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Cover Slide
Maps and Images for
McKay 8e
A History of Western
Society
Chapter 27
The Great Break: War
and Revolution
Causes of
World War I
Alliances
• Agreements among
nations to aid each
other if attacked
• Russian agreements with
smaller Slavic nations
• Emergence of Allies
• Emergence of Central
Powers
Nationalism
• French revenge against
Germany
• French desire for return
of Alsace and Lorraine
• Pan-slavism in Eastern Europe
• German pride in military
power and industrial growth
• Serbian desire to create
south Slav state
WORLD
WAR I
Militarism
• Military power seen as
symbol of national prestige
• Glorification of war by all
powers
• Arms race among great
powers
• Influential military leaders
• Belief in Social Darwinism
Imperialism
• British concern over
German growth
• British concern over German
competition for colonies
• Economic rivalries
among Britain, Germany,
and France
• British and French desire to
contain German territorial
claims in Africa
Map: The Balkans After the Congress of
Berlin, 1878
The Balkans After the
Congress of Berlin,
1878
The Ottoman Empire
suffered large
territorial losses but
remained a power in
the
Balkans.(Copyright (c)
Houghton Mifflin. All
rights reserved.)
Map: Austria-Hungary in 1878
Austria-Hungary in 1878
A multinational state, the Austro-Hungarian Empire occupied Bosnia in 1878,
bringing more dissatisfied peoples under its rule. Tensions in the Balkans would
lead to the outbreak of world war in 1914.
Map: The Balkans in 1914
The Balkans in 1914
Ethnic boundaries did not
follow political boundaries,
and Serbian national
aspirations threatened
Austria-Hungary.
(Copyright (c) Houghton
Mifflin. All rights reserved.)
1
The Pursuit of Peace
By the early 1900s, many efforts were underway to end war
and foster understanding between nations.
• In 1869, the first modern Olympic games were held.
Their founder hoped the games would promote “love of
peace and respect for life.”
• Alfred Nobel set up the annual Nobel Peace Prize to
reward people who worked for peace.
• Women’s suffrage organizations supported pacifism, or
opposition to all war.
• In 1899, world leaders attended the First Universal
Peace Conference. There they set up the Hague
Tribunal, a world court to settle disputes between
nations.
• World War I was a turning point in
Western civilization.
– Europe was changed dramatically.
– The Austro-Hungarian Empire, the German
Empire, and Ottoman Empire were
defeated.
– Growing nationalism exerted an even
greater influence on the political makeup of
Europe.
Leftist agitation in Germany
Leftist agitation in Germany
Revolutionary unrest reached its peak in Germany during December 1918 and January
1919, when this photo in Berlin was taken. But even after the leaders of the revolution-Karl Liebknecht and Rosa Luxemburg--were captured and murdered in January, the
possibility of further revolution dominated the first months of the new Weimar
Nationalism and International
Rivalries
1
Aggressive nationalism was one leading cause of international tensions.
• Nationalist feelings were strong in both Germany and France.
• In Eastern Europe, Pan-Slavism held that all Slavic peoples shared a common
nationality. Russia felt that it had a duty to lead and defend all Slavs.
Imperial rivalries divided European nations.
• In 1906 and again in 1911, competition for colonies brought France and
Germany to the brink of war.
The 1800s saw a rise in militarism, the glorification of the military.
• The great powers expanded their armies and navies, creating an arms race that
further increased suspicions and made war more likely.
1
Causes and Effects of European
Alliances
Distrust led the great powers to sign treaties pledging to
defend one another.
These alliances were intended to create powerful
combinations that no one would dare attack.
The growth of rival alliance systems increased
international tensions.
2
Assassination in Sarajevo
In 1914, Archduke Francis Ferdinand of Austria-Hungary
announced he would visit Sarajevo, the capital of Bosnia.
• At the time, Bosnia was under the rule of Austria-Hungary.
But it was
also the home of many Serbs and other Slavs.
