
nonviolent reactions, violence itself helps to
overthrow its user
Pragmatic Nonviolence
 nonviolent actions are conducted upon the
belief that they are the most effective
method available in the circumstances
 the goal is to defeat the opponent
 focuses on utilising techniques to win the
conflict
 its exponents are familiar with negative ways
of waging conflict
 moral or human qualities of the opponent
play a secondary role only
 nonviolence works as political jiu-jitsu,
aiming at throwing an opponent off balance
politically, allowing the repression to rebound
against the perpetrator’s position and
weakening his or her power
 Mohandas Karamchad Gandhi and Martin  Gene Sharp, Peter Ackerman, and
Luther King, Jr
Christopher Kruegler
mengapa? (2)
(meskipun menghadapi lawan
yang tidak segan-segan menggunakan kekerasan)
• kekerasan hanya akan melahirkan kekerasan
 mentalitas korban, justifikasi
 kekerasan hanya mereproduksi masalah, bukan
menyelesaikannya (i.e. violent counterterrorism measures)
• ideologis
 sekejam apapun, lawan adl manusia, sehingga bisa diketuk
nuraninya
 membangun kepercayaan lawan
 ada lawan taktis, ada lawan strategis
• pragmatis
 dengan atau tanpa kekerasan, peluang menang kecil, jadi lebih
baik tanpa kekerasan, supaya tidak ada alasan legal/valid bagi
lawan untuk menggunakan kekerasan (demo mahasiswa 1998)
 bagaimanapun, aksi nirkekerasan jauh lebih ‘murah’
• great chain of nonviolence (Galtung)
mengapa? (3)
• strategis vs taktis
• alasan kolektif vs alasan personal
• alasan altruis vs alasan egois
• ingin perubahan – protes – tidak mau terlibat kesalahan lawan – cari
aman
• percaya vs ikut-ikutan
• swakarsa vs dibayar
• tujuan baik vs tujuan buruk
• oleh si lemah vs oleh si kuat
 Mayor of Bogota, PM of Thailand
 nonviolent policing, nonviolent counterinsurgency
bagaimana?
mechanisms of change (Lakey + Sharp)
• konversi: lawan terketuk nuraninya,
berbalik mendukung tujuan kita
• persuasi: lawan tidak terketuk nuraninya
untuk mendukung kita, namun berhasil
diyakinkan bahwa kita bukan ‘penjahat’
yang pantas menerima tindak kekerasan
• koersi: lawan tidak terketuk nuraninya,
masih mengganggap kita ‘jahat/sesat’
tetapi terpaksa menurut keinginan kita
• disintegrasi: struktur kekuasaan lawan
hancur
bagaimana?
metode (Sharp)
• Protest and persuasion: “includes a large number of
method which are mainly symbolic acts of peaceful
opposition or of attempted persuasion, extending
beyond verbal expressions but stopping short of
noncooperation and nonviolent intervention.”
• Noncooperation: “deliberately withdraw the usual forms
and degree of cooperation with the person, activity,
institution, regime with which they have become
engaged in conflict.”
• Nonviolent intervention: “operate(s) both negatively and
positively: they may disrupt, and even destroy,
established behavior patterns, policies, relationships, or
institutions which are seen as objectionable; or they may
establish new behavior patterns, policies, relationships, or
institutions which are prefered.”
 active nonviolence?
contoh metode
raid / air raid
nv invasion
nv interjection
nv obstruction
nv harrasment
dumping
boycott
vegan & veggie
stay at home
lysistratic
sanctuary
strike
enhancing the margins of success
• tingkat represi
• kultur politik
 asertivitas dalam menyampaikan pendapat
 budaya kekerasan
 kesamaan kultur politik
• taktik dan persiapan
 rencana a – z
 rencana komplemen
 antisipasi represi
• kepemilikan dan keterikatan dengan isu
 simpati
 polarisasi – anda mau berada di kapal yang
mana?
 alasan yang kuat
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Power is not only what you have but what the enemy thinks you have.
Never go outside the experience of your people.
When an action is outside the experience of the people, the result is confusion, fear, and
retreat.
Wherever possible go outside of the experience of the enemy.
Here you want to cause confusion, fear, and retreat.
Make the enemy live up to their own book of rules.
You can kill them with this, for they can no more obey their own rules than the Christian
church can live up to Christianity.
Ridicule is man's most potent weapon.
It is almost impossible to counterattack ridicule. Also it infuriates the opposition, who then
react to your advantage.
A good tactic is one that your people enjoy.
If your people are not having a ball doing it, there is something very wrong with the tactic.
A tactic that drags on too long becomes a drag. man can sustain militant interest in any issue
for only a limited time, after which it becomes a ritualistic commitment...
Keep the pressure on, with different tactics and actions, and utilize all events of the period for
your purpose.
The threat is usually more terrifying than the thing itself.
The major premise for tactics is the development of operations that will maintain a constant
pressure upon the opposition.
If you push a negative hard and deep enough it will break through into its counterside; this is
based on the principle that every positive has its negative...
The price of a successful attack is a constructive alternative.
You cannot risk being trapped by the enemy in his sudden agreement with your demand
and saying "You're right--we don't know what to do about this issue. Now you tell us."
Pick the target, freeze it, personalize it, and polarize it.
Principles of development