News of the royal visit angered many Serbian nationalists.
• They viewed Austrians as foreign oppressors.
• The date chosen for the archduke’s visit was a significant date
in
Serbian history. On that date in 1389, Serbia had been
conquered by
the Ottoman empire. On the same date in 1912,
Serbia had freed itself from Turkish rule.
Members of a Serbian terrorist group assassinated the
Archduke and his wife.
Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand
Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand
This photograph depicts the capture of the assassin of Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to
the Habsburg throne, on a visit to Sarajevo in Austrian-ruled Bosnia. A young Bosnian
nationalist, Gavril Princip, was arrested minutes after he had assassinated the archduke
and his wife, on June 28, 1914. This political murder helped unleash World War I.
(Gernsheim Collection, Harry Ransom Humanities Center, University of Texas, Austin)
2
How Did the Conflict Widen?
After the assassination of the archduke, Austria sent Serbia an
ultimatum, or final set of demands.
Serbia agreed to most, but not all, of the terms of Austria’s ultimatum.
As a result, Austria declared war on Serbia.
•
Germany offered full support to Austria-Hungary. Instead of
urging restraint, the kaiser gave Austria a “blank check.”
•
Serbia sought help from Russia, the champion of Slavic nations.
When Austria refused to soften its demands, Russia began to
mobilize.
•
Germany responded by declaring war on Russia.
•
Russia appealed to its ally France. France offered full support to
Russia, prompting Germany to declare war on France.
Soldiers leaving for war
Soldiers leaving for war
Spirits were high early in August, 1914, as Parisian soldiers like these shown in the
photograph march off to war. None foresaw what fighting this war would be like.
Standing Armies in Europe,
1914
1
2
The Historians’ View
How could an assassination lead to all-out war
in just a few weeks?
Today, most historians agree that all parties
must share blame.
• Each of the great powers believed that its
cause was just.
• Once the machinery of war was set in
motion, it seemed impossible to stop.
• Although leaders made the decisions, most
people on both sides were equally committed
to military action.
• There was a multiplicity of causes of the
Great War.
– Forces unleashed during the nineteenth
century had a great impact.
• Imperialism fueled competition among European
states for foreign dominions.
• Social Darwinism encouraged feelings of
European superiority.
• There was a multiplicity of causes of the
Great War.
– Military and industrial buildup created a
war-footing in Europe.
• Militarism led to a belief in the inevitability of
European war.
• Industrialism provided modern weaponry for
mass destruction.
• The participants succumbed to the belief
that war was inevitable.
– The Triple Entente was composed of Britain,
France, and Russia.
• The integrity of Belgium was at stake.
• The Entente encircled Germany and her allies.
– The Triple Alliance included Germany,
Austria, and Italy.
• Germany expressed a feeling of encirclement.
Poster: "N'Oublions Jamais"
Poster: "N'Oublions
Jamais“
This 1915 French poster with
its passionate headline-"Never Forget!"--dramatizes
Germany's brutal invasion of
Belgium in 1914. Neutral
Belgium is personified as a
traumatized mother, assaulted
and ravished by savage
outlaws. The "rape of
Belgium" featured
prominently, and effectively,
in anti-German propaganda.
(Mary Evans Picture Library)
American Neutrality
• President Woodrow Wilson proclaimed
American neutrality. It proved easier to
proclaim than to achieve, however.
– A British naval blockade forced Wilson to choose
between suspending all trade or trading with the
Allies alone.
– Wilson, given that many Americans favored the
Allied powers, and mindful that foreign trade was
spearheading an economic boom, opted for trade
with the Allies alone.
• Edward M. House - Presidential Advisor
• Robert Lansing - State Depart Advisor
• William Jennings Bryan- Sec State
3
The Western Front
German forces swept through Belgium toward Paris.
Russia mobilized more quickly than expected.
Germany shifted some troops to the east to confront
Russia, weakening German forces in the west.
British / French troops defeat Germany in the 1st Battle of the
Marne. The battle of the Marne pushed back the German offensive
-destroyed Germany’s hopes for a quick victory on Western Front.
The result was a long, deadly stalemate, a deadlock in which
neither side is able to defeat the other. Battle lines in France
remained almost unchanged for four years.
Map: Major Fronts of World War I
Major Fronts of World War I
Although World War I included engagements in East Asia and the Middle East, it was
essentially a European conflict, encompassing fighting on a number of fronts. A vast
territory was contested in the east, but on the western front, which proved decisive, fighting
was concentrated in a relatively small area.
Map: Stalemate and Decision on the Western Front
Stalemate and Decision on the Western Front
On the western front, in northern France and Belgium, trench warfare developed and
the best known battles of the war were fought. Notable sites include Verdun,
Passchendaele, and the Marne and Somme Rivers.
Paul Nash, Menil Road
Paul Nash, Menil Road
In 1917 Paul Nash (British surrealist painter, 1889-1946) was recruited as a war
artist. In November of that year he was sent to the Western Front, where he
painted several important pictures including this painting, The Menil Road. In a
landscape ravaged by artillery fire, we see two soldiers dash for cover amid shell
holes and the charred remains of a forest.
Battle scene in northern France.
Notice the trees.
An example of trench warfare in
France.
The confusion
behind the
trenches in
France.
German ration book
German ration book
This ration coupon shows a long line of hungry Germans waiting to buy half a
pound of strictly rationed sausage, the sale of which the city government has just
announced. Food rations were cut as the Allied blockade tightened, and rationing
continued in Germany (as it did in Britain) for some years after the war.
Germans in trench warfare
Germans in trench warfare
In this photo we have a sense of the tragic absurdity of trench warfare. German
soldiers charge across a scarred battlefield and overrun an enemy trench. The
dead defender on the right will fire no more. But this is only another futile charge
that will yield much blood and little land. A whole generation of young men is
being decimated by the slaughter.
• The downfall of tsarist Russia followed in the
wake of World War I.
– Deteriorating conditions and agitating political
groups combined to bring down the tsar.
• War losses and mistakes pointed to the weak leadership of
the tsar.
• Food shortages led to revolution in March 1917.
• A provisional government was proclaimed by the Duma.
• The tsar abdicated.
4
Collapsing Morale
By 1917, the morale of both troops and civilians had plunged.
• As morale collapsed, troops mutinied or
deserted.
• Long casualty lists, food shortages, and
the failure of generals to win promised
victories led to calls for peace.
• In Russia, soldiers left the front to join in a
full-scale revolution back home.
Canadians in trench warfare
Canadians in trench warfare
German and Allied soldiers on the Western Front faced each other across an elaborate
network of trenches. Attacking meant jumping out of the trenches and racing across a noman's land of mud and barbed wire. In this Canadian painting we see the Princess Patrice's
Canadian Light Infantry repelling a German attack near Ypres, in northern France, in
March 1915, using machine guns, rifles, and hand grenades.
Revolution in Russia
Economic Causes
• Peasant majority
• Food and fuel
shortages
• Striking workers
• Inefficient
transportation system
Political Causes
• Enormous losses in
World War I
• Autocracy
• Weak and ineffectual
rulers
• Spread of Marxist
ideas
• Charismatic leaders,
such as Lenin and
Trotsky
Social Causes
• Extremes in classes
• Deprivation resulting
from World War I
• Peasants' desire for
land
REVOLUTION IN RUSSIA
"Russian Ruling House" cartoon
"Russian Ruling House"
cartoon
The most trusted adviser of
Alexandra, wife of Tsar
Nicholas II, was an uneducated
Siberian preacher who was
appropriately nicknamed
Rasputin--the "Degenerate."