Formulate functional objectives

Develop organizational strength

Secure access to critical material resources

Cultivate external assistance

Expand the repertoire of sanctions
Principles of engagement

Attack the opponents’ strategy for consolidating control

Mute the impact of the opponents’ violent weapons

Alienate opponents from expected bases of support

Maintain nonviolent discipline
Principles of conception

Asses events and options in light of levels of strategic decision making

Adjust offensive and defensive operations according to the relative
vulnerabilities of the protagonists

Sustain continuity between sanctions, mechanisms, and objectives
(Ackerman and Kruegler 1994: 22)
1 Development of a strong organizational network that is decentralized but bound together by a
communication system allowing for constant consultation and the fostering of integrated action
2 Challenging the societal myth(s) that lie behind a problem
3 Building of solidarity and morale
4 Training of nonviolent activists
5 Planning of strategy and tactics:
a choosing wisely between dispersion and concentration
b choosing the right mechanism of change
c selection of key targets to focus on
d maintenance of initiative
e flexibility
f looking for legitimacy
6 Consistency (no waxing and waning) and persistence (over time)
7 Selection of a compelling issue
8 Obtaining clarity and unity over objectives amongst nonviolent actors
9 Exhausting of conventional alternatives before engaging in nonviolent action (as long as such
methods are clearly not futile and only serving to prolong oppression)
10 Taking steps to secure the outcome
a negotiating effectively
b seeing to replace necessary functions that the defeated adversary performed
c preventing third parties from replacing the defeated adversary and undermining recently
achieve gains
d preparing to re-initiate struggle if the opponent reneges on negotiated settlement
(Summy 1996: 131-132)
Strengths
Weakness

Nonviolent action is self-consistent: the
methods and goals are compatible


Nonviolent action allows maximum
participation: everyone can join
regardless their age, sex, and ability
Nonviolent discipline can be hard to
sustain – military forces are familiar with
the concept of discipline

Nonviolent action is more likely to win
over opponents or third parties
Mobilising support for nonviolent action
can be difficult – military forces can
employ soldiers or use conscription

Nonviolent action has an image
problem – people who are in favour of
armed struggle see nonviolent action as
weak; people who are in favour of
official channels see nonviolent action
as inappropriate or illegal

As a pragmatic method for reform,
nonviolent action may not lead to lasting
change – the overthrow of a dictator
sometimes gives path to a new system
of oppression

As a system alternative, nonviolent
action has extremely radical
implications


Nonviolent action leads to more lasting
change

Nonviolent action leads to fewer
casualties
(Martin 2001)
Aspect of
nonviolent action
Challenges the
status quo
Effect on participants
Effect on others
Empowering
Dramatic
Exiting
Serious
Shows that what we
do is important
Clearly
enunciated,
shown in a
picture
Well-planned
and researched
Understandable
Widespread
Sense of belonging
and empowerment
Easily explained
Empowers people to
talk about their
experiences
Fun
Enjoyable,
encourages people to
continue
Makes nonviolent action more
understandable, not just symbolic
posturing; make people believe that they
too can push forward changes.
Awakens people who are asleep to the
issues – most people are completely
unaware of what is going on.
Demonstrates that nonviolent action is not
trivial and that we are dedicated and
willing to suffer for our beliefs.
Teaches people the true nature of the
society; shows that the status quo
violates the values people hold, and
encourages them to demand change.
Demonstrates that we know what we are
talking about and that we care of
ourselves and others.
Helps create a social norm that it is OK to
dissent – lessens ostracism and
condemnation.
Makes it possible for people to easily talk
(and disseminate the idea of nonviolent
action) to friends, fellow workers, and
neighbors.
Encourages others to join the action;
shows that the process of social change
can be as good as the ends.
Empowering and
safe