This wartime cartoon captures
the ominous, spellbinding power
Rasputin had over the royal
couple. His manipulations
disgusted Russian public
opinion and contributed to the
monarchy's collapse. (Stock
Montage)
Russian demonstration, 1917
Russian demonstration, 1917
The mass demonstrations in Petrograd, June 1917, showed a surge of workingclass support for the Bolsheviks. In this photo, a few banners of the Mensheviks
• Vladimir Lenin led the Bolshevik Revolution.
– Lenin believed that revolution was necessary to
destroy capitalism.
– Lenin led an attack against the provisional
government in July 1917.
– Trotsky led a Soviet overthrow of the provisional
government (November 1917).
– The Bolsheviks came to power because they were
the answer to anarchy.
– The Bolshevik victory in the Russian Civil War led
to the establishment of a Soviet dictatorship.
Foreign Intervention and
Civil War in Revolutionary
Russia, 1918-1920
Map: Foreign Intervention and Civil War in Revolutionary Russia, 1918-1920
By
mid-1918
the
new
communist regime was under
attack from many sides, by
both foreign troops and
anticommunist
Russians.
Bolshevik-held territory shrank
during 1919, but over the next
year the Red Army managed to
regain much of what had been
lost and to secure the new
communist
state.
Anton
Deniken, Alexander Kolchak,
and
Nicholas
Yudenich
commanded
the
most
significant
counterrevolutionary forces.
Lenin as orator, 1920
Lenin as orator, 1920
The Bolsheviks were a small but tightly disciplined group of radicals obedient to the will of
their leader, Vladimir Lenin (1870-1924). Here he is addressing Red Army soldiers in
Sverdlov Square, Moscow, in 1920. At the time, the Bolsheviks were mopping up the last of
the anti-Bolshevik forces and were fully engaged in a war with Poland. The fate of the
Revolution depended on the fighting spirit of the Red Army soldiers and on their loyalty to
Lenin. (David King Collection)
3
World War I Technology
Modern weapons added greatly to the destructiveness
of the war.
Airplane
A one- or two-seat propeller plane was equipped with a machine gun. At
first the planes were used mainly for observation. Later, “flying aces”
engaged in individual combat, though such “dogfights” had little effect
on the war.
Automatic machine gun
A mounted gun that fired a rapid, continuous stream of bullets made it
possible for a few gunners to mow down waves of soldiers. This helped
create a stalemate by making it difficult to advance across no man’s
land.
Submarine
These underwater ships, or U-boats, could launch torpedoes, or guided
underwater bombs. Used by Germany to destroy Allied shipping, U-boat
attacks helped bring the United States into the war.
Munition workers, Britain
Munition workers, Britain
This 1915 photograph of a British war plant shows it straining to
meet the insatiable demand for trench-smashing heavy artillery
shells. (Courtesy of the Trustees of the Imperial War Museum)
Submarine Warfare
• The German high command, angered by
American supply of Germany’s enemies,
resorted to unrestricted submarine warfare
against all ships en route to the British Isles,
regardless of the ship’s origins or flag.
• The sinking of the Lusitania in 1915 prompted
protests from Wilson. The Germans backed
down.
• The Germans resumed unrestricted submarine
warfare in 1916. Upon the sinking of the Sussex
in 1916, Wilson again protested, and Germany
again backed down.
• Sussex pledge (1916)
The Lusitania arrives in New York for the
first time (1907)
German Escalation
• In early 1917, the Germans renewed
unrestricted submarine attacks.
• The British, meanwhile, passed on to Wilson
the Zimmerman telegram, in which Germany’s
foreign minister urged Mexico to attack the
United States, promising a return of the lands
lost in the Mexican-American War once victory
was achieved.
• Wilson approached Congress with a plea to
enter the conflict in the name of democracy and
global justice, and Congress obliged with a
declaration of war on April 6, 1917.
3
How Did the War Become a Global Conflict?
EASTERN EUROPE
In August 1914, Russian armies
pushed into eastern Germany.
SOUTHERN EUROPE
In 1915, Bulgaria joined the Central
Powers and helped crush Serbia.
After Russia was defeated in the
battle of Tannenburg, armies in the
east fought on Russian soil.
OUTSIDE EUROPE
Japan, allied with Britain, tried to
impose a protectorate on China.
The Ottoman empire joined the
Central Powers in 1914.
Arab nationalists revolted against
Ottoman rule.
THE COLONIES
The Allies overran German colonies in
Africa and Asia.
The great powers turned to their own
colonies for troops, laborers, and
supplies.
Why Did the United States Enter the
War?
4
• German submarines were attacking merchant and
passenger ships carrying American citizens. In
May 1915, a German submarine torpedoed the
British liner Lusitania, killing 1,200 passengers,
including 120 Americans.
• Many Americans felt ties of culture and language
to Britain and sympathized with France as another
democracy.
• In early 1917, the British intercepted a telegram
sent by German foreign minister, Arthur
Zimmerman. It revealed that, in exchange for
Mexican support, Germany had offered to help
Mexico reconquer New Mexico, Texas, and
Arizona.
American Intervention
• Russian revolution (1917)
– Vladimir Lenin / Bolshevik Party / Brest-Litovsk
• America entered the war at a time when
German submarine attacks and Russia’s exit
from the fighting had brought Allied fortunes
to their lowest ebb. American forces proved
critical to Allied victory.
– Wilson’s Fourteen Points gave the Allied cause
“ideological cement.”
– American naval forces helped fend off the submarine
threat.
– The American expeditionary force (AEF) under General
John Pershing played a pivotal role in both stopping the
final German offensives and in spearheading Allied
offensives that succeeded in forcing the Germans to sue
for an armistice in November 1918.
General John J.
Pershing,
commander of
the American
Expeditionary
Force.
4
Total War
Warring nations engaged in total war, the
channeling of a nation’s entire resources into a
war effort.
Economic impact
• Both sides set up systems to recruit, arm,
transport and
supply huge fighting forces.
• All nations except Britain imposed universal
military
conscription, or “the draft.”
• Governments raised taxes, borrowed money, and
rationed
food and other products.
Propaganda
• Both sides waged a propaganda war.
Propaganda is the
spreading of ideas to
promote a cause or to damage an
opposing cause.
4
Women and War
Women played a critical role in total war:
• As men left to fight, women took over their jobs
and kept national companies going.
• Many women worked in war industries,
manufacturing weapons and supplies.
• Women grew food when shortages threatened.
• Some women joined branches of the armed forces.
• Women worked as nurses close to the front lines.
"On Her Their Lives Depend"
"On Her Their Lives
Depend"
In Britain, as elsewhere,
women responded to appeals
like this, and quickly
became prominent in the
munitions industry. The
chance to perform valued
public roles during the
wartime emergency proved
a watershed for many
women. (Courtesy of the
Trustees of the Imperial War
Museum)
Poster: Russian woman in munitions factory
Poster: Russian woman in
munitions factory
All
over
Europe,
governments
recruited
women to work in
munitions factories. This
Russian
government
poster uses an image of a
working woman to rally
support for the war. The
text reads "Everything
for the war effort!
Subscribe to the war
loans at 5-1/2 percent."
(Courtesy of the Trustees
of the Imperial War
Museum)
4
Campaign to Victory
In 1917, The United States declared war on
Germany.
By 1918, about two million American soldiers
had joined the Allies on the Western Front.
The Germans launched a huge offensive,
pushing the Allies back.
The Allies launched a counteroffensive,
driving German forces back across France
and Germany.
Germany sought an armistice, or agreement to
end fighting, with the Allies. On November 11,
1918, the war ended.
Gas masks were standard equipment for US
troops.
An American soldier in France.
American soldiers firing machine guns
in France in 1918
Wilson’s Vision: “Peace
without Victory”
• Wilson won reelection in 1916 by a narrow
margin over Charles Evans Hughes. His
principal campaign slogan was “He kept us out
of war.”
• Wilson offered to help negotiate a peace among
the warring powers. Those powers rebuffed
him.
• In the process, however, Wilson formulated
ideas for lasting peace, what he called “peace
without victory.”
4
Wilson’s Fourteen Points
President Woodrow Wilson issued the Fourteen
Points, a list of his terms for resolving World War I
and future wars. He called for:
• freedom of the seas
• free trade
• large-scale reductions of arms
• an end to secret treaties
• self-determination, or the right of people to choose
their own form of government, for Eastern Europe
• the creation of a “general association of nations” to
keep the peace in the future
5
Casualties of World War I
France
British empire
Russia
Italy
United States
Others
Allies
Deaths
in Battle
Wounded
in Battle
1,357,800
908,371
1,700,000
462,391
50,585
502,421
4,266,000
2,090,212
4,950,000
953,886
205,690
342,585
Central Powers
Germany
Austria-Hungary
Ottoman empire
1,808,546
922,500
325,000
4,247,143
3,620,000
400,000
The Paris Peace Conference
and the Treaty of Versailles
• Wilson was confident that a just international
peace, based on the Fourteen Points, could be
achieved. His optimism proved mistaken.
• Wilson was unable to prevent the Allies from
seizing German colonies and territory from
Germany proper, nor was he able to prevent
implementation of harsh reparations upon the
Germans within the Treaty of Versailles.
• Wilson was not disillusioned, believing that the
League of Nations could ameliorate flaws in the
treaty.
• Fourteen Points
• Treaty of Versailles (1919)
5
The Paris Peace Conference
The delegates to the Paris Peace Conference faced many
difficult issues:
•
The Allied leaders had different aims.
• The Italians insisted that the Allies honor their secret
agreement to gain Austria-Hungary. Such secret
agreements violated Wilson’s principle of selfdetermination.
• Many people who had been ruled by Russia,
Austria-Hungary, or the Ottoman empire now
demanded national states of their own. The territories
claimed by these people often overlapped, so it was
impossible to satisfy them all.
Lloyd George, Clemenceau, and
Wilson
Lloyd George,
Clemenceau, and Wilson
In June 1919 the leaders of
the major victorious powers
exude
confidence
after
signing the Treaty of
Versailles with Germany, the
most important of the five
treaties that resulted from
the Paris Peace Conference.
In this photo are from the
left: David Lloyd George of
Britain,
Georges
Clemenceau of France, and
Woodrow Wilson of the
United States. (Corbis)
5
The Treaty of Versailles
The Treaty
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
forced Germany to assume full blame for causing the war.
imposed huge reparations upon Germany.
aimed at weakening Germany by
limiting the size of the German military.
returning Alsace and Lorraine to France.
removing hundreds of miles of territory from Germany.
stripping Germany of its overseas colonies.
The Germans signed the treaty because they had no
choice. But German resentment of the Treaty of
Versailles would poison the international climate for 20
years and lead to an even deadlier world war.
“Big Four” at the Versailles Conference: Orlando of Italy, LloydGeorge of Great Britain, Clemenceau of France and Wilson.
The League of Nations
• For the league to succeed, Wilson had to
convince the Senate to ratify the Treaty
of Versailles. Two groups of Republicans
would thwart him.
• Article X
Some members of the 369th Infantry returned home
in 1919 wearing the Croix de Guerre awarded by
the French government for their accomplishments
on the battlefield.
5
Widespread Dissatisfaction
Eastern Europe remained a center of conflict.
Colonized peoples from Africa to the Middle East
and across Asia were angry that self-determination
was not applied to them.
Italy was angry because it did not get all the lands
promised in a secret treaty with the Allies.
Japan was angry that western nations refused to honor
its claims in China.
Russia resented the reestablishment of a Polish nation
and three Baltic states on lands that had been part of
the Russian empire.
Versailles Treaty being signed
Versailles Treaty being
signed
This group portrait by the
painter William Orpen
(born in Dublin, 1878 )
features the three principal
Allied leaders (seated in the
center), who have finally
reached an agreement at
Versailles, June 28, 1919.
Like Paul Nash, Orpen had
been recruited by the War
Propaganda Bureau to
paint on the Western Front.
He was later commissioned
to paint this portrait of
politicians at the Versailles
Peace Conference.
• The war had a tremendous impact on Europe
and left many unsolved problems.
– German defeat led to the development of radical
political movements that exerted pressure on
German politics.
• Communist factions attempted to transform Germany.
• Right-wing groups such as the Nazis propagandized that
Germany had been betrayed.
– Germany was kept out of the international
community.
– Wilson’s League of Nations was a failure.
• Wilson’s own Congress opposed his ideas.
Faisal and T.E. Lawrence in Paris
Faisal and T.E. Lawrence in Paris
The Arab Prince Faisal (1885-1993; foreground)--who would later become king of Iraq-attended the Paris Peace Conference, where he lobbied for the creation of an independent
Arab kingdom from part of the former Ottoman Turkish holdings in the Middle East.
Among his supporters was the British officer Colonel T.E. Lawrence (middle row, second
from the right), on his way to becoming the legendary "Lawrence of Arabia."
5
World War I: Cause and Effect
Long-Term Causes
Imperialist and economic
rivalries among European
powers
European alliance system
Militarism and arms race
Nationalist tensions in Balkans
Immediate Effects
Enormous cost in lives and money
Russian Revolution
Creation of new nations in Eastern Europe
Immediate Causes
Austria-Hungary’s annexation of
Bosnia and Herzegovina
Fighting in the Balkans
Assassination of Archduke
Francis Ferdinand
German invasion of Belgium
Long-Term Effects
Economic impact of war debts on
Europe
Requirement that Germany pay reparations
Emergence of United States and
Japan as important powers
German loss of its overseas colonies
Growth of nationalism in colonies
Balfour Declaration
Rise of fascism
League of Nations
World War II
Map:The Impact of the War: The Territorial Settlement in Europe and the Middle East
The Impact of the War:
The Territorial Settlement
in Europe and the Middle
East
The defeat of Russia,
Austria-Hungary,
Germany, and Ottoman
Turkey opened the way to
major changes in the map
of east-central Europe,
while in the Arab world
the end of the Ottoman
rule meant not
independence but new
roles for European
powers.
Mustafa Kemal in Western dress
Mustafa Kemal in
Western dress
In 1919 Mustafa Kemal,
a hero of the Gallipoli
campaign, had formed a
nationalist government
in central Anatolia with
the backing of fellow
army officers. After
World War I, he was
determined to modernize
Turkey on the western
model. Here he is shown
wearing a Europeanstyle suit and teaching
the Latin alphabet.
(Stock Montage)
5
The Costs of War
• More than 8.5 million people died. Twice
that number had been wounded.
• Famine threatened many regions.
• Across the European continent, homes,
farms, factories, roads, and churches had
been shelled to rubble.
• People everywhere were shaken and
disillusioned.
• Governments had collapsed in Russia,
Germany, Austria-Hungary, and the
Ottoman empire.
Map: Ethnicity in East-Central Europe, 1919
Ethnicity in East-Central
Europe, 1919
Ethnic diversity made it
hard to create
homogeneous nationstates in east-central
Europe. The new states
that emerged after World
War I mixed ethnic
groups, and ethnic
tensions would contribute
to future problems.
(Copyright (c) Houghton
Mifflin. All rights
reserved.)
Rupert Brooke
Rupert Brooke
Even as the war raged,
soldiers like the Englishman
Rupert Booke (1887-1915)
sought
to
shape
his
experiences
into
poetic
imagery. He was excited by
the intensity of battle and
pleased by his own calm selfcontrol. Back in England for
further training, he wrote
several sonnets expressing his
feelings about the war. He
died of blood poisoning on
the way to battle in April
1915, without ever fully
experiencing trench warfare.
(TimePix/Getty Images)
Henry Cabot Lodge in 1909